Developmental Theorists

SIGMUND FREUD
Theory of Psychological Reality Psychosexual Stage Theory

Sigmund Freud, M.D., was an eminent Austrian neurologist and psychiatrist of Jewish origin. Freud developed psychoanalysis, a method through which an analyst unpacks unconscious conflicts based on the free associations, dreams and fantasies of the patient. His theories on child sexuality, libido and the ego, among other topics, were some of the most influential academic concepts of the 20th century. Early Career He was born Sigismund Schlomo in Freiberg in Austria, today called Pbor and part of Czech, on May 6, 1856. When he was four years old his family moved to Vienna, the town where he would live and work for most of the remainder of his life. He received his medical degree in 1881 and became engaged to marry the following year. His marriage produced six children the youngest of whom, Anna, was to herself become a distinguished psychoanalyst. After graduation, Freud promptly set up a private practice and began treating various psychological disorders. Considering himself first and foremost a scientist, rather than a doctor, he endeavored to understand the journey of human knowledge and experience. Early in his career, Freud became greatly influenced by the work of his friend and Viennese colleague, Josef Breuer, who had discovered that when he encouraged a hysterical patient, Anna O, to talk uninhibitedly about the earliest occurrences of the symptoms, the symptoms sometimes gradually abated. Inspired by Breuer, Freud posited that neuroses had their origins in deeply traumatic experiences that had occurred in the patient's past. He believed that the original occurrences had been forgotten and hidden from consciousness. His treatment was to empower his patients to recall the experience and bring it to consciousness, and in doing so, confront it both intellectually and emotionally. He believed one could then discharge it and rid oneself of the neurotic symptoms. Freud and Breuer published their theories and findings in Studies in Hysteria (1895). Sick with cancer and wary of rising anti-Semitism, Freud fled for London in 1938 just before World War II and died there on September 23rd 1939, having committed suicide with the help of his doctor and his daughter Anna. Two centigrams of morphine plunged Freud into a coma. Death took him only two days later, just twenty-two days after the outbreak of the war. Lasting Legacy Freud's many theoriesincluding those about "psychic energy," the Oedipus complex and the importance of dreamswere no doubt influenced by other scientific discoveries of his day. Contributions to Psychology Sigmund Freud was the first to use the term psychoanalysis in 1896. From that point his theories blossomed. Freud did not invent the terms unconscious, conscious, or conscience; however, he was pivotal in making them popular. Freud accomplished this through his theory of psychological reality: id, ego, and superego. Following his unpublished Project for a Scientific Psychology Freud went on to develop psychoanalysis as a theory of mind and disorder that suggest we have layers of consciousness and conflicting motives that range from social and moral to biological. The structural model The mind is constituted by the conscious - what one can actually focus attention on and remember clearly, our sense of reality. the preconscious - the dynamic unconscious is the band of semi-consciousness where it sometimes is clear and conscious and other times unclear and unconscious. (Splash zone) the unconscious - true unconscious source of our psychic energy. Drives by the passions of the pleasure principle. (The submerged) Dialectical tensions are at the centre of his model, eros & thanatos (life & death) as well as the biological and the social / moral aspects of human being. id - the original source of psychic life, driven to maintain and reproduce. Immediate gratification of drives. ego - The mediator of the personality caught between the demands of the biological id needs and wants and the superego cries for moral control and servitude. Reality! super-ego arises third in development beginning during the third year when training and assertion come along.

Freud also drove a strong movement that sex drive is the most important motivating force. He went on to identify that at times in our lives we find different areas on our bodies pleasurable (today these are called erogenous zones). These ideas fused together to form Freuds Psychosexual Stage Theory, which is still taught in textbooks today. This theory consisted of five different stages.

At birth one is all id, needing gratification of impulses in the moment. Initially one is said to be in the oral stage of development where pleasure comes through sucking, chewing, ... Soon the anal stage emerges when the toilet training comes in, at this time the ego begins to differentiate more clearly. Control! The phallic stage is said to be next where self interest emerges but is usually punished by parents social interaction. Boys are believed to be driven by the Oedipal conflict where they are driven towards their mothers and against their fathers. Appropriate resolution will have the boy identify with the father, giving in and accepting his moral authority and the development of a super ego. A similar crisis is said to exist for girls where they are driven to their fathers and against their mothers. Lesser super-egos. The Latency period arrives when sublimation begins and the postponement of sexuality. Get down to work and social bonding. Finally, the genital stage occurs and children come to realize their beginnings of adult sexuality. Dreams and repression, neuroticism, ..

JEAN PIAGET

Theory of Cognitive Development

Early Life and Education Born in 1896 in Neuchtel, Switzerland, Jean Piagets father, Arthur Piaget, taught medieval literature at the University of Neuchtel. Piaget showed an early interest in biology and the natural world. He attended the University of Neuchtel, and later, the University of Zrich. Even as a young student, Piaget wrote two philosophical papers that were unfortunately rejected as adolescent thoughts. Later Life and Death Jean Piaget was honored with the Balzan Prize for Social and Political Sciences in 1979. The following year, he died on September 16, 1980. He was 84 years old. Contributions and Achievements It has been believed that no theoretical framework has had a bigger influence on developmental psychology than that of Jean Piaget. He founded the International Centre of Genetic Epistemology at Geneva and became its director. He made extraordinary contributions in various areas, including sociology, experimental psychology and scientific thought. Piaget took ideas from biology, psychology and philosophy and investigated the method by which children learn about the world. He based his conclusions about child development on his observations and conversations with his own, as well as other children. By asking them ingenious and revealing questions about simple problems he had devised, he shaped a picture of their way of viewing the world by analyzing their mistaken responses. He formulated an outstandingly well-articulated and integrated theory of cognitive development.

Piaget was a highly prolific author who wrote about 70 books and more than 100 articles about human psychology. His theoretical conceptualizations have induced a vast amount of research. Some of his contributions to the study of psychology include the development of the four stages of cognitive development, which are sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational.

Piaget also contributed Developmental Psychology and Genetic Epistemology, which studied how knowledge was learned within humans. The four principles are as follows: 1) Children will provide different explanations of reality at different stages of cognitive development, 2) Cognitive development is facilitated by providing activities or situations that engage learners and require adaptation (i.e. assimilation and accommodation) According to Piaget, childrens thought processes change as they mature physically and interact with the world around them. Piaget believed children develop schema, or mental models, to represent the world. As children learn, they expand and modify their schema through the processes of assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation is the broadening of an existing schema to include new information. Accommodation is the modification of a schema as new information is incorporated. 3) Learning materials and activities should involve the appropriate level of motor or mental operations for a child of given age; avoid asking students to perform tasks that are beyond their current cognitive capabilities, 4) Use teaching methods that actively involve students and present challenges (Genetic Epistemology 2005) Even though he never formally studied child psychology, Jean Piaget led the way for other activist for studying childrens modes of learning and thinking. Jean Piaget passed away in 1980. However, his contributions will be forever lasting and anyone associated with educational purposes for children will look at his theories and studies as the start of the pathway to show that childrens thinking should be taken seriously.

LAWRENCE KOHLBERG Theory of Moral Development

Lawrence Kohlberg was a 20th century psychologist known primarily for his research into moral psychology and development. Professional Life Lawrence Kohlberg was born in Bronxville, New York on October 25, 1927. Kohlberg enrolled in the University of Chicago, and with high examination scores, he was excused from many required courses and received his bachelors degree in just one year. He received his PhD in psychology from the University of Chicago in 1958. His dissertation was based on his research into the moral choices of adolescent boys and led to a life devoted to the exploration of moral and ethical development in young people. In 1959, Kohlberg joined the staff of Yale University as an assistant professor of psychology. In 1962, he returned to the University of Chicago as an assistant professor. Over several years, he worked as an associate professor and director of Child Psychology Training Program at the university. The remainder of his career was spent as a professor of education and social psychology at Harvard University between 1968 and 1987. Kohlberg married Lucy Stigberg in 1955, and the couple had two sons. Kohlberg died of an apparent suicide in 1987, after a long battle with depression coupled with painful symptoms from a tropical parasite he had contracted in Belize in 1971. He parked his car, leaving identifying documents behind, then walked into the frigidly cold Boston Harbor. Contribution to Psychology Kohlbergs stages of moral development were influenced by the Swiss psychologist Jean Piagets stagebased theory of development. Kohlberg expanded on Piagets two stages, identifying six stages of moral development. He argued that correct moral reasoning was the most significant factor in moral decision-making, and that correct moral reasoning would lead to ethical behavior. Kohlberg believed that individuals progress through stages of moral development just as they progress through stages of cognitive development.

Kohlbergs Theory of Moral Development (includes three levels and six stages)

Preconventional Morality: o Stage one: Obedience and punishment. The child is motivated to avoid punishment and has little or no independent moral reasoning. o Stage two: Individualism and exchange. Individuals are focused on fulfilling their own self-interests, while acknowledging that different people have different views. Conventional Morality: o Stage three: Maintaining interpersonal relationships. At this stage, individuals emphasize the importance of being kind to other people, engaging in good behavior and showing concern for others. This stage includes a strong emphasis on gaining approval. o Stage four: Law and order. The individual is determined to obey the rules, focusing on the value that the law adds to human life. A person at this stage might argue that breaking the law is wrong because the law is designed to protect people. Stage 4 individuals focus on maintaining the social order and upholding cultural norms. Post-Conventional Morality o Stage five: Social contract. People at this stage of development focus on doing what is best for society as a whole and respecting individual rights. Civil disobedience would be endorsed by people in both stages of post-conventional morality. o Stage six: Universal principles. At this stage, individuals are focused on upholding principles of universal justice, fairness, and ethics. They believe in the democratic process, but also endorse disobeying unjust laws.

To determine which stage of moral development his subjects were in, Kohlberg presented them with invented moral dilemmas, such as the case of a man who stole medicine for his sick wife. According to Kohlberg, few people reach stages five and six; most tend to stay at stage four. Criticism and Controversy Kohlberg purported that women were often at a lower stage of moral development than men, but psychologist Carol Gilligan questioned his findings. Gilligan claims that women place a strong emphasis on caring and empathy, rather than on justice. She developed an alternative scale, heavily influenced by Kohlberg's scale, that showed that both men and women could reach advanced stages of moral development.

ERIK ERIKSON

Theory of Psychosocial Development

Erik Homberger Erikson was born on June 15, 1902 in Frankfurt, Germany to his Jewish mother Karla Abrahamsen and to his biological father, who was an unnamed Danish man. When Erikson graduated high school, he was interested in becoming an artist. He did not prefer the atmosphere that formal schooling produced, so instead of going to college he traveled around Europe, keeping a diary of his experiences. After he traveled around Europe for a year, he made the decision to enroll in an art school back in Germany. Erikson stayed at the art school for several years, so he began to teach art and other subjects to the American children who came to Vienna for Freudian training Erikson is known for being a prolific writer since he wrote many books and essays. For example, he published Childhood and Society (1950), Young Man Luther (1958), Youth: Change and Challenge (1963), Insight and Responsibility (1964), and Identity: Youth and Crisis (1968). Erikson passed away in 1994 at the age of 92. Contribution to Psychology THEORY OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT Erikson recognized the basic notions of Freudian theory, but believed that Freud misjudged some important dimensions of human development. Erikson said that humans develop throughout their life span, while Freud said that our personality is shaped by the age of five. Erikson developed eight psychosocial stages that humans encounter throughout their life. The Psychosocial Stages of Human Development 1. Trust vs. Mistrust occurs from approximately birth to one year. Erikson defined trust as an essential trustfulness of others as well as a fundamental sense of one's own trustworthiness. He thought that an infant who gets fed when he is hungry and comforted when he needs comforting will develop trust. He also said that some mistrust is necessary to learn to discriminate between honest and dishonest persons. If mistrust wins over trust in this stage, the child will be frustrated, withdrawn, suspicious, and will lack self-confidence. 2. Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt occurs between ages two and three. During this period it is important that the parents create a supportive atmosphere in which the child can develop a sense of self-control without a loss of self-esteem. Shame and doubt about the child's self-control and independence occur if basic trust was insufficiently developed or was lost such as when the child's will is broken by an over controlling parent. In this stage, Erikson said the child encounters rules, such as which areas of the house he is allowed to explore. 3. Initiative vs. Guilt occurs between ages four and five. This is the stage in which the child must find out what kind of person he/she is going to be. The child develops a sense of responsibility which increases initiative during this period. If the child is irresponsible and is made to feel too anxious then they will have uncomfortable guilt feelings. Erikson believed that most guilt is quickly compensated for by a sense of accomplishment. 4. Industry vs. Inferiority occurs between six years and puberty. This is the period in which the child wants to enter the larger world of knowledge and work. One of the great events of this time is the child's entry into school. This is where he is exposed to the technology of his society: books, multiplication tables, arts and crafts, maps, microscopes, films, and tape recorders. However, the learning process does not only occur in the classroom according to Erikson, but also at home, friend's houses, and on the street. Erikson said that successful experiences give the child a sense of industry, a feeling of competence and mastery, while failure gives them a sense of inadequacy and inferiority, a feeling that one is a good-for-nothing. 5. Identity vs. Confusion occurs during adolescence. During this period the identity concern reaches climax. According to Erikson this is the time when adolescents seek their true selves. 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation occurs during young adulthood. Intimacy with other people is possible only if a reasonably well integrated identity emerges from stage five. 7. Generativity vs. Stagnation is to assist the younger generation in developing and leading useful lives. When the individual feels that he has done nothing to help the next generation then they experience stagnation. 8. Integrity vs. Despair occurs during late adulthood. This is the time in which the individual looks back and evaluates their life. If the previous stages have developed properly then they will experience integrity. If the previous stages have not developed in a positive way then they will feel despair.

ROBERT HAVIGHURST

Developmental Tasks

Robert Havighurst was in june 5, 1900 in depere, wisconsin, a small town in the midwestern united states. He attended public schools in Wisconsin and Illinois. He obtained many degrees and education achievements: 1918-21 B.A. from Ohio Wesleyan University, 1922 M.A. Ohio State University, 1924 Ph.D., Chemistry Ohio State University, 1953-54 Fulbright Scholar, University of Canterbury, New Zealand, 1961 Fulbright Scholar University of Buenos Aires, 1962 Honorary Degree Sc. Adelphi University, 1963 Hon. L.L.D. Ohio Wesleyan University. Contribution to Psychology Havighurst has identified six major age periods: infancy and early childhood (0-5 years), middle childhood (6-12 years), adolescence (13-18 years), early adulthood (19-29 years), middle adulthood (30-60 years), and later maturity (61+). Certain tasks need to be mastered at certain times of ages in order to mature successfully. The driving forces behind these tasks are the persons physical growth, social pressures upon him or her as well as his or her inner pressures. Table presents typical developmental tasks for each of these periods. Infancy and Early Childhood (0-5) 1. Learning to walk 2. Learning to take solid foods 3. Learning to talk 4. Learning to control the elimination of body wastes 5. Learning sex differences and sexual modesty 6. Acquiring concepts and language to describe social and physical reality 7. Readiness for reading 8. Learning to distinguish right from wrong and developing a conscience Middle Childhood (6-12) 1. Learning physical skills necessary for ordinary games 2. Building a wholesome attitude toward oneself 3. Learning to get along with age-mates 4. Learning an appropriate sex role 5. Developing fundamental skills in reading, writing, and calculating 6. Developing concepts necessary for everyday living 7. Developing conscience, morality, and a scale of values 8. Achieving personal independence 9. Developing acceptable attitudes toward society Adolescence (13-18) 1. Achieving mature relations with both sexes 2. Achieving a masculine or feminine social role 3. Accepting one's physique 4. Achieving emotional independence of adults 5. Preparing for marriage and family life 6. Preparing for an economic career 7. Acquiring values and an ethical system to guide behavior 8. Desiring and achieving socially responsible behavior

Early Adulthood (19-20) 1. Selecting a mate 2. Learning to live with a partner 3. Starting a family 4. Rearing children

Middle Adulthood (30-60) 1. Helping teenage children to become happy and responsible adults 2. Achieving adult social and civic responsibility 3. Satisfactory career achievement 4. Developing adult leisure

Later Maturity (61-) 1. Adjusting to decreasing strength and health 2. Adjusting to retirement and reduced income 3. Adjusting to death of spouse 4. Establishing relations with

5. Managing a home 6. Starting an occupation 7. Assuming civic responsibility

time activities 5. Relating to one's spouse as a person 6. Accepting the physiological changes of middle age 7. Adjusting to aging parent

one's own age group 5. Meeting social and civic obligations 6. Establishing satisfactory living quarters

MORGAN SCOTT PECK

Stages of Spiritual Development

Dr. Peck was born on May 22, 1936 in New York City, the younger of two sons to David Warner Peck, a prominent lawyer and jurist, and his wife Elizabeth Saville. He married Lily Ho in 1959, and they had three children. He received his MD from Case Western Reserve University (1963) and served in the US Army (196372), retiring after two years as assistant chief of psychiatry and neurology at the office of the surgeongeneral. He practiced psychiatry in New Preston, CT (197284), and eventually and reluctantly attained the status of a guru due to the success of his book, The Road Less Traveled: A New Psychology of Love, Traditional Values and Spiritual Growth (1978). He received his MD from Case Western Reserve University (1963) and served in the US Army (196372), retiring after two years as assistant chief of psychiatry and neurology at the office of the surgeon-general. He practiced psychiatry in New Preston, CT (197284), and eventually and reluctantly attained the status of a guru due to the success of his book, The Road Less Traveled: A New Psychology of Love, Traditional Values and Spiritual Growth (1978). It focused on personal integrity and community building, and, although dismissed by some as merely inspirational, it spoke to many people (attested by its presence on best-seller lists for some 15 years). He followed up its success with such books as People of the Lie (1983) and The Different Drum (1987).

Contribution to Psychology The Road Less Traveled (1978) This is the self-help book that is read by people who don't read self-help books. It contains none of the alluring promises of boundless joy and happiness that are the feature of personal development writing, yet has still been a massive bestseller. Famously beginning with the words, 'Life is difficult', it covers such gloomy topics as the myth of romantic love, evil, mental illness, and the author's psychological and spiritual crises. SPIRITUAL GROWTH THEORY Putting self-discipline at the top of list of values for a good life. Believing that there are no easy ways to enlightenment, and that things like commitment and responsibility are the seeds of fulfillment. DISCIPLINE- is the basic tools require solving lifes problem 1. Delaying Gratification- the process of scheduling the pain and pleasure of life 2. Acceptance of Responsibility 3. Dedication to truth The Four Stages of Spiritual Development Peck postulates that there are four stages of human spiritual development:[12][13]

Stage I is chaotic, disordered, and reckless. Very young children are in Stage I. They tend to defy and disobey, and are unwilling to accept a will greater than their own. They are extremely egoistic and lack empathy for others. Many criminals are people who have never grown out of Stage I. Stage II is the stage at which a person has blind faith in authority figures and sees the world as divided simply into good and evil, right and wrong, us and them. Once children learn to obey their parents and other authority figures, often out of fear or shame, they reach Stage II. Many so-called religious people are essentially Stage II people, in the sense that they have blind faith in God, and do not question His existence. With blind faith comes humility and a willingness to obey and serve. The majority of good, law-abiding citizens never move out of Stage II.

Stage III is the stage of scientific skepticism and questioning. A Stage III person does not accept things on faith but only accepts them if convinced logically. Many people working in scientific and technological research are in Stage III. They often reject the existence of spiritual or supernatural forces since these are difficult to measure or prove scientifically. Those who do retain their spiritual beliefs, move away from the simple, official doctrines of fundamentalism. Stage IV is the stage where an individual starts enjoying the mystery and beauty of nature and existence. While retaining skepticism, he starts perceiving grand patterns in nature and develops a deeper understanding of good and evil, forgiveness and mercy, compassion and love. His religiousness and spirituality differ significantly from that of a Stage II person, in the sense that he does not accept things through blind faith or out of fear, but does so because of genuine belief, and he does not judge people harshly or seek to inflict punishment on them for their transgressions. This is the stage of loving others as yourself, losing your attachment to your ego, and forgiving your enemies. Stage IV people are labeled as Mystics.

Peck argues that while transitions from Stage I to Stage II are sharp, transitions from Stage III to Stage IV are gradual. Nonetheless, these changes are very noticeable and mark a significant difference in the personality of the individual.

JAMES FOWLER

Stages of Faith Development

James W. Fowler III (born 1940), is a graduate of Duke University and Drew Theological Seminary and earned his Ph.D. at Harvard University in Religion and Society in 1971, with a focus in ethics and sociology of religion. He pursued postdoctoral studies at the Center for Moral Development at the Harvard Graduate School of Education (1971-72). He taught at Harvard Divinity School (1969-75) and at Boston College (1975-76). In 1977 he joined the faculty of Emory's Candler School of Theology. Emory named him the Charles Howard Candler Professor of Theology and Human Development in 1987. His pioneering research and the resulting theory of faith development have earned him international recognition. His best-known book, Stages of Faith: The Psychology of Development and the Quest for Meaning, is in its 38th printing, and has been translated into German, Korean, and Portuguese editions. Dr. Fowler has written or edited ten other books and more than 60 articles, contributing to the fields of practical theology and theological ethics. Four volumes of critical discussion of Fowlers research and theory have emerged from national and international seminars devoted to his work. He has received the Oskar Pfister Award from the American Psychiatric Association, for enduring contributions to the dialogue between religion and psychiatry and the William James Award from the American Psychological Association, for contributions that advance the psychology of religion. Both awards came in 1994. In 1999 the University of Edinburgh awarded him a doctor of divinity degree, honoris causa. From 1994 to 2005, Fowler served as the first full-time director of the Center for Ethics at Emory. He is a minister in the United Methodist Church. He and his wife have two married daughters and four grandchildren. Contribution to Psychology A series of stages of faith development was proposed by Professor James W. Fowler, a developmental psychologist at Candler School of Theology, in the book Stages of Faith. This book-length study contains a framework and ideas, which have generated a good deal of response from the academic community focusing on religious studies. Fowler defines faith as an activity of trusting, committing, and relating to the world based on a set of assumptions of how one is related to others and the world.

Stage 0 "Primal or Undifferentiated" faith (birth to 2 years), is characterized by an early learning of the safety of their environment (i.e. warm, safe and secure vs. hurt, neglect and abuse). If consistent nurture is experienced, one will develop a sense of trust and safety about the universe and the divine. Conversely, negative experiences will cause one to develop distrust with the universe and the divine. Transition to the next stage begins with integration of thought and languages which facilitates the use of symbols in speech and play. Stage 1 "Intuitive-Projective" faith (ages of three to seven), is characterized by the psyche's unprotected exposure to the Unconscious, and marked by a relative fluidity of thought patterns.[1] Religion is learned mainly through experiences, stories, images, and the people that one comes in contact with. Stage 2 "Mythic-Literal" faith (mostly in school children), stage two persons have a strong belief in the justice and reciprocity of the universe, and their deities are almost alwaysanthropomorphic. During this time metaphors and symbolic language are often misunderstood and are taken literally.

Stage 3 "Synthetic-Conventional" faith (arising in adolescence; aged 12 to adulthood) characterized by conformity to religious authority and the development of a personal identity. Any conflicts with one's beliefs are ignored at this stage due to the fear of threat from inconsistencies. Stage 4 "Individuative-Reflective" faith (usually mid-twenties to late thirties) a stage of angst and struggle. The individual takes personal responsibility for his or her beliefs and feelings. As one is able to reflect on one's own beliefs, there is an openness to a new complexity of faith, but this also increases the awareness of conflicts in one's belief. Stage 5 "Conjunctive" faith (mid-life crisis) acknowledges paradox and transcendence relating reality behind the symbols of inherited systems. The individual resolves conflicts from previous stages by a complex understanding of a multidimensional, interdependent "truth" that cannot be explained by any particular statement. Stage 6 "Universalizing" faith, or what some might call "enlightenment." The individual would treat any person with compassion as he or she views people as from a universal community, and should be treated with universal principles of love and justice. Fowler's model has inspired a considerable body of empirical research into faith development, although little of such research has been conducted by Fowler himself. A useful tool here has been Gary Leak's Faith Development Scale, or FDS, which has been subject to factor analysis by Leak (Leak, 2008).

CAROL GILLIGAN

Theory of Women's Moral Development

Carol Gilligan is a contemporary psychologist who has conducted extensive research into women's approach to moral problems. Professional Life Carol Gilligan was born in New York City on November 28, 1936. She studied literature at Swarthmore College as an undergrad, and she graduated from Radcliffe in 1960 with a master's in psychology. She continued to Harvard, where she received her PhD in psychology in 1964. Three years later, Gilligan took a teaching position at Harvard where she worked alongside Erik Erikson and Lawrence Kohlberg. While Gilligan worked as a research assistant under Kohlberg, known for his theory of moral development, she began focusing on the moral dilemmas and development of young girls. In 1997, Gilligan became the Chair of Gender Studies at Harvard, and she codirected the Harvard Project on Womens Psychology, Boys Development, and the Culture of Manhood. Gi lligan has lectured at Princeton University and Michigan State University, she was Pitt Professor at the University of Cambridge in 1992 and 1993, and she has taught at New York University since 2002. Gilligans work has been recognized for womens advancement by activists, such as Jane Fonda, who donated $2.5 million to create an endowed faculty chair in Gilligans name at Harvard. Gilligan has been recognized by many institutions and organizations for her efforts in the area of womens advancement and moral psychology. In addition to the Grawemeyer Award for Education, Gilligan has also received the Heinz Award for Human Condition and was named one of the most influential people of the year by TIME magazine in 1996. She has also published works of fiction and developed a full-length play based on Nathaniel Hawthornes Scarlet Letter. Contribution to Psychology best-known contribution to psychology is her adaptation of Lawrence Kohlberg's theory of moral development she found that women placed a stronger emphasis on caring in moral decision making her work on moral development outlines how a womans morality is influenced by relationships and how women form their moral and ethical foundation based on how their decisions will affect others What set her off in thinking this was the fact that in some of Kohlberg's investigations, women turned out to score lower - less developed - than did men. Were women really moral midgets? Gilligan did not think so. In taking this stand, she was going against the current of a great deal of psychological opinion. Our friend Freud thought women's moral sense was stunted because they stayed attached to their mothers. Another great developmental theorist, Erik Erickson, thought the tasks of development were separation from mother and the family. If women did not succeed in this scale, then they were obviously deficient. Gilligan's reply was to assert that women were not inferior in their personal or moral development, but that they were different. They developed in a way that focused on connections among people (rather than separation)

and with an ethic of care for those people (rather than an ethic of justice). Gilligan lays out in this groundbreaking book this alternative theory. Gilligan's Stages of the Ethic of Care Approximate Age Range Stage not listed not listed maybe never Goal Preconventional Goal is individual survival Conventional Self sacrifice is goodness

Transition is from selfishness -- to -- responsibility to others Transition is from goodness -- to -- truth that she is a person too Postconventional Principle of nonviolence: do not hurt others or self

Thus Gilligan produces her own stage theory of moral development for women. Like Kohlberg's, it has three major divisions: preconventional, conventional, and post conventional. But for Gilligan, the transitions between the stages are fueled by changes in the sense of self rather than in changes in cognitive capability. Remember that Kohlberg's approach is based on Piaget's cognitive developmental model. Gilligan's is based instead on a modified version of Freud's approach to ego development. Thus Gilligan is combining Freud (or at least a Freudian theme) with Kohlberg & Piaget.

She believes that women tend to develop morality in stages. The stages are: Preconventional morality During this stage, there is a strong focus on survival and self-interest. Conventional women prioritize selflessness and caring about others Postconventional women emphasize taking responsibility for the consequences of their choices and gaining control of their own lives. Caring for others is a strong component of this high stage of moral development. Levels and transitions: Level one, orientation to individual survival, shows the individual as self-centered and unable to distinguish between necessity and desire. The individual attempts to protect herself by not pursuing intimate relationships with others. The first transition is from selfishness to responsibility, in which there exists a new connection to others and a differentiation between needs and wants. Goodness as self-sacrifice is the second level of development. In this stage, the individual places greater reliance on others and yearns for social acceptance. In the second transition, from goodness to truth, the individual questions why she places others needs above her own. The third and last level, the morality of nonviolence, shows an individual with a transformed understanding of self. There is much respect for the self and individual needs, but the individual also recognizes responsibility and care for others and selects among competing choices. In 1982, Gilligan published In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Womens Development. The book detailed her criticism of Kohlbergs theory and her views on female morality.

ROGER GOULD Adult Development Theory

Roger Gould, M.D. is an American writer, psychiatrist and leading authority on adult psychological development. In his book Transformations, Gould presents his view that adult psychological development consists of the "dismantling of the illusions of safety developed in childhood". Goulds theory suggests that these illusions are confronted in a timesensitive sequence as one progress through the life-cycle. Gould has pioneered the use of computer-assisted and web-based therapy. He was honored by The Smithsonian Institution as a pioneer in the field of computer-assisted therapy. In 2001, Goulds method of computer-assisted therapy was found to be about as effective as traditional therapy. Gould is also the founder of Shrink Yourself, an online, weight-loss program that uses his web-based therapy techniques to eliminate emotional eating, binge eating, overeating and other forms of excessive, compulsive or uncontrolled eating. In 2007, he published a second book, Shrink Yourself: Break Free from Emotional Eating Forever, based on the Shrink Yourself online program. In both the book and online program, Gould suggests that the powerlessness people feel over their cravings to eat when they are emotionally upset is a cover-up for a deeper sense of powerlessness in areas, or "layers", of their lives not directly connected to eating. By examining ones sense of powerlessness in the areas identified, Gould claims one can end emotional eating and other form of uncontrolled eating.

 Roger Gould's (1978) theory charts inner stages of consciousness in which the adult gives up various illusions and myths held over from childhood. Gould sees this process as freeing oneself from childhood restraints and establishing a sense of personal identity. To Gould (1978), adulthood is a time of "dismantling the protective devices that gave us an illusion of safety as children. Confronting the myths of childhood results in transformations that lead to increasingly higher levels of consciousness (Dean, 2007). Gould's transformations occur in a series of sequential, age related stages, as follows: o Leaving the Parents' World (16-22) o Getting into the Adult World (22-28) o Questioning and Reexamination (28-34) o Midlife Decade (35-45) o Reconciliation and Mellowing (43-50) o Stability and Acceptance (50 and over) The four major false assumptions adults must resolve during their lifetimes are: 1. "We'll always live with our parents and be their child." 2. "They'll always be there to help when we can't do something on our own." 3. "Life is simple and controllable." 4. "There is no real death or evil in the world." In Gould's theory, identity formation begins between the ages of 16 and 22, when people are challenging the false assumption I will always belong to my parents and believe in their world". The false assumption to be overcome between 22 and 28 is: "Doing things my parents' way with willpower and perseverance will bring results. But if I become too frustrated, confused or tired or am simply unable to cope, they will step in and show me the right way".

LEV VYGOTSKY

Sociocultural Theory
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Lev Vygotsky was an early 20 century developmental psychologist who developed a socio-cultural theory of child development designed to account for the influence of culture on a childs growth and development. Early Life Lev Vygotsky was born into an art-and-literature-loving family in Belarus on Nov. 17, 1896, and he was raised in Gomel. He began studying at the University of Moscow in 1913. He elected to study law, and he graduated in 1917. Professional Life In 1924, he wowed the second All-Union Congress on Psychoneurology with his speech, and he was subsequently invited to join the Moscow Institute of Experimental Psychology. At the institute he served as a teacher and researcher for nine years. Vygotsky was an innovative psychologist who made significant advancements in the field of child development. Vygotsky was a contemporary of other great thinkers such as Freud, Skinner, and Piaget, but his early death at age 38 and suppression of his work in Stalinist Russia left him in relative obscurity until fairly recently. As his work became more widely published, his ideas have grown increasingly influential in areas including child development, cognitive psychology and education. Contribution to Psychology Sociocultural theory is a emerging theory in psychology that looks at the important contributions that society makes to individual development. This theory stresses the interaction between developing people and the culture in which they live. Sociocultural Theory Sociocultural theory grew from the work of seminal psychologist Lev Vygotsky, who believed that parents, caregivers, peers and the culture at large were responsible for the development of higher order functions. According to Vygotsky, "Every function in the child's cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological). This applies equally to voluntary attention, to logical memory, and to the formation of concepts. All the higher functions originate as actual relationships between individuals." Sociocultural theory focuses not only how adults and peers influence individual learning, but also on how cultural beliefs and attitudes impact how instruction and learning take place.