The New Federalist

March 24, 1989

Pages 6-7

American Almanac

The Life and Death of Sir Thomas More

Hans Holbein's great ortrait of More! ainted in "#$% &hile More ser'ed as a chief ad'iser to (ing Henry )III's go'ernment! hangs today in the *ric+ Museum! Ne& ,or+ City-

Introduction On Jul 6, 1!"!, #ir Th$%as M$re was &isited in the T$wer $' ($nd$n ) his $ung 'riend Th$%as P$*e, an $''icial at the +$urt $' +hancer , -ith tears in this e es, P$*e ga&e the e.-+hancell$r $' /ngland the news '$r which he had )een waiting0 his e.ecuti$n was set '$r nine $1cl$c2 that %$rning, P$*e added, acc$rding t$ M$re1s s$n-in-law and )i$gra*her -illia% 3$*er0 4The 5ing1s *leasure is 'urther, that at $ur e.ecuti$n $u shall n$t use %an w$rds,4 -ith these 'inal instructi$ns 'r$% /ngland1s 5ing 6enr 7888, M$re dressed in a sil2 g$wn that w$uld later )ec$%e the *r$*ert $' his e.ecuti$ner, and was led t$ the sca''$ld in the great s9uare $n T$wer 6ill, 6e died with a :est t$ the hang%an, that his )eard )e s*ared 'r$% the ch$**ing )l$c2, 4'$r it had d$ne n$ treas$n,4 a *lea t$ the cr$wd that the *ra '$r the 5ing, and the 'inal w$rds0 48 die the 5ing1s g$$d ser&ant, )ut ;$d1s 'irst,4 There is $ne highest law, the law $' ;$d and his uni&erse0 8n the 'ew w$rds )egrudged t$ hi% ) his earthl s$&ereign, in the last %$%ent )e'$re his *assage 'r$% this w$rld, Th$%as M$re s*$2e $ut 'r$% the sca''$ld t$ de'end that *reci$us truth with$ut which -estern ci&ili<ati$n w$uld n$t ha&e )een )$rn, and with$ut which it assuredl will n$t sur&i&e, That *reci$us truth, is that %an2ind e.ists, t$ )etter itsel', under the rule $' a uni&ersal natural law, which *r$ceeds 'r$% ;$d, is 2n$wa)le t$ e&er indi&idual hu%an )eing, and which is n$t su):ect t$ change ) the ar)itrar whi% $' an te%*$ral *$wer, 8n the tw$ th$usand ear hist$r $' -estern +hristend$%, 'ew indi&iduals ha&e li&ed their li&es, and s*ent their deaths, s$ e''ecti&el in the 'urtherance $' this *reci$us truth as did #ir Th$%as M$re, =lth$ugh he is ac2n$wledged as a n$)le %art r ) %uch $' t$da 1s /nglish-s*ea2ing w$rld, M$re1s unswer&ing c$%%it%ent t$ natural law as the )asis '$r the $rdering $' hu%an a''airs has )een '$rg$tten, as $ur ci&ili<ati$n itsel' has re:ected natural law as its guiding *re%ise, >ecause $' this, M$re1s *i&$tal r$le in %$dern -estern hist$r is little a**reciated, ) sch$lars and la %en ali2e, -hat, in 'act, did #ir Th$%as M$re acc$%*lish that %erits his ele&ati$n t$ the ran2 $' a 'ather $' -estern ci&ili<ati$n? One $' the $utstanding $rat$rs and thin2ers $' his da , M$re *r$duced a &ast )$d $' hist$rical, *hil$s$*hical, and the$l$gical w$r2s, in ;ree2, (atin, and /nglish, 8n his da , M$re1s writings instructed all $' /ur$*e $n the 'unda%entals $' ne$-*lat$nic

+hristian hu%anis%@ later, the *r$&ided a rich s$urce %aterial '$r /nglish hist$rians and *la wrights, including #ha2es*eare and J$nathan #wi't, and ser&ed as the )asis '$r the 5ing Ja%es &ersi$n $' the /nglish &ernacular >i)le, a c$rnerst$ne $' /nglish-s*ea2ing culture, = law er ) training and *r$'essi$n, M$re s*ent %$re than tw$ decades as a :udge in the /nglish c$urts, Fr$% his tenure $n the )ench, )$th the /nglish c$%%$n law and the real%1s c$nstituti$nal traditi$n de&el$*ed in the directi$n $' the re*u)lican sel'-g$&ern%ent which /nglish%en later created $n the sh$res $' N$rth =%erica, -hen 6enr 78881s a.e 'ell $n Th$%as M$re1s nec2, all $' /ur$*e %$urned, F$r M$re was $ne $' the )est l$&ed intellectual 'igures $' his da , and a leader in the internati$nal +hristian hu%anist %$&e%ent $' the earl si.teenth centur , =s a chie' ad&iser t$ the /nglish 2ing '$r twent ears, M$re the states%an r$se t$ a *$siti$n $' *$wer and in'luence une9ualled ) an $ther in the hu%anist circles $' -estern /ur$*e, Fr$% this *$siti$n $' *$wer, M$re s$ught t$ trans'$r% the nati$n $' /ngland int$ an instru%ent $' the ;$$d, '$r all $' %an2ind, -hat the $*ti%is% and *$litical *r$gra% $' the 8talian 3enaissance had 'ailed t$ *r$duce in c$ntinental /ur$*e, M$re and his circle )elie&ed, c$uld )e achie&ed $n the island $ut*$st $' /ngland, M$re en&isi$ned /ngland as a *r$s*er$us, de&el$*ing c$%%$nwealth, wh$se e.*anding *$*ulati$n, under the gentle g$&ernance $' a c$nstituti$nal %$narch and his wise ad&is$rs, c$uld ser&e as a %$del '$r all $' the -est, M$re c$nsidered the success $' what %ight )e called the +hristian hu%anists1 /nglish e.*eri%ent t$ )e a strategic necessit '$r the -est, =s the si.teenth centur entered its third decade, -estern /ur$*ean ci&ili<ati$n was threatened with destructi$nA'r$% within, ) the '$rces $' the 3e'$r%ati$n, 'r$% with$ut ) the %ilitar *$wer $' the Ott$%an /%*ire, /ngland was the last stand '$r the 3enaissance *r$gra% t$ u*li't the *$*ulati$ns $' /ur$*e, create ec$n$%icall *$wer'ul nati$n-states, and $&erthr$w the centuries-l$ng d$%inati$n $' /ur$*e ) a )rutal, 'eudal-%inded $ligarch , =n /ngland in the hands $' the +hristian hu%anist 'acti$n c$uld ser&e as a staging gr$und '$r )$ld new %aneu&ers, in cultural and ec$n$%ic war'are, )$th $n the c$ntinent, and in the New -$rld, 8n M$re1s &iew, this was a g$al t$ )e '$ught '$r, and w$n, at all c$sts,

6ence, M$re acce*ted the +hancell$rshi* $' /ngland, e&en th$ugh, as we shall see, t$ d$ s$ %eant t$ ste* int$ the center $' the ene% 1s ca%*, Thus, he c$ntinued t$ 'ight, 'r$% within /ngland1s g$&ern%ent, until he had e.hausted the %eans t$ d$ s$, M$re1s $ligarchical ene%ies had a di''erent *lan '$r /ngland0 the saw the island nati$n as a 'resh l$$ting gr$und, and, *erha*s %$re i%*$rtant, as a *$litical '$$t)all wh$se %arginal ec$n$%ic and %ilitar res$urces c$uld swing the )alance $' *$wer $n the c$ntinent, -hen /ngland1s la)ile 5ing 6enr 7888 'ell under their in'luence, M$re was '$rced $ut $' the +hancell$rshi*, Bet, e&en $n the $uts2irts $' *$wer, M$re c$%%anded the in'luence t$ cra't and carr thr$ugh the $*erati$n which e.*$sed his ad&ersaries within the /nglish c$urt, and hu%iliate the%, in the e es $' all the ci&ili<ed w$rld, as %urderers and ene%ies $' natural law, This was the chain $' e&ents which led t$ M$re1s i%*ris$n%ent, trial, and e.ecuti$n, 8t is accurate t$ sa that M$re1s %art rd$% was his 'inal act as a strategist and states%an, 6ad Th$%as M$re li&ed, and had the *$licies he s$ a)l re*resented *re&ailed, it is *$ssi)le that /ngland c$uld ha&e *r$ceeded, ) the %iddle $' the si.teenth centur , straight d$wn the *ath $' industrial ca*italist de&el$*%ent which in actual hist$rical circu%stances did n$t $*en u* '$r a centur and a hal', =n industriali<ed, re*u)lican /ngland c$uld ha&e ser&ed as a %$del '$r )$th /ur$*e and the New -$rld, >ut the *$*ulati$n $' M$re1s /ngland, and his c$thin2ers $n the c$ntinent, all$wed hi% t$ )e %art red and die, The great *$tential M$re a**reciated '$r /ngland1s internati$nal r$le was l$st, with c$nse9uences that are still )eing %easured, in ter%s $' hu%an su''ering, t$da ,

Abo'e! a mid.si/teenth.century s+etch! after a Holbein ortrait of More's household in Chelsea! ortrays 0from left to right1! More's ado ted daughter2 a student of the household2 his father! 3ohn More2 his daughter.in.la&2 Sir Thomas More2 More's son! 3ohn2 More's ser'ant! Henry Patenson2 More's daughter2 his eldest daughter! Margaret 4o er2 and Alice More! his &ife5elo&! from left to right! (ing Henry )II of 6ngland! More's teacher and friend Thomas Linacre! and 5isho 3ohn *isher! martyred &ith More-

6ngland and The Council 7f *lorence Th$%as M$re1s understanding and *ractice $' natural law, as an educat$r, :udge, states%an, and the$l$gian, was $ne $' the $utstanding results $' the earl 'i'teenth-centur +$uncil $' Fl$rence, This hist$ric %eeting $' +hristian church%en 'r$% /ast and -est, was c$n&ened in the 8talian cit -state $' Ferrara in 14"8, and later %$&ed t$ Fl$rence a'ter the $ut)rea2 $' the >lac2 Ceath in Ferrara, 8t was 'inanced and $rgani<ed under the aus*ices $' the Medici 'a%il then ruling Fl$rence, and guided ) the great scientist and +ath$lic thin2er, +ardinal Nic$las $' +usa, =t Fl$rence, a relati&el s%all gr$u* $' *$litical c$ns*irat$rs set int$ %$ti$n the %$st *$wer'ul, gl$)al cultural and *$litical $''ensi&e since the ad&ent $' +hristianit itsel', The %$t$r $' this great cultural war'are ca%*aign was the +$uncil1s res$luti$n, hard '$ught $&er the c$urse $' al%$st tw$ ears $' argu%ent and de)ate, that all $' +hristend$% w$uld $nce again )e united in its c$%%it%ent t$ the d$ctrine $' the Filioque. The Fili$9ue, re'lected d$wn t$ this da in the Nicene +reed ad$*ted at Fl$rence, asserts that the 6$l #*irit *r$ceeds 'r$% )$th ;$d the Father, and from God the Son; there'$re, as each indi&idual hu%an )eing *artici*ates in +hrist, each indi&idual has the *$tential '$r creati&e *artici*ati$n in the de&el$*%ent $' the uni&erseAthe essence $' +hristian natural law, The cultural *r$gra% $' the Fl$rentine +$uncil, in *art r$$ted in a re&i&al $' the ;ree2 classics )r$ught t$ Fl$rence ) re*resentati&es $' > <antiu%1s Pale$l$gue d nast , s*urred -estern /ur$*e1s ;$lden 3enaissance $' ad&ances in *ainting, ge$%etr , scul*ture, and science, The *$litical *r$gra% $' the +$uncil, s$ught t$ ca*ture these great ad&ances in culture, in the esta)lish%ent $' a re&$luti$nar $rdering $' hu%an a''airs in )$th /ast and -est0 the creati$n and strengthening $' s$&ereign nati$n-states c$%%itted t$ ec$n$%ic gr$wth, and the de&el$*%ent $' *$*ulati$ns which c$uld e&entuall 'uncti$n as educated, sel'-g$&erning citi<enries, This was Nic$las $' +usa1s ideal $' the Concordantia Catolica. The Fl$rentine *r$:ect was st %ied t$ the n$rth in 3ussia, and t$ the east, as ene%ies $' the +$uncil secured the destructi$n $' the Pale$l$gue d nast in > <antiu%, 8n -estern /ur$*e, the *$litical *r$gra% $' the +$uncil t$$2 h$ld in France under the %$narch ($uis D8, =cr$ss the channel, ($uis1s e''$rts were %irr$red in the /ngland $' 6enr 788, a *r$s*er$us and $*ti%istic ti%e in which Th$%as M$re was educated,

Th$%as M$re was )$rn in Fe)ruar $' 1478, #h$rtl a'ter his se&enth )irthda , the (ancastrian 6enr Tud$r sei<ed *$wer in /ngland as 6enr 788, with the s*$ns$rshi* $' the heirs $' France1s 5ing ($uis D8, and the su**$rt $' a circle $' /nglish church%en and sch$lars dedicated t$ the esta)lish%ent $' a li%ited %$narch in /ngland, The tw$ gr$u*ings which c$ns*ired t$ *ut 6enr Tud$r $n the /nglish thr$ne as 6enr 788 were t$ ha&e a *r$'$und and direct i%*act $n Th$%as M$re1s de&el$*%ent as well, The )ac2ers $' France1s ($uis D8 had )een the 'irst-generati$n adherents t$ the *r$gra% $' the +$uncil $' Fl$rence, 8n 1461, at the height $' the 8talian 3enaissance, this hu%anist circle *ut ($uis $n the French thr$ne, 'r$% whence he undert$$2 an e''$rt, t$ )e c$%*leted $nl a'ter his death, t$ uni' the territ$r that is t$da %$dern France, 'r$% a c$llecti$n $' 'eudal *rinci*alities, ='ter the death $' ($uis D8, during /ngland1s -ars $' the 3$ses, the regenc $' ($uis1s daughter =nne ga&e )$th 6enr and his uncle, Jas*er Tud$r, *$litical as lu% in France, (ater, it was French g$ld and %uniti$ns su**lies which all$wed 6enr Tud$r t$ %$unt his 148! in&asi$n $' /ngland, unseat the B$r2ist 3ichard 888, and ta2e the cr$wn as 6enr 788, =s the 'i'teenth centur drew t$ a cl$se, /ngland under 6enr 788 was trans'$r%ed 'r$% a cha$tic )ac2water en%ired in decades $' d nastic in'ighting, t$ a %$dern nati$n, *$ised $n the edge $' industrial re&$luti$n, 8t was al%$st as i' the s%all, )ac2ward, and under*$*ulated island had )een singled $ut, as a de%$nstrati$n *r$:ect, t$ sh$w h$w 9uic2l a nati$n-state c$uld )e )uilt, under the i%*etus $' the *r$*er ec$n$%ic and s$cial *$licies, = &irtual %iracle $ccurred in the *r$ducti&e ec$n$% $' /ngland under 5ing 6enr 788, 6enr was a dirigist@ his arsenal included the 'ull range $' %$dern nati$n-)uilding wea*$ns0 na&igati$n laws, *atent and %$n$*$l grants, c$%%ercial treaties, *r$tecti$nist tari''s, *re'erential ta.es '$r *r$ducers, and in'rastructure in&est%ent, The 'irst Tud$r, *r$)a)l the shrewdest )usiness%an e&er t$ sit $n the /nglish thr$ne, wielded these wea*$ns with states%anli2e ruthlessness '$r 2! ears, -hen 6enr 788 t$$2 *$wer in /ngland in =ugust 148!, it had )een :ust ten ears since /ngland1s e.*$rts $' se%i'inished cl$ths had $utstri**ed the nati$n1s e.*$rts $' raw w$$l, Ender the new %$narch, /ngland1s inci*ient shi't 'r$% )eing a raw %aterials *r$ducer '$r the c$ntinent t$ )eing an e.*$rter $' %anu'actured and se%i'inished g$$ds was c$%*leted, The cl$th industr )$$%ed, with a&erage earl e.*$rts $' )r$adcl$ths 'r$% ($nd$n and the $utl ing *$rts increasing ) 61 *ercent during 6enr 7881s reign,

This e.*ansi$n $' industr and c$%%erce, $' c$urse, led t$ a gigantic increase in re&enues t$ the cr$wn, which ta.ed all i%*$rts and e.*$rts, The 149Fs als$ saw a %a:$r shi't $' the /nglish nati$nal carr ing trade awa 'r$% '$reign %erchants and int$ the hands $' a gr$wing /nglish %ercantile class, +r$wn di*l$%ac saw t$ it that 8talian, French, and 6anseatic (eague %erchants were s ste%aticall s9uee<ed $ut, and sl$wl )ut surel the nati$n1s ec$n$%ic and c$%%ercial acti&it )eca%e centrali<ed in ($nd$n, and in the hands $' ($nd$n %erchants and entre*reneurs, =t h$%e, 6enr 788 s*$ns$red a *r$gra% $' internal i%*r$&e%ents that )egan t$ change the 'ace $' /ngland, These included the c$nstructi$n $' sch$$ls, waterw$r2s, h$s*itals, and r$ads, all enc$uraged ) the cr$wn, $'ten in c$lla)$rati$n with the +hurch, Esing e&er law $n the )$$2s, %edie&al and earlier, 6enr 788 reined in the *$wer $' the arist$cratic 'acti$ns chat had *er*etuated /ngland1s d nastic -ars $' the 3$ses, and reesta)lished the auth$rit $' the central g$&ern%ent thr$ugh an u*graded s ste% $' sheri''s and :ustices $' the *eace, 6enr als$ enc$uraged the %$st %$dern shi*)uilding thr$ugh$ut the real%, 6e hi%sel' c$%%issi$ned the c$nstructi$n $' the r$ al shi*s Sovereign and Regent, 'l$ating e.hi)iti$ns $' the %$st u*-t$-date design and ar%a%ent, >$th were rented $ut t$ %erchants wh$ wished t$ test the new techn$l$gies, This was the )eginning $' /ngland1s w$rld-class %erchant %arine and na&al 'leets, F$r %$re than twent ears, /ngland1s ec$n$% *r$s*ered, its *$*ulati$n grew, and the c$untr re%ained at *eace, -hen the 'irst Tud$r 5ing died in 1!F9, he le't nearl a %illi$n *$unds in the r$ al c$''ers, The 6ducation of Sir Thomas More Th$%as M$re was educated in an en&ir$n%ent which was at $nce traditi$nal and re&$luti$nar , =s a $ung %an, his intellectual %ent$rs were drawn 'r$% the crea% $' /nglish sch$larshi*Athe sa%e $utstanding thin2ers, wh$, during the last decades $' the 'i'teenth centur , were welc$%ed t$ stud in 3enaissance 8tal , -illia% ;r$c n, J$hn +$let, and Th$%as (inacre, wh$ taught M$re ;ree2, all tra&eled t$ 8tal t$ stud ;ree2, *hil$s$*h , and %athe%atics, 8n 'act, when (inacre, /ngland1s %$st *r$%inent *h sician, &isited Fl$rence, he was *ers$nall h$sted ) ($ren<$ de1 Medici,

These sch$lars e.*$rted 8tal 1s s$-called New (earning )ac2 t$ /ngland, where it )egan t$ 'l$urish in the late 146Fs and 147Fs, during the reign $' the (ancastrian 5ing /dward 87, The New (earning )eca%e Th$%as M$re1s dail 'are, )ut n$t )e'$re he had recei&ed a c$nser&ati&e, %iddle-class /nglish educati$n, =t the age $' a)$ut se&en, his 'ather, the *r$%inent ($nd$n law er J$hn M$re, enr$lled hi% in #t, =nth$n 1s sch$$l, > twel&e, he was 'luent in (atin, and had %astered the w$r2s $' the (atin sch$lars, 8t is *r$)a)le that M$re was 'irst intr$duced t$ ;ree2 in the h$%e $' the /nglish +ardinal J$hn M$rt$n, where he ser&ed as a *age )etween the ages $' twel&e and '$urteen, M$rt$n arranged '$r the $ung Th$%as t$ stud at O.'$rd, where his curriculu% centered $n the quadrivium $' li)eral arts0 arith%etic, %usic, ge$%etr , and astr$n$% , M$re1s interest in %usic and astr$n$% , )$th $' which he shared with 6enr 7888, lasted t$ the end $' his li'e, =t the unusuall $ung age $' 2", M$re lectured $n #aint =ugustine1s City of God at ($nd$n1s +hurch $' #t, (awrence Jewr , at the in&itati$n $' -illia% ;r$c n, F$r a nu%)er $' ears as a $ung %an, he c$nsidered a li'e $' sch$larshi* and *ra er in the +hurch, $nl t$ )e *ersuaded t$ stud law ) his 'ather, The sec$nd great in'luence $n M$re ca%e 'r$% the circle $' 'i'teenthcentur /nglish church%en and sch$lars wh$ su**$rted 6enr 7881s )id '$r the thr$ne, One $' the %$st re%ar2a)le $' these was J$hn M$rt$n, wh$% we ha&e :ust %enti$ned, M$rt$n was ele&ated t$ the )ish$*ric $' /l ) 5ing /dward 87@ he 'led int$ e.ile with the Tud$rs under 3ichard 888, and ser&ed 6enr 788 as +hancell$r $' /ngland and =rch)ish$* $' +anter)ur , =n$ther was #ir J$hn F$rtescue, chie' :ustice $' the real% under the (ancastrian 2ings $' the 'i'teenth centur , a 'riend $' the Tud$r 'a%il , and $ne $' the leading the$rists $' g$&ern%ent and law in /nglish hist$r , -hen M$re was *laced as a *age in M$rt$n1s h$use in 149F, M$rt$n was ser&ing as the head $' 6enr 7881s g$&ern%ent, and =rch)ish$* $' +anter)ur , Curing his tw$ ears $' ser&ice with M$rt$n, n$ d$u)t the $ung M$re had %an $**$rtunities t$ %eet and $)ser&e the %$st *$wer'ul and learned indi&iduals in the real%, The li&el intellectual character $' M$rt$n1s h$%e was *reser&ed '$r *$sterit ) the *en $' M$re hi%sel', wh$

used M$rt$n1s dining ta)le as the setting $' the heated de)ate $n the s$cial ills $' /ngland, included in >$$2 8 $' his %$st 'a%$us dial$gue, Utopia. 8t %a als$ well )e that M$re1s 'a%$us *$rtrait $' the B$r2ist 5ing 3ichard 888 was in'luenced ) 'irst-hand re*$rts 'r$% M$rt$n, = staunch $**$nent $' 3ichard 888, and :ailed ) 3ichard, M$rt$n s*ent the tw$ ears $' 3ichard1s reign in France and Flanders, $rgani<ing t$ *r$tect 6enr Tud$r1s *$litical e.ile, and *r$%$te the Tud$r )id '$r the /nglish thr$ne, #ir J$hn F$rtescue G1"94?-1476?H, chie' :ustice $' the 5ing1s )ench during the 14!Fs in the regenc $' 6enr 78, was the auth$r $' The Governance of England, or The ifference !et"een an #$%olute and a &imited 'onarchy. This was the 'irst )$$2 written in /nglish $n the c$nstituti$n and laws $' /ngland, F$rtescue1s Governance )egins the /nglish traditi$n $' re'erring t$ the )$d *$litic as a +$%%$nwealth, in which the well-)eing $' each indi&idual %e%)er, 'r$% the 2ing t$ the l$wliest $' his su):ects, de*ends u*$n the *r$s*erit $' all, M$re$&er, in Governance, F$rtescue identi'ies the li%ited $r c$nstituti$nal %$narch as an /nglish in&enti$n, )ased $n the uni9ue c$nce*t $' a g$&ern%ent wh$se s$&ereignt deri&es 'r$% the *e$*le, and 'uncti$ns in the '$r% $' the (ing in )arliament. F$rtescue traces the '$unding $' /ngland1s s ste% $' g$&ern%ent )ac2 t$ the Magna +arta $' 121!, and warns sternl against disru*ti$n $' the +$%%$nwealth 'r$% an s$urce, )e it %$) rule, an arist$crac gr$wn t$$ *$wer'ul, $r a 2ing wh$ turns his )ac2 $n the %andate $' the *e$*le, 8n F$rtescue1s &iew, a c$untr under the *$wer $' an a)s$lute %$narch will ne&er achie&e the ec$n$%ic $r %ilitar strength $' a c$%%$nwealth, The nati$ns $' /ur$*e ruled ) a)s$lute %$narchs, F$rtescue writes, li&e under the swa $' the laws $' the degenerate 3$%an e%*ire, a c$de $' t rann which /ngland re:ected, in 'a&$r $' a ci&il law de&el$*ed $n the )asis $' such *rinci*les as the :ur s ste%, F$rtescue1s Governance of England )egan a l$ng traditi$n $' the$retical w$r2s $n the +$%%$nwealth, which the%sel&es %a2e u* the )$d $' /nglish c$nstituti$nal law, =%$ng these are nu%)ered The Tree of the Common"ealth ) 6enr 7881s %inister /d%und Cudle , *u)lished earl in the si.teenth centur , and # i%cour%e on the Common"ealth of England, ) Tud$r ec$n$%ic re'$r%er J$hn 6ales, *u)lished in the earl 1!!Fs,

='ter tw$ ears at O.'$rd, M$re le't the uni&ersit '$r a *lace at ($nd$n1s 8nns $' +$urt, a law sch$$l l$cated near the r$ al c$urts, F$rtescue1s Governance of England, and his $ther w$r2s were the standard 'are $' law students at the 8nns $' +$urt in M$re1s da , M$re, wh$ used his s*are ti%e during this *eri$d t$ stud ;ree2 with -illia% ;r$c n, )eca%e a law er in 1!F1, 6e later tra&eled t$ stud at the uni&ersities $' Paris and ($u&ain, Much %$re c$uld )e said a)$ut Th$%as M$re1s career as a law er and a :udge, $ne $' the %$st $utstanding in -estern legal hist$r , 6ere it %ust su''ice t$ sa that, in his the$retical w$r2s, as well as in his legal *ractice and his e''$rts as a g$&ern%ent $''icial, Th$%as M$re l$cated hi%sel' 'ir%l within the +$%%$nwealth Part traditi$n, =%$ng its $ther heirs are the +$%%$nwealth Part %en $' Oli&er +r$%well1s se&enteenth-centur atte%*t at re*u)lican re&$luti$n in /ngland, and $ur $wn =%erican '$unding 'athers,

Left! ma of 8to ia! by Ambrosius Holbein! brother of Hans! from the "#"9 edition of More's famous dialogue! ublished in 5asel- 4ight! another illustration by Ambrosius from the "#"9 edition! ortraying 4a hael Hythloday! the fictional seafarer &ho disco'ered 8to ia! in con'ersation &ith More and the Dutchman Peter :iles-

Peter :iles! atron of 6rasmus! &ho o'ersa& the rinting of Utopia in Ant&er -

Thomas More's 8to ia 8n 1!F9, the ear 6enr 7888 acceded t$ the /nglish thr$ne, Th$%as M$re was a $ung law er, w$r2ing in ($nd$n, 8n 1!F!, he had %arried Jane +$lt, wh$ was t$ )ear hi% '$ur children )e'$re her unti%el death in 1!11, =side 'r$% his w$r2 in the c$urts, M$re s*ent a g$$d deal $' his ti%e with the leading sch$lars $' the da , including (inacre, ;r$c n, -illia% (ill , J$hn +$let, dean $' ($nd$n1s #t, Paul1s #ch$$l, and /ras%us $' 3$tterda%, The *r$:ects $' this circle ranged 'r$% translati$ns $' the ;ree2 classics int$ (atin, *$etr c$%*$siti$n, /ras%us1s *n )rai%e of Folly, and his re-translati$n $' the New Testa%ent 'r$% ;ree2 int$ (atin, and, in M$re1s case, tw$ )i$gra*hies, $ne $' the Fl$rentine *hil$s$*her Pic$ della Mirand$la and $ne $' 5ing 3ichard 888, 8n #e*te%)er 1!1F, M$re was a**$inted Ender-#heri'' $' ($nd$n, the *$siti$n $' legal ad&iser t$ the cit 1s chie' law en'$rce%ent $''icer, and a &er *restigi$us *$siti$n '$r such a $ung %an, > 1!1!, we see hi% entered int$ the ser&ice $' 5ing 6enr 7888, and dis*atched $n a di*l$%atic %issi$n t$ the Netherlands, The %issi$n t$ Flanders can indeed )e c$nsidered a turning *$int in M$re1s li'e0 he was t$ re%ain in the ser&ice $' the 5ing until his e.ecuti$n twent ears later@ and during his tri* a)r$ad, he was t$ )egin w$r2 $n his Utopia, the )$$2 that %ade hi% 'a%$us thr$ugh$ut /ur$*e, -ere we li&ing in a still literate s$ciet , Utopia w$uld )e a%$ng $ur %$st widel read )$$2s, assigned t$ gra%%ar sch$$l students as an intr$ducti$n t$ ci&ics and g$&ern%ent, used as a *hil$s$*h *ri%er in the sec$ndar sch$$ls, and read and reread ) the a&erage citi<en thr$ugh$ut his li'e,

T$da , h$we&er, this classic is n$t used in the sch$$ls and n$t widel a&aila)le, The w$rd Utopia, which %eans, in ;ree2, n$where, has c$%e t$ %ean a *er'ect, )ut i%aginar s$ciet , M$re1s Et$*ia was an ad&anced, )ut n$n+hristian ci&ili<ati$n, na%ed a'ter its leader, 5ing Et$*us, and disc$&ered ) a shi*wrec2ed /ur$*ean sail$r in an uncharted 9uadrant $' the gl$)e, The sec$nd )$$2 $' Utopia, written ) M$re in 1!1! while he was in Flanders, c$nsists $' a descri*ti$n $' 5ing Et$*us1s real% ) that sail$r, returned t$ the Netherlands, in dial$gue with M$re, The sail$r, 3a*hael 6 thl$da Gwhich %eans learned non%en%e in ;ree2H, descri)es a *r$s*er$us c$%%$nwealth, wh$se citi<ens disdain war, e.ce*t '$r *ur*$ses $' nati$nal de'ense, share all things in c$%%$n, including la)$r and its 'ruits, and *lace the highest &alue $n *leasures $' the %ind0 *hil$s$*h , %usic, astr$n$% , and all %anner $' learning, >$$2 One $' Utopia, written ) M$re $n his return h$%e, sets the stage '$r the e.a%inati$n $' this attracti&e s$ciet , with a discussi$n $' the s$cial ills )esetting /ngland at the ti%e0 c$stl '$reign wars, in'lati$n and high *rices, une%*l$ %ent and &aga)$ndage due t$ encl$sures $' agricultural lands ) shee*-'ar%ers, the la<iness $' the arist$crac , and the sh$rtc$%ings $' the :ustice s ste%, #ince its *u)licati$n in 1!16, e&er %anner $' s$cial the$rist has atte%*ted t$ c$-$*t M$re1s Utopia as the *ur*$rted the$retical )asis '$r his $wn thin2ing, The nineteenth-centur 4%$dern4 artist -illia% M$rris, an ass$ciate $' >ritish 'eudalist J$hn 3us2in, hailed it as $ne $' the ins*irati$ns $' 3us2in1s Pre-3a*haelite #$ciet , a %$&e%ent $' $ligarchs t$ turn the cl$c2 )ac2ward $n hu%an *r$gress t$ the da s )e'$re the ;$lden 3enaissance, 8n this centur , the ;er%an c$%%unist 5arl 5auts2 called Utopia the '$unding d$cu%ent $' the s$cialist %$&e%ent, *raising M$re '$r re:ecting the 4ca*italist %$de $' *r$ducti$n4 e&en )e'$re it had )een 'ull esta)lished, >ut Utopia was neither an a*$l$g '$r antitechn$l$g 'eudalis% n$r c$%%unis%, 8t was a )rilliant argu%ent '$r the creati$n $' a s$cial $rder )uilt ar$und the Fili$9ue d$ctrine $' the +$uncil $' Fl$rence, and it laid the res*$nsi)ilit '$r the *r$gress $' hu%an a''airs in this directi$n s9uarel $n the sh$ulders $' the %$narchs and g$&ern%ent leaders $' si.teenth-centur /ur$*e, Translated int$ %$re than a d$<en languages )e'$re the %iddle $'

the 1!2Fs, M$re1s Utopia was a *$wer'ul $rgani<ing d$cu%ent '$r the esta)lish%ent $' a +hristian hu%anist $rder $' s$&ereign and ec$n$%icall *r$ducti&e nati$n-states, and it ca*tured the i%aginati$n $' all $' -estern /ur$*e, M$re sha*ed his *$le%ic in a 'ashi$n re%iniscent $' Plat$1s great dial$gues0 while 6 thl$da 1s descri*ti$n $' Et$*ia1s laws, cust$%s, and ec$n$% un'$lds in great and c$l$r'ul detail, the actual su):ect under c$nsiderati$nA which is the 'unda%ental nature $' Et$*ian s$ciet Are%ains unaddressed and unseen, 8t is le't t$ the reader t$ disc$&er, )ased $n irre'uta)le e&idence )uried in the %ass $' ca*ti&ating detail *resented ) 6 thl$da , that Et$*ia, h$we&er *leasant and *r$gressi&e, i% a fla"ed %ociety, for it i% pagan, and lac2ing a true a**reciati$n '$r the sanctit $' the indi&idual hu%an li'e, -hile the Et$*ians a)h$r &i$lence and war, the c$nd$ne euthanasia against the sic2 and elderl , and c$nde%n their law )rea2ers t$ )$ndage and unrelie&ed *h sical t$il, -hile the &alue the *r$ducts $' the indi&idual %ind, their c$de $' laws %ilitates against indi&idual creati&it , The distrust and disall$w 'reed$% $' ch$ice in %atters %$ral and *ers$nal, =dulter is *unished ) )anish%ent int$ ser&itude, The Et$*ians dress in identical gar%ents, $ne designed '$r all the %en, and $ne designed '$r all the w$%en@ the $wn n$thing, )ut h$ld e&er thing in c$%%$n@ the are '$r)idden t$ eat al$ne, $r in 'a%il gr$u*s0 the %ust attend the dail %eals in a c$%%$n ca'eteria, where the elders direct discussi$n at ta)le, and the $ung *e$*le ser&e and listen, Et$*ians are '$r)idden t$ discuss a''airs $' state in *ri&ate0 all %ust )e *u)lic, at a ti%e a**$inted ) the state, and )rea2ing $' this law is *unisha)le ) death, Et$*ians are c$nstrained ) law t$ )elie&e in i%%$rtalit @ the are t$ld when t$ %arr , and, )e'$re the wedding, led int$ a &iewing r$$% t$ e.a%ine, 'r$% )ehind a screen, the na2ed )$d $' their intendedA lest a *h sical de'$r%it )e disc$&ered a'ter the ta2ing $' the &$ws, and the %arriage )e ruined, 8n these laws, Et$*ia re%inds us $' the #*artan s$cial $rder s$ un'a&$ra)l descri)ed ) Friedrich #chiller, Bet, Et$*ia is a s$ciet which 4de'ines &irtue as a li'e $rdered acc$rding t$ the law $' nature,4 and this c$%%$nwealth descri)ed ) the sail$r 3a*hael 6 thl$da e.isted in a %$re *r$s*er$us and ha** c$nditi$n than an in si.teenth centur /ur$*e,

6ere is M$re1s stinging *$le%ic0 cann$t the +hristian *rinces, wh$ rule 'r$% thr$nes su**$rted ) the li&ing e.a%*le $' Jesus +hrist1s sacri'ice '$r e&er indi&idual hu%an )eing, sur*ass the acc$%*lish%ents $' a *agan c$%%$nwealth? Utopia s*read M$re1s 'a%e 'ar and wide, *r$%*ting a letter t$ /ras%us, 'r$% the ;er%an sch$lar Elrich &$n 6utten, 7$n 6utten wanted a descri*ti$n $' the /nglish%an wh$se )$$2 had )urst $nt$ the /ur$*ean scene, /ras%us1s re*l has le't us with a li&ing *$rtrait $' M$re sec$nd $nl t$ that *ainted ) the artist 6ans 6$l)ein, /ras%us descri)es a true and gener$us 'riend, a %$dest dresser, with si%*le ha)its, and a %an wh$ l$&ed a :est, )ut wh$ ne&er stu%)led int$ )u''$$ner , M$re, acc$rding t$ /ras%us, *$ssessed a c$%el and well-*r$*$rti$ned a**earance, a *leasing &$ice, and a character 4entirel 'ree 'r$% an t$uch $' a&arice,4 6e was a %an wh$ c$unted 4it a great gain t$ hi%sel' when he relie&es an $**ressed *ers$n, %a2es the *ath clear '$r $ne in di''iculties, $r )rings )ac2 int$ 'a&$r $ne that was in disgrace,4 M$re l$&ed ani%als, 2e*t %an *ets, and 'illed his h$use with artw$r2 and $):ects $' interest, -r$te /ras%us0 48' he %eets with an strange $):ect, i%*$rted 'r$% a)r$ad $r $therwise re%ar2a)le, he is eager t$ )u it, 6is h$use is s$ well su**lied with these $):ects that there is s$%ething in e&er r$$% which catches $ur e e, as $u enter it@ and his $wn *leasure is renewed e&er ti%e he sees $thers interested,4 Finall , /ras%us descri)es M$re1s large and c$ngenial h$useh$ld, which included, )esides ser&ants and wi'e, '$ur children, se&eral ste*children, se&eral wards, and $ther $ung *e$*le $' a sch$larl )ent, M$re1s h$%e was a s%all sch$$lA/ras%us called it Plat$1s =cade% $n a +hristian '$$tingAl$cated u*-ri&er 'r$% ($nd$n in the t$wnshi* $' +helsea, There, )esides carr ing $n dail classes and a c$rres*$ndence with n$ta)les 'r$% all $&er /ur$*e, M$re and his 'a%il welc$%ed tra&eling sch$lars 'r$% acr$ss the gl$)e, 8t was a ha** *lace, 'illed with %usic, n$t the least $' which was *r$duced ) M$re1s sec$nd wi'e, Ca%e =lice, at the gentle insistence $' her hus)and, 4-ith si%ilar 2indness,4 /ras%us wr$te, 4he rules his wh$le h$useh$ld, in which there are n$ tragic incidents, and n$ 9uarrels, 8' an thing $' the 2ind sh$uld see% li2el t$ ha**en, he either cal%s it d$wn, $r at $nce a**lies a re%ed , , , , 8ndeed, his h$use see%s t$ ha&e a s$rt $' char%ed 'elicit , n$

$ne ha&ing li&ed in it with$ut )eing ad&anced t$ a higher '$rtune, n$ in%ate ha&ing e&er had a stain u*$n his character,4

Hans Holbein's The Ambassadors, ainted in "#;;! t&o years before More's e/ecution! alludes to 6uro ean.&ide efforts to heal the schism &ithin the Catholic Church! &ith the inclusion of both Catholic and Protestant musical te/ts- It ortrays 3ean de Dinte'ille! *rench ambassador to London! and :eorges de Sel'e! 5isho of La'our! both of &hom &ere acti'e in negotiations for a di lomatic settlement of the religious <uestion- This re roduction of the ainting has been cro ed! omitting a crucifi/ &hich should a ear in the u er right! on the same lane as the elongated s+ull in the foreground-

)enice and the 4eformation -hen 6enr 7888 t$$2 the /nglish thr$ne in 1!F9, there was uni&ersal $*ti%is% in +hristian hu%anist circles thr$ugh$ut /ur$*e, a)$ut the *r$s*ects '$r ad&ance%ent in /ngland $' the *$litical and cultural *r$gra% $' the +$uncil $' Fl$rence, M$re declared that 6enr 7888 w$uld 4wi*e awa all tears,4 -illia% >l$unt, /arl $' M$unt:$ and *atr$n $' /ras%us, wr$te t$ /ras%us in 3$%e t$ enc$urage hi% t$ i%%ediatel &isit /ngland0 4Our 5ing is n$t a'ter g$ld, $r ge%s $' *reci$us %etals, )ut &irtue, gl$r , i%%$rtalit , 8 will gi&e $u a taste $' it, Just latel , he was sa ing that he wished he were %$re learned, 4That is n$t what we want 'r$% $u,4 8 said, 4)ut that $u sh$uld '$ster and enc$urage learned %en,1 1-h $' c$urse,1 he said, 1'$r with$ut the%, li'e w$uld hardl )e li'e,14 En'$rtunatel , the '$reign *$lic and ec$n$%ic decisi$ns $' the $ung %$narch s$$n cast a l$ng shad$w $&er the h$*es $' /ras%us and his circle, > 1!11, /ngland was e%)r$iled in its 'irst '$reign %ilitar acti$n in %$re than "F ears, a three- ear-l$ng war with France with a *rice-tag $' nearl I9FF,FFF, This useless c$n'lict, which netted the thr$ne a)s$lutel <er$ in strategicall use'ul territ$ries $r inc$%e, drained awa all the nati$nal sa&ings accu%ulated during the reign $' 6enr 788, and le't the cr$wn in de)t '$r the 'irst ti%e since the Tud$r d nast had ta2en *$wer, The /nglish-French war $' 1!11-1!14, and the $ther c$n'licts that were t$ )an2ru*t 6enr 1s g$&ern%ent, were $rchestrated in large *art ) the cit state $' 7enice, an ancient $ligarch '$unded $n sla&er , trade war, and usur , The 7enetian interest in /ngland1s '$reign a''airs was si%*le0 the cit 1s $ligarchs regarded 6enr 7888 and the %ight $' the /nglish ec$n$% and %ilitar , as a use'ul *awn, t$ )e %ani*ulated t$ their $wn strategic ends, Th$se strategic ends, as d$cu%ented ) % c$lleague -e)ster Tar*le in a 1981 stud , included the destructi$n $' the 3enaissance, and the sa)$tage $' all instituti$ns which e%)$died and c$uld s*read the &alues $' -estern ci&ili<ati$n %ade e.*licit ) the +$uncil $' Fl$rence, 6ence, 7enice c$unted a%$ng her %$rtal ene%ies the Medici 'a%il $' Fl$rence, the *a*ac , and the +ath$lic +hurch, 6enr 788 had &er little truc2 with the 7enetians, and went s$ 'ar in )uc2ing their *$wer as t$ initiate and win a trade war with the cit -state in 1494, >ut with the ascensi$n $' 6enr 7888 t$ the thr$ne, the +it $' ($nd$n was &irtuall $&errun with 7enetian ad&isers, %erchants, and

di*l$%ats, -hen the $ung 5ing, se&eral wee2s a'ter his c$r$nati$n, was *etiti$ned ) P$*e Julius 88 t$ :$in his (eague $' +a%)rai %ilitar alliance against 7enice, the cit -state1s di*l$%ats at c$urt succeeded in c$n&incing 6enr t$ sta $ut $' the 'ra , >ut when P$*e Julius a)and$ned the +a%)rai c$%)inati$n t$ '$r% the 6$l (eague alliance against France, 7enice1s agents-$'-in'luence at c$urt ga&e 6enr the g$-ahead, > 1494, 7enice had succeeded in destr$ ing the cit $' Fl$renceAthe %$n2 #a&$nar$la, a 'i'teenth-centur &ersi$n $' the = at$llah 5h$%eini, t$$2 $&er Fl$rence that earAand )egan a series $' %ilitar in&asi$ns $' 8tal that laid waste t$ the entire *eninsula, +harles 7888 $' France in&aded 8tal 'r$% the n$rth in 1494, reaching Fl$rence, ($uis D88 '$ll$wed in 1498, and Francis 8 in 1!1!, 8n 1!F", the French and #*anish c$n9uered Na*les, This $rg $' destructi$n cul%inated in the sac2 $' 3$%e ) tr$$*s $' 6a*s)urg 6$l 3$%an /%*er$r +harles 7 in 1!27, -ith the ge$gra*hic center $' the 3enaissance laid waste, the 7enetian ga%e%asters ne.t trained their sights against the instituti$n with the greatest *$tential '$r *reser&ing and s*reading the &alues $' the 3enaissance0 the +ath$lic +hurch, The 'ull st$r $' the 7enetian r$le in launching the hist$rical c$n&ulsi$n 2n$wn as the 3e'$r%ati$n has et t$ )e t$ld, -hen its details are 'inall unearthed 'r$% the hist$r )$$2s and *ri%ar s$urces, this st$r will *r$&e t$ )e $ne $' the %$st 'ascinating and intricate in all %$dern /ur$*ean hist$r , 8ts cha*ters will in&$l&e es*i$nage, c$unteres*i$nage, agents, s*ies, and du*es@ in'$r%ers and in'iltrat$rs in %inistries, uni&ersities, *u)lishing h$uses, r$ al c$urts, and the +hurch itsel'@ the rise and 'all $' c$untless g$&ern%ents, and unc$unted '$rtunes in ducats, g$ld cr$wns, 'rancs, and *$unds, changing hands $&er the c$urse $' decades, The Pr$testant churches, $nce esta)lished, the%sel&es i%%ediatel )eca%e )attlegr$unds )etween the in'luence $' the $ligarchical and +hristian hu%anist traditi$ns, N$twithstanding the +hristian hu%anist i%*ulses within the Pr$testant churches, h$we&er, the launching $' the 3e'$r%ati$n as a s$cial %$&e%ent was %eant t$ )e a &ast cultural $''ensi&e against -estern ci&ili<ati$n, which resulted in the destructi$n $' *$*ulati$ns, instituti$ns, and unt$ld treasures $' art, and which led t$ $ne hundred ears $' religi$us war'are $n the /ur$*ean c$ntinent,

-hat d$ we 2n$w with certaint a)$ut the 7enetian r$le in the 3e'$r%ati$n? Much $' what can )e re*$rted directl c$ncerns the li'e, w$r2, and death $' #ir Th$%as M$re, First $' all, the indi&idual with the %$st hands-$n res*$nsi)ilit '$r M$re1s e.ecuti$n, and the schis% $' the /nglish church 'r$% 3$%e was $ne Th$%as +r$%well, a 7enetian-trained acc$untant and )usiness agent, +r$%well was in 8tal and later the c$%%ercial center $' =ntwer*, w$r2ing '$r a 7enetian trading and 'inancial h$use during the sec$nd and third decades $' the si.teenth centur , Once he entered the r$ al ser&ice and )egan %a2ing his wa t$ the center $' *$wer, +r$%well was hi%sel' surr$unded ) a c$terie $' radical Pr$testants, si%ilarl trained in 7enice, $r in intellectual sal$ns %aintained under the aus*ices $' 7enetian agents in $ther 8talian cities, These included Th$%as #tar2e and 3ichard M$ris$n, )$th $' wh$% entered +r$%well1s ser&ice in the earl 1!"Fs, = cl$ser l$$2 at the acti&ities $' #tar2e and M$ris$n in 8tal leads us t$ )igger 'ish, >$th were *atr$ni<ed ) 3eginald de la P$le, the e.*atriate /nglish +ath$lic church%an wh$ sh$ws u* at e&er i%*$rtant *$int in the de&el$*%ent $' )$th the 3e'$r%ati$n, and the +$unter-3e'$r%ati$n, until his death in 1!!8, /ducated at O.'$rd, #tar2e s*ent %$st $' the ears )etween 1!2! and 1!"4 Gthe ear he entered +r$%well1s ser&ice as a cha*lain t$ the 5ingH, in the 7enetian satellite cit $' Padua, as a %e%)er $' P$le1s h$useh$ld, M$ris$n li&ed in 7enice 'r$% 1!"2 t$ 1!"", and then :$ined P$le1s h$useh$ld in Padua until he he was sent t$ enter +r$%well1s ser&ice as a chie' *a%*hleteer '$r the +hurch $' /ngland in 1!"!, right a'ter M$re1s e.ecuti$n, #$, the indi&iduals res*$nsi)le '$r $rgani<ing the Pr$testant 3e'$r%ati$n $' the real%, were su**lied t$ a 7enetian-trained Pr$testant, Th$%as +r$%well, ) the 7enice-lin2ed +ath$lic de la P$le, +learl P$le hi%sel' )ears cl$ser scrutin , 6is cl$sest ass$ciate within the ran2s $' the +hurch was n$ne $ther than the 7enetian n$)le%an ;as*ar$ +$ntarini, als$ a +ath$lic, als$ a radical Pr$testant in s %*athies, F$r %an ears, the careers $' +$ntarini and P$le '$ll$wed the sa%e r$ad, >$th $rgani<ed and $&ersaw intellectual circles and sal$ns thr$ugh$ut 8tal , de&$ted during the 1!2Fs and 1!"Fs t$ discussing Pr$testant the$l$g , P$le1s )ase $' $*erati$ns was Padua, +$ntarini1s %$st success'ul e''$rt was in 7enice itsel', 6undreds $' educated /ur$*eans, including %e%)ers $' the

c$ntinent1s r$ al 'a%ilies, 'l$c2ed t$ +$ntarini1s 7enetian esta)lish%ent, including =nt$ni$ >rucci$li, wh$ *r$duced the 'irst Pr$testant translati$n $' the >i)le int$ 8talian, and wh$ c$rres*$nded with Martin (uther, > 1!"F, the situati$n had reached such *r$*$rti$ns that P$*e +le%ent 788 re9uested s$%e acti$n against the Pr$testants 'r$% 7enice1s ruling )$d , the +$uncil $' Ten, The +$uncil $' Ten declined t$ act, P$le and +$ntarini were )$th %e%)ers $' the Orat$r $' Ci&ine ($&e, a la and clerical de&$ti$nal s$ciet within the +ath$lic +hurch, which see%s t$ ha&e )een hea&il 'acti$nali<ed )etween true adherents $' the 3enaissance *$litical *r$gra%, such as the artist 3a*hael, and their $utright ene%ies, 8n 1!4F, +$ntarini was t$ launch his $wn *ers$nal $*erati$n within the +hurch, ) s*$ns$ring 8gnatius $' ($ $la1s Jesuit Order, Meanwhile, the '$r%ida)le *$wer $' 7enice1s *rinting industr was )eing turned t$ward the Pr$testant e''$rt, +$ntarini, in c$lla)$rati$n with the +ath$lic +ardinal M$r$ne, als$ a %e%)er $' the Orat$r $' Ci&ine ($&e, arranged '$r the *u)licati$n $' 4F,FFF c$*ies $' The !enefit of Chri%t+% eath, a tract $n :usti'icati$n ) 'aith al$ne ) the >enedictine %$n2 >enedett$ $' Mantua, Mantua1s )$$2, circulated thr$ugh$ut /ur$*e, was c$nsidered the cred$ $' the 8talian Pr$testants, The d$ctrine $' :usti'icati$n ) 'aith al$ne, s$ &ig$r$usl *r$%$ted i' n$t $riginated ) 7enice, is a *ri%e e.a%*le $' the $ligarch 1s cultural war'are t$ destr$ the in'luence $' the +$uncil $' Fl$rence, The Fili$9ue d$ctrine $' the +$uncil asserted the innate ca*acit $' e&er indi&idual hu%an )eing t$ *artici*ate in the *r$cess $' di&ine creati$n, as +hrist did, thr$ugh c$nsci$us acts in the hist$ricall s*eci'ic ti%e, *lace, and circu%stances $' this w$rld Athere) asserting the res*$nsi)ilit $' leaders and g$&ern%ents t$ nurture this hu%an 9ualit in e&er indi&idual, > den ing the e''icienc $' g$$d w$r2sAindi&idual &$liti$nal acts ) the indi&idual hu%an )eingAin leading %an cl$ser t$ ;$d thr$ugh sal&ati$n, the d$g%a $' :usti'icati$n ) 'aith al$ne lea&es the indi&idual with n$ guide-*$st '$r c$ncrete acti$n in this w$rld, and leads straight t$ the w$rst e.cesses $' 'unda%entalis%, The d$ctrine $' :usti'icati$n ) 'aith al$ne thus stri*s the indi&idual $' the re%pon%i$ility '$r %$ral acti$n, The ne.t ste* in the de&$luti$n $' this radical ide$l$g stri**ed the indi&idual $' his "ill to act, this is the denial that ;$d has end$wed hu%an )eings with 'ree will, e.*ressed ) Martin (uther as his )$ndage $' the will d$g%a, and cast in st$ne as J$hn +al&in1s

d$ctrine $' *redestinati$n, -ith the e.tre%ist +al&in, the $ligarch had '$und a *er'ect a*$l$gist '$r whate&er h$rr$rs resulted 'r$% the *$licies $' sla&er and usur the were i%*$sing $n the hu%an s*ecies, The illiterate, sic2, h$%eless, and star&ing, a'ter all, had clearl )een *redestined ) ;$d t$ su''er, These were the ideas s*$ns$red in the 8talian sal$ns $' P$le and +$ntarini, and e.*$rted 'r$% 8tal thr$ugh$ut /ur$*e, The +$ntarini-P$le c$lla)$rati$n $utlasted their launching $' the /nglish schis%, 8n 1!"!, )$th were a**$inted cardinals ) P$*e Paul 888, Their $rgani<ing a%$ng Pr$testant schis%atics )eca%e /ur$*ean-wide0 +$ntarini was in cl$se t$uch with the radical 8talian Pr$testant >ernard$ Ochin$ $' #iena, wh$ le't 8tal t$ r$a% a)$ut ;er%an and #wit<erland, *reaching a re'$r% $' the 'aith, 8n 1!41, )$th +$ntarini and P$le were dis*atched ) the P$*e as his e%issaries t$ the %eeting with Pr$testant leaders at 3atis)$n, ;er%an , 6$*es were high thr$ugh$ut /ur$*e that the +ath$lics, in c$n'erence with such e%inent Pr$testant intellectuals as the ;er%an (utheran Phili* Melancth$n, w$uld succeed in healing the schis% in the +hurch, Melanchth$n ca%e t$ the c$uncil with a dra't $' d$ctrinal c$ncessi$ns t$ the +ath$lic +hurch $n e&er %a:$r issue, >ut, with +$ntarini and P$le re*resenting the 6$l #ee, all h$*es at rec$nciliati$n were dashed, Melancth$n, wh$ was with (uther when 1FF,FFF ;er%an *easants were e.ter%inated in the re&$lt $' 1!2!Aand (uther li'ted n$t a 'ingerAsaid a'ter 3atis)$n, 4N$t all the waters $' the /l)e w$uld )e su''icient '$r %e t$ wee* $&er the e&ils $' the 3e'$r%ati$n,4 -hat can we c$nclude, )ased $n these details a)$ut the lin2s $' Th$%as +r$%well and his circle t$ the e''$rts $' 7enice1s P$le and +$ntarini? -e can c$nclude that 7enice was a *ri%e %$&er )ehind the /nglish 3e'$r%ati$n, )ehind the death $' Th$%as M$re, and )ehind the schis% $' the /nglish +hurch 'r$% 3$%e, N$w, let us l$$2 %$re cl$sel at e.actl h$w this was acc$%*lished, To $e continued.