Standardization of Pulsed-Field Gel Electrophoresis

FOODBORNE PATHOGENS AND DISEASE
Volume 3, Number 1, 2006

Mary Ann Liebert, Inc.
Standardization of Pulsed-Field Gel Electrophoresis
Protocols for the Subtyping of Escherichia coli O157:H7,
Salmonella, and Shigella for PulseNet
EFRAIN M. RIBOT,
1
M.A. FAIR,
1
R. GAUTOM,
2
D.N. CAMERON,
1
S.B. HUNTER,
1
B. SWAMINATHAN,
1
and TIMOTHY J. BARRETT
1
ABSTRACT
Standardized rapid pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) protocols for the subtyping of Escherichia coli O157:H7,
Salmonella serotypes, and Shigella species are described. These protocols are used by laboratories in PulseNet, a
network of state and local health departments, and other public health laboratories that perform real-time PFGE
subtyping of these bacterial foodborne pathogens for surveillance and outbreak investigations. Development and
standardization of these protocols consisted of a thorough optimization of reagents and reaction conditions to en-
sure that the protocols yielded consistent results and high-quality PFGE pattern data in all the PulseNet partici-
pating laboratories. These rapid PFGE protocols are based on the original 34-day standardized procedure devel-
oped at Centers for Disease Control and Prevention that was validated in 1996 and 1997 by eight independent
laboratories. By using these rapid standardized PFGE protocols, PulseNet laboratories are able to subtype food-
borne pathogens in approximately 24 h, allowing for the early detection of foodborne disease case clusters and
often aiding in the identification of the source responsible for the infections.
59
INTRODUCTION
T
HE GLOBALIZATION of food markets and
changes in food processing and distribu-
tion practices, where a contaminated food
product could reach consumers across city,
state, or country borders, have contributed to
the increase in the number of multi-state and
multi-country outbreaks of foodborne illness
(Barrett et al., 1994; Campbell et al., 2001; CDC,
1998, 1999). The increased occurrence of multi-
locality foodborne outbreaks presents a new
and complicated challenge for epidemiologists
in the United States and abroad. Perhaps the
biggest challenge is the development of strate-
gies that would allow for the rapid identifica-
tion of clusters of illness and, in particular,
outbreak-related cases that are dispersed
throughout a larger region in order to prevent
additional infections from occurring (Tauxe,
1997). The development and application of epi-
demiologically relevant molecular subtyping
techniques and the availability of highly so-
phisticated computer software for data analy-
sis have increased the role laboratories play in
the detection of clusters of illness and investi-
gation of outbreaks of bacterial infections. De-
spite these advances, different laboratories do
not always use the same methods for subtyp-
ing, making inter-laboratory comparisons ex-
tremely difficult, if not impossible. Even when
the same method is used, minor differences in
the protocol conditions or parameters often re-
sult in data that are not comparable (Bolton et
al., 1996; van Belkum et al., 1995; van Belkum,
1998). The integration of these tools coupled
1
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia.
2
Washington State Department of Health, Public Health Laboratories, Shoreline, Washington.
with advances in the information technologies
arena has enabled us to rapidly recognize clus-
ters of illness that would have previously gone
undetected, especially those linked to a com-
mon source (Chan et al., 2002; Cummings et al.,
2001; Proctor et al., 2001).
A wide array of DNA fingerprinting meth-
ods have been used for the purpose of subtyp-
ing bacteria (Holmberg et al., 1984; Maslow et
al., 1993; Olive and Bean, 1999). Restriction
fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) is one
of the most frequently used molecular subtyp-
ing tools in epidemiologic investigations.
While there are different approaches to RFLP,
pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) has
been shown to be a reliable and highly dis-
criminating method for subtyping foodborne
pathogens and other bacteria (Barrett et al.,
1994; Swaminathan et al., 2001; Streulens et al.,
2001; Georing, 2004). Even though PFGE is cur-
rently considered the gold standard for the
subtyping of foodborne bacteria, its usefulness
has been limited by reproducibility problems
and the inability to compare fingerprint data
obtained in different laboratories. These intra-
and interlaboratory data compatibility issues
can be overcome by using highly standardized
laboratory protocols for generating and ana-
lyzing data. This was the original goal of
PulseNet, the molecular subtyping-based sur-
veillance system for foodborne bacterial dis-
eases, which was initiated by the Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in 1996
(Swaminathan et al., 2001). PFGE was selected
as the molecular subtyping method for food-
borne bacteria after its utility for outbreak in-
vestigations was convincingly demonstrated in
a study of isolates from the E. coli O157:H7 out-
break in the western United States in 1993 (Bar-
rett et al., 1994). Implementation of PFGE into
PulseNet was preceded by a protocol develop-
ment program charged with the responsibility
of standardizing the PFGE methodology as
well, as the data analysis system, to ensure that
the data generated by different laboratories
was comparable and of the highest quality pos-
sible. Data reproducibility and comparability
are paramount in the successful implementa-
tion of any decentralized molecular subtyping
system, such as PulseNet, independently of the
method used.
The use of rapid standardized PFGE proto-
cols, analysis parameters and nomenclature,
and the ability to exchange information in real-
time via the internet are at the center of
PulseNets continued success (Swaminathan et
al., 2001; Gerner-Smidt et al., 2005). Here, we
describe rapid (2428 h) standardized PFGE
protocols being used by PulseNet laboratories
today along with comments on those steps that
are particularly critical for the successful im-
plementation of these protocols in laboratories
with different levels of experience and re-
sources.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Rapid standardized PulseNet PFGE protocol for
E. coli O157:H7, Salmonella, and
Shigella species
Bacterial strains. Bacteria were grown on
Trypticase soy agar plates with 5% sheep blood
(TSA-SB; Becton Dickinson and Company,
Sparks, MD) at 37C for 1416 h. All isolates
were identified and serotyped using standard
procedures (Ewing, 1986).
PFGE plug preparation. Cell suspensions were
prepared by removing cells from the plate sur-
face with a sterile cotton or polyester fiber ap-
plicator swab that has been moistened with
sterile Cell Suspension Buffer (CSB, 100 mM
Tris, 100 mM EDTA [pH 8.0]) and transferring
them to tubes (Falcon 2057, 12 75 mm; Bec-
ton Dickinson, Franklin Lakes, NJ) containing
2 mL of CSB. The concentration of each cell sus-
pension was adjusted to a turbidity reading of
0.480.52 on the digital output of a Microscan
Turbidity Meter (Dade Behring, Inc., Deerfield,
IL). This corresponds to absorbance values of
approximately 1.31.4 measured at a wave-
length of 610 nm with a spectrophotometer
(Shimadzu Corp., Kyoto, Japan) and transmit-
tance values of approximately 15% when using
a Vitek colorimeter (bioMrieux, Durham, NC).
A 400-L aliquot of each adjusted cell sus-
pension was transferred to a sterile microcen-
trifuge tube containing 20 L of proteinase K
(20 mg/mL stock; Amresco, Solon, OH; Invit-
rogen, Carlsbad, CA) and mixed gently by tap-
RIBOT ET AL. 60
ping a capped tube on the palm of the hand or
flicking it several times with fingers. Alterna-
tively, the proteinase K can be added directly
to each cell suspension after they have been
aliquoted into their respective tubes. The
agarose used to make the plugs consists of 1%
SeaKem Gold agarose (SKG, Cambrex, Rock-
land, ME) and 1% sodium dodecyl sulfate
(SDS; Roche Diagnostics Corp., Indianapolis,
IN) prepared in Tris EDTA buffer (TE; 10 mM
Tris, 1 mM EDTA [pH 8.0]). The agarose mix-
ture was thoroughly melted in a microwave
and allowed to equilibrate for 15 min in a
5456C water bath. Four hundred microliters
of the equilibrated agarose mixture were
added to each cell suspension and mixed gen-
tly by pipetting up and down two to three
times before immediately dispensing into the
wells of reusable or disposable PFGE plug
molds (Bio-Rad, Hercules, CA). The plugs
were allowed to solidify at room temperature
for 510 min or at 4C for 5 min. The plugs are
then removed from the molds and placed in a
50-mL polypropylene conical tube (Blue-
Max, Becton Dickinson, Franklin Lakes, NJ)
containing 5 mL of Cell Lysis Buffer (CLB; 50
mM Tris, 50 mM EDTA [pH 8.0]; 1% Sarcosyl
[Sigma, St. Louis, MO]; 0.1 mg/mL proteinase
K). The samples were incubated in a 54C
shaking water bath or orbital shaking incuba-
tor for 1.52 h with constant and vigorous ag-
itation (150175 rpm).
The tubes were removed from the water bath
or incubator and the lysis buffer is discarded.
The plugs can be quickly rinsed once with 10
mL of sterile reagent grade water (type 1) to re-
move the residual lysis buffer coating the plugs
and the inside walls of the tube (this is an op-
tional step). The plugs were then washed two
times with 1015 mL of sterile type 1 water
(pre-heated to 50C) in a 50C water bath or
shaker incubator for 1015 min with constant
agitation. This was followed by four washes
with 1015 mL of sterile TE buffer (TE; 10 mM
Tris, 1 mM EDTA [pH 8.0]), pre-heated to 50C
as described above. After the last wash, 5 mL
of sterile TE buffer (room temperature) were
added to each tube to serve as storage media
for the plugs. The plugs were restricted imme-
diately or stored in TE buffer at 4C until
needed.
Restriction digestion with XbaI. Slices approx-
imately 2-mm-wide were cut from each of the
plugs with a single edge razor blade or scalpel
and placed in a sterile microcentrifuge tube that
contains 200 L of a 1 dilution of the appro-
priate restriction buffer for the enzyme. Three
to four slices of the plug of the DNA size stan-
dard strain (Salmonella ser. Braenderup H9812;
Hunter et al., 2004) were cut and immersed
in the appropriate restriction buffer solution
in microcentrifuge tubes as described above.
Three plug slices of the standard strain are
needed for 10-well gels and four for 15-well
gels. The standards and test samples were in-
cubated in a 37C water bath for 510 min. The
1 restriction buffer mixture was replaced
with 200 L of XbaI restriction enzyme mixture
(4050 U/slice; Roche) and incubated for 2 h at
37C. After incubation, the restriction mixture
was replaced with 200 L of 0.5 Tris borate
EDTA (TBE; prepared from 10 TBE contain-
ing 0.89 M Tris borate, 0.02 M EDTA [pH 8.3];
Sigma-Aldrich Co., St. Louis, MO) and allowed
to stand for 5 min to saturate the plug slices
with electrophoresis running buffer. These
same restriction enzyme and conditions were
used for plugs containing DNA from Salmonella
and Shigella strains. Restriction of plugs slices
with the secondary enzyme BlnI (isoschizomer
of AvrII; Roche) was performed, when needed,
using 30 units of enzyme per plug slice and in-
cubating at 37C for 2 h.
Electrophoresis conditions and casting of the
agarose gel. The 1% SKG agarose gel was pre-
pared using either a 10-well comb (Bio-Rad) in
the standard casting stand or 15-well comb in
the wide/long casting stand (Bio-Rad). The
universal size standard plug slices were loaded
into wells 1, 5, and 10 of a 1% SKG agarose gel,
and the test samples were loaded in the re-
maining wells. For the larger casting stand, the
universal size standard plug slices were loaded
in wells 1, 5, 10, and 15. Alternatively, restricted
plug slices were loaded directly on the comb,
prior to casting the gel, by aligning the plug
slices in the appropriate order on the lower
edge of the comb teeth. Excess liquid was re-
moved with a tissue, and the plug slices were
allowed to air dry for approximately 35 min
before pouring the melted 1% SKG agarose
PROTOCOLS FOR SUBTYPING OF E. COLI, SALMONELLA, AND SHIGELLA 61
RIBOT ET AL. 62
(equilibrated to 5560C). The comb was placed
in the gel casting mold so that the teeth of the
comb and the plug slices are flush with the bot-
tom of the casting mold. The gels were allowed
to polymerize for approximately 30 min at
room temperature.
The E. coli O157:H7 electrophoresis condi-
tions were determined originally by using the
Auto Algorithm feature on the CHEF Mapper
XA System (Bio-Rad) set to resolve restriction
fragments in the range of 30600 kb. The re-
sulting electrophoresis conditions are as fol-
lows: initial switch time value of 2.16 sec, final
switch time of 54.17 sec at a gradient of 6 V/cm
and an included angle of 120. Depending on
the size of the gel, they are electrophoresed for
1819 h in 0.5TBE (Sigma) at 14C; however,
the electrophoresis run time may vary from
laboratory to laboratory and must be deter-
mined empirically. These same electrophore-
sis conditions and electrophoresis run time are
used for PFGE of Shigella isolates. For Salmo-
nella, which typically yields restriction frag-
ments that are larger than those observed with
E. coli O157:H7 and Shigella, the electrophore-
sis conditions are modified slightly in order to
optimize the resolution of these fragments. The
electrophoresis conditions for Salmonella are as
follows: initial switch time of 2.16 sec and a fi-
nal switch time of 63.8 sec (based on a frag-
ment range of 30700 kb) and electrophoresis
run time of 1819 h.
Size standard. In 2003, PulseNet implemented
the use of a universal size standard, DNA
from a strain of Salmonella ser. Braenderup
H9812 that is restricted with XbaI (Hunter et
al., 2005). This strain currently used with all the
bacteria tracked by PulseNet and has been de-
posited with the American Type Culture Col-
lection (ATCC) under the accession number,
ATCC BAA-664.
Image acquisition. After the electrophoresis
was completed, the gels were stained with 400
mL of ethidium bromide solution (40 g/mL)
for 20 min with gentle rocking or shaking. The
gels were then de-stained with 400 mL of
deionized water for 1520 min a total of three
times by gentle rocking or shaking. The band-
ing pattern was observed under ultraviolet
(UV) illumination and a digital image (that can
be converted to the TIFF format) of the PFGE
patterns is acquired using the Gel Doc system
(Bio-Rad) following the saturation and inte-
gration parameters recommended by the man-
ufacturer. Digital images obtained with equip-
ment from other manufacturers will also work
provided that they can provide IBM-compati-
ble uncompressed TIFF images and resolution
of 768 640 pixels.
Analysis of TIFF images. Initially, analysis of
the TIFF images was carried out using the Mo-
lecular Analyst Fingerprinting Plus (Bio-Rad)
using the Dice coefficient and UPGMA to gen-
erate dendrograms. The analysis parameters
used in the reproducibility study (validation)
were based on 1.51.2% tolerance values. In
2001, the BioNumerics software (Applied
Maths, Sint-Martens-Latem, Belgium) was in-
troduced to PulseNet for analysis and genera-
tion of dendrograms.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Preparation of PFGE plugs
A cell suspension buffer (CSB) containing a
high concentration of the chelating agent EDTA
(100 mM) is used to harvest the cells from the
BAPs in order to minimize potential endonu-
clease activity that may occur before the actual
lysis step is initiated. Standard TE buffer was
not selected as a cell suspension buffer because
of its poor osmotic properties that often re-
sulted in premature lysis of cells and DNA
degradation (observed as smearing or high
background in the resulting gels). Cell suspen-
sions were adjusted to values (equivalent to 45
McFarland Standard) that consistently yielded
DNA fragments of uniform intensity within
and between PFGE patterns. To prevent cell ly-
sis prior to immobilizing the cells in agarose,
the cell suspensions were mixed gently by tap-
ping a capped tube on the palm of the hand or
flicking it several times with fingers. Vortexing
cell suspensions is not recommended because
it can cause cell lysis, resulting in shearing of
the DNA and PFGE patterns with high back-
ground and faint restriction fragments in the
upper portion of the gels where the larger frag-
ments are normally found. We observed that
the addition of 1% SDS to the plug agarose
improved the efficiency of the lysis step by
saturating the plugs with a detergent prior to
placing them in the cell lysis buffer (which con-
tains 1% sarcosyl). Similarly, proteinase K was
added to the suspension prior to casting the
plugs to expedite the process of reagent diffu-
sion during the lysis step and to inactivate any
endonucleases that might be present.
Many previously published protocols rec-
ommended the use of low-melting agarose
such as Chromosomal Grade Agarose (Bio-
Rad) or InCert agarose (Cambrex) in the plugs
preparation. It is generally believed that the
softer and looser matrix created by this type of
agarose would allow for easier and faster ex-
change of reagents between the plugs and the
surrounding lysis buffer solutions when com-
pared with agarose with higher melting tem-
perature. Unfortunately, the integrity of plugs
made with low-melting agaroses deteriorated
during the high temperature (54C) lysis and
wash steps outlined in this protocol. Even
when plugs appeared to be intact, the fragile
nature of the low-melting agaroses made plugs
extremely difficult to cut and handle without
breaking them. We incorporated SKG agarose
in the plug preparation step to prevent this
from happening and to simplify the number of
reagents associated with this protocol.
Lysis of cells
Lysing cells for 1.52 h at 54C resulted in
optimal release of DNA from all the strains
tested. No difference was observed between
intensity of the restriction fragments obtained
with the rapid protocol and plugs made with
the 34-day version of the standardized PFGE
protocol (Fig. 1). The 34-day protocol called
for overnight lysis in a water bath at 54C with
gentle agitation. This modification to the orig-
inal protocol represents the most significant
change to the original protocol, allowing a con-
siderable reduction in the time needed for
completion of the PFGE process, so the lysis,
washing and restriction steps, followed by
loading and running of the gel could be done
in 810 h, depending on the number of cultures
processed. The concentration of proteinase K
in the lysis buffer was reduced by a factor of
10 from 1 to 0.1 mg/mL in the rapid protocol.
This change did not compromise the efficiency
of the lysis step (data not shown).
Washing of agarose plugs
Washing the plugs six times at 5054C for
1015 min per wash is sufficient to remove cell
debris, residual SDS, sarcosyl, and proteinase
K from the lysed plugs. This reduced the
amount of time required to complete the wash-
ing steps by approximately 50% when com-
pared to the longer (34-day) protocol, which
called for six washes of 2030 min each. It is
important to wash the lysed agarose plugs well
because residual detergents or proteinase K
will interfere with the restriction digestion
reactions and result in PFGE results of poor
quality.
Restriction digestion
We recommend the use of 4050 units per
plug slice of XbaI for a 2-h restriction to ensure
that full restriction digestion of the DNA would
be achieved consistently. Less enzyme (30 units
per plug slice) is recommended when using the
restriction enzyme BlnI (AvrII) to achieve full
restriction of DNA within the 2-h incubation
period. Restriction digestion with a second,
and in some cases, a third enzyme (SpeI) often
increases the overall discriminatory power of
PFGE. We recommend that BlnI be used in sit-
uations where there is more than one isolate
with indistinguishable XbaI patterns. If the
PFGE patterns are different with the primary
enzyme (XbaI), restriction with the secondary
enzyme (BlnI) may not be necessary unless
there is interest in obtaining information on
pattern combinations. For instance, primary
and secondary enzyme pattern combinations,
in combination with epidemiologic informa-
tion, can help us determine discriminatory
power of new non-PFGE subtyping methods.
The use of the tertiary enzyme, SpeI at 3040
units per plug slice, is recommended in situa-
tions where the PFGE patterns obtained with
both XbaI and BlnI from two or more isolates
are indistinguishable from each other. By us-
ing a secondary and tertiary enzyme, we can
determine if isolates are likely to be from a
common source of contamination. The original
PulseNet PFGE protocol recommended pre-in-
cubating the plug slices in two volumes of re-
striction buffer for 1530 min each before the
removing and adding the enzyme mixture; the
restriction digestion was done at 37C for 416
h. Decreasing the incubation in the pre-wash to
one time for 1015 min and the restriction to
2 h helped to reduce the time required to do
the protocol by several hours. The gel could
then be set up and electrophoresis begun the
same day that the test samples were restricted.
Most problems associated with partial re-
striction of DNA are related to one or more of
the following: poor lysis, inadequate washing
of the plugs, inaccurate measurement of
reagents, poor mixing of the restriction mix-
ture, improper storage or handling of the en-
zyme and/or restriction buffer. Measuring er-
rors can be minimized by preparing a master
mix of reagents needed for the total number of
samples being analyzed in a gel. Once the
reagents are placed in the tube, it is important
to mix well to ensure the enzyme is evenly dis-
tributed in the solution. This can be done by in-
verting the tube several times, tapping on the
side of tube with palm of hand or by gently
vortexing. Restriction digestion reagents must
be kept on ice or cold tray at all times. Expos-
ing the enzymes to ambient temperature must
be avoided as it may reduce enzyme activity.
Electrophoresis conditions and casting of
the agarose gel
SeaKem Gold agarose was chosen as the run-
ning gel because of its high purity and shorter
run time compared to other products available
at the time, including the Pulsed-Field Certi-
fied Agarose (Bio-Rad) used with the original
PulseNet standardized PFGE protocol for E.
coli O157:H7. Decreasing the electrophoresis
run time from run times of 2223 h to 1819 h
or less was one of the improvements that made
the development of a rapid PFGE protocol pos-
sible. This was a significant accomplishment
because it provided PulseNet participating lab-
oratories with the capacity to generate PFGE
fingerprint data that could be reported to epi-
demiologists earlier.
Since the length of the electrophoresis run
can vary slightly from one instrument to an-
other, we recommend that each laboratory de-
termine the optimal electrophoresis running
time independently for each electrophoresis
unit. This can be done by determining the
length of the electrophoresis run time needed
for the smallest visible bands in the S. Braen-
derup H9812 size standard (20.5 kb in size)
to migrate within 11.5 cm from the bottom
edge of the gel. This will help minimize varia-
tions in the migration of the DNA fragments
that make up the PFGE pattern of the size stan-
dard. This is important because the images ob-
RIBOT ET AL. 64
FIG. 1. Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) images of Escherichia coli O157:H7 strains generated using the 34-
day protocol (A) and the rapid (1-day) protocol (B). The standards are in lanes 1, 4, 7, and 10 in both gels, with A
showing the E. coli G5244 size standard used from 1996 to 2002, and B showing the universal standard strain (S.
Braenderup H9812), used since 2003. Pulsed-field certified agarose (1%) was used to prepare the gel in A. The gel in
B was prepared with 1% SeaKem Gold agarose according to the directions stated above. The electrophoresis run time
was 21 and 18 h for A and B gels, respectively.
tained will be normalized using the same
global standard, an electronic image of the
standard strain, by all laboratories participat-
ing in PulseNet. Allowing the gels to run for
the appropriate amount of time also ensures
optimal fragment resolution, which is critical
for successful analysis and inter-laboratory
comparison of the resulting patterns (Figs. 1
and 2). The 1819-h run time stated in the pro-
tocol described here is based on the PFGE
equipment used in our laboratories and is only
intended as a reference point. Other factors, in-
cluding TBE buffer formulations, quality of the
water used to make this buffer, pH, tempera-
ture and flow rate of the buffer can affect the
electrophoresis run time.
CONCLUSION
The ideal molecular subtyping method
would be 100% sensitive (epidemiologically
related isolates share the same profile) and
specific (epidemiologically unrelated isolates
are different). No currently available method
meets all of these criteria. However, there are
some methods that provide high levels of
sensitivity, specificity, and reproducibility.
Among these, PFGE has established itself as the
gold standard for subtyping foodborne bac-
terial pathogens. Standardization of all the
PulseNet PFGE protocols is achieved by care-
ful evaluation of the different parameters and
conditions so that high quality gels are pro-
duced consistently and reproducibly at CDC
and in the different laboratories that currently
participate in PulseNet. PulseNet protocols are
accorded standardized status only after they
have been thoroughly evaluated and validated
in several laboratories at CDC and elsewhere.
Since the PulseNet standardized PFGE proto-
col for E. coli O157:H7 was developed with the
purpose of transferring it to state health de-
partments and other public health agencies,
special attention was given to the aspects of the
protocol that could affect the quality and the
reproducibility of the data. The original 34-
day standardized PFGE protocol for E. coli
O157:H7 used from 1996 to early 1998, was
evaluated by multiple laboratories to demon-
strate its robustness and reproducibility prior
to it full implementation in the PulseNet sys-
tem (Swaminathan et al., 2001).
Soon after the implementation of the 34-day
standardized PFGE protocol in PulseNet in
1996, we recognized the need for a protocol that
could be completed in a shorter period of time.
The challenge was to develop a standardized
PFGE protocol that could be completed within
a day (2428 h) so that subtyping data would
be available to epidemiologists in a timely man-
ner. In 1997, the Washington State Department
of Health developed a rapid (1-day) PFGE pro-
tocol for subtyping of a wide variety of gram
FIG. 2. Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) images of Salmonella (A) and Shigella (B) strains analyzed with the
rapid standardized protocol. Lanes 1, 5, 9, and 10 in A contain the XbaI pattern for universal size standard strain
(H9812). The remaining lanes contain Salmonella test isolates restricted with XbaI (lanes 2, 3, and 4) and BlnI (lanes 6,
7, and 8). B shows a Shigella gel containing the H9812 standard strain (lanes 1, 5, and 10). The remaining lanes show
typical Shigella sonnei PFGE patterns. Both gels were electrophoresed for 18 h.
negative bacteria (Gautom, 1997). CDC, in col-
laboration with the Washington State Depart-
ment of Health, worked towards the harmo-
nization between this 1-day protocol and the
already established 34-day standardized
PFGE protocol used by all the PulseNet labo-
ratories at that time. The quality of the PFGE
patterns produced and the discriminatory
power obtained with the 1-day standardized
PFGE protocol was the same or higher than
those obtained with the 34-day standardized
protocol. In 1998, PulseNet implemented the
rapid standardized PFGE protocol for the sub-
typing of E. coli O157:H7. Shortly thereafter, it
was determined that this rapid standardized
protocol could also be used for the subtyping
of Salmonella and Shigella species. Since then,
these protocols have been used by over 70
PulseNet laboratories to successfully analyze
thousands of isolates every year. These labora-
tories routinely generate PFGE patterns, which
are submitted and compared with patterns in
the PulseNet National Database with the goal
of identifying clusters of strains that have the
same PFGE pattern. This, in fact, is the best val-
idation of the PulseNet standardized PFGE
protocols and the strongest evidence of the
protocols robustness and reproducibility. The
standardized PFGE protocol for E. coli
O157:H7also served as the foundation to for the
development of protocols for the PulseNet pro-
tocols for Listeria monocytogenes (Graves and
Swaminathan, 2001) and Campylobacter species
(Ribot et al., 2001).
The reagents and reaction conditions listed
in each of the protocols were determined by al-
tering the parameters for each variable until a
satisfactory result was obtained. It is worth not-
ing that while the plug preparation steps are
the same for E. coli O157, Salmonella, and
Shigella, different organisms may require dif-
ferent reagents or conditions than the ones de-
scribed here in order to achieve a similar level
of pattern quality. In standardizing protocols,
we evaluate each step to identify a set of con-
ditions that would result in protocols that were
highly robust and reliable. Perhaps the most
difficult step in the standardization process is
the testing and selection of the electrophoresis
conditions to be used for the individual PFGE
protocol. Three issues must be considered
when attempting to identify the electrophore-
sis parameters: (1) number of fragments gen-
erated by the restriction enzyme being tested,
(2) size range of those fragments, and (3) the
uniformity and overall distribution of the re-
striction fragments of the universal standard.
Electrophoresis conditions that create large
gaps between fragments of the standard strain
might affect the analysis of the images. Pulse-
Net protocols require the use of a universal
PFGE standard for the normalization of images
during the computer-assisted analysis using
BioNumerics software.
The rapid standardized PFGE protocol de-
scribed above has been widely used by Pulse-
Net participants to generate thousands of PFGE
patterns since 1998, underscoring its robust-
ness and reproducibility. Timely PFGE analy-
sis of isolates has enabled PulseNet laborato-
ries to detect clusters of foodborne illness by
helping recognize outbreaks earlier than ever
before possible and has helped facilitate epi-
demiologic investigations of many of these
clusters.
DISCLAIMER
Use of trade names is for identification only
and does not imply endorsement by the Pub-
lic Health Service or by the U.S. Department of
Health and Human Services.
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Address reprint requests to:
Dr. Efrain M. Ribot
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
1600 Clifton Rd., Mailstop C03
Atlanta, GA 30333
E-mail: eyr4@cdc.gov
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136. Cristi L. Galindo, Jason A. Rosenzweig, Michelle L. Kirtley, Ashok K. Chopra. 2011. Pathogenesis of Y. enterocolitica and
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137. Yung-Yen Tien, You-Wun Wang, Sheng Kai Tung, Shiu-Yun Liang, Chien-Shun Chiou. 2011. Comparison of multilocus
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138. Henk C den Bakker, Andrea I Moreno Switt, Gregory Govoni, Craig A Cummings, Matthew L Ranieri, Lovorka Degoricija,
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140. Baowei Yang, Meili Xi, Shenghui Cui, Xiuli Zhang, Jinling Shen, Min Sheng, Dong Qu, Xin Wang, Jianghong Meng. 2011.
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141. Ming-Hui Chen, Chien-Shun Chiou, Yu-Cheng Chiang, Pin-Hsin Chen, Shuo-Wen Tsai, Hau-Yang Tsen. 2011. Comparison
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142. K. L. F. CooperPulsed-field gel electrophoresis and other commonly used molecular methods for subtyping of foodborne
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143. E. K. Hyytia-TreesDevelopment, validation and quality assurance of methods for subtyping of foodborne pathogens 214-234.
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144. Maria Sjlund-Karlsson , Regan Rickert , Caline Matar , Gary Pecic , Rebecca L. Howie , Kevin Joyce , Felicita Medalla ,
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145. Thomas E. Wittum , Dixie F. Mollenkopf , Joshua B. Daniels , Anne E. Parkinson , Jennifer L. Mathews , Pamela R. Fry ,
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146. S.N. Melendez, I. Hanning, J. Han, R. Nayak, A.R. Clement, A. Wooming, P. Hererra, F.T. Jones, S.L. Foley, S.C. Ricke.
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147. M. Karama, C. L. Gyles. 2010. Methods for Genotyping Verotoxin-Producing Escherichia coli. Zoonoses and Public Health
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148. Mohammad A. Islam , Abdus S. Mondol , Ishrat J. Azmi , Enne de Boer , Rijkelt R. Beumer , Marcel H. Zwietering , Annet E.
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149. Walid Q. Alali , Siddhartha Thakur , Roy D. Berghaus , Michael P. Martin , Wondwossen A. Gebreyes . 2010. Prevalence
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150. Florian Mertes, Katja Biens, Hans Lehrach, Martin Wagner, Andreas Dahl. 2010. High-throughput Universal Probe
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151. Joshua M. Rounds, Craig W. Hedberg, Stephanie Meyer, David J. Boxrud, Kirk E. Smith. 2010. Salmonella enterica
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152. Cindy Dierikx, Alieda van Essen-Zandbergen, Kees Veldman, Hilde Smith, Dik Mevius. 2010. Increased detection of
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153. Maria Strm-Bestor, Noora Mustamki, Sirpa Heinikainen, Varpu Hirvel-Koski, David Verner-Jeffreys, Tom Wiklund.
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154. John B. Kaneene , RoseAnn Miller , Katherine May , Joseph A. Hattey . 2010. An Outbreak of Multidrug-Resistant Salmonella
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155. Richard V. Goering. 2010. Pulsed field gel electrophoresis: A review of application and interpretation in the molecular
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156. Soumik Barman, Sohini Chatterjee, Goutam Chowdhury, Thandavarayan Ramamurthy, Swapan Kumar Niyogi, Ranajit
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157. Hesham Dahshan, Francis Shahada, Takehisa Chuma, Hiraku Moriki, Karoku Okamoto. 2010. Genetic analysis of multidrug-
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158. Elizabeth R. Daly , Colleen M. Smith , Peter Wikoff , John Seiferth , Jayne Finnigan , Alisha M. Nadeau , Joyce J. Welch .
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159. Prapas Patchanee , Bayleyegn Molla , Nancy White , Daniel E. Line , Wondwossen A. Gebreyes . 2010. Tracking Salmonella
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160. Yadira Lugo-Melchor , Beatriz Quiones , Bianca A. Amzquita-Lpez , Josefina Len-Flix , Raymundo Garca-Estrada ,
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161. Liana J. Borges, Maria Raquel H. Campos, Juliana L. Cardoso, Maria Cludia D.P.B. Andr, lvaro B. Serafini. 2010.
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162. M. Pablos, M.-A. Remacha, J.-M. Rodrguez-Calleja, J. A. Santos, A. Otero, M.-L. Garca-Lpez. 2010. Identity, virulence
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163. Lisa A. King, Ingrid Filliol-Toutain, Patricia Mariani-Kurkidjian, Vronique Vaillant, Christine Vernozy-Rozand, Sarah
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164. Aliya Naheed, Pavani K. Ram, W. Abdullah Brooks, M. Anowar Hossain, Michele B. Parsons, Kaisar Ali Talukder, Eric
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165. Erin Hedican , Ben Miller , Brian Ziemer , Pam LeMaster , Selina Jawahir , Fe Leano , Kirk Smith . 2010. Salmonellosis
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166. Peter C.H. Feng, Christine Keys, David Lacher, Steven R. Monday, Dan Shelton, Christine Rozand, Marta Rivas, Thomas
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167. Ekaterina Protozanova, Meng Zhang, Eric J. White, Emilia T. Mollova, Dirk Ten Broeck, Sergey V. Fridrikh, Douglas B.
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168. Kevin J. Cummings , Thomas J. Divers , Patrick L. McDonough , Andrea Moreno Switt , Martin Wiedmann , Lorin D.
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169. Ye#im Soyer , Samuel D. Alcaine , Dainna J. Schoonmaker-Bopp , Timothy P. Root , Lorin D. Warnick , Patrick L.
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170. Kevin J. Cummings , Lorin D. Warnick , Mara Elton , Lorraine D. Rodriguez-Rivera , Julie D. Siler , Emily M. Wright , Yrjo
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171. Chien-Shun Chiou, Hsin-Yi Li, Sheng-Kai Tung, Chien-Yen Chen, Ching-Hao Teng, Jwu-Ching Shu, Joseph T. Tseng, Chi-
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174. D. Tande, S. Boisrame-Gastrin, M. R. Munck, G. Hery-Arnaud, S. Gouriou, N. Jallot, P. Nordmann, T. Naas. 2010.
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175. T. R. Thorsteinsdottir, G. Haraldsson, V. Fridriksdottir, K. G. Kristinsson, E. Gunnarsson. 2010. Prevalence and Genetic
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176. Karen H. Keddy, Anthony M. Smith, Arvinda Sooka, Husna Ismail, Stephen Oliver. 2010. Fluoroquinolone-Resistant
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181. J. Yang, Y. Luo, J. Li, Y. Ma, C. Hu, S. Jin, L. Ye, S. Cui. 2010. Characterization of clinical Escherichia coli isolates from
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183. Brandon Kinley, James Rieck, Paul Dawson, Xiuping Jiang. 2010. Analysis of Salmonella and enterococci isolated from
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184. Hesham DAHSHAN, Takehisa CHUMA, Francis SHAHADA, Masato AKIBA, Hideki FUJIMOTO, Keishirou AKASAKA,
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186. Thorunn R. Thorsteinsdottir, Gunnsteinn Haraldsson, Vala Fridriksdottir, Karl G. Kristinsson, Eggert Gunnarsson. 2010.
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187. R. Terragno, A. Salve, M. Pichel, S. Epszteyn, S. Brengi, N. Binsztein. 2009. Characterization and subtyping of Cronobacter
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188. Toni L. Poole , Tom S. Edrington , Dayna M. Brichta-Harhay , Alessandra Carattoli , Robin Carl Anderson , David J. Nisbet .
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189. Mark J. Sotir, Gwen Ewald, Akiko C. Kimura, Jeffrey I. Higa, Anandi Sheth, Scott Troppy, Stephanie Meyer, R Michael
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190. Andreja Rajkovic, Nada Smigic, Mieke Uyttendaele, Helga Medic, Lieven de Zutter, Frank Devlieghere. 2009. Resistance
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193. German B. Vigo , Javier A. Cappuccio , Pablo E. Pieyro , Angela Salve , Mariana A. Machuca , Maria A. Quiroga , Fabiana
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Salmonella enterica Subclinical Infection: Bacteriological, Serological, Pulsed-Field Gel Electrophoresis, and Antimicrobial
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194. Luc Belloy, Loane Decrausaz, Patrick Boujon, Herbert Hchler, Andreas S. Waldvogel. 2009. Diagnosis by culture and PCR
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195. Insook Son , Jo Ann S. Van Kessel , Jeffrey S. Karns . 2009. Genotypic Diversity of Escherichia coli in a Dairy Farm.
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198. Aaron M. Lynne, Lindsay L. Dorsey, Donna E. David, Steven L. Foley. 2009. Characterisation of antibiotic resistance in
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199. Emilia T. Mollova, Vishal A. Patil, Ekaterina Protozanova, Meng Zhang, Rudolf Gilmanshin. 2009. An automated sample
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200. Anna Maria Dionisi , Caterina Graziani , Claudia Lucarelli , Emma Filetici , Laura Villa , Slawomir Owczarek , Alfredo
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201. Shukho Kim , Sung-Hun Kim , Jeong-Hyun Park , Kyung-Shin Lee , Mi-Sun Park , Bok Kwon Lee . 2009. Clustering Analysis
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202. C. G. Clark, A. M. Kropinski, H. Parolis, C. C. R. Grant, K. M. Trout-Yakel, K. Franklin, L.-K. Ng, N. A. Paramonov, L. A.
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207. Helene L Andrews-Polymenis, Carlos A Santiviago, Michael McClelland. 2009. Novel genetic tools for studying food-borne
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210. H. C. LEWIS, S. ETHELBERG, K. E. P. OLSEN, E. M. NIELSEN, M. LISBY, S. B. MADSEN, J. BOEL, R. STAFFORD, M.
KIRK, H. V. SMITH, S. TIKUMRUM, A. WISETROJANA, A. BANGTRAKULNONTH, J. VITHAYARUNGRUANGSRI,
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211. THOMAS G. KINSCHERF, MEE-NGAN YAP, AMY O. CHARKOWSKI, DAVID K. WILLIS. 2009. CHEF
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213. N. De Lappe, G. Doran, J. O'Connor, C. O'Hare, M. Cormican. 2009. Characterization of bacteriophages used in the
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214. Eva Mller Nielsen, Mia Torpdahl, Steen Ethelberg, Anette M. Hammerum. 2009. Variation in Antimicrobial Resistance
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215. Kara L. F. Cooper, Duncan R. MacCannell, Efrain M. RibotPulsenet: A Program to Detect and Track Food Contamination
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216. M. L. Kotewicz, M. K. Mammel, J. E. LeClerc, T. A. Cebula. 2008. Optical mapping and 454 sequencing of Escherichia coli
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FOODBORNE PATHOGENS AND DISEASE

Volume 3, Number 1, 2006

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