77

Annual Review of Applied Linguistics (2001) 21, 7789. Printed in the USA.
Copyright 2001 Camridge Uni!er"ity Pre"" 02#7$190%&01 '9.%0
5. AGE AND SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
David Singleton
(he idea that there i" an age )a*tor in +ang,age de!e+opment ha" +ong een-and
*ontin,e" to e-a hot+y deated topi*. (hi" re!ie. egin" y rie)+y re!i"iting
"ome o) the ear+y per"pe*ti!e" on thi" i"",e/ it goe" on to "0et*h "ome o) the
re+e!ant )inding" .hi*h emerged in the three de*ade" )o++o.ing the on"et in the +ate
19#0" o) "erio," empiri*a+ in!e"tigation o) the age )a*tor in 12 a*2,i"ition/ and,
)ina++y, in the third "e*tion o) the ",r!ey, it hone" in on the re",+t" o) "ome more
re*ent+y p,+i"hed age$re+ated re"ear*h. (he arti*+e *on*+,de" .ith a "hort
di"*,""ion-in the +ight o) the )oregoing-o) (a) the degree o) a"o+,tene"" o) the
age )a*tor in 12 a*2,i"ition/ and () the notion that there may e not one, ,t a
n,mer, o) age$re+ated )a*tor" at .or0.
Early Per!e"tive
3,*h ear+y .riting on the age )a*tor and 12 a*2,i"ition .a" a"ed on
ane*dote and a"",mption. (om (192%) .rite" o) the 4*ommon e5perien*e6 in the
day" o) the 7riti"h 8a9 o) hearing :ng+i"h *hi+dren in 7enga+ )+,ent+y *on!er"ing
.ith dome"ti* "ta)) in :ng+i"h, 7enga+i, Santa+i, and ;ind,"tani, .hi+e their parent"
had are+y eno,gh ;ind,"tani to i"",e order". Stenge+<" (19=9) >re,dian ana+y"i" o)
the ro+e o) age in 12 +earning i" a+"o a"ed on mere impre""ioni"m. Pen)ie+d<"
ad!o*a*y o) ear+y e5po",re to 12" on p,rported+y ne,rophy"io+ogi*a+ gro,nd"
(Pen)ie+d ? 8oert", 19%9) in )a*t o.e" more to hi" o.n e5perien*e o) immer"ing
hi" *hi+dren in @erman and >ren*h than to hi" .or0 a" a "*ienti"t ("ee Ae*hert,
199%). :!en 1enneerg<" *ontri,tion in the 19#0" (1enneerg, 19#7) .a" a"ed
part+y on )o+0 .i"dom, nota+y hi" *+aim-,na**ompanied y e!iden*e-that a)ter
p,erty 12 +earning re2,ire" 4+aored e))ort6 and )oreign a**ent" *annot e
4o!er*ome ea"i+y.6
E#!iri"al Contri$%tion &ro# t'e Late 1()* On+ard
Age$)o*,"ed re"ear*h o) the +a"t thirty year" or "o ha" o)ten een +in0ed to
the e!a+,ation o) ear+y 12 in"tr,*tion in "*hoo+". S,*h "t,die" ha!e *on"i"tent+y
78 AABCA SCD@1:(ED
)o,nd a progre""i!e dimin,tion o) any ad!antage *on)erred y ear+y e5po",re to an
12 ("ee, e.g., 7,r"ta++, Famie"on, Cohen, ? ;argrea!e", 197G/ E++er ? Dagato,
197G/ Stan0o."0i @ratton, 1980). Cn!e"tigation" o) 4nat,ra+i"ti*6 12 a*2,i"ition
yie+d a *on!er"e pattern. S,9e*t" .ith "e!era+ year"< nat,ra+i"ti* e5perien*e o)
their 12 .ho"e e5po",re to the 12 egan in ear+y *hi+dhood are )o,nd, on the
.ho+e, to o,tper)orm tho"e .ho"e 12 e5perien*e egan in +ater year" ("ee, e.g.,
A"her ? @ar*Ha, 19#9/ Eyama, 197#, 1978/ Pat0o."0i, 1980)/ .herea" "t,die" o)
",9e*t" .ith more +imited nat,ra+i"ti* e5po",re to the 12 "ho. o+der eginner"
o,tper)orming yo,nger one" ("ee, e.g., :r!in$(ripp, 197G), their ad!antage
dimini"hing on+y a)ter ao,t a year (Sno. ? ;oe)nage+$;Ih+e, 1978).
Jra"hen, 1ong, and S*ar*e++a<" (1979) re!ie. interpret" the e!iden*e a"
)o++o."K .hi+e o+der eginner" genera++y o,tper)orm their 9,nior" initia++y-at +ea"t
in morpho+ogy and "ynta5-in term" o) o!era++ +ong$term o,t*ome", road+y
"pea0ing, the ear+ier e5po",re to the 12 egin", the etter. 7e*a,"e o) )inding"
)rom "*hoo+ *onte5t" ("ee ao!e), Jra"hen et a+. re"tri*t their *+aim to nat,ra+i"ti*
12 a*2,i"ition. ;o.e!er, one need" to ear in mind the +,rring e))e*t o) mi5ing
e5perimenta+ and *ontro+ gro,p" in the "ame *+a""e" at the "e*ondary +e!e+ (Stern,
197#), a" .e++ a" the !a"t di))eren*e" in amo,nt o) 12 e5po",re pro!ided y
nat,ra+i"ti* and )orma+ *onte5t", and the imp+i*ation o) ",*h di))eren*e" )or 4initia+
ad!antage6 and 4e!ent,a+ e))e*t"6 (Sing+eton, 1989, p. 2=#). (he re",+t" o) "t,die"
o) 12 immersion program", .here amo,nt" o) e5po",re are m,*h greater,
4)a!or...ear+y program" o!er de+ayed and, in mo"t *a"e", +ate program"6
(;o+oo., @ene"ee, ? 1amert, 1991, p. 180).
Cn "t,die" *ond,*ted in the 1980" and 1990", there ha" een "ome attention
to *a"e" o) o+der eginner" .ho attain !ery high +e!e+" o) 12 pro)i*ien*y. >or
e5amp+e, 7ird"ong (1992) )o,nd that 1% o,t o) 20 Ang+ophone ad,+t ",9e*t" .ho
egan a*2,iring >ren*h a" ad,+t" in >ran*e )e++ .ithin the range o) nati!e "pea0er
per)orman*e on a grammati*a+ity 9,dgment ta"0/ Co,p, 7o,"tag,i, (igi, and
3o"e++e<" (199G) detai+ed "t,dy o) t.o ",9e*t" .ho +earned Arai* a" ad,+t" in an
Arai*$"pea0ing en!ironment e"ta+i"hed that oth .ere attaining +e!e+" o)
per)orman*e *+o"e to nati!e norm" a*ro"" a range o) area"/ and 7ongaert", P+an0en,
and S*hi+" (199%) demon"trated that A,t*h +earner" o) :ng+i"h .ho egan +earning
:ng+i"h in a )orma+ in"tr,*tiona+ "etting a)ter age 12 .ere a+e to attain :ng+i"h
pron,n*iation rating" .ithin the "ame range a" tho"e attained y nati!e$"pea0er
*ontro+". (hi" 0ind o) e!iden*e doe" not di"t,r the Jra"hen et a+. !ie., .hi*h
a++o." )or depart,re" )rom the genera+ trend/ ho.e!er, it doe" ha!e imp+i*ation" )or
more a"o+,ti"t *+aim".
S,*h +atter *+aim" ha!e )o*,"ed on the propo"ition that there i" a
mat,rationa+ +imit (,",a++y "et aro,nd p,erty) eyond .hi*h it i" "imp+y
impo""i+e to a*2,ire an 12 (or *ertain a"pe*t" thereo)) to nati!e +e!e+". (h,",
S*o!e+ (1988), re"tri*ting hi" *+aim to a**ent, a))irm" that tho"e .ho egin
e5po",re to an 12 a)ter age 12 *annot e!er 4pa"" them"e+!e" o)) a" nati!e "pea0er"
phono+ogi*a++y6 (p. 18%). 1ong (1990, p. 27G) read" the e!iden*e on a**ent in
A@: ADA 12 ACLUCSC(CED 79
pre*i"e+y the "ame .ay, ,t a+"o *+aim" that the sine qua non )or the a*2,i"ition o)
12 morpho+ogy and "ynta5 to nati!e +e!e+" i" e5perien*e o) the 12 e)ore age 1%.
(he pro+em .ith ",*h *+aim" i" that-2,ite apart )rom e!iden*e )rom the .or0
re)erred to in the pre!io," paragraph-e!en "t,die" .hi*h report mo"t+y ",perior
attainment y yo,nger eginner" o)ten a*0no.+edge that a minority o)
ado+e"*ent&ad,+t$eginner" per)orm at the "ame +e!e+ a" ear+ier eginner" (e.g.,
A"her ? @ar*Ha, 19#9/ Pat0o."0i, 1980).
A ),rther dimen"ion o) age$re+ated 12 re"ear*h in the 1980" and 1990" ha"
een the emergen*e o) )inding" apparent+y indi*ating that, .hi+e the p,tati!e de*+ine
in +ang,age$a*2,iring *apa*ity may rea*h it" *,+mination in ado+e"*en*e, it ha" it"
on"et aro,nd age # or 7. >or in"tan*e, Fohn"on and De.port (1989) in!e"tigating
the +ong$term attainment" in :ng+i"h o) immigrant" to the USA a" ga,ged y
grammati*a+ity 9,dgment te"t" report that, .hi+e ",9e*t" .ho arri!ed e)ore age 7
per)ormed .ithin the range "et y nati!e$"pea0er *ontro+", per)orman*e +e!e+"
de*+ined +inear+y .ith age o) arri!a+ et.een age 7 and 1%. Simi+ar re",+t" are
reported y ;y+ten"tam (1992). S,*h )inding" need, ho.e!er, to e "een in the
+ight o) *ertain methodo+ogi*a+ *riti*i"m" (e.g., Je++erman, 199%).
A third )o*," o) age$re+ated 12 re"ear*h ha" een the idea that *hi+dren and
ad,+t" may ha!e ),ndamenta++y di))erent pro*e""ing me*hani"m" at their di"po"a+.
(h,", "ome adherent" o) the Uni!er"a+ @rammar (U@) "*hoo+ o) tho,ght (e.g.,
7+ey$Broman, 1989/ S*ha*hter, 1989) *+aim that po"t$p,erta+ 12 +ang,age
+earning ha" no a**e"" to U@ prin*ip+e" and parameter". (he empiri*a+ a"i" )or
thi" per"pe*ti!e .a", +et it e "aid, ne!er *on*+,"i!e (*)., )or e5amp+e, >+ynn,
1987/ 3artohard9ono ? >+ynn, 199%), and, a" 7raidi (1999) point" o,t, re*ent
*hange" in Chom"0yan theory no. render e!a+,ation o) ear+ier "t,die" e5treme+y
di))i*,+t, a+tho,gh "he a+"o note" that 412 +earner" do not "eem to e5hiit grammar"
that are not "an*tioned y U@6 (p. #7).
7eyond the *on)ine" o) the Chom"0yan magi* *ir*+e, an intere"ting "t,dy
*ond,*ted y 1i,, 7ate", and 1i (1992) e5amine" ho. age o) )ir"t en*o,nter .ith
the 12 a))e*t" the pro*e""ing o) 12 "enten*e" in term" o) the ,"e o) .ord order and
anima*y a" *,e" to interpretation y Chine"e +earner" o) :ng+i"h. (heir re",+t"
",gge"t that, .herea" tho"e .ho egan to a*2,ire :ng+i"h a)ter age 20 tran")erred
Chine"e pro*e""ing "trategie" into :ng+i"h, tho"e .ho egan e)ore age 1= dep+oyed
the "ame "trategie" a" mono+ing,a+ :ng+i"h "pea0er".
,ery -e"ent Age.-elated -eear"'
(he pattern o) age$re+ated 12 re"ear*h o!er the pa"t three or )o,r year" ha"
road+y *ontin,ed that o) the pre!io," ten or )i)teen. (here ha!e een ),rther
"t,die" re)erring to +ate eginner" .ho attain nati!e$+i0e +e!e+" o) per)orman*e in
the 12/ there ha!e een ),rther "t,die" +oo0ing at !ery ear+y eginner"/ and there
ha!e een ),rther "t,die" addre""ing the 2,e"tion o) .hether po"t$p,erta+ 12
+earning and ,"e i" ","er!ed y di))erent me*hani"m" )rom tho"e ","er!ing *hi+d
80 AABCA SCD@1:(ED
+ang,age. Another )eat,re o) !ery re*ent .or0 in thi" area ha" een a rene.a+ o)
the "ear*h )or e5p+anation" o) age e))e*t" that do not re+y on ne,ro+ing,i"ti*
arg,ment".
Con*erning the a*hie!ement" o) +ate eginner", the .or0 o) 7ongaert" and
hi" *o++eag,e" ha" *ontin,ed apa*e (7ongaert", 1999). A ),rther "t,dy ha" een
*ond,*ted .ith re"pe*t to +earning o) :ng+i"h a" an 12 y A,t*h ",9e*t"
(7ongaert", !an S,mmeren, P+an0en, ? S*hi+", 1997), and there ha!e a+"o een
"t,die" o) the +earning o) >ren*h a" an 12 y A,t*h ",9e*t" (Pa+men, 7ongaert", ?
S*hi+", 1997), and the +ate +earning o) A,t*h a" an 12 (7ongaert", 3ennen, ? Ban
der S+i0, 2000). (he"e "t,die" e""entia++y rep+i*ate the )inding" o) 7ongaert" et
a+.<" 199% "t,dy "ho.ing that "ome +earner" .ho"e e5po",re to an 12 egin" a)ter
age 12 *an ne!erthe+e"" a*2,ire an 12 a**ent .hi*h i" per*ei!ed a" nati!e y nati!e
"pea0er".
A ),rther "t,dy .orth mentioning in thi" *onne*tion i" 3oyer<" (1999)
in!e"tigation o) the 12 phono+ogi*a+ attainment o) 2G Ang+ophone grad,ate" in
@erman, none o) .hom had any e5po",re to @erman e)ore age 11, emp+oyed a"
tea*her" o) @erman at ,ni!er"ity +e!e+. Cn the main, the rating" )or the"e ",9e*t"<
@erman a**ent" ",pp+ied y )o,r nati!e "pea0er" did not o!er+ap .ith tho"e
otained y nati!e "pea0er *ontro+". ;o.e!er, one o) the ",9e*t" was mi"ta0en y
the rater" )or a nati!e "pea0er. (hi" indi!id,a+ egan +earning @erman at age 22
and .a" +arge+y "e+)$ta,ght. Mhat di"ting,i"hed him )rom hi" peer" .a" a
parti*,+ar+y deep )a"*ination .ith the @erman +ang,age and *,+t,re and a
parti*,+ar+y "trong de"ire to "o,nd @erman. ;ere, then, i" a ),rther e5amp+e o) a
"t,dy "ho.ing an age e))e*t in re+ation to ,+timate 12 attainment .hi*h )ai+" to
operate a*ro"" the oard ("ee a+"o AeJey"er, in pre"").
(,rning no. to re"ear*h )o*,"ing on ",9e*t" .ho"e 12 e5po",re egan in
ear+y *hi+dhood, Jim, 8e+0in, Jyo,ng$3in, and ;ir"*h (1997) ,"ed magneti*
re"onan*e imaging to in!e"tigate the "patia+ repre"entation o) 11 and 12 in the
*erera+ *orte5 o) ear+y and +ate i+ing,a+" d,ring a "enten*e$generation ta"0. (he
re",+t" re!ea+ed +itt+e or no age$re+ated "eparation o) a*ti!ity in Merni*0e<" area,
,t di))eren*e" did emerge .ith re"pe*t to a*ti!ity in 7ro*a<" area. Among the +ate
i+ing,a+", t.o di"tin*t ,t ad9a*ent *enter" o) a*ti!ation .ere re!ea+ed )or 11 and
12, .herea" in the ear+y i+ing,a+", a "ing+e area o) a*ti!ation )or oth +ang,age"
emerged. (hi" +oo0" +i0e e!iden*e o) di))erent 0ind" o) rain organiNation in ear+y
and +ate i+ing,a+". Un)ort,nate+y, thi" "t,dy doe" not "ay anything !ery pre*i"e
ao,t the age at .hi*h "eparate repre"entation o) 11 and 12 i" ",ppo"ed to e*ome
*hara*teri"ti*K the ear+y i+ing,a+" .ere a++ e5po"ed to the 12 d,ring in)an*y, ,t
the +ate i+ing,a+"< mean age o) initia+ e5po",re to the 12 .a" 11.2 year", .hi*h
*+ear+y +ea!e" any 2,e"tion ao,t the mat,rationa+ point o) di!ergen*e ,nan".ered.
Ether "t,die" a"ed on rain$imaging te*hni2,e" ("ee, e.g., Meer$>o5 ? De!i++e,
1999) ha!e )o*,"ed on di))eren*e" in rain re"pon"e" to "emanti* and grammati*a+
anoma+ie" in 12 "tim,+i/ ",*h "t,die" indi*ate that the re"pon"e" typi*a+ o) ",9e*t"
.ho"e e5po",re to the 12 egin" a)ter age 11 di))er )rom tho"e typi*a+ o) ",9e*t"
A@: ADA 12 ACLUCSC(CED 81
.ho"e e5po",re egin" ear+ier. Con*erning the 2,e"tion o) the impa*t o) a !ery
ear+y eginning, 3arino!a$(odd, 3ar"ha++, and Sno. (2000, pp. 1#17) note that
"ome o) Meer$>o5 and De!i++e<" e!iden*e "eem" to ",gge"t that the determinant
)or re"pon"e$type" .ith re"pe*t to parti*,+ar *ategorie" o) grammati*a+ anoma+y i"
.hether e5po",re egin" e)ore or a)ter age )o,r, .hi+e the .ater"hed )or re"pon"etype"
re+ati!e to other anoma+ie" i" age e+e!en.
En a *omp+ete+y di))erent ta*0, a n,mer o) re*ent "t,die" ha!e indi*ated
that e!en !ery yo,ng 12 eginner" di!erge at the +e!e+ o) )ine +ing,i"ti* detai+ )rom
nati!e "pea0er". (h,", )or e5amp+e, ;y+ten"tam and Araham""on (2000, p. 1#1)
*ite re"ear*h y :0erg (1998) into i+ing,a+ teenager" in S.eden e5po"ed to
S.edi"h o,t"ide the home a" "ma++ *hi+dren ,t .ho"e o,tp,t in S.edi"h di))ered in
a n,mer o) +e5i*o$grammati*a+ re"pe*t" )rom their nati!e$"pea0er peer". At the
phono+ogi*a+ +e!e+ too, it appear" )rom >+ege<" .or0 (e.g., 1999) that ",9e*t" .ho
egin to e e5po"ed to an 12 in an 12 en!ironment a" !ery yo,ng *hi+dren are
ne!erthe+e"" 2,ite +i0e+y to end ,p "pea0ing the 12 .ith a non$nati!e a**ent.
(he"e ne,ro+ing,i"ti*a++y oriented "t,die" ear on the i"",e o) .hether the
pro*e""ing me*hani"m" ","er!ing +ang,age are di))erent in *hi+dren and ad,+t".
(here ha" a+"o een a *ontin,ation o) re"ear*h into the 2,e"tion o) .hether or not
U@ *ontin,e" to e a!ai+a+e a" a ",pport )or +ang,age +earning eyond *hi+dhood.
(here i" no "trong e!iden*e that po"t$p,erta+ 12 +earner" do not ha!e a!ai+a+e to
them the *apa*itie" .hi*h Chom"0yan" thin0 o) a" deri!ing )rom U@/ indeed, m,*h
re*ent re"ear*h indi*ate" that po"t$p,erta+ 12 +earner" dea+ in the "ame .ay a" 11
a*2,irer" .ith )eat,re" p,rported+y ha!ing a U@ a"i" ("ee, e.g., 7r,hn de
@ara!ito, 1999/ Ae0ydt"potter, Spro,"e, ? (hyre, 1998).
A non$U@$)o*,"ed "t,dy earing on .hat ,nder+ie" 12 +earning at ear+ier
and +ater age" i" ;ar+ey and ;art<" (1997) in!e"tigation o) the ro+e o) di))erent
a"pe*t" o) +ang,age aptit,de in t.o gro,p" o) Ang+ophone "e*ondary "*hoo+
"t,dent" .ho had entered >ren*h immer"ion program" at di))erent point", in grade
1 and grade 7, re"pe*ti!e+y. Mhat tran"pired .a" that 4ear+y immer"ion "t,dent"<
12 o,t*ome" .ere m,*h more +i0e+y to e a""o*iated .ith a memory mea",re than
.ith a mea",re o) +ang,age ai+ity, .herea" the oppo"ite .a" the *a"e )or the +ate
immer"ion "t,dent"6 (p. =9%). AeJey"er<" (in pre"") rep+i*ation o) the Fohn"on and
De.port (1989) "t,dy yie+ded "imi+ar re",+t"K the )e. ad,+t eginner" in hi" "t,dy
.ho "*ored .ithin the range o) the *hi+d eginner" had high +e!e+" o) !era+
ana+yti*a+ ai+ity, an ai+ity .hi*h .a" not a )a*tor in the per)orman*e o) the *hi+d
eginner". AeJey"er interpret" hi" re",+t" a" ",gge"ting that mat,rationa+
*on"traint app+ie" on+y to imp+i*it +ang,age +earning me*hani"m". ;ar+ey and ;art,
)or their part, a*0no.+edge the po""i+e in)+,en*e o) di))erent in"tr,*tiona+ "ty+e"
a""o*iated .ith primary !er"," "e*ondary$+e!e+ ed,*ation. A ),rther po""ii+ity i"
that oth "et" o) re",+t" are re+ated to genera+ *ogniti!e *hange" .hi*h impa*t on
+ang,age +earning ,t not only on +ang,age +earning.
82 AABCA SCD@1:(ED
A ),rther )eat,re o) re*ent age$re+ated 12 re"ear*h ha" een a re!i!a+ o)
intere"t in e5p+anation" o) age e))e*t" .hi*h depart )rom the *+a""i* 4*riti*a+
period6 or 4"en"iti!e period6 !ie., a**ording to .hi*h there i" a period o)
ne,ro+ogi*a+ 4+ang,age readine""6 .ith rigid +imit" o,t"ide o) .hi*h +ang,age
a*2,i"ition o) any 0ind i" di))i*,+t. Arg,ment" ad!an*ed in )a!or o) the *riti*a+
period po"ition ha!e re)erred to ne,ro+ogi*a+ *hange" o"er!a+e et.een *hi+dhood
and ado+e"*en*e&ad,+thood, in*+,ding the 0ind" o) *hange" that appear to e
indi*ated y the ao!e *ited "t,die" y Jim et a+. (1997) and y Meer$>o5 and
De!i++e (1999). Co,nter arg,ment" ha!e in*+,dedK (a) that the re+e!ant *a,"a+ity
ha" not een e"ta+i"hed/ () that the e!iden*e doe" not point to the 0ind o) "harp
*,t$o)) point that *hara*teriNe" *riti*a+ period"/ (*) that the attainment o) "ome +ate
eginner" to nati!e$+i0e pro)i*ien*y r,n" *o,nter to the propo"ition o) )i5ed
mat,rationa+ *on"traint"/ and (d) that other more p+a,"i+e e5p+anation" )or age
e))e*t" are a!ai+a+e.
Mith regard to *a,"a+ity, "ome re"ear*her" (e.g., 7ia+y"to0 ? ;a0,ta,
1999/ 3arino!a$(odd et a+., 2000) arg,e that no *+ear re+ation"hip ha" yet een
e"ta+i"hed et.een ne,ro+ogi*a+ di))eren*e" and di))eren*e" in +ang,age
pro)i*ien*y. A**ording+y, it i" +egitimate to "pe*,+ate that *hi+dren and ad,+t" may,
)or e5amp+e, 4+o*a+iNe their +earning di))erent+y .itho,t "ho.ing di))erent +e!e+" o)
+earning6 (3arino!a$(odd et a+., 2000, p. 17). (he "ame 0ind o) point *an e
made ao,t the i"",e o) mye+ination and red,*ed rain p+a"ti*ity. 3arino!a$(odd
et a+. note in thi" regard (p. 18) that there i" "ti++ ,n*ertainty ao,t the pre*i"e
*onne*tion et.een +earning and the "tate o) the ne,ra+ net.or0. Another
po""ii+ity, rai"ed y 7ia+y"to0 and ;a0,ta (1999), *iting @aNNaniga (1992), i" that
the dire*tion o) *a,"ation may e the re!er"e o) the one ,",a++y a"",med/ they note
that rain di))eren*e" are a" +i0e+y to re)+e*t di))erent 0ind" o) e5perien*e a" to
determine the"e e5perien*e", and that ",*h ind,*ed di))eren*e" *annot "imp+y e
a"",med to ",pport di))erent +e!e+" o) per)orman*e. :!en i) ne,ro+ogi*a+
di))eren*e" et.een yo,nger and o+der 12 eginner" do re+ate to di))eren*e" in
pro)i*ien*y +e!e+", there i" a+.ay" the po""ii+ity 4that the ad,+t +earner" a""e""ed O
.ere poor+y "e+e*ted and do not repre"ent high+y pro)i*ent ad,+t i+ing,a+"6
(3arino!a$(odd et a+., 2000, pp. 1718).
(he e5i"ten*e or none5i"ten*e o) a *,t$o)) point ",*h a" .o,+d norma++y e
a""o*iated .ith a *riti*a+ period i" e5ten"i!e+y di"*,""ed y 7ia+y"to0 and ;a0,ta.
(heir reana+y"i" (7ia+y"to0, 1997/ 7ia+y"to0 ? ;a0,ta 199G) o) Fohn"on and
De.port<" (1989) data ("ee ao!e) "ho." 4that the tenden*y )or pro)i*ien*y to
de*+ine .ith age pro9e*t" .e++ into ad,+thood and doe" not mar0 "ome de)ined
*hange in +earning potentia+ at aro,nd p,erty6 (7ia+y"to0, 1997, p. 122). 3ore
re*ent+y, 7ia+y"to0 and ;a0,ta (1999) ana+yNed Cen"," data on age o) arri!a+ and
reported :ng+i"h pro)i*ien*y )or Chine"e$"pea0er" and Spani"h$"pea0er" .ho had
re"ided in De. Por0 State )or at +ea"t 10 year"/ .hat emerged i", on the one hand,
a "teady +inear de*+ine o) reported :ng+i"h pro)i*ien*y a" age o) arri!a+ in*rea"ed
,t, on the other, no indi*ation o) a dramati*a++y "harper rate o) de*+ine at any
point et.een in)an*y and "ene"*en*e. 8e*ent data on the re+ation"hip et.een 12
A@: ADA 12 ACLUCSC(CED 8=
a**ent and age o) arri!a+ otained y >+ege and hi" *o++eag,e" ("ee, e.g., >+ege,
1999) "ho. a "imi+ar+y *ontin,o," de*+ine.
A n,mer o) "t,die" ha!e a+ready een *ited demon"trating that "ome ad,+t
12 eginner" attain "imi+ar +e!e+" o) pro)i*ien*y to tho"e attained y *hi+d
eginner". S,*h e!iden*e doe" not "it .e++ .ith the notion o) a ne,ro+ogi*a++y
a"ed *riti*a+ period, .hi*h, a" 7ia+y"to0 (1997) "ay", o,ght to re!ea+ it"e+) in an
,namig,o," +in0age et.een 12 pro)i*ien*y +e!e+" and age o) )ir"t e5po",re
4*on"i"tent a*ro"" "t,die"6 (p. 118).
>ina++y in thi" "e*tion, +et ," *on"ider "ome o) the a+ternati!e" to a
ne,ro+ogi*a+ a**o,nt that ha!e een o))ered to e5p+ain the age )a*tor in 12
a*2,i"ition. Ene that ha" +ong een and *ontin,e" to e di"*,""ed i" "trength o)
moti!ation. 3arino!a$(odd et a+. (2000) *ite P,+!erm,++er and S*h,mann<" (199G)
9,dgment that moti!ation, rather than ne,ro+ogy, i" the determining )a*tor in S1A
",**e"", and point to the )a*t that "ome o+der eginner" .ho a*hie!e nati!e$+i0e
pro)i*ien*y are *hara*teriNed y !ery high +e!e+" o) moti!ation. (hey re)er to
Co,p<" ",9e*t" (Co,p et a+., 199G), ,t other in"tan*e" a+"o "pring to mind, e.g., the
e5*eptiona+ *a"e mentioned y 3oyer (1999).
A parti*,+ar dimen"ion o) the moti!ation i"",e re+ate" to the 2,e"tion o)
+ang,age dominan*e. E+der arri!a+" in an 12 en!ironment may ma0e eha!iora+
*hoi*e" .hi*h ring them into )re2,ent *onta*t .ith )e++o. nati!e "pea0er" o) their
11 and +imit their *onta*t .ith the 12/ ",*h *hoi*e" may ha!e to do .ith the
a!oidan*e o) i"o+ation in the ne. en!ironment and&or the de"ire to maintain a
parti*,+ar +ing,i"ti* and *,+t,ra+ identity. >e.er *hoi*e" may e a!ai+a+e to
yo,nger arri!a+" e*a,"e o) *omp,+"ory "*hoo+ing. Cn any *a"e, their +ing,i"ti* and
*,+t,ra+ identity i" ,n+i0e+y to e a" ),++y )ormed a" that o) their e+der", and "o the
moti!ation to maintain it may e m,*h .ea0er. A**ording to re"ear*h *ond,*ted
y Fia and Aaron"on (1999), .hat re",+t" )rom the"e *ontra"ting *ir*,m"tan*e" i"
that, .herea" immigrant" arri!ing at age" o+der than 10 tend to maintain their 11,
immigrant" arri!ing e)ore age 10 "eem to ".it*h their dominant +ang,age )rom the
home +ang,age to the +ang,age o) the ho"t *o,ntry. (he imp+i*ation o) thi"
phenomenon i" that "ome "t,die" p,rported+y )o*,"ing on 12 pro)i*ien*y may, in
)a*t, e reporting on a +ang,age .hi*h ha" e))e*ti!e+y e*ome an 11 )or the
",9e*t" in 2,e"tion (*). 7ia+y"to0, 1997, p. 12=).
(hi" +a"t point *+ear+y rai"e" i"",e" *on*erning amo,nt" and pattern" o) 12
inp,t and ,"e, another ma9or )o*," )or di"*,""ion o) a+ternati!e" to the *riti*a+
period hypothe"i". 3,*h o) the re*ent .or0 y >+ege and hi" *o++eag,e" ha"
demon"trated the importan*e o) en!ironmenta+ )a*tor" )or 12 pron,n*iation, .ith
time "pent in a *o,ntry .here the target +ang,age i" in ,"e (8iney ? >+ege, 1998)
and time "pent in the *ompany o) nati!e "pea0er" (>+ege, >rieda, ? DoNa.a, 1997)
emerging a" ma9or determinant" o) 2,a+ity o) 12 a**ent. 1i0e Fia and Aaron"on
(1999), >+ege "ee" a trade$o)) et.een 12 and 11 pro)i*ien*y. ;e ta0e" an
4intera*tioni"t6 +ine a**ording to .hi*h 4i+ing,a+" are ,na+e to ),++y "eparate the
8G AABCA SCD@1:(ED
11 and the 12 phoneti* "y"tem6 "o that 4the phoni* e+ement" o) the 11 ","y"tem
ne*e""ari+y in)+,en*e phoni* e+ement" in the 12 "y"tem, and !i*e !er"a6 (1999, p.
10#). A**ording to thi" !ie., yo,ng *hi+dren may a*2,ire a good 12 a**ent at the
e5pen"e o) their 11 a**ent/ or, a+ternati!e+y, they may de!e+op an a,thenti* a**ent
in their 11 at the *o"t o) not eing a+e to de!e+op a nati!e a**ent in their 12.
>+ege<" ",gge"tion i" that, a" 11 phono+ogy *ontin,e" to e re)ined, it" in)+,en*e on
12 phono+ogi*a+ a*2,i"ition *ontin,o,"+y in*rea"e".
Another dimen"ion o) the inp,t e5p+anation i" the ro+e o) in"tr,*tion.
7ia+y"to0 (1997, p. 12=) point" o,t that immigrant" .ho arri!e a" *hi+dren enter the
ed,*ation "y"tem at a point .here e5p+i*it +ang,age in"tr,*tion i" part o) the norma+
rQgime )or a++ p,pi+", .herea" the 0ind o) ed,*ation a!ai+a+e to immigrant"
arri!ing in ear+y ad,+thood i" ,n+i0e+y to in*+,de +ang,age training. Mith regard to
the ",**e""),+ +ate a*2,i"ition o) an 12 a**ent, 7ongaert" (1999) *omment" that hi"
",9e*t" 4had a++ re*ei!ed inten"i!e per*ept,a+ training that )o*,"ed their attention
on ",t+e phoneti* *ontra"t" et.een the "pee*h "o,nd" o) the target +ang,age and
tho"e o) their 116 (pp. 1%G1%%), and that thi" may .e++ ha!e een a )a*tor in their
",**e"".
A ),rther propo"a+ i" that age$re+ated di))eren*e" in 12 pro)i*ien*y are
e5p+i*a+e in term" o) genera+ *ogniti!e *on"ideration". (h,", 7ia+y"to0 and
;a0,ta (1999) ",gge"t that the pre"en*e or a"en*e o) +itera*y "0i++" in the 12 may
ha!e a earing on 12 pro)i*ien*y and note that immigrant" .ho arri!e yo,ng are
+i0e+y to ha!e ",*h "0i++" in good mea",re e*a,"e o) e5perien*e at "*hoo+, .hi+e
tho"e .ho arri!e at an o+der age may not. 7ia+y"to0 and ;a0,ta a+"o point to a
deterioration o!er the +i)e"pan in ",*h area" a" *apa*ity to per)orm ta"0" ,nder time
pre"",re, ri"0$ta0ing, e"ta+i"hing +ong$term memory *ode", and ai+ity to re*a++
detai+". (hey *ommentK 4i) age$re+ated *hange" in ,+timate +ang,age pro)i*ien*y
are to e attri,ta+e to the"e *ogniti!e *hange" . . . then the de*+ine in ,+timate
pro)i*ien*y . . . "ho,+d . . . e grad,a+ and *on"tant6 (p. 172). (he e!iden*e
",gge"t" that thi" i" pre*i"e+y ho. it i".
Con"l%ion
>e. 12 re"ear*her" *ha++enge the propo"ition that tho"e 12 a*2,irer"
.ho"e e5po",re to the 12 egin" ear+y in +i)e )or the mo"t part attain higher +e!e+"
o) pro)i*ien*y than tho"e .ho"e e5po",re egin" in ado+e"*en*e or ad,+thood. (he
2,e"tion" that *ontin,e to di!ide the )ie+d areK (a) i" thi" a road tenden*y or an
a"o+,te+y in!io+ate +a.R and () ho. are ",*h age e))e*t" to e e5p+ainedR
Cn re+ation to (a), it may e tr,e, a" ;y+ten"tam and Araham""on (2000,
p. 1%%) *+aim, that there i" no *a"e on re*ord o) a po"t$p,erta+ 12 eginner .ho
ha" een demon"trated to eha!e in e!ery +a"t +ing,i"ti* detai+ +i0e a nati!e "pea0er.
;o.e!er, it i" a+"o tr,e, a" ;y+ten"tam and Araham"on a*0no.+edge, that the
more *+o"e+y .e "t,dy !ery ear+y 12 eginner", the more .e rea+iNe that, at the
+e!e+ o) ",t+e detai+, they too di))er )rom monog+ot nati!e "pea0er". Ct "eem" that,
A@: ADA 12 ACLUCSC(CED 8%
a" @ro"9ean (e.g., 1992) and Coo0 (e.g., 199%) ha!e een arg,ing )or year", .hat
ma0e" the di))eren*e i" the !ery )a*t o) 0no.+edge o) another +ang,age.
A**ording+y, the appropriate *ompari"on i" not et.een po"tp,erta+ 12 eginner"
and monog+ot nati!e "pea0er", ,t et.een po"tp,erta+ 12 eginner" and tho"e
.ho egin to a*2,ire an 12 in *hi+dhood. @i!en the trend o) re*ent re"ear*h
)inding", it .o,+d e a !ery ra!e indi!id,a+ .ho .o,+d .ager a +arge ",m again"t
the propo"ition that po"tp,erta+ 12 eginner" .ho in a++ re"pe*t" per)orm at +e!e+"
"et y ear+y eginner", e!en !ery ear+y eginner", *an and .i++ e identi)ied.
Con*erning (), it i" di))i*,+t to re"i"t 2,oting yet again E"*ar Mi+de<" .i"e
.ord" ao,t the tr,th eing 4rare+y p,re and ne!er "imp+e.6 7ia+y"to0 (per"ona+
*omm,ni*ation) ta0e" the !ie. that ta+0ing ao,t an age )a*tor i" mi"*on*ei!ed/ .e
"ho,+d rather e thin0ing in term" o) a range o) age )a*tor". (hi" *oin*ide" .ith
my o.n *on*+,"ion o) more than a de*ade ago .hi*h C ha!e not di"*ardedK that
4the !ario," age$re+ated phenomena . . . proa+y re",+t )rom the intera*tion o) a
m,+tip+i*ity o) *a,"e"6 (Sing+eton, 1989, p. 2##). S,*h a per"pe*ti!e *an
en*ompa"" the notion that de*rea"ing *erera+ p+a"ti*ity and&or other *hange" in the
rain may p+ay a ro+e, ,t the notion that 12 age e))e*t" are e5*+,"i!e+y
ne,ro+ogi*a++y a"ed, that they are a""o*iated .ith a"o+,te, .e++$de)ined
*hrono+ogi*a+ +imit", and that they are parti*,+ar to +ang,age +oo0" +e"" and +e""
p+a,"i+e.
ANNOTATED /I/IOG-AP01
(he )o++o.ing re*ent re!ie. arti*+e" are .e++ .orth *on",+ting.
7ird"ong, A. (1999). Cntrod,*tionK Mhy" and .hy not" o) the *riti*a+ period
hypothe"i" )or "e*ond +ang,age a*2,i"ition. Cn A. 7ird"ong (:d.), Second
language acquisition and the critical period hypothesis (pp. 122).
3ah.ah, DFK 1a.ren*e :r+a,m, A""o*iate".
(hi" o!er!ie. pre"ent" a !ariety o) !ie." on mat,rationa+ *on"traint" on
+ang,age a*2,i"ition )rom the per"pe*ti!e o) "omeone .ho"e e+ie) in the
*riti*a+ period .a" "ha0en y hi" o.n data, )o++o.ed y "ome rea"on" to
do,t the *riti*a+ period hypothe"i" (nota+y the ao!e$di"*,""ed a"en*e o)
a "harp *,t$o)) point and the nati!e$+i0e per)orman*e o) "ome +ate
eginner").
;ar+ey, 7., ? Mang, M. (1997). (he *riti*a+ period hypothe"i"K Mhere are .e
no.R Cn A. 3. 7. de @root ? F. >. Jro++ (:d".), Tutorials in bilingualism:
Psycholinguistic perspectives (pp. 19%1). 1ondonK 1a.ren*e :r+a,m.
(hi" arti*+e pro!ide" a !ery .ide$ranging re!ie. o) .or0 on the *riti*a+
period hypothe"i", a**epting the hypothe"i" a" a !a+,a+e )rame.or0 )or
8# AABCA SCD@1:(ED
age$re+ated re"ear*h ,t empha"iNing the *omp+e5ity and and p,NN+ing
nat,re o) re+e!ant )inding".
;y+ten"tam, J., ? Araham""on, D. (in pre""). 3at,rationa+ *on"traint" in "e*ond
+ang,age a*2,i"ition. (o appear in C. F. Ao,ghty ? 3. ;. 1ong (:d".),
andboo! of second language acquisition. 1ondonK 7+a*0.e++.
(hi" *hapter e5pand" on the point" made in ;y+ten"tam and Araham""on
(2000) and attempt" to re*on*i+e the e!iden*e pro and *ontra the notion o)
mat,rationa+ *on"traint" in 12 a*2,i"ition y po"iting an intera*tion
et.een mat,rationa+ and "o*iop"y*ho+ogi*a+ )a*tor".
UNANNOTATED /I/LIOG-AP01
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