British Forum for Ethnomusicology

The Jewish Service in Communist Hungary: A Personal Journey

Author(s): Judit Frigyesi
Source: British Journal of Ethnomusicology, Vol. 11, No. 1, Red Ritual: Ritual Music and
Communism (2002), pp. 141-157
Published by: British Forum for Ethnomusicology
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4149889
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JUDIT FRIGYESI
Th e Je w i s h s e r v i c e i n Commun i s t
Hun gar y:
a
p e r s on al j our n e y
Th i s ar ti c l e s ummar i ze s th e
p r obl e ms
th at h i n de r e d th e
p r ac ti c e of
Je w i s h
r i tual mus i c i n
Hun gar y dur i n g
th e Commun i s t
p e r i od.
Th e
fi r s t p ar t
de s c r i be s
th e c h ar ac te r
of
th e mus i c
of
th e tr adi ti on al Je w i s h
s e r v i c e ,
p oi n ti n g
out th os e
c h ar ac te r i s ti c s th at made th i s mus i c
di ffi c ul t for
th e
mode r n
mi ddl e c l as s to
ac c e p t.
It i s
s ugge s te d
th at th e
s p e c i fi c
c h ar ac te r
of
Je w i s h r i tual mus i c c on -
tr i bute d to i ts
mar gi n al p os i ti on be for e
an d
afte r
Wor l d War
II.
Th e s e c on d
p ar t
tr e ats th e
p r obl e m of
Je w i s h
i de n ti ty
as an
e th n i c i ty
i n
mode r n
Hun gar y dur i n g
th e
p r e -Wor l d
War
II
an d th e Commun i s t
p e r i od
an d de s c r i be s th e r e as on s
for
an d th e
p r oc e s s of
i s ol ati on
of
th e
r e l i gi ous
Je w i s h
c ommun i ty.
As a r e s ul t
of
th i s
i s ol ati on ,
th e Je w i s h s e r v i c e w as
p r ac ti s e d
l i ke an
un de r gr oun d ac ti v i ty
- a
c i r c ums tan c e th at
tr an s for me d
i ts mus i c . Th e ar ti c l e r e c oun ts th e
p e r s on al
s tor y of
th e auth or as a c ol l e c tor
of
Je w i s h r i tual mus i c i n th e Commun i s t e r a
i n
Hun gar y.
In 1976 a
c l as s mate ,
Pe te r
Laki ,
an d I w e r e c al l e d to th e offi c e of th e mos t
r e s p e c te d Hun gar i an mus i c ol ogi s t
of th e
ti me ,
Be n j ami n Raj e c zky.1
At th e
me e ti n g
Pr ofe s s or
Raj e c zky
i n v i te d us to
c ar r y
out a
p r oj e c t
for th e
s tudy
of th e
"fol k mus i c " of th e
Hun gar i an
Je w s ,
s ugge s ti n g
th at w e s h oul d c on ti n ue th e
Je w i s h mus i c r e s e ar c h th at Be n c e
Szabol c s i ,
th e foun de r of
Hun gar i an
mus i c o-
l ogy,
h ad l aun c h e d
man y ye ar s
e ar l i e r . We w e r e
mus i c ol ogy
s tude n ts at th e
Ac ade my
of Mus i c an d w e
r e gar de d
th e i n v i tati on as a
gr e at
h on our . At th e s ame
ti me ,
th e
p r op os al
s oun de d
di s tur bi n gl y ambi guous .
Wh e n w e l e ft th e offi c e w e
r e al i ze d th at w e h ad n o i de a of e i th e r th e c on te n t or th e fr ame w or k of th e
p r oj -
e c t,
n or di d w e un de r s tan d
w h y
th e tw o of us h ad be e n s e l e c te d to
c ar r y
i t out.
Th e
p e r s on al , s c h ol ar l y
an d
p ol i ti c al c on s e que n c e s
of th i s i n v i tati on w e r e
far -r e ac h i n g
an d i t i s n ot
p os s i bl e
to te l l th e ful l
s tor y
h e r e . I w oul d l i ke to
r e c oun t h e r e a fe w
e p i s ode s
th at i l l us tr ate s ome of th e
p r obl e ms
of
r e s e ar c h i n g
th e
As h ke n azi 2
Je w i s h
l i tur gi c al
mus i c i n Commun i s t
Hun gar y.
1 I
be gan
th e r e s e ar c h of Je w i s h mus i c
toge th e r
w i th Pe te r
Laki ,
an d h e s h ar e d
man y
of th e
e xp e r i e n c e s ,
i de as , e moti on s an d an xi e ti e s th at I de s c r i be h e r e . Si n c e th e l ate 1980s
I
h av e
be e n
w or ki n g
on th i s mate r i al al on e .
2
As h ke n azi , l i te r al l y me an i n g Ge r man , i s th e te r m
c on v e n ti on al l y
us e d for th e
gr oup
of
BRITISH JOURNAL OF ETHNOMUSICOLOGY VOL. 11/i 2002 p p . 141-57
142 BRITISH JOURNAL OF ETHNOMUSICOLOGY VOL.11/i 2002
Our i n i ti al fi e l d
tr i p s
i n
Budap e s t
l e d us to th e mai n
n e ol og s yn agogue s ,
th e
s yn agogue
on
Doh ai n y
Str e e t an d th e
s yn agogue
of th e Rabbi n i c al
Se mi n ar y.3
At th e Rabbi n i c al
Se mi n ar y
th e
c on gr e gati on
c on s i s te d
mos tl y
of
youn g
i n te l -
l e c tual s ,
an d on our fi r s t v i s i t w e
i mme di ate l y
r e al i ze d th at th e
Fr i day e v e n i n g
s e r v i c e s fun c ti on e d as a ki n d of
un de r gr oun d
Je w i s h
youth
c l ub. Th e s e r v i c e
i mp r e s s e d
us as a w e l l -r e h e ar s e d c on c e r t
p e r for man c e
of
c h or us ,
or gan i s t
an d
c an tor
ac c omp an i e d by
c on ti n uous c h atte r
amon g
th e
c on gr e gati on .
As i n th e
Doh ~n y
Str e e t
s yn agogue ,
th e c an tor
c ate gor i c al l y
r e fus e d to l e t us r e c or d h i m.
He s ai d th at th e mus i c h ad
al r e ady
be e n n otate d
an d,
i n
an y
c as e ,
i f h e w an te d to
be r e c or de d h e w oul d
go
to a s tudi o an d
p ubl i s h
a c omme r c i al r e c or d h i ms e l f.
Our fi r s t
atte mp ts
th us l e d to a de ad e n d. We foun d
n oth i n g
th at
e n c our age d
us to do
e th n omus i c ol ogi c al
r e s e ar c h . Th e mus i c s oun de d
e n ti r e l y
We s te r n an d
th e
p e r for me r s
of th i s mus i c c on s i de r e d th e ms e l v e s as ar ti s ts i n th e We s te r n
s e n s e of th e w or d an d r e fus e d to be "r e duc e d" to th e s tatus of
an th r op ol ogi c al
"s ubj e c ts ". Fur th e r mor e ,
w e w e r e un de r th e
i mp r e s s i on
th at Pr ofe s s or
Raj e c zky
e xp e c te d
us to c ol l e c t Je w i s h "fol k
mus i c ",
th at
i s ,
s ome th i n g
l i ke th e
p e as an t
s on gs
th at Bar t6k an d
Kodai l y
c ol l e c te d.
We c on s ul te d Al e xan de r
Sc h e i be r ,
th e di r e c tor of th e Rabbi n i c al
Se mi n ar y
an d a
gr e at
s c h ol ar . He s ai d th e r e w as
n oth i n g
to r e c or d. Th e Je w s of th e c oun -
tr ys i de
h ad be e n
de p or te d
to th e e xte r mi n ati on
c amp s
an d
Hun gar i an
Je w i s h
fol k mus i c h ad
di s ap p e ar e d
for e v e r . Th e be s t on e c oul d
do,
h e
s ugge s te d,
w as
to
go th r ough
th e Je w i s h
p e r i odi c al s p ubl i s h e d
i n
Hun gar y
an d
c omp i l e
a c ata-
l ogue
of mus i c al
e xamp l e s
an d ar ti c l e s on mus i c .
So,
for on e
day e v e r y
w e e k
for an e n ti r e
ye ar ,
w e w e n t to th e Nati on al
Li br ar y
an d
c omp i l e d
a
c atal ogue
of
ar ti c l e s
de al i n g
w i th Je w i s h mus i c i n
Hun gar i an
Je w i s h
p e r i odi c al s
of th e n i n e -
te e n th an d tw e n ti e th c e n tur i e s . Wh e n w e l e ft
Hun gar y
th i s
c atal ogue
r e mai n e d
at th e In s ti tute for
Mus i c ol ogy, th ough
i t h as s i n c e
ap p ar e n tl y di s ap p e ar e d.
We r e c oun te d th e
s aga
of our s e ar c h for Je w i s h mus i c to Dav i d
(Si n dor )
Pol n aue r ,
a r abbi n i c al s tude n t. He foun d an i n for man t for
us ,
an ol d man
n ame d Mr Eh r man n . Mr Eh r man n di d n ot
gi v e
us h i s
addr e s s ,
n or di d h e al l ow
(c on ti n ue d fr om p r e v i ous p age )
Je w s w h o l i v e d i n
Ge r man y
an d i n Eas te r n
Eur op e
i n th e te r -
r i tor i e s
i n c l udi n g Pol an d,
Hun gar y,
Roman i a, Mor av i a, Boh e mi a, Sl ov aki a, Rus s i a,
Li th uan i a
an d Mol dav i a. Th e te r m i s us e d to
di s ti n gui s h
As h ke n azi tr adi ti on s fr om th os e of th e
Se p h ar di .
Th e
Se p h ar di
c ommun i ti e s
or i gi n ate d
i n
Sp ai n
an d,
afte r th e i r
e xp ul s i on , s p r e ad mai n l y
to
Nor th Afr i c a an d to th e Bal kan s
(Gr e e c e , p ar ts
of th e for me r
Yugos l av i a, Bul gar i a
an d
Tur ke y).
3 As a r e s ul t of th e 1868-69 Nati on al Je w i s h
Con gr e s s ("Izr ae l i ta Egye te me s
Gyd(fl s "),
th e Je w i s h c ommun i ti e s of
Hun gar y
br oke
up
i n to th r e e br an c h e s . "Or th odox" be c ame th e
offi c i al
de s i gn ati on
of th os e c ommun i ti e s th at i n s i s te d on tr adi ti on al c us toms an d
l i tur gy.
Th e
mode m,
l e s s
r e l i gi ous
c ommun i ti e s w e r e n ame d
"n e ol og".
Th e
n e ol og
c ommun i ti e s us e d
or gan
an d c an tor i n th e s e r v i c e but fol l ow e d th e tr adi ti on al
p r aye r
book i n He br e w . A th i r d
gr oup
of th e Je w i s h
c ommun i ty op p os e d
th i s
s e p ar ati on
an d w i s h e d to c on ti n ue w h ate v e r
l oc al
p r ac ti c e s th e y
h ad h ad be for e . Th e s e
gr oup s
w e r e
agai n s t
dr as ti c
c h an ge s ,
an d h e n c e th e
n ame of th i s
gr oup
be c ame "s tatus
quo" (fr om "s tatus
quo an te ", me an i n g
"th e s tate [of
affai r s ] as be for e "). In fac t, mos t s tatus
quo c on gr e gati on s
c on duc te d th e tr adi ti on al s e r v i c e i n
muc h th e s ame
w ay
as or th odox
c on gr e gati on s (s e e Ze ke 1990). Th e Has s i di c c ommun i ti e s
r e fus e d to
be l on g
to
an y
i n s ti tuti on al fr ame w or k. In th i s ar ti c l e , I i n c l ude i n th e
c ate gor i e s
"tr adi ti on al
l i tur gi c al
mus i c " an d "or th odox r i tual " al l r i tual s th at do n ot us e
or gan .
FRIGYESI Th e Je w i s h s e r v i c e i n Commun i s t
Hun gar y:
a
p e r s on al j our n e y
143
us to v i s i t h i m i n h i s h ome . Pol n aue r
ar r an ge d
for us to r e c or d h i m i n a r oom at
th e Rabbi n i c al
Se mi n ar y.
Th e
r e c or di n g
s e s s i on s w i th Mr Eh r man n r e mai n i n
my me mor y
l i ke s ome aw kw ar d adv e n tur e . I di d n ot un de r s tan d w h at I w as
doi n g
or
w h y
I w as
doi n g
i t. I w as an
ath e i s t,
kn e w
n oth i n g
about
Judai s m,
an d
c oul d n ot at th at ti me r e ad He br e w . In
Hun gar i an
tr an s l ati on th e
p r aye r
te xts
th at Mr Eh r man n
p oi n te d
at be for e h e
be gan
to
s i n g
s oun de d
bombas ti c al l y
r e l i gi ous
to
me ,
e v e n
r e p e l l e n t
an d
dan ge r ous .
I di d n ot w an t to
ge t
i n v ol v e d i n
s ome ki n d of
"s e p ar ati s t",
Zi on i s t or
r e l i gi ous ac ti v i ty.
Afte r s e v e r al mon th s of fi e l dw or k w i th Mr Eh r man n an d oth e r
i n for man ts ,
Pol n aue r tol d us th at w e w e r e n ow
r e ady
to s e e a "r e al s h ul "
(a
s mal l
s yn a-
gogue ),
an d h e s ai d th at h e w oul d take us to a
p l ac e
th at w as
goi n g
to
s ur p r i s e
us . He took us to th e Te l e ki te r
p r aye r
h ous e .
Th i s w as th e fi r s t ti me i n mor e th an a
ye ar
of
s e ar c h i n g
th at I h e ar d a tr adi -
ti on al Je w i s h s e r v i c e . Some on e un fami l i ar w i th th e s i tuati on i n
Hun gar y
at th at
ti me
may
w on de r
w h y
I w ai te d s o
l on g. Wh y
di d I n ot v i s i t an or th odox
p r aye r
h ous e
i mme di ate l y
afte r th e c on v e r s ati on w i th Pr ofe s s or
Raj e c zky?
Afte r
al l ,
mos t of th e or th odox
p r aye r
h ous e s w e r e l i s te d i n th e Je w i s h
w e e kl y Uj
El e t.
I
h op e
th at
by
th e e n d of th i s ar ti c l e th e r e ade r w i l l un de r s tan d th e r e as on s .
Th e s oun d an d th e
atmos p h e r e
of th e
p r aye r
h ous e
i mp r e s s e d
me
be yon d
e xp e c tati on .
I w as ov e r c ome
by
amaze me n t an d
aw e ,
l i ke s ome on e
s tan di n g
at
th e
gate
of a
mys te r i ous
an d un kn ow n w or l d. It i s h ar d to r e c al l w h at i n fl ue n c e d
me
mos t,
w h e th e r i t w as th e s e c r e ti v e n atur e of th e
c on gr e gati on ,
th e
s p on tan e i ty
of th e ac ti v i ti e s of th e
p ar ti c i p an ts
or th e be auti ful
"av an t-gar de "
n oi s e -mus i c
th at fi l l e d th e r oom.
Fr om th e di s tan c e of mor e th an
tw e n ty ye ar s my
attr ac ti on to th e mus i c
of th e Je w i s h or th odox s e r v i c e s e e ms l e s s
or i gi n al
th an i t di d at th e ti me . Th e
i n te l l e c tual tr e n ds of th e 1970s
p ul l e d
th e s tude n ts of th e
Ac ade my
of Mus i c
i n
op p os i n g
di r e c ti on s . Our mus i c al "moth e r
ton gue "
w as We s te r n
mus i c ,
w i th
e mp h as i s
on th e Cl as s i c al an d Roman ti c tr adi ti on .
Al th ough
w e
c omp l e te l y
ac c e p te d
th e c an on an d th e
quas i -r e l i gi ous
r e v e r e n c e w i th w h i c h our
p r ofe s s or s
tal ke d about th e "Gr e at
Mas te r s ",
th e r e w e r e
s p ar ks
of r e be l l i on w i th i n th e w al l s
of th e
Ac ade my.
Th e r e be l l i on foun d
e xp r e s s i on
fi r s t an d for e mos t i n
my ge n e r a-
ti on 's i n te r e s t i n th e
e xp e r i me n ts
of
c on te mp or ar y
mus i c : w e w e r e
e age r
to
e xp e r i me n t
w i th mus i c th at w as n ot
p ar t
of th e Cl as s i c al an d Roman ti c c an on . In
1970 th e s o-c al l e d Ne w Mus i c Studi o w as for me d
by
a
gr oup
of
c omp os e r s
an d
mus i c i an s w h o de c i de d to me e t
r e gul ar l y
to
p e r for m mode m
an d
e xp e r i me n tal
c omp os i ti on s .
At th e Studi o's
gath e r i n gs
w e
p e r for me d
mi n i mal i s t an d oth e r
e xp e r i me n tal p i e c e s .
Sati e ,
Cage ,
Ste v e
Re i c h , Stoc kh aus e n ,
Xe n aki s an d th e
Hun gar i an
mode r n i s ts
(Kur ti g, Je n e y,
Sai r i
an d
Vi dov s zky)
w e r e our
h e r oe s ,
an d
w e made a
p i l gr i mage
to th e famous War s aw Autumn
Fe s ti v al .4
Par adoxi c al l y,
th i s
bac kgr oun d
an d c on s c i ous n e s s
p r e p ar e d
me for th e mus i c
of th e or th odox
s yn agogue . Al th ough p ar t
of th e mi n i mal i s t
r e v ol uti on ,
l i ke s ome
of th e oth e r mus i c s tude n ts , I w as al s o s ome w h at
s ke p ti c al
about i t: I c oul d n ot
4
Th e War s aw Autumn i s a fe s ti v al of
c on te mp or ar y
mus i c th at w as c r e ate d i n 1956 an d h as
c on ti n ue d
up
to th i s
day.
Th e mos t
p r e s ti gi ous
i n
Eur op e , dur i n g
th e Commun i s t
p e r i od
i t
w as th e
on l y mode m
mus i c fe s ti v al i n Eas te r n
Eur op e .
144 BRITISH JOURNAL OF ETHNOMUSICOLOGY VOL.11/i 2002
c on v i n c e
mys e l f
th at th e
e xp e r i me n tal
mus i c
"h ap p e n i n gs "
e l i c i te d th e ae s th e ti c
an d e moti on al
r e s p on s e
th at I
s ough t
i n mus i c . Wh e n I h e ar d th e s oun d of th e
or th odox
s yn agogue
for th e fi r s t ti me I l i s te n e d to i t as i f i t w e r e an
av an t-gar de
c omp os i ti on .
I foun d
s ome th i n g
i n th e mus i c th at I c oul d n ot fi n d i n th e s e s s i on s
of th e Ne w Mus i c Studi o: a
"h ap p e n i n g"
i n s ome
w ays
aki n to an al e ator i c or
mi n i mal i s t
c omp os i ti on
but w h i c h w as n e v e r th e l e s s e moti on al .
In th e
ye ar s
to c ome tw o mai n fac tor s de te r mi n e d
my
atti tude tow ar d
th e or th odox r i tual : an attr ac ti on to th e
s p i r i tual -ac ous ti c e xp e r i e n c e
c r e ate d
th r ough
th e mus i c on th e on e
h an d,
an d a
fe e l i n g
of e mbar r as s me n t be c aus e of
my
i n te r e s t i n
s ome th i n g
i n c on s i s te n t w i th th e "n or mal "
w ay
of
th i n ki n g.
In th e
fol l ow i n g p age s
I w i l l
atte mp t
to
de s c r i be , fi r s t,
th os e
as p e c ts
of th e
mus i c ,
an d
th e n th os e of th e
p ol i ti c al
mi l i e u th at c r e ate d th i s ambi v al e n t
fe e l i n g.
Th e
un i que
mus i c al fe atur e s of th e tr adi ti on al Je w i s h r i tual
If on e e n te r s an or th odox
s yn agogue e xp e c ti n g
to h e ar an
or gan i ze d p e r for man c e
th at on e c an fol l ow an d l i s te n
to,
on e i s
gr e atl y di s ap p oi n te d.
Th e
s p ac e
of th e
Je w i s h
p r aye r
h ous e i s fi l l e d w i th a
di s or de r l y
c r ow d th at i s
mov i n g, s i n gi n g,
r e c i ti n g
an d
tal ki n g, s e e mi n gl y
w i th out
an y
c oor di n ati on . Th e
p r aye r
l e ade r
s i n gs fr agme n tar y
mus i c al l i n e s .
Oc c as i on al l y,
th e r e i s a
c on gr e gati on al s on g,
us ual l y
i n a mus i c al
s tyl e
th at i s
i n c on gr uous
w i th th e r e s t of th e mus i c . Th e
mus i c al for m of th e s e r v i c e s e e ms
h ap h azar d,
w i th n o s e n s e of
s tyl i s ti c i n te gr i ty.
De tai l e d di s c us s i on of th e c on n e c ti on be tw e e n
r e l i gi ous
atti tude s an d th e s e
mus i c al de c i s i on s w oul d be e xtr an e ous h e r e be c aus e i t c on c e r n s n ot
j us t
th e
Hun gar i an
Je w i s h s e r v i c e of th e Commun i s t
p e r i od
but al s o th e Eas t As h ke n azi
s e r v i c e at
l ar ge . Ne v e r th e l e s s ,
i n or de r to al l ow th e r e ade r to un de r s tan d th e
s e r v i c e i n th e c on te xt of th e
mode m
w or l d i n
ge n e r al ,
an d of Commun i s t
Hun gar y
i n
p ar ti c ul ar ,
i t i s
n e c e s s ar y
to s ummar i ze s ome of i ts bas i c mus i c al
fe atur e s an d th e
c on c e p ts
be h i n d th e m.
Th e tr adi ti on of th e
s yn agogue
w as
bor n
fr om tw o
c on tr adi c tor y
i de as of
r i tual th at e xi s te d i n
an ti qui ty:
th e s ac r i fi c i al s e r v i c e of th e
Te mp l e
an d th e i n di -
v i dual
p r aye r .5
Th e i n h e r e n t te n s i on be tw e e n s e r v i c e an d
p r aye r ,
w h i c h i s at th e
bas i s of th e Je w i s h
r e l i gi on , p r ov i de s
th e fr ame w or k for s tr uc tur al mus i c al
de c i s i on s
up
to th i s
day.
Th e ai m of th e
Te mp l e
r i tual w as to r e fl e c t th e c os mi c
or de r an d to
p l ay
i t out
r i tual i s ti c al l y.
Ti me an d
s p ac e
ar e e s s e n ti al to th i s
c on c e p t,
as ar e th e c odi fi c ati on of th e r ul e s an d th e i n s ti tuti on of i n i ti ate d
5
Th e
Te mp l e
-
bui l t
by
Sol omon i n Je r us al e m ar oun d 1000 BCE
-
w as th e c e n tr al
p l ac e
for
Je w i s h
r e l i gi ous
r i te s for ov e r a mi l l e n n i um an d i t i s s ti l l th e
s p i r i tual
c e n tr e of Je w i s h e th n i c
c on s c i ous n e s s
today.
Th e r i te of th e
Te mp l e (de s c r i be d
i n de tai l an d c al l e d "s e r v i c e " i n th e
Ol d
Te s tame n t)
c e n tr e d
ar oun d
th e
s ac r i fi c e
an d
i n v ol v e d a
c omp l e x c e r e mon y p e r for me d by
th e c as ts of
p r i e s ts (Koh an i te s ) an d mus i c i an s
(Le v i te s ). Th e de s tr uc ti on of th e
Te mp l e
i n
586 BCE w as fol l ow e d
by
th e Je w s ' e xi l e to
Babyl on .
Afte r th e i r r e tur n to th e l an d, a s e c on d
Te mp l e w as bui l t un de r Pe r s i an r ul e at th e s ame s i te i n Je r us al e m, c omp l e te d
ar oun d 515 BCE.
Al th ough
th e
p r ac ti c e of
p r aye r
an d
l e ar n i n g
h ad e xi s te d e ar l i e r , as p e c ts
of th e
s yn agogal
s e r v i c e be c ame
s tr on ge r
an d mor e
s i gn i fi c an t dur i n g
th e
p e r i od
of th e s e c on d
Te mp l e .
Afte r
FRIGYESI Th e Je w i s h s e r v i c e i n Commun i s t
Hun gar y:
a
p e r s on al j our n e y
145
p r ofe s s i on al p r i e s ts
an d mus i c i an s . Th e ti me of th e r i tual w as a r e fl e c ti on of
c os mi c
ti me ,
an d th e r i tual w as th e
me tap h or i c al e xp r e s s i on
of th e
p l ac e
of
h uman
be i n gs
i n th e c os mi c or de r . In di v i dual n e e ds an d e moti on s h av e n o
p l ac e
i n th i s r i tual . Its
p ur p os e
w as to s e c ur e th e e xi s te n c e of th e
c ommun i ty.
In
c on tr as t, p r aye r
i s a
s p on tan e ous
ac t,
a
p e r s on al outc r y
i n th e mome n t of
di s tr e s s .
Pr aye r may
be s ai d i n
an y
for m,
at
an y
ti me an d
p l ac e
as
l on g
as i t
"c ome s fr om th e h e ar t". As
l on g
as
p r aye r
w as
p r ac ti c e d p ar al l e l
to th e
Te mp l e
s ac r i fi c e i t c oul d
p r e s e r v e
i ts
s p on tan e ous
an d
p e r s on al
c h ar ac te r .
How e v e r ,
as
e ar l y
as th e s e c on d
Te mp l e p e r i od p r aye r
took on a n e w fun c ti on . It be c ame
s e r v i c e -
an d,
afte r th e de s tr uc ti on of th e s e c on d
Te mp l e ,
th e
on l y
for m of
s e r v i c e . Th i s n ov e l for m of
s e r v i c e ,
w h i c h
di s p e n s e d
w i th th e s ac r i fi c i al r i te of
th e
Te mp l e
an d
p l ac e d
th e
c on gr e gati on al me e ti n gs
i n th e
s yn agogue
at th e
c e n tr e ,
ge n e r ate d
a
c omp l e te l y
n e w
c on c e p t
of
r e l i gi on .
In th i s n e w
c on c e p t
th e r e i s n o me di ator . Th e s e r v i c e th at i s bui l t of
p r aye r
i s ac c e s s i bl e to
e v e r yon e
an d i t i s th e
obl i gati on
of
e v e r yon e .
Ye t
"p r aye r
as s e r v i c e " i s an i de al th at i s
v i r tual l y i mp os s i bl e
to r e al i ze i n
p r ac ti c e .
Th e i n di v i dual c an n ot be
e xp e c te d
to
p our
out h i s
h e ar t,
w i th th e
s p on tan e i ty
of an
outc r y,
at a
p r e c i s e
mome n t th r e e ti me s a
day.
Th e fi r s t
s te p
tow ar ds
s ol v i n g
th i s
p r obl e m
c ame w i th th e i n v e n ti on of th e
"s tatutor y p r aye r ".
Pr aye r
te xts w e r e
c odi fi e d,
me mor i ze d an d
gr adual l y ac c e p te d
as
"s e r v i c e ",
e qual
i n th e i r s tatus to th e s ac r i fi c i al r i te . Th e r e c i tati on of s ac r e d te xts w as
e n dow e d w i th e n or mous
p ow e r :
th e ac t of th e
"r e adi n g
of th e s ac r e d te xt" c ame
to c on s ti tute th e r i tual .
Th e
s tr uc tur e ,
l ogi c
an d r h e tor i c of th e s e s ac r e d te xts ar e di ffe r e n t fr om
th os e of a mode m te xt. Th e s ac r e d te xt doe s n ot i n for m i n di ffe r e n t r e ade r s
about
s ome th i n g th e y
do n ot kn ow . It c an n ot be
"un de r s tood",
n or doe s i t
"i n fl ue n c e " or
"e n l i gh te n ".
Th e s e te xts
s p e ak on l y
to th os e w h o
al r e ady
kn ow
th e i r
un de r l yi n g me s s age . Th e y
ar ti c ul ate th e s ame
th i n g
w i th i n fi n i te v ar i a-
ti on s , n ame l y,
be l i e f i n th e w h ol e n e s s an d th e
mys te r i ous
n atur e of th e
un i v e r s e ,
or to
p ut
i t
s i mp l y:
be l i e f i n God. Th e
r e adi n g
of th e te xt affi r ms th at
th e i n di v i dual i s
p ar t
of th e
s p i r i tual
w or l d,
i n oth e r
w or ds ,
th at th e i n di v i dual
e xi s ts as
s p i r i t,
as s oul .
Th i s l e ads us to As h ke n azi
l i tur gi c al
mus i c ,
w h i c h
e s s e n ti al l y
c on s i s ts of
th e
p r e s e n tati on
of th e s ac r e d te xts . Th e
r e l i gi ous
te xts s h oul d
al w ays
be r e ad
i n a r i tual i ze d
man n e r ,
w h i c h i n
p r ac ti c e
me an s me l odi c
r e adi n g (r e c i tati on ).
Re c i tati on i s n ot
r e gar de d
as mus i c .
My
i n for man ts c on tr adi c te d me w h e n I
s ai d I w as
r e c or di n g
"th e i r
s i n gi n g";
"We do n ot
s i n g;
w e
s ay
th e
p r aye r s ", th e y
s ai d. In th i s
tr adi ti on ,
"to
p r ay"
me an s to r e c i te w i th
me l ody.
Fr om th e r e l i -
gi ous
an d r i tual
p oi n t
of
v i e w ,
th e r e i s n o di ffe r e n c e be tw e e n w h at s oun ds to us
l i ke n on -mus i c al i n ton e d
r e adi n g, s i mp l e
r e c i tati on ,
an d
p l e as i n g
me l odi ous
mus i c al
p r oc e s s .
Th e
p r ac ti ti on e r s
h e ar th e s e di ffe r e n c e s but do n ot attac h
th e de s tr uc ti on of th e s e c on d
Te mp l e by
th e Roman s i n 70 CE, th e
s yn agogue
be c ame th e
c e n tr e of th e Je w i s h
r e l i gi on .
Th e dual
l e gac y
of s e r v i c e an d
p r aye r
an d th e
s i gn i fi c an c e
of
th i s
dual i ty
for th e
r e l i gi on
an d i ts mus i c , w h i c h I de s c r i be i n th e
fol l ow i n g s e c ti on , i s
e xp l ai n e d
i n mor e de tai l i n s e v e r al of
my
ar ti c l e s
(e .g. Fr i gye s i 1999, 2000 an d 2001).
146 BRITISH JOURNAL OF ETHNOMUSICOLOGY VOL.11/i 2002
r e l i gi ous i mp or tan c e
to th e m. In th e
r i tual ,
th e
di v i di n g
l i n e i s n ot be tw e e n
s p o-
ke n te xt an d
s i n gi n g,
s i n c e
s p oke n
te xt doe s n ot e xi s t at al l . Th e
s e p ar ati on
i s
be tw e e n w r i tte n te xt
(w h i c h
i s c on s i de r e d to be
i n c omp r e h e n s i bl e
an d w i th out
l i fe )
an d i ts r i tual
r e adi n g (w h i c h
i s
al w ays "mus i c ").
Ev e r y p e r s on
r e c i te s th e te xts
di ffe r e n tl y,
an d th e s ame
p e r s on may
r e c i te
th e s ame te xt
di ffe r e n tl y
e ac h ti me h e
p r ays .
Th i s fl e xi bl e mus i c al
de s i gn
i s th e
e xp r e s s i on
of th e
r e l i gi ous
de man d th at
e v e r y
i n di v i dual h as to
p r ay
on h i s
ow n . Th e
fl e xi bi l i ty
of th e mus i c
h e l p s
to r e s ol v e s ome w h at th e
p r obl e m
i n h e r e n t i n th e
c on c e p t
of Je w i s h
r i tual ,
th at i t i s
s i mul tan e ous l y "p r aye r "
an d
"s e r v i c e ." On e c oul d
s ay
th at th e de man d of th e s e r v i c e i s me t
by
th e
p r e c i s e
r e adi n g
of th e
s tatutor y
te xt an d th e de man d of e moti on an d
p e r s on al i ty
i s
matc h e d
by
th e
fl e xi bi l i ty
of th e mus i c al
p e r for man c e .
Th us ,
tr adi ti on al Je w i s h r i tual
c on s i s ts ,
i n
e s s e n c e ,
of
mul ti p l e
r i tual s
c on duc te d
by
i n di v i dual s . Si n c e
e v e r y
i n di v i dual r e c i te s th e e n ti r e te xt of th e
s e r v i c e on h i s ow n an d i n h i s ow n
s tyl e ,
th e s e r v i c e i s
h e te r op h on i c .
Th e
p r aye r
l e ade r i s n ot th e me di ator be tw e e n th e
c on gr e gati on
an d God. He fun c ti on s
on l y
as th e
"e mi s s ar y
of th e
c on gr e gati on " (th i s
i s w h at h e i s c al l e d i n
He br e w ).
He r e ads th e te xt for th os e w h o ar e un abl e to r e ad i t
p r op e r l y.
He al s o r e c i te s
c e r tai n
p ar ts
of th e te xt al oud i n or de r to c oor di n ate th e i n di v i dual
p r aye r s
to
s ome
de gr e e .
Th e r e ar e tr adi ti on al
p r ac ti c e s c on c e r n i n g
w h i c h
p ar t
of th e te xt
s h oul d be r e c i te d al oud. In s ome c as e s th e
p r aye r
l e ade r
r e p e ats
th e e n ti r e
p r aye r
afte r th e
c on gr e gati on
h as r e ad i t. In
oth e r s ,
h e r e c i te s th e
be gi n n i n g
an d th e e n d of e ac h s e c ti on
al oud,
i n
p ar al l e l
w i th th e
c on gr e gati on 's r e adi n g
of
th e s ame te xt.
Th e
h e te r op h on i c
s oun d of
mul ti p l e
i n di v i dual
r e c i tati on s ,
w i th
s e e mi n gl y
ar bi tr ar y i n te r p ol ati on s by
th e
p r aye r
l e ade r ,
i s on e of th e mos t
s tr i ki n g
mus i c al
fe atur e s of th e Eas t
Eur op e an
Je w i s h r i tual .
Ne v e r th e l e s s ,
i n di v i dual i ty e xp r e s s e s
i ts e l f w i th i n a fr ame w or k th at i s
n e goti ate d amon g
th e me mbe r s of th e c ommu-
n i ty.
As
e v e r y
i n di v i dual
de v e l op s
h i s ow n c h ar ac te r i n
p r aye r ,
c ommun i ti e s
al s o
de v e l op
th e i r c h ar ac te r i s ti c mus i c al atti tude s . In di v i dual s
may
l e av e on e
c ommun i ty
an d
j oi n
an oth e r
s i mp l y
be c aus e th e
p ac e
an d
s tyl e
of th e
p r aye r
at
th e n e w
p l ac e
ac c or d be tte r w i th th e i r
p e r s on al i ti e s .
In th e tr adi ti on al s e r v i c e th e
c on gr e gati on r ar e l y s i n gs toge th e r .
Ne v e r th e -
l e s s ,
c on gr e gati on al s i n gi n g
i s c on s i de r e d to be
i mp or tan t
be c aus e i t r e i n for c e s
th e
fe e l i n g
of
toge th e r n e s s ,
an d al s o be c aus e i t
br i n gs
c on tr as t to th e fl ow of
r e c i tati on .
Si mp l i fyi n g
s ome w h at,
on e c an
s ay
th at th e
c on ti n ui ty
of th e r e c i tati on
c or r e s p on ds
to th e s ac r e d
s p h e r e ,
w h i l e
c on gr e gati on al s i n gi n g
of s e l f-c on tai n e d
me tr i c
s on gs c or r e s p on ds
to th e s e c ul ar
s p h e r e (al th ough
w i th i n th e r i tual
n oth i n g
i s
e n ti r e l y s e c ul ar ).
Be c aus e th e Je w i s h
r e l i gi on
c on s i de r s i t e s s e n ti al to
br i n g
th e
p ol e s
of
r e al i ty toge th e r ,
th e s e r v i c e
(th e e xp r e s s i on
of th e s ac r e d
p ar e xc e l l e n c e )
c an n ot do w i th out
s on g (th e e xp r e s s i on
of th e
s e c ul ar ). Son gs ap p e ar
i n th e
l i tur gy
l i ke i s l an ds , te mp or ar i l y s us p e n di n g
th e s ac r e d
s p h e r e
of th e r e c i tati on .
Tr adi ti on al c ommun i ti e s h av e di ffe r e n t atti tude s to "r e c i tati on " an d
"s on g".
For al l i ts
i n di v i dual i ty,
me l odi c r e c i tati on fol l ow s a tr adi ti on al s e t of r ul e s th at
de te r mi n e s th e fr ame w or k for me l odi c an d
r h yth mi c p r ogr e s s i on .
Th i s fr ame -
w or k i s c al l e d n us ah
(l i t. "s tyl e "
or
"v e r s i on ").
Th e n us ah i s c on s i de r e d to be
FRIGYESI Th e Je w i s h s e r v i c e i n Commun i s t
Hun gar y:
a
p e r s on al j our n e y
147
an c i e n t an d c an n ot be
r e p l ac e d
or di s c ar de d. It al l ow s for i n fi n i te
p e r s on al
v ar i -
ati on s but w i th i n
c l e ar l y
s e t boun dar i e s .
By
c on tr as t,
th e
typ e
of
s on g
i n c l ude d
i n r i tual s i s n ot
p r e s c r i be d by
c odi fi e d r ul e s but i s i n s te ad
n e goti ate d by
th e
c ommun i ty. Man y
di ffe r e n t
typ e s
of
s on g,
s uc h as fol k
s on gs ,
mode m
an d
p op ul ar s on gs ,
Pr ote s tan t c h or al e s an d
op e r ati c
c h or us e s ,
may
be i n c l ude d.
In
s ummar y,
w e c oul d
s ay
th at th e mus i c al
as p e c t
of
p r aye r
r e c i tati on me di -
ate s be tw e e n th e
c on c e p ts
of "s e r v i c e " an d
"p r aye r ".
Th e fac ts th at th e te xt i s
r e ad w i th
me l ody (an d
th us i s
s tyl i ze d/r i tual i ze d)
an d th at th e
gl obal
fr ame -
w or k of th e
me l ody
i s c odi fi e d
(n us ah ) r e s p on d
to th e de man d of th e
obl i gator y
n atur e of th e
s e r v i c e ,
w h i l e th e
fl e xi bi l i ty
of th e
s h ap e
of th e
me l ody
i n th e
i n di v i dual e xe c uti on s
e xp r e s s e s
th e i de a of
s p on tan e i ty
an d
i n di v i dual i ty
i n th e
p r aye r .
Th e
total i ty
of th e mus i c of th e
s yn agogue ,
th e n ,
me di ate s be tw e e n th e
p ol ar i ty
of s ac r e d/tr an s c e n de n tal an d
s e c ul ar /e ar th l y/c ommun al th r ough
th e
s tyl i s ti c op p os i ti on
of th e
s tyl e s
of th e fl ui d
p r aye r
r e c i tati on on th e on e h an d
an d of th e me tr i c
s on gs
on th e oth e r .
Th e r e s ul t i s a s e r v i c e th at i s ful l of te n s i on . On e mome n t th e
c ommun i ty
i s
r e c i ti n g
an
ar c h ai c -s oun di n g
r e c i tati v e
h e te r op h on i c al l y,
an d th e n e xt th e
c on gr e gati on
i s
s i n gi n g
a
p op ul ar s on g.
Th e
e xp e r i e n c e
i s di ffi c ul t to tr an s mi t
to th e outs i de r be c aus e th e r e i s n o
ov e r r i di n g
mus i c al e ffe c t. Wh at on e
e xp e r i -
e n c e s
i s ,
fi r s t an d
for e mos t,
w h at on e doe s for
on e s e l f;
th i s r i tual i s n ot me an t
for
l i s te n i n g
but for
p r ac ti c e .
Th e We s te r n
c ate gor i e s
of
"te xt", "mus i c ",
"r e ad-
i n g", "un de r s tan di n g"
an d "ar t" ar e i r r e l e v an t h e r e . Th i s mus i c i s
un i que l y
un s ui tabl e for
c on c e r t,
for r e v i v al
mov e me n t,
for us e as a mus i c al e mbl e m for
"n ati on al c ul tur e ",
an d e v e n for
e th n ogr ap h i c r e c or di n g.
Th e
mode m
Je w s w e r e as h ame d of th e
"di s or gan i ze d"
n oi s e an d th e e c l e c -
ti c for m of th e tr adi ti on al s e r v i c e . Th i s w as th e ki n d of s e r v i c e th at Ge r man
Je w s of th e
e ar l y
n i n e te e n th
c e n tur y
c on s i de r e d to be "bar bar i c " an d de c i de d
to
c h an ge
i n or de r to
s ati s fy
th e c ul tur al -mus i c al tas te s of th e i r ti me s . Th e
Ge r man
c an tor s ,
w h o c r e ate d th e s o-c al l e d Re for m s e r v i c e at th at
ti me ,
n otate d
th e tr adi ti on al me l odi e s of th e
p r aye r
l e ade r an d c odi fi e d th e s e me l odi e s .
Th e
c on gr e gati on
w as
r e qui r e d
to be s i l e n t an d l i s te n to th e
s i n gi n g
of th e
c an tor .
Al th ough
th e r e for me r s us e d v e r s i on s of th e
n us ah ,
th e i n n ov ati on as
a w h ol e h as
c h an ge d
th e r i tual
c omp l e te l y.
In th e n e w r i tual th e i n di v i dual
n o
l on ge r p r ays for h i ms e l f
i n a man n e r th at w oul d be audi bl e to th e w h ol e
c ommun i ty.
Rath e r ,
a
p r ofe s s i on al
c an tor
s i n gs for
an audi e n c e . "Ri tual
r e adi n g"
i s
r e p l ac e d by
"ar ti s ti c
mus i c ",
an d th e
c on gr e gati on
be c ome s th e
p as s i v e
r e c i p i e n t
of a c on c e r t.
Th e
p r obl e mati c
n atur e of Je w i s h
"e th n i c i ty"
an d
"r e l i gi on "
an d th e
mar gi n al i zati on
of th e or th odox
c ommun i ty
Si n c e th e n i n e te e n th
c e n tur y
th e Je w i s h an d n on -Je w i s h
i n te l l i ge n ts i a
h av e s e e n
l i ttl e v al ue i n th e or th odox s e r v i c e an d h av e be c ome
i n c r e as i n gl y
e mbar r as s e d
by
i t. In th e s h ame , di s c omfor t an d c on fus i on th at I fe l t
dur i n g my
fi r s t r e c or d-
i n g
s e s s i on s w i th Mr
Eh r man n ,
I l i v e d
th r ough
th e an xi e ti e s of
ge n e r ati on s
of
148
BRITISH JOURNAL OF ETHNOMUSICOLOGY VOL.11/i 2002
Je w s be for e me . Th e r oots of th e s e an xi e ti e s c an be foun d i n th e
p r oc e s s
of
as s i mi l ati on i n
Hun gar y,
w h i c h w as s i mi l ar to th at of oth e r Ce n tr al
Eur op e an
c oun tr i e s .
Ne v e r th e l e s s ,
for v ar i ous s oc i al an d
p ol i ti c al
r e as on s i ts
p r obl e mati c
n atur e w as e v e n mor e
ap p ar e n t
i n
Hun gar y.
Fr om i ts
i n c e p ti on ,
th at
i s ,
fr om th e mi ddl e of th e n i n e te e n th
c e n tur y,
th e
as s i mi l ati on of Je w s i n
Hun gar y
w as
fr augh t
w i th c on tr adi c ti on .6 In th e
e ye s
of th e
Hun gar i an s
th e
e man c i p ate d
Je w s w e r e e xc e l l e n t c an di date s for th e i r
mov e me n t of
magyar i zati on ,7
but
on l y
as
l on g
as
th e y
w e r e n ot
r e gar de d
as an
e th n i c
gr oup . Le gi s l ati on
s tate d
c l e ar l y
th at Judai s m w as
e xc l us i v e l y
a
r e l i gi on .
Th i s w as an obv i ous
gai n
for th e n ati on al i s ts be c aus e Je w i s h n e s s fe l l un de r th e
r ubr i c of
"r e l i gi on "
r ath e r th an
e th n i c i ty
an d h e n c e Je w s w h o de c l ar e d th e m-
s e l v e s to be of
Hun gar i an n ati on al i ty
i n c r e as e d th e n umbe r of
Hun gar i an s
i n
n ati on al s tati s ti c s . Th i s w as of c r uc i al
i mp or tan c e
for th e
magyar i zi n g
n ati on al i s t
mov e me n t i n a
c oun tr y
w h e r e th e
Magyar
e th n i c
gr oup
di d n ot for m th e
maj or -
i ty
of th e
p op ul ati on (Kar ti dy 1992:25).
Gov e r n me n t
r e gul ati on s
al s o
p r e s s ur e d
th e Je w i s h
c ommun i ty
to c ur tai l th e "c on s e r v ati v e " an d "bar bar i c "
as p e c ts
of i ts
r e l i gi on
s o as to
br i n g
i t mor e i n l i n e w i th
"n or mal ",
i .e .
Ch r i s ti an ,
p r ac ti c e s .
Th e
tr adi ti on al
as p e c ts
of th e Je w i s h
r e l i gi on
w e r e c on s i de r e d outdate d an d atav i s -
ti c ,
h i n de r i n g
th e
de v e l op me n t
of a l i be r al
mode m s ys te m (Ge r d 1992:9-15).
In th i s
p r oc e s s
of
as s i mi l ati on ,
th e tw o c or n e r s ton e s of Judai s m
c ol l ap s e d:
e th n i c c on s c i ous n e s s w as
e l i mi n ate d,
an d
tr ul y
di ffe r e n t
c on c e p ts
of
r e l i gi on
an d r i tual w e r e de e me d outmode d. For
man y
of th e as s i mi l ate d Je w s be for e
Wor l d War
II,
Judai s m c ame to me an l i ttl e mor e th an a mor al atti tude
(Fr i gye s i
1993:40-3,
an d 1998:
Ch ap te r
6;
Kr o6
1989,
Pap
1935,
Zs ol t
1980).
In
Hun gar y
a s ubs tan ti al
gr oup
i n th e Je w i s h
c ommun i ty,
th e Je w s of
Budap e s t,
s ur v i v e d th e Hol oc aus t. Un l i ke i n th e
Hun gar i an c oun tr ys i de ,
an d
un l i ke
an yw h e r e
e l s e i n Ce n tr al
Eur op e ,
an d
p e r h ap s
i n c on ti n e n tal
Eur op e
as a
w h ol e ,
i n
Budap e s t
th e r e w as a
p os s i bi l i ty
for th e c on ti n uati on of Je w i s h l i fe
afte r th e w ar i n both th e as s i mi l ate d an d th e tr adi ti on al
r e l i gi ous
Je w i s h mi l i e u.
Th i s , h ow e v e r ,
di d n ot
h ap p e n .
Th e Commun i s ts c oul d n ot ac c ommodate th e
i de a of oth e r n e s s an d de man de d total as s i mi l ati on . Th e i de a
th at,
for s ome
Je w s ,
Je w i s h
i de n ti ty
matte r e d mor e th an th e i de al s of Commun i s m
c h al l e n ge d
th e e n ti r e
s ys te m,
as c an be s e e n i n th e r h e tor i c of th e Zi on i s t tr i al s
(s e e Gydr i
Szab6 1997:219, 229-50,
Cs or ba
1990:86-123). Al th ough
th e r e w e r e
gr e at
di ffe r e n c e s i n th e tr e atme n t of th e Je w s an d al s o i n th e r h e tor i c
agai n s t
th e m
i n th e c our s e of th e four de c ade s of
Commun i s m,
th e
i de ol ogi c al bac kgr oun d
di d n ot
c h an ge .
As i n al l
p r e v i ous
ti me s ,
th e di s s i de n ts of th e 1970s w e r e
r e p r oac h e d
for
be i n g "s e p ar ati s ts ".
6
Ce r tai n de moc r ati c -mi n de d
l e gi s l ati on s
w e r e i n tr oduc e d i n
Hun gar y
e ar l i e r th an i n mos t
c oun tr i e s i n
Eur op e . How e v e r ,
Hun gar y
al s o r ati fi e d an ti -Se mi ti c
l e gi s l ati on ye ar s
e ar l i e r
th an Nazi
Ge r man y.
In 1920 th e s o-c al l e d n ume r us c l aus e s , w h i c h l i mi te d th e n umbe r of
Je w s i n
h i gh e r
e duc ati on an d i n te l l e c tual
p r ofe s s i on s ,
e l e v ate d an ti -Se mi ti s m to
l e gal
s tatus .
7 "Magyar "
i s th e n ati v e w or d for
Hun gar i an
an d i s us e d i n
En gl i s h l an guage s c h ol ar l y
w r i ti n g
to me an e th n i c
Hun gar i an as
op p os e d
to
"Hun gar i an ",
w h i c h r e fe r s to a c i ti ze n of
Hun gar y r e gar dl e s s
of
e th n i c i ty.
FRIGYESI Th e Je w i s h s e r v i c e i n Commun i s t
Hun gar y:
a
p e r s on al j our n e y
149
It
may
s e e m at fi r s t
s i gh t
th at th e di ffe r e n c e be tw e e n th e Je w i s h
w or l dv i e w
of
th e
p r e -w ar p e r i od
an d th at of th e Commun i s t e r a w as
on l y
a matte r of
de gr e e :
be gi n n i n g
w i th th e
1950s ,
far fe w e r Je w s
p r ac ti c e d
th e
r e l i gi on
an d as s i mi l ati on
w as mor e abs ol ute . In
r e al i ty,
h ow e v e r ,
th e
c h an ge
w e n t
de e p e r
th an th at.
Th r ough out
th e fi r s t h al f of th e tw e n ti e th
c e n tur y,
th e
op p os i ti on
be tw e e n
tr adi ti on al an d
as s i mi l ati n g
atti tude s w as
mai n l y i de ol ogi c al .
Extr e me tr adi -
ti on al i s m an d
c omp l e te
as s i mi l ati on
p r ov i de d
th e
c on c e p tual
fr ame w or k i n
w h i c h
p e op l e
foun d i n di v i dual s ol uti on s . Th e
maj or i ty
of th e Je w i s h c ommu-
n i ty n e goti ate d
i ts
i de ol ogy
an d
p r ac ti c e
be tw e e n th e s e tw o
p os i ti on s .
Th e
n umbe r of Je w s w h o l i v e d i s ol ate d fr om th e r e s t of th e
c oun tr y
w as
v e r y
s mal l ,
i f th e r e w e r e s uc h
gr oup s
at al l . Ev e n i n th e n or th e as te r n
r e gi on
of
Hun gar y
w h e r e mos t of th e
i mmi gr an ts
fr om Gal i c i a
s e ttl e d,
th e Je w s s oon took
p ar t
i n
s e c ul ar
Hun gar i an
l i fe ,
an d
man y
l e ar n e d
Hun gar i an .
My
i n te r v i e w s about l i fe s tor i e s an d Je w i s h
p r ac ti c e s
be for e Wor l d War
II
atte s t to th e
man y c omp l e x i n te r c h an ge s
be tw e e n tr adi ti on al i s m an d
mode r n i ty,
an d be tw e e n Je w i s h an d n on -Je w i s h
s oc i e ty.8
It i s c l e ar fr om th e s e i n te r v i e w s
th at th e or th odox
c ommun i ti e s ,
both i n th e
l ar ge
c i ti e s an d th e s mal l
v i l l age s ,
i n te r ac te d w i th th e i r br oade r s oc i al e n v i r on me n t an d s aw n o
p r obl e m
i n i n c or -
p or ati n g p atte r n s
of th e i r n on -Je w i s h
n e i gh bour s
i n to th e i r
l i fe s tyl e
an d c ul tur e .
In s ome c as e s th e
dual i ty
of tr adi ti on al i s m on th e on e h an d an d
op e n n e s s
to
mode m
c ul tur e on th e oth e r w as a c on s c i ous
de c i s i on ,
as i n th e
c on gr e gati on
of
th e Rumbac h Str e e t
s yn agogue
i n
Budap e s t.
Me mbe r s of th at
c ommun i ty
w e r e
s tr i c t i n th e obs e r v an c e of
r e l i gi ous
l aw ,
ye t th e y
w e n t to th e
op e r a
an d th e atr e
an d r e ad
mode m
Hun gar i an p oe tr y
an d n ov e l s .
If w e l ook at th e
s e gme n t
of th e
s oc i e ty
th at
ur ge d
as s i mi l ati on ,
w e fi n d th e
s ame
me r gi n g
of i de as an d
l i fe s tyl e .
Ce r tai n
as p e c ts
of th e l i v e s of th e
n e ol og
c on gr e gati on s
w e r e n o di ffe r e n t fr om th os e of th e or th odox. Ev e n
amon g
th os e
w h o al i e n ate d th e ms e l v e s fr om th e
r e l i gi on ,
w e fi n d
v e r y
fe w w h o w e r e
i gn o-
r an t of Judai s m an d of th e Je w i s h
que s ti on .
In th e
1920s ,
th e r e w as a Je w i s h
c ul tur al r e v i v al
amon g
th e
i n te l l i ge n ts i a (s e e
Cs or ba
1990).
Je w s w e r e
ac ti v e l y
p ubl i s h i n g
mate r i al on Je w i s h
i s s ue s ,
l i te r al l y
un ti l th e mome n t
th e y
w e r e
p ut
on tr ai n s to c on c e n tr ati on
c amp s .9
In th e 1950s th i s c on te xt
di s ap p e ar e d e n ti r e l y. Di al ogue
w as
i mp os s i bl e
s i mp l y
be c aus e th e Commun i s t
r e gi me
di d n ot al l ow
an y
for um
w h e r e
que s -
ti on s of Je w i s h
i de n ti ty
an d tr adi ti on c oul d be di s c us s e d. In
Jan uar y
1949,
th e
Commun i s t
Par ty e xp e l l e d
th e Zi on i s t l e ade r s an d for c e d Je w i s h
or gan i zati on s
to c l os e .
On l y
a fe w
r e l i gi ous
e s tabl i s h me n ts r e mai n e d
op e n
an d on e Je w i s h
n e w s p ap e r , Li j
El e t,
w as al l ow e d to
ap p e ar
- on c e a mon th on four
p age s .
Ide as
about
Judai s m,
Is r ae l an d
r e l i gi on
w e r e to a
l ar ge
e xte n t s i l e n c e d.
8
In s i gh ts
i n to th e
p r e -w ar p e r i od
w e r e
gai n e d th r ough
i n te r v i e w s w i th Je n G
R6th
be tw e e n
1977 an d 1980, an d Mi r ton F6ti , Av r oh om Tzv i Er bs t, Gydr gy K~i r m~i n , Emi l Goi te n an d
Mr s 1v a Obe r l an de r be tw e e n 1990 an d 2001.
9
In 1944 Je w i s h c ul tur al l i fe s ti l l fl our i s h e d. Doze n s of n e w books w e r e
p ubl i s h e d,
i n c l ud-
i n g an th ol ogi e s , e s s ays ,
h i s tor i c al w or ks , n ov e l s , p oe tr y
an d tr an s l ati on s of
for e i gn
l i te r atur e
an d
s c h ol ar l y
w or ks (s e e Szabol c s i
1992 an d Ste i n e r 1944).
150
BRITISH JOURNAL OF ETHNOMUSICOLOGY VOL.11/i 2002
Th e l ac k of
di al ogue
c r e ate d an
un br i dge abl e gap
be tw e e n th e
i de ol ogy
of
th e as s i mi l ate d an d th e
r e l i gi ous
c ommun i ti e s . For th e as s i mi l ate d an d
mos tl y
Commun i s t
Je w s ,
th e
p os i ti on
of th e or th odox
c ommun i ty
s e e me d abs ur d. To
r e tai n a s e t of
"me an i n gl e s s
an d r i di c ul ous " c us toms an d to r e v i v e "n ati on al i s t
i de al s "
(by e mp h as i zi n g
th e e th n i c
as p e c ts
of
Judai s m)
s e e me d s h ame ful i n
th e i r
e ye s .
For th e s e Je w s th e tr adi ti on al Je w i s h s e r v i c e w as an abe r r ati on . Th e
or th odox Je w s l i v e d i n a
c omp l e te l y
di ffe r e n t
r e al i ty. Th e y
c oul d n ot
i magi n e
h ow Je w s c oul d
gi v e up
th e i r
tr adi ti on ,
for ge t
th e c ul tur e for w h i c h th e i r
p ar e n ts
h ad
di e d,
an d be l i e v e th e Commun i s t
s l ogan s .
Fr om th e i r
p e r s p e c ti v e ,
th e as s i mi l ate d Commun i s t Je w s w e r e bl i n d an d th e i r atti tude w as
i n c omp r e -
h e n s i bl e an d i mmor al .
Today
w h e n I as k
mys e l f w h y
Pr ofe s s or Al e xan de r Sc h e i be r s e n t us to th e
l i br ar y
to r e s e ar c h Je w i s h mus i c i n s te ad of
di r e c ti n g
us to th e
n e ar by
or th odox
s yn agogue ,
I s ti l l c an n ot be s ur e of h i s moti v ati on . It
may
be th at h e w an te d to
p r ote c t
us fr om th e
c h ar ge s
of
"s e p ar ati s m"
an d
"r e l i gi ous n e s s "
an d
th ough t
th at
s i l e n t w or k i n th e
l i br ar y
w as
r e l ati v e l y
s afe for tw o
youn g
s tude n ts . Or
p e r h ap s
h e h i ms e l f w as
s us p i c i ous
of th e or th odox
c ommun i ty
an d
de s p i s e d
i ts "di s or -
de r l y"
s e r v i c e s . Afte r
al l ,
h e w as th e l e ade r of th e
"e n l i gh te n e d" n e ol og
Je w s .
How e v e r ,
i t c oul d
s i mp l y
be
th at,
as a tr adi ti on al
p h i l ol ogi s t,
h e
th ough t
of s c h ol -
ar s h i p e xc l us i v e l y
i n te r ms of w r i tte n
s our c e s ,
ar c h i v e s an d l i br ar i e s . At
an y r ate ,
i n
s p i te
of our
fr i e n dl y r e l ati on s h i p
w i th h i m un ti l our
e mi gr ati on
an d
afte r ,
w e
n e v e r c on fr on te d h i m w i th th i s
que s ti on .
Th e
p os s i bi l i ty
th at h i s adv i c e h ad a
p ol i ti c al
moti v ati on w as
e n ough
for us to av oi d th e i s s ue
c omp l e te l y.
Th e c h ar ac te r an d s tatus of th e or th odox Je w i s h r i tual i n
Commun i s t
Hun gar y
It i s
agai n s t
th i s
bac kgr oun d
th at th e
dw i n dl i n g r e l i gi ous
c ommun i ti e s mai n -
tai n e d tr adi ti on al Je w i s h r i tual un de r Commun i s m. Th e r i tual be c ame
c omp l e te l y
i s ol ate d fr om th e mai n s tr e am c ul tur e of th e
c oun tr y an d,
mor e
i mp or tan t,
fr om
th at of th e
l e adi n g
Je w i s h
gr oup
i n
Hun gar y.
Th e Je w i s h mi ddl e
c l as s ,
w h i c h
w as th e mos t
p ow e r ful
Je w i s h
s e gme n t
i n
p os t-Wor l d
War
II
Hun gar y,
c om-
p l e te l y
aban don e d th e c aus e of th e
r e l i gi ous
Je w s ,
p ar tl y
be c aus e of th e i n h e r i te d
Roman ti c
i de ol ogy
of
as s i mi l ati on ,
an d
p ar tl y
be c aus e of th e
p r e s s ur e s
of th e
Commun i s t
r e gi me .
Me mbe r s of th e or th odox
c on gr e gati on
w e n t to th e s e r v i c e s
s e c r e tl y
an d ofte n di d n ot di s c us s th e m w i th th e i r
c ol l e ague s
or e v e n w i th Je w i s h
fr i e n ds .
Th e y
w or ke d out v ar i ous
s tr ate gi e s
to atte n d th e s e r v i c e on th e
Sh abbat,
w h i c h w as a
w or ki n g day,
an d to
s tay aw ay
fr om w or k on th e Je w i s h
h ol i days .
Th e or th odox s e r v i c e s be c ame l i ke a s e c r e t
un de r gr oun d ac ti v i ty.
In tr adi ti on al Je w i s h l i fe th e r i tual i s n ot th e c e n tr al
p ar t
of th e
r e l i gi on .
Th e
e mp h as i s
i s r ath e r on
r e l i gi ous
r ul e s th at
gov e r n dai l y
l i fe outs i de of th e
s yn agogue .
Th e s e r ul e s be c ame
n e ar l y i mp os s i bl e
to
ke e p dur i n g
th e Commu-
n i s t e r a. For i n s tan c e , Satur day
w as a
w or ki n g day, an d, fur th e r mor e , be c aus e
of th e
h ous i n g s h or tage
Je w s w e r e n ot
al w ays
abl e to l i v e n e ar a
s yn agogue .
Th us
th e y
h ad to tr av e l on Sh abbat an d br e ak th e Je w i s h
p r oh i bi ti on s agai n s t
w or k an d tr av e l on Sh abbat.
FRIGYESI Th e Je w i s h s e r v i c e i n Commun i s t
Hun gar y:
a
p e r s on al j our n e y
151
In th i s s i tuati on th e r i tual be c ame e n dow e d w i th
s p e c i al i mp or tan c e .
Th e l e s s
th e or th odox Je w s c oul d be
r e l i gi ous
i n th e i r
e v e r yday
e xi s te n c e ,
th e mor e
i mp or tan t
i t be c ame for th e m to
p r e s e r v e
th e r i tual
i n tac t,
i n c l udi n g
i ts mus i c al
as p e c t.
Th e r i tual be c ame an
e s c ap e
i n to a w or l d th at w as di s tan c e d fr om th e i r
dai l y r e al i ty.
Th us ,
a
p e c ul i ar
s i tuati on
de v e l op e d
i n Commun i s t
Hun gar y:
w h e r e as
man y
of th e or th odox Je w s w e r e
n e gl i ge n t
i n
ke e p i n g
th e
r e l i gi ous
r ul e s i n th e i r
dai l y p r ac ti c e s , th e y
i n s i s te d on th e tr adi ti on al for ms of th e s e r v i c e .
Th i s c i r c ums tan c e l e d to an i n c r e as e d e ffor t to
p r e s e r v e
th e for m of th e r i tual .
Th e s e c ommun i ti e s
as p i r e d
to
c ar r y
on th e l oc al
p r ac ti c e s
of th e
p as t
to a muc h
gr e ate r de gr e e
th an di d mos t of th e n on -Has s i di c Ame r i c an an d Is r ae l i
c on gr e -
gati on s
i n th e s ame
p e r i od.
In
i s ol ati on ,
th e i r
on l y
mode l for th e for m of th e
s e r v i c e w as th e i r
me mor y
of th e
p as t.
In a
s e n s e ,
th e Je w i s h s e r v i c e i n
Hun gar y
w as mor e "auth e n ti c " th an Je w i s h r i tual s e l s e w h e r e i n We s te r n
Eur op e
be c aus e
i n
Hun gar y
th e Je w i s h c ommun i ti e s w e r e r e mov e d fr om th e
r e l i gi ous
r e v i v al i n
th e Un i te d State s an d Is r ae l .
At th e s ame
ti me ,
or th odox Je w i s h l i fe
gr adual l y
e r ode d
dur i n g
th i s
p e r i od.
Mos t Je w s w h o c ar e d about th e r i tual l e ft
Hun gar y
i n
1956,
i f n ot be for e .
Th e
r e l i gi ous c ommun i ty,
w i th th e
e xc e p ti on
of a fe w
c on gr e gati on s ,
h ad fe w e r
an d fe w e r
youn g p e op l e (s e e
Cs or ba
1990:63). Man y
of th e
r e mai n i n g
Je w s
c on ti n ue d th e tr adi ti on out of h abi t but ofte n w i th out th e
p r op e r kn ow l e dge .
As th e
ye ar s p as s e d
th e
c on gr e gati on s
be c ame ol de r an d
s mal l e r ;
on e h ad
th e
i mp r e s s i on
of
w i tn e s s i n g
th e s l ow de ath of a
s oc i e ty. By
th e
1970s ,
i n
man y
c ommun i ti e s i t w as ofte n di ffi c ul t to
gath e r
th e
quor um
of te n me n for th e
s e r v i c e . Th e r e w as al s o e moti on al an d
s p i r i tual
e r os i on : a
fe e l i n g
of
s ke p ti c i s m,
i n s e c ur i ty
an d
de s p e r ati on p r e v ai l e d.
Me mbe r s of th e or th odox
c ommun i ty
ofte n tol d me th at atte n dan c e at th e
s e r v i c e w as th e i r
fi gh t
for s ur v i v al . Th i s
fi gh t
n e e de d
s p e c i al s tr ate gi e s .
It w as
e s s e n ti al for th e s e c ommun i ti e s to di s tan c e th e ms e l v e s fr om
p ol i ti c s
s o th at
th e i r s e r v i c e c oul d be v i e w e d as
me r e l y
a "r e mn an t of a
dyi n g r e l i gi ous
c us tom"
-
s ome th i n g
th at w as n ot
dan ge r ous
to th e
r e gi me .
A
n on -p ol i ti c al ,
p ur e l y r e l i gi ous
s e r v i c e w as mor e or l e s s tol e r ate d i n Commun i s t
Hun gar y.
An oth e r
s tr ate gy
to s e c ur e th e
c on ti n ui ty
of th e tr adi ti on w as th e r e tr e at i n to
or th odoxy
- as
h ap p e n e d,
for
i n s tan c e ,
at th e
Kazi n c zy
Str e e t
s yn agogue .
Al th ough man y
of i ts me mbe r s
j oi n e d
afte r th e
w ar ,
th e c or e of th e
Kazi n c zy
Str e e t
s yn agogue c ommun i ty
w as
c omp os e d
of
p e op l e
w h os e
p ar e n ts (an d
ofte n
gr an dp ar e n ts )
h ad
al r e ady be l on ge d
to th i s
c ommun i ty.
Th an ks to th e
de te r mi n ati on of s ome ol d me mbe r s an d to th e c h ar i s mati c r abbi an d
c an tor ,
th i s
c ommun i ty
r e mai n e d a
p ow e r ful
c oh e s i v e for c e i n th e or th odox l i fe of th e
Hun gar i an
Je w s
th r ough out
th e 1970s an d 1980s . Its me mbe r s w e r e
l oyal
n ot
me r e l y
to Judai s m but to
"Kazi n c zy
Str e e t". Th e r e w as a s i mi l ar s i tuati on i n
s ome oth e r
c ommun i ti e s ,
s uc h as i n th e
p r aye r
h ous e of Te l e ki
te r , Ki r i l y
Str e e t, an d th at of th e for me r Rumbac h Str e e t
s yn agogue .
In mos t of th e oth e r or th odox c ommun i ti e s , h ow e v e r , th e s i tuati on w as
di ffe r e n t.l 0 Al th ough
th e
s yn agogue s
of
Budap e s t
h ad a
l on g
c ommun al
h i s tor y
10 My
obs e r v ati on s an d
r e c or di n gs
i n
Budap e s t
c ome mos tl y
fr om th e fol l ow i n g s yn agogue s :
152
BRITISH JOURNAL OF ETHNOMUSICOLOGY VOL. 11/i 2002
dati n g
bac k to th e
p e r i od
be for e th e
w ar ,
by
th e
e ar l y
1960s th e s e c ommun i ti e s
h ad
gr adual l y di s i n te gr ate d.
Th e c or e of mos t of th e
c on gr e gati on s
di e d i n th e
Hol oc aus t or
e mi gr ate d.
At th e s ame
ti me ,
th e r e w as a
s te ady
fl ow of n e w c om-
e r s fr om
Hun gar i an v i l l age s
an d fr om Sov i e t an d Cze c h os l ov ak
Car p ath i a.
Th os e w h o
p r ac ti c e d
th e
r e l i gi on
c h os e to mov e to
Budap e s t
s i n c e i t w as th e
on l y c i ty
i n Commun i s t
Eur op e
w h e r e Je w i s h
r e l i gi ous
l i fe w as
r e l ati v e l y s tr on g.
As a
r e s ul t,
th e
r e l i gi ous c ommun i ty
of
Budap e s t
i n th e 1970s c on s i s te d
mos tl y
of Je w s w h o h ad c ome fr om th e
c oun tr ys i de .
Th e n e w c ommun i ti e s w e r e for me d
h ap h azar dl y
fr om
p e op l e
of
di ffe r i n g
s oc i al ,
l i n gui s ti c
an d c ul tur al
bac kgr oun ds .
Be c aus e of th e
h ous i n g s h or tage
i n
Budap e s t, p e op l e
c oul d n ot c h oos e th e i r
n e i gh bour h ood
an d s o
j oi n e d
th e c on -
gr e gati on
th at w as c l os e s t to th e m. Mos t or th odox c ommun i ti e s w e r e
e xtr e me l y
h e te r oge n e ous , br i n gi n g mul ti p l e
l oc al
p r ac ti c e s
i n to th e s e r v i c e .
It i s
s i gn i fi c an t
to n ote
th at,
be c aus e of th e i s ol ati on of th e s e c ommun i ti e s
fr om th e r e s t of th e Je w i s h
w or l d, th e y
c oul d n ot addr e s s
que s ti on s
about
n or mati v e Je w i s h
p r ac ti c e s
to outs i de auth or i ti e s . Th e l ac k of outs i de c on tac t
w as e v e n mor e
ap p ar e n t
i n mus i c w h os e
s p e c i fi c
te c h n i c al an d
s tyl i s ti c
de tai l s
h ad
al w ays e s c ap e d
th e atte n ti on of
r e l i gi ous
auth or i ti e s . Th e
me mor y
of th e
p as t
w as th e
auth or i ty
i n
de c i di n g
mus i c al i s s ue s . Th e tac i t
un de r s tan di n g
w as
th at th e r e h ad be e n v ar i ous l oc al tr adi ti on s i n th e
p as t,
an d th e r e for e s e v e r al
s ol uti on s w e r e
p os s i bl e
as
l on g
as
th e y
di d n ot c on tr adi c t bas i c
r e l i gi ous
r ul e s .
Of
c our s e ,
p e op l e
di d n ot
al w ays agr e e
on w h at c on s ti tute d a bas i c
r e l i gi ous
r ul e ,
but th e s e i s s ue s an d
p r obl e ms
w e r e
n e goti ate d
w i th i n th e
c ommun i ty.
As a
r e s ul t,
or th odox r i tual i n
Budap e s t
w as
e xtr e me l y
di v e r s e :
c omp l e te l y
di ffe r e n t
mus i c al r i tual s c oul d be h e ar d i n
n e i gh bour i n g s yn agogue s
th at w e r e
on l y
a
fe w s tr e e ts
ap ar t.
Th at
s ai d,
w e n e v e r th e l e s s h av e to r e me mbe r th at
i mmi gr an ts
c ame
on l y
fr om
Hun gar y
an d
n e i gh bour i n g
te r r i tor i e s
(mos tl y
fr om Sl ov aki a
an d
Car p ath i a,
an d to a l e s s e r
de gr e e
fr om
Tr an s yl v an i a).
For al l th e c ommun al
di ffe r e n c e s ,
th e v ar i an t
p r ac ti c e s
of
Budap e s t r e p r e s e n te d
th e Ce n tr al -Eas te r n
Eur op e an
tr adi ti on of Je w i s h
l i tur gi c al
c h an t.
Th us ,
th r e e tr ai ts de fi n e d th e c h ar ac te r of th e or th odox Je w i s h s e r v i c e i n
Budap e s t dur i n g
th e Commun i s t e r a:
(1) e mp h as i s
on th e tr adi ti on al for m of
th e s e r v i c e e v e n w h e n oth e r
r e l i gi ous p r ac ti c e s
w e r e obs e r v e d l e s s
s tr i c tl y;
(2) e mp h as i s
on th e
p as t
an d a
"tur n i n g aw ay"
fr om th e
s ur r oun di n g
Je w i s h an d
n on -Je w i s h
mi l i e u;
an d
(3) n e goti ati on
about th e fi n al for m of th e s e r v i c e
w i th i n e ac h
c on gr e gati on . Noth i n g
of th i s w as
e n ti r e l y
n e w :
tr adi ti on al i s m,
n e goti ati on
an d
"tur n i n g aw ay"
fr om th e s e c ul ar e n v i r on me n t h ad be e n e s s e n -
ti al for c e s i n
s h ap i n g
th e s e r v i c e i n e ar l i e r e r as .
Ne v e r th e l e s s ,
th e s e te n de n c i e s
w e r e mor e e xtr e me i n Commun i s t
Budap e s t
th at i n oth e r
p e r i ods
of Eas t
Eur op e an
Je w i s h
h i s tor y.
In th e 1970s th e r e w e r e s ti l l
man y
i n di v i dual s w i th a
de e p kn ow l e dge
of th e
r e l i gi on
an d th e mus i c . It w as n ot di ffi c ul t to fi n d
p r aye r
l e ade r s w h o c oul d
p e r -
for m th e e n ti r e
l i tur gy
an d w h o r e me mbe r e d
mul ti p l e
l oc al v e r s i on s .
How e v e r ,
w h e r e as be for e th e w ar al mos t th e e n ti r e
c ommun i ty
c oul d
s i n g
th e
c omp l e te
mus i c of th e s e r v i c e s an d w as abl e to
ap p r e c i ate s op h i s ti c ate d
i n di v i dual
(c on ti n ue d fr om p r e v i ous p age ) Nagyfuv ar os utc a,
Vas v i r i p Il
utc a, De s s e w fy utc a, D6zs a
Gydr gy 6i t, Be th l e n
tdr , Hun yadi
tdr an d th e Rabbi n i c al
Se mi n ar y.
FRIGYESI Th e Je w i s h s e r v i c e i n Commun i s t
Hun gar y:
a
p e r s on al j our n e y
153
mus i c al
i n v e n ti on s ,
th i s w as n o
l on ge r
th e c as e i n mos t c ommun i ti e s i n th e
1970s . Th e l ac k of a
kn ow l e dge abl e c ommun i ty,
w h i c h i s th e
i n s p i r i n g
c on te xt
for th e
p r aye r
l e ade r ,
c e r tai n l y
h ad an e ffe c t on th e
qual i ty
of th e mus i c .
My
be s t i n for man t i n th e l ate
1970s ,
Je n 6
R6th ,
tol d me w h e n w e r e c or de d a
s p e c i al
v e r s i on of a
p r aye r :
"Th i s i s h ow w e
s an g
i t i n
my
fath e r 's h ome . But
today,
I n e v e r do i t th i s
w ay
be c aus e i t i s n ot w or th i t for th i s
c ommun i ty."
Ne v e r th e l e s s ,
R6th 's c omme n ts ar e
p e r h ap s
s ome w h at
e xagge r ate d.
Hi s
c ommun i ty,
an d i n fac t th e
Budap e s t
or th odox
c ommun i ty
at
l ar ge , ap p r e c i ate d
h i m an d w as aw ar e of h i s mus i c al
kn ow l e dge .
Ev e n i n
2001,
w h e n I
p l aye d
s ome of th e
r e c or di n gs
I made w i th
R6th
i n 1977 for Av r oh om Tzv i
Er bs t,
an oth e r e xc e l l e n t
p r aye r
l e ade r ,
h e e xc l ai me d: "Th i s i s i t. Th i s i s h ow w e di d i t
i n
my v i l l age
as w e l l . Th i s i s th e ol d
s tyl e ."
Wh e n I
as ke d,
as I di d
man y
ti me s ,
w h e th e r th e mus i c I r e c or de d fr om th e
1970s on w ar ds w as s i mi l ar to th at be for e th e
Hol oc aus t,
my
i n for man ts
gav e
c on tr adi c tor y
an s w e r s . To th e
que s ti on
"How di d
you p r ay
th i s s e c ti on i n
your
v i l l age
i n
your
fath e r 's h ome ?" I r e c e i v e d an s w e r s l i ke : "It w as th e
s ame ,
e xac tl y
th e s ame . But i n th os e
days ,
i t w as di ffe r e n t. I
p r aye d di ffe r e n tl y.
Ev e r yth i n g
w as di ffe r e n t th e n . But th e
p r aye r
i s
al w ays
th e
s ame ,
i t doe s n ot
c h an ge ."
It took me a
l on g
ti me to un de r s tan d th at th e s e c on fus e d
r e s p on s e s
w e r e th e mos t h on e s t an d
p r e c i s e
an s w e r s to
my que s ti on .
In th e c our s e of
my
w or k i t
gr adual l y
be c ame c l e ar
th at,
al th ough
th e de tai l s of th e mus i c of th e
s e r v i c e
c h an ge d,
i ts ov e r al l
s h ap e
r e mai n e d
l ar ge l y
th e s ame as i t h ad be e n
be for e Wor l d War II. Abov e
al l ,
th e me mbe r s of th e c ommun i ti e s w e r e an xi ous
to r e c r e ate th e
atmos p h e r e
an d th e bas i c s tr uc tur al -mus i c al fr ame w or k th at
th e y
h ad kn ow n i n th e i r c h i l dh ood. Th i s fr ame w or k w as s tabl e i n te r ms of th e
de gr e e
to w h i c h a
c ommun i ty p e r mi tte d
i n di v i dual v ar i ati on i n th e
p r aye r
me l odi e s ,
h ow
man y
di ffe r e n t mus i c al
s tyl e s
w e r e us e d i n th e
r i tual ,
an d s o on .
Th e r e w as muc h s adn e s s i n th e l i v e s of th e s e
p e op l e
an d i n th e r i tual i ts e l f.
Th e r i tual be c ame l i ke
mour n i n g, c omme mor ati n g
a l i fe th at w as on th e w an e .
I r e me mbe r th at
e v e r y
ti me I v i s i te d on e of th e s mal l or th odox
s yn agogue s
I
h ad th e
fe e l i n g
of
s te p p i n g
i n to th e
p as t,
i n to a w or l d
be yon d r e al i ty,
a dr e am
th at h ad
p e r h ap s
n e v e r e xi s te d. For th e
p e op l e
w h o atte n de d th e
s yn agogue ,
r i tual an d
e v e r yday
l i fe w e r e
i n c omp ati bl e
r e al i ti e s .
Ye t,
th r ough
th e i n te n s e
aw ar e n e s s of th e di s s on an c e be tw e e n th e r i tual an d th e w or l d
be yon d
r i tual ,
th e y
w e r e abl e to r e -e n ac t on e of th e mos t
or i gi n al
i de as of
Judai s m,
n ame l y
th at th e s e r v i c e s h oul d be a
de p ar tur e
fr om mun dan e
r e al i ty
to th e w or l d
of ti me l e s s n e s s .
Th e
p r e s e n t:
a
gl i mp s e
of a Je w i s h r e v i v al
In
Hun gar y
th e
ge n e r ati on
of mi ddl e -c l as s Je w i s h i n te l l e c tual s bor n afte r Wor l d
War II al mos t n e v e r e n c oun te r e d Je w i s h r i tual
dur i n g
th e i r c h i l dh ood. Wh e n
Je w i s h s tude n ts i n th e i r te e n s or ol de r
be gan
to s e ar c h for th e i r Je w i s h r oots
dur i n g
th e 1970s , th e y
tr i e d to fi n d Judai s m outs i de of
r e l i gi on .
If
th e y
w e n t to
l i s te n to a s e r v i c e , th e y
c h os e a
n e ol og s yn agogue
be c aus e th at w as c on s i de r e d
to be l e s s
r e l i gi ous .
154 BRITISH JOURNAL OF ETHNOMUSICOLOGY VOL.11/i 2002
It w as i n th i s c on te xt th at Al e xan de r
Sc h e i be r ,
th e di r e c tor of th e Rabbi n i c al
Se mi n ar y, op e n e d
th e door of h i s i n s ti tuti on for
youn g
Je w s i n th e mi d-1970s .
Th e famous Ki ddus h
gath e r i n gs ,
w h i c h c on s i s te d of
bl e s s i n gs
an d th e tr adi -
ti on al
Fr i day n i gh t me al ,
attr ac te d a
l ar ge gr oup
of
youn g
Je w s . I de s c r i be d
my
fi r s t
i mp r e s s i on s
of th e
s e mi n ar y s yn agogue
at th e
be gi n n i n g
of th i s ar ti c l e . Th e
s e r v i c e w as l i ke a c on c e r t
c omp os e d
of mov e me n ts of c an tor i al
fan tas y, or gan
s ol o an d c h or us e s . Th e
c an tor ,
Re zs 6
Fe l e ki ,
w as a r e mar kabl e mus i c i an w i th
an
e n j oyabl e
v oi c e . Th e c h or us of th e r abbi n i c al s tude n ts
s an g for c e ful l y.
How e v e r ,
th e r e al r i tual w as n ot th e
r e l i gi ous
s e r v i c e but th e Ki ddus h
(bl e s s i n g
for th e tr adi ti on al
s ymbol i c Fr i day n i gh t me al ).
Afte r th e
s e r v i c e ,
th e
c on gr e gati on
mov e d to th e
up p e r
fl oor ,
w h i c h w as
adj ac e n t
to th e
bui l di n g
of
th e s c h ool . Th e
s ymbol i c
Ki ddus h
me al ,
w h i c h c on s i s te d
un i for ml y
of c h al l ah
(s w e e t
br e ad for th e
Sabbath )
an d h ot
c h oc ol ate ,
w as
p r e p ar e d
i n on e of th e
l ar ge r
r ooms . Th e ol de r
p e op l e
s at ar oun d th e tabl e s c ov e r e d w i th w h i te tabl e -
c l oth s ,
w h i l e th e s tude n ts c h atte d an d mov e d
fr e e l y
ar oun d th e tabl e s . Th e
r oom w as too s mal l for th e c r ow d an d s oc i al l i fe
p our e d
out i n to th e s c h ool 's
c or r i dor s . Some ti me s th e r e w as s o muc h n oi s e th at Pr ofe s s or Sc h e i be r c oul d
h ar dl y
r e c i te th e te xt of th e Ki ddus h . Th e
h i gh l i gh t
of th e
e v e n i n g
w as a s h or t
l e c tur e or
p r e s e n tati on :
Sc h e i be r tal ke d about an
i n te r e s ti n g
e v e n t,
th e
p ubl i c a-
ti on of a book or an
e xh i bi ti on ,
or
gav e
th e fl oor to an i n v i te d a
gue s t.
Th e s e
Ki ddus h
me e ti n gs ,
l i ke th e ac ti v i ti e s of th e Rabbi n i c al
Se mi n ar y
i n
ge n e r al ,
w e r e v i e w e d
by
th e auth or i ti e s w i th
s us p i c i on (Cs or ba 1990:163-7). Ev e r yon e
p r e s e n t
w as aw ar e th at th e
p ol i c e
r e c e i v e d
p r e c i s e
ac c oun ts of th e e v e n ts an d
h ad a l i s t of th e
p ar ti c i p an ts .
Th e s e
gath e r i n gs
mar ke d th e
be gi n n i n g
of th e Je w i s h
youth
mov e me n t i n
Hun gar y.
Th os e of us w h o w e r e
p r e s e n t
at th e s e
Fr i day e v e n i n gs
w i l l
al w ays
r e mai n
n os tal gi c
for th e
un i que atmos p h e r e
c r e ate d
by
th e c h ar i s mati c
fi gur e
of
Sc h e i be r . Th e ai r w as de n s e w i th th e
p r omi s e
of a futur e
w or l d,
of un kn ow n
r e v e l ati on s an d
p os s i bi l i ti e s .
Ne e dl e s s to
s ay,
th e s tude n ts w h o
p ar ti c i p ate d
i n
th i s Je w i s h "r e v i v al " h ad n o c on tac t w h ats oe v e r w i th tr adi ti on al Je w i s h r i tual .
Th e s i tuati on
c h an ge d r adi c al l y
afte r th e fal l of Commun i s m. Je w i s h
s c h ool s ,
j our n al s ,
c ul tur al c l ubs an d oth e r
or gan i zati on s
w e r e e s tabl i s h e d i n a r e mar k-
abl y
s h or t ti me . Books on Je w i s h
top i c s be gan
to
ap p e ar .
Th e Lubav i tc h e r
Has i di m s e t
up
th e i r offi c e an d r e c r ui te d a s i zabl e
c ommun i ty
of
youn g p e op l e .
Hun gar i an
Je w s r e c e i v e d fi n an c i al
s up p or t
fr om v ar i ous foun dati on s to r e s tor e
s yn agogue s .
Is r ae l i s an d Ame r i c an s
be gan
to v i s i t
Hun gar y
on a
r e gul ar
bas i s
an d fi l l e d th e
s yn agogue s .
Ye t
al th ough
th e
for e i gn -bas e d
Je w i s h i n s ti tuti on s
gav e
th e
i mp e tus
for a
r e al r e v i v al i n al l
s p h e r e s
of Je w i s h
l i fe ,
th e y
al s o ac c e l e r ate d th e
di s i n te gr ati on
of tr adi ti on al Je w i s h r i tual i n
Budap e s t
an d c on tr i bute d to i ts
by
n ow al mos t
c omp l e te di s ap p e ar an c e .
As w e h av e
s e e n ,
th e me mbe r s of th e or th odox
c ommun i ti e s i n
Budap e s t
h e l d th e
p as t
i n
h i gh
e s te e m. For th e m, th e mus i c al
tr adi ti on w as e mbe dde d i n i n di v i dual an d l oc al
p r ac ti c e s . Th e y
c h e r i s h e d th e
me mor y
of l oc al me l odi e s th at
th e y
h ad l e ar n e d fr om th e ol de r
ge n e r ati on .
Th e y p r e s e r v e d
th e tr adi ti on al As h ke n azi
p r on un c i ati on
of He br e w , w i th th e
l oc al v e r s i on of i n ton ati on . Th e Ame r i c an an d Is r ae l i "n e w c ome r s " h av e a
FRIGYESI Th e Je w i s h s e r v i c e i n Commun i s t
Hun gar y:
a
p e r s on al j our n e y
155
c omp l e te l y
di ffe r e n t atti tude . For
th e m,
r e l i gi on
c on s i s ts of a
body
of kn ow l -
e dge
th at s h oul d be
l e ar n e d
an d w h os e r ul e s s h oul d be obs e r v e d. Pr on un c i ati on
h as be e n un i fi e d
ac c or di n g
to
mode r n
Is r ae l i
p r ac ti c e .
Un l i ke th e ol d
c on gr e ga-
ti on s ,
w h i c h us e d to
n e goti ate r e l i gi ous
matte r s at th e l oc al
l e v e l ,
th e s e
youn g
adv oc ate s of th e Je w i s h tr adi ti on c on c e i v e of
r e l i gi ous
obs e r v an c e as
s ome th i n g
c odi fi e d an d n ot
s ubj e c t
to
c h al l e n ge .
Th e
maj or i ty
s e e s n o v al ue i n
un i que
l oc al mus i c al
p r ac ti c e s
an d doe s n ot c on s i de r th e
p r e s e r v ati on
of v ar i an ts
n e c e s s ar y
or e v e n de s i r abl e .
Th e
op p os i n g
v i e w s of th e tw o
c amp s
- th e
Hun gar i an
or th odox
c ommun i ty
an d th e Ame r i c an an d Is r ae l i n e w c ome r s - h av e ofte n be c ome bi tte r . Th e me m-
be r s of th e ol de r
ge n e r ati on
c l ai m th at th e i r
p r ac ti c e s or i gi n ate
fr om be for e
Wor l d War
II
an d th at
th e y
ar e tr adi ti on al c us toms th at s h oul d be
r e s p e c te d
an d
p r e s e r v e d.
Th e n e w c ome r s
ar gue
th at l oc al mus i c al v ar i ati on s an d
p r ac ti c e s
ar e
n ot
i mp or tan t
an d th at th e i r
r e l i gi ous p r ac ti c e s
ar e
s i mp l y w r on g.
Th i s
op p os i ti on
c an be be tte r un de r s tood i n th e
gl obal
c on te xt of
r e l i gi ous
r e v i v al s . It i s a c h ar ac te r i s ti c fe atur e of th e mode m e r a th at c ul tur al an d s oc i al
p h e n ome n a
be c ome
p ol i ti c i ze d, me an i n g
th at
p r ac ti ti on e r s de s i gn p r ac ti c e s
an d
i de ol ogy
i n or de r to as s e r t th e i r
p l ac e
i n th e
p ol i ti c al
s tr uc tur e . Th i s
p ol i ti c i za-
ti on i s
ap p ar e n t
i n th e
r e l i gi ous
mov e me n ts of th e tw e n ti e th
c e n tur y, i n c l udi n g
th e Je w i s h
r e l i gi ous
r e v i v al i n Is r ae l an d th e Un i te d
State s ,
but for th e mos t
p ar t
i t l e ft th e or th odox Je w i s h s e r v i c e i n
Hun gar y
un touc h e d. Be for e Wor l d War
II
th e or th odox tr adi ti on w as s ti l l
s tr on g;
i t di d n ot n e e d adv oc ate s . Th e Commu-
n i s t
r e gi me ,
th e n , di s c our age d
th e
p ol i ti c i zati on
of th e
r e l i gi on .
In th i s man n e r
th e Commun i s ts
c on tr i bute d,
p e r h ap s agai n s t
th e i r ow n
i n te n ti on ,
to th e
p r e s e r -
v ati on of th e tr adi ti on al atti tude tow ar ds
r e l i gi on .
Th e
n e w c ome r s , h ow e v e r ,
be l on g
to th e
mode r n
w av e of
r e l i gi on .
Th e i r
p ur p os e
i s n ot
me r e l y
to mai n tai n
r e l i gi ous p r ac ti c e
but to
s p r e ad
th at
p r ac ti c e
amon g
th e
youth . Th e y
ac t an d de v i s e r i tual s an d
p r ogr amme s
l i ke a
p ol i ti c al
p ar ty:
th e i r
p r i mar y
ai m i s to c on v i n c e an d r e c r ui t. It i s th e i r v i e w th at
you
c an n ot
s tr e n gth e n r e l i gi ous p r ac ti c e
w i th th e
e as y-goi n g n e goti ati on
an d ambi -
guous
r i tual r ul e s th at ar e c h ar ac te r i s ti c of th e ol d c ommun i ti e s . Th e
s tr e n gth
of
mode m
or th odoxy
r e s ts on th e fac t th at i ts r ul e s ar e c l e ar an d fi r m s o th at i t i s
p os s i bl e
to kn ow w h i c h
p r ac ti c e
i s
"r i gh t"
an d w h i c h i s
"w r on g".
Or th odox r i tual w as
mar gi n al i ze d dur i n g
th e Commun i s t e r a be c aus e of th e
r ul i n g r e gi me 's i de ol ogi c al
c on s i de r ati on s an d be c aus e of th e fe ar an d i n di ffe r -
e n c e of th e Je w i s h i n te l l e c tual e l i te .
Par adoxi c al l y, Hun gar i an
or th odox Je w s
h av e be e n
p us h e d
to th e
p e r i p h e r y agai n
s i n c e th e
c ol l ap s e
of Commun i s m
be c aus e of th e
i de ol ogy
of th e mor e for c e ful Je w i s h
gr oup s
fr om abr oad. Th e
n e w or th odox r i tual i n
Hun gar y,
i f i t doe s i n de e d
de v e l op ,
w i l l mos t
l i ke l y
be
mode l e d on th e
p r ac ti c e s
of th e
p ol i ti c i ze d r e l i gi ous gr oup s
of Is r ae l an d th e
Un i te d State s . At
l e as t,
p r e s e n t de v e l op me n ts p oi n t
i n th i s di r e c ti on . Wi th th e
tw e n ty-fi r s t c e n tur y,
th e
h i s tor y
of th e l oc al
Hun gar i an
or th odox Je w i s h r i tual
s e e ms to h av e r e ac h e d i ts fi n al
c h ap te r .
156 BRITISH JOURNAL OF ETHNOMUSICOLOGY VOL.1 1/i 2002
Ac kn ow l e dge me n ts
I w oul d l i ke to th an k th e
Ful br i gh t
an d IREX
fe l l ow s h i p s ,
th e Sor os
Foun dati on ,
th e Me mor i al Foun dati on for Je w i s h
Cul tur e ,
an d
Col l e gi um Budap e s t,
In s ti tute
for Adv an c e d
Studi e s ,
for th e i r
ge n e r ous s up p or t
of
my
r e s e ar c h of As h ke n azi
mus i c i n th e
p as t
fe w
ye ar s .
Bi bl i ogr ap h y
Cs or ba,
Li s zl 6
(1990)
"Zs i d6
s ze l l e mi
6l e t
a
h ui s zas -h ar mi n c as
6v e k
Magyar -
or s zi gi n "
[Je w i s h
c ul tur al l i fe i n
Hun gar y
i n th e
1930s ]
an d
"Izr ae l i ta
fe l e ke ze ti
6l e t
Magyar or s zai gon
a
v 6s zkor s zakt61
a
n yol c v an as
6v e ki g"
[Je w i s h r e l i gi ous
l i fe i n
Hun gar y
fr om th e
be gi n n i n g
of Wor l d War
II
un ti l
th e
1980s ].
In Pai l Hor v ai th
(e d.)
He t i v ti ze d a h azai
zs i d6s dg
l e te be n
[Se v e n
de c ade s of
Hun gar i an
Je w i s h
l i fe ],
v ol .
1,
p p .
61-190,
200-80.
Budap e s t:
MTA
Fi l oz6fi ai
In tdze t.
Fr i gye s i ,
Judi t
(1993)
"Je w s an d
Hun gar i an s
i n
mode m Hun gar i an
mus i c al
c ul tur e ." In Ezr a Me n de l s oh n
(e d.)
Studi e s i n
Con te mp or ar y Je w r y.
Je w s
an d
Mus i c ,
Vol .
IX,
p p .
40-60. Ne w
Yor k,
Oxfor d: Oxfor d
Un i v e r s i ty
Pr e s s .
(1998)
Bi l a Bar t6k an d
Tur n -of-th e -Ce n tur y Budap e s t. Be r ke l e y:
Cal i for n i a
Un i v e r s i ty
Pr e s s .
(1999)
"Sac r e d an d s e c ul ar - w h at c an mus i c te ac h us about Je w i s h
th ough t?"
Car dozo Law Re v i e w 20:1673-81.
(2000)
"Th e
p r ac ti c e
of mus i c as an
e xp r e s s i on
of
r e l i gi ous p h i l os op h y
amon g
th e Eas t-As h ke n azi Je w s ."
Sh ofar
18.4:3-24.
(2001)
"Tr an s mi s s i on an d th e
or i gi n al
i de a: mus i c an d
p r aye r
i n th e
tr adi ti on of th e Je w s of
Eas te r n -Eur op e ."
In Edw i n Se r ous s i an d
El i ayah u
Sc h l e i fe r
(e ds ) Fe s ts c h r i ft
i n Hon or
of
Is r ae l Adl e r . Je r us al e m: Je w i s h
Mus i c Re s e ar c h Ce n te r .
Ge r 6,
An dr i s (1992)
"Li be r i l i s ok,
an ti s ze mi tai k e s
zs i d6k
a
mode m
Magyar or s zai g
s zti l e t6s e kor "
[Li be r al s , an ti s e mi te s
an d Je w s at th e bi r th of
mode m
Hun gar y].
In M.
Kov ai c s ,
M.
Kas h ti ,
Yi tzh ak an d F Er 6s
(e ds )
Zs i d6s dg,
i de n ti tds ,
tor t"n e l e m
[Judai s m, i de n ti ty
an d
h i s tor y], p p .
9-22.
Budap e s t:
T-Tw i n s .
Gy6r i
Szab6, R6be r t (1997)
A kommun i s ta
p dr t
e s a
zs i dds dg Magyar or s zdgon
(1945-1956) [Th e
Commun i s t
p ar ty
an d th e Je w s i n
Hun gar y
be tw e e n
1945-56].
Budap e s t:
Wi n ds or .
Kar i dy,
Vi ktor
(1992)
"A
Sh oa,
a r e n ds ze r v al tai s
6s
a
zs i d6 azon os s i gtudat
v ai l -
s aga Magyar or s zai gon " [Th e Sh oa,
th e
c h an ge
of th e
r e gi me
an d th e c r i s i s
of Je w i s h
i de n ti ty
i n
Hun gar y].
In M.
Kov ac s ,
M.
Kas h ti ,
Yi tzh ak an d F
Er 6s (e ds ) Zs i d6s dg,
i de n ti tds , ti 1r tIn e l e m [Judai s m, i de n ti ty
an d
h i s tor y],
p p .
23-48.
Budap e s t:
T-Tw i n s .
S
(2001) On azon os i tds , s or s v dl as ztds . A zs i dd c s op or tazon os s dg th r ti n e l mi
al akv dl tozds ai Magyar or s zdgon [Ch an gi n g
for ms of Je w i s h
i de n ti ty
i n
Hun gar i an h i s tor y]. Budap e s t: Uj Man di tum
Ki ad6.
FRIGYESI Th e Je w i s h s e r v i c e i n Commun i s t
Hun gar y:
a
p e r s on al j our n e y
157
Kr o6,
Gydr gy.
(1994)
Szabol c s i Be n c e
[Be n c e Szabol c s i ]. Budap e s t:
Li s zt
Fe r e n c
Ze n e mdv r s ze ti
F6i s kol a.
(1989) "Szabol c s i
Be n c e
(Sze l l e mi
ar c kp v yi zl at
a h ar mi n c as
6v e kb61l )"
[Be n c e Szabol c s i (A
c ul tur al
p or tr ai t-s ke tc h
fr om th e
1930s )]. Mi dl t
i s
Jov 6
2:31-9.
Pap , Kai r ol y (1935) "Zs i d6
s e be k e s
bdn i k
e s
Zs i d6
s e be k ds
bn i ok
fogad-
tatai s a"
[Je w i s h
w oun ds an d s i n s an d th e
r e c e p ti on h i s tor y
of Je w i s h w oun ds
an d
s i n s ].
In
Pap Kdr ol y
mdtv e i ,
VIII.
kate t.
Zs i d6
s e be k i s bu'n ak i s mds
p ubl i c i s zti kdk [Th e
w or ks of
Kar ol y Pap ,
v ol . VIII. Je w i s h w oun ds an d s i n s
an d oth e r
j our n al i s ti c w r i ti n gs ], p p .
7-79,
81-160.
Budap e s t:
Mui l t
ds
Jdv r l
Ste i n e r ,
Le n ke
(1944)
"Az
6v
magyar -zs i d6
i r odal ma"
[Hun gar i an -Je w i s h
l i te r atur e
p ubl i s h e d
i n th i s
ye ar ].
In
Al addi r Koml 6s (e d.)
Ar ar dt.
Magyar
zs i d6d
v ki n yv [Ar ar at. Hun gar i an -Je w i s h Ye ar book] (1944-5704/5), p p .
148-56.
Budap e s t: Or s zai gos
Izr ae l i ta
Le ai n ydi r v ah ai z.
Szabol c s i , Mi kl 6s
(1992)
"Vdi l tozai s ok
a zs i d6
s ze l l e mi
61e tbe n
1945 k6r i i l :
magyar
e s
zs i d6
i de n ti tai s -ke r e s r s e k"
[Ch an ge s
i n Je w i s h c ul tur al l i fe
ar oun d 1935: th e s e ar c h for
Hun gar i an
an d Je w i s h
i de n ti ty].
Szombat
4.7:27-30.
Ze ke ,
Gyul a. (1990)
"Szakadi s
uti n ...." [Afte r
th e
s c h i s m].
In
Hor v ai th ,
Pai l
(e d.)
Hi t
dv ti ze d
a h azai
zs i d6s dg
e l e ti be n [Se v e n
de c ade s of
Hun gar i an
Je w i s h
l i fe ],
v ol .
1,
p p .
145-61.
Budap e s t:
MTA Fi l oz6fi ai In tdze t.
Zs ol t, Be l a. (1980)
Ki l e n c
koffe r [Ni n e s ui tc as e s ]. Budap e s t: Magv e t6.
(Or i gi n al l y p ubl i s h e d
as a s e r i e s i n th e
j our n al
Hal adds i n
1946-47.)
Note on th e auth or
Judi t
Fr i gye s i
s tudi e d
mus i c ol ogy
an d
e th n omus i c ol ogy
i n
Budap e s t,
Par i s an d
th e Un i te d State s . Afte r
r e c e i v i n g
h e r doc tor ate fr om th e
Un i v e r s i ty
of
Pe n n s yl v an i a, Ph i l ade l p h i a,
s h e
taugh t
at Br ow n an d Pr i n c e ton Un i v e r s i ti e s an d
p r e s e n tl y
s h e i s an as s oc i ate
p r ofe s s or
at Bar Il an
Un i v e r s i ty,
Is r ae l . Sh e h as
p ubl i s h e d
on
top i c s de al i n g
w i th th e mus i c of
Bdl a Bar t6k,
th e c ul tur al l i fe of
tw e n ti e th -c e n tur y Eur op e , c on te mp or ar y c omp os e r s ,
th e
th e or y
of
r h yth m,
Hun gar i an
fol k mus i c an d Je w i s h
l i tur gi c al
mus i c . He r book Be l a Bar tdk an d
tur n -of-th e -c e n tur y Budap e s t
w as
p ubl i s h e d by
th e
Un i v e r s i ty
of Cal i for n i a
Pr e s s
(1998,
s e c on d
p ap e r bac k
e di ti on
2000).
In th e
p as t tw e n ty ye ar s
s h e h as
be e n
c ol l e c ti n g
an d
r e s e ar c h i n g
th e r i tual mus i c of th e Eas t
Eur op e an
Je w s .
Sh e i s
c ur r e n tl y w or ki n g
on a n e w
book,
Th e mus i c
of
th e Eas t As h ke n azi
Je w i s h s e r v i c e . Addr e s s :
De p ar tme n t
of
Mus i c ,
Bar -Il an
Un i v e r s i ty,
Ramat Gan
52900, Is r ae l ;
e mai l :
fr i gye s i @mai l .bi u.ac .i l ; fr i gye s i @c ol bud.h u.