SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

LESSON NOTES
U4MEA04 MATERIAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
METALLURGY
VELTECH Dr.RR & Dr.SR TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY
SYLLABUS
1
U4MEA04 MATERIAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING METALLURGY L T P C
(common or MECH! AUTO" # 0 0 #
OB$ECTIVES%
To impart knowledge on the structure, properties, treatment, testing and applications of
metals and non-metallic materials so as to identify and select suitable materials for various
engineering applications.
UNIT I% Cr&'()**o+r),-& .
Classification of Materials- Engineering properties of materials band energy and activation
energy!- "tructure of "olid materials- #CC- $CC % &C' "tructures- (tomic packing factor-
'olymorphism and (llotropy- Miller )ndices- Crystal imperfection, point, line, surface and
volume defects- Metallographic (nalysis- "pecimen preparation, metallurgical and scanning
electron microscopes
UNIT II% M/c-)n0c)* Pro,/r(0/' o m)(/r0)*' & Fr)c(1r/ .
Mechanisms of 'lastic and Elastic deformations, "lip and Twinning- "trengthening
mechanisms, recover recrystalli*ation and +rain growth- "train hardening- ,ork hardening,
'recipitation hardening. Types of $racture- )deal fracture stress, ductile and brittle fracture-
+riffith-s theory, creep mechanisms of Creep- Creep resistant materials- $racture failure ".
curve- prevention of fatigue failure- /uctile and #rittle transition, Cup and Cone type
fracture.
UNIT III% F/rro1' )n2 Non /rro1' M/()*' )n2 P-)'/ D0)+r)m .
$errous and .on ferrous Metals- Effect of alloying additions on steel Mn, "i, Cr, Mo, 0 Ti
% ,! - stainless steels 1 &"2( - maraging steels 1 +ray, ,hite malleable, spheroidal -
+raphite - alloy cast irons -Copper and Copper alloys 1 #rass, #ron*e and Cupronickel 1
(luminum and (l-Cu 1 precipitation strengthening treatment 1 #earing alloys.
"olid "olution, )nter metallic Compound cooling curves, types of E3uilibrium diagrams,
2ever rules- 'hase diagrams- +ibbs phase rule- )ron carbide diagram-TTT diagram
UNIT IV% M/c-)n0c)* (/'(0n+ .
Tensile test- "tress "train curves for /uctile and #rittle materials- Mild steel, Copper,
Concrete, and Cast iron 'roof "tress, 4ield point phenomenon, 2uder-s bands- compression
and shear loads, &ardness tests #rinnel, 0icre5 and 6ockwell! - )mpact test- )*od and
Chorpy, $atigue and creep test, fracture toughness tests
UNIT V% H/)( Tr/)(m/n( .
7
/efinition 1 $ull annealing, stress relief, recrystallisation and spheroidi*ing 1normalising,
hardening and Tempering of steel. )sothermal transformation diagrams 1 cooling curves
superimposed on ).T. diagram CC6 - &ardenability, 8ominy end 3uench test 1 (ustempering,
martempering Case hardening, carburising, nitriding, cyaniding, carbonitriding 1 $lame and
)nduction hardening.
TOTAL % 43 ,/r0o2'
TE4T BOO5S
1. /ieter, +. E., Mechanical Metallurgy, Mc+raw &ill, "ingapore, 7991
7. Thomas &. Courtney, Mechanical Behaviour of Engineering materials, Mc+raw &ill,
"ingapore, 7999
REFERENCE BOO5S
1. :enneth +.#udinski and Michael :.#udinski ;Engineering Materials< 'rentice-&all of
)ndia 'rivate 2imited, =
th
)ndian 6eprint 7997.
6. 70**0)m D C)**'8/r 9M)(/r0)* Sc0/nc/ )n2 En+0n//r0n+:! $o-n 70*/& )n2 Son' ;..<.
>. 6aghavan.0 ;Materials "cience and Engineering<, 'rentice &all of )ndia 'vt., 2td., 1???.
=. "ydney &.(vner ;)ntroduction to 'hysical Metallurgy< Mc+raw &ill #ook Company,
1??=.
UNIT = I
CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
C*)''00c)(0on o M)(/r0)*'%
>
Common engineering materials that come within the scope of Material "cience may be
classified broadly into the following three types@-
1. Metals $errous and .on-$errous!
7. Ceramics
>. Arganic 'olymers
B)n2 /n/r+&%
Energy bands consisting of a large number of closely spaced energy levels e5ist in crystalline
materials. The bands can be thought of as the collection of the individual energy levels of
electrons surrounding each atom. The wavefunctions of the individual electrons, however,
overlap with those of electrons confined to neighboring atoms. The 'auli e5clusion principle
does not allow the electron energy levels to be the same so that one obtains a set of closely
spaced energy levels, forming an energy band. The energy band model is crucial to any
detailed treatment of semiconductor devices. )t provides the framework needed to understand
the concept of an energy bandgap and that of conduction in an almost filled band as described
by the empty states.
)n this section, we present the free electron model and the :ronig-'enney model. Then we
discuss the energy bands of semiconductors and present a simplified band diagram. ,e also
introduce the concept of holes and the effective mass.
Ac(0>)(0on En/r+&
The energy that an atomic system must ac3uire before a process such as an emission
or reaction! can occur Bcatalysts are said to reduce the energy of activation during the
transition phase of a reactionB
What is Activation Energy?
... life to take place, cells must use enzymes to selectively lower the activation energy of
reactions. Enzymes are protein molecules that act as biological
S(r1c(1r/ o So*02 m)(/r0)*'
)n the conte5t of correspondence, 8*0n2 c)r8on co,& abbreviated Bcc%! refers to the
practice of sending a message to multiple recipients in such a way that conceals individual
email addresses mentioned in BtoB field of the mail! from the complete list of recipients.
C1D
)n
some circumstances, the typist must ensure that multiple recipients of such a document not
see the names of other recipients. To achieve this, the typist can@
(dd the names in a second step to each copy, without carbon paper
"et the ribbon not to strike the paper, which leaves names off the top copy but may
leave letter impressions on the paper!
=
To specify recipients, an e-mail message may contain addresses in any of these three
fields@
To@ 'rimary recipients
Cc@ Carbon copy to secondary recipientsEother interested parties
#cc@ #lind carbon copy to tertiary recipients who receive the message without anyone
else including the To, Cc, and #cc recipients! seeing who the tertiary recipients are.
)t is common practice to use the #cc@ field when addressing a very long list of
recipients, or a list of recipients that should not necessarily! know each other, e.g. in mailing
lists.
C7D
FCC
The purpose of this 6eference +uide is to familiari*e you with the $ederal
Communications Commission-s $CC-s! procedures and regulations concerning the
processing of re3uests for documents made under the $reedom of )nformation (ct $A)(!.
$ollowing the guidance below will make it more likely that you will receive the information
that you are seeking in the shortest amount of time, and without unnecessary e5pense. This
6eference +uide also provides information on how to obtain routinely available $CC
documents through means other than making a $A)( re3uest
S0m0*)r0(0/' )n2 D0/r/nc/ B/(?//n (-/ FCC )n2 HCP S(r1c(1r/
The face centered cubic and he5agonal close packed structures both have a packing
factor of 9.F=, consist of closely packed planes of atoms, and have a coordination number of
17. The difference between the fcc and hcp is the stacking se3uence. The hcp layers cycle
among the two e3uivalent shifted positions whereas the fcc layers cycle between three
positions. (s can be seen in the image, the hcp structure contains only two types of planes
with an alternating (#(# arrangement. .otice how the atoms of the third plane are in
e5actly the same position as the atoms in the first plane. &owever, the fcc structure contains
three types of planes with a (#C(#C arrangement. .otice how the atoms in rows ( and C
are no longer aligned. 6emember that cubic lattice structures allow slippage to occur more
easily than non-cubic lattices, so hcp metals are not as ductile as the fcc metals.
G
The table below shows the stable room temperature crystal structures for several
elemental metals.
M/()* Cr&'()* S(r1c(1r/ A(om0c R)201' (nm"
(luminum $CC 9.1=>1
Cadmium &C' 9.1=?9
Chromium #CC 9.17=?
Cobalt &C' 9.17G>
Copper $CC 9.17FH
+old $CC 9.1==7
)ron (lpha! #CC 9.17=1
2ead $CC 9.1FG9
Magnesium &C' 9.1G??
Molybdenum #CC 9.1>I>
.ickel $CC 9.17=I
'latinum $CC 9.1>HF
"ilver $CC 9.1==G
Tantalum #CC 9.1=>9
Titanium (lpha! &C' 9.1==G
Tungsten #CC 9.1>F1
Jinc &C' 9.1>>7
( nanometer nm! e3uals 19
-?
meter or 19 (ngstrom units.
&C' "tructures
I
Pr0m)r& M/()**0c Cr&'()**0n/ S(r1c(1r/' (BCC! FCC! HCP"
(s pointed out on the previous page, there are 1= different types of crystal unit cell
structures or lattices are found in nature. &owever most metals and many other solids have
unit cell structures described as body center cubic bcc!, face centered cubic fcc! or
&e5agonal Close 'acked hcp!. "ince these structures are most common, they will be
discussed in more detail.
Bo2&@C/n(/r/2 C180c (BCC" S(r1c(1r/
The body-centered cubic unit cell has atoms at each of the eight corners of a cube like the
cubic unit cell! plus one atom in the center of the cube left image below!. Each of the corner
atoms is the corner of another cube so the corner atoms are shared among eight unit cells. )t is
said to have a coordination number of H. The bcc unit cell consists of a net total of two atomsK
one in the center and eight eighths from corners atoms as shown in the middle image below
middle image below!. The image below highlights a unit cell in a larger section of the lattice.
The bcc arrangement does not allow the atoms to pack together as closely as the fcc or hcp
arrangements. The bcc structure is often the high temperature form of metals that are close-
packed at lower temperatures. The volume of atoms in a cell per the total volume of a cell is
called the ,)cA0n+ )c(or. The bcc unit cell has a packing factor of 9.IH.
"ome of the materials that have a bcc structure include lithium, sodium, potassium,
chromium, barium, vanadium, alpha-iron and tungsten. Metals which have a bcc structure are
usually harder and less malleable than close-packed metals such as gold. ,hen the metal is
F
deformed, the planes of atoms must slip over each other, and this is more difficult in the bcc
structure. )t should be noted that there are other important mechanisms for hardening
materials, such as introducing impurities or defects which make slipping more difficult.
These hardening mechanisms will be discussed latter.
F)c/ C/n(/r/2 C180c (FCC" S(r1c(1r/
The face centered cubic structure has atoms located at each of the corners and the centers of
all the cubic faces left image below!. Each of the corner atoms is the corner of another cube
so the corner atoms are shared among eight unit cells. (dditionally, each of its si5 face
centered atoms is shared with an adLacent atom. "ince 17 of its atoms are shared, it is said to
have a coordination number of 17. The fcc unit cell consists of a net total of four atomsK eight
eighths from corners atoms and si5 halves of the face atoms as shown in the middle image
above. The image below highlights a unit cell in a larger section of the lattice.
)n the fcc structure and the hcp structure! the atoms can pack closer together than they can in
the bcc structure. The atoms from one layer nest themselves in the empty space between the
atoms of the adLacent layer. To picture packing arrangement, imagine a bo5 filled with a layer
of balls that are aligned in columns and rows. ,hen a few additional balls are tossed in the
bo5, they will not balance directly on top of the balls in the first layer but instead will come to
rest in the pocket created between four balls of the bottom layer. (s more balls are added
they will pack together to fill up all the pockets. The packing factor the volume of atoms in a
cell per the total volume of a cell! is 9.F= for fcc crystals. "ome of the metals that have the
fcc structure include aluminum, copper, gold, iridium, lead, nickel, platinum and silver.
H/B)+on)* C*o'/ P)cA/2 (HPC" S(r1c(1r/
(nother common close packed structure is the he5agonal close pack. The he5agonal structure
of alternating layers is shifted so its atoms are aligned to the gaps of the preceding layer. The
atoms from one layer nest themselves in the empty space between the atoms of the adLacent
layer Lust like in the fcc structure. &owever, instead of being a cubic structure, the pattern is
he5agonal. "ee image below.! The difference between the &'C and $CC structure is
H
discussed later in this section.
The hcp structure has three layers of atoms. )n each the top and bottom layer, there are si5
atoms that arrange themselves in the shape of a he5agon and a seventh atom that sits in the
middle of the he5agon. The middle layer has three atoms nestle in the triangular BgroovesB of
the top and bottom plane. .ote that there are si5 of these BgroovesB surrounding each atom in
the he5agonal plane, but only three of them can be filled by atoms.
(s shown in the middle image above, there are si5 atoms in the hcp unit cell. Each of the 17
atoms in the corners of the top and bottom layers contribute 1MI atom to the unit cell, the two
atoms in the center of the he5agon of both the top and bottom layers each contribute N atom
and each of the three atom in the middle layer contribute 1 atom. The image on the right
above attempts to show several hcp unit cells in a larger lattice.
The coordination number of the atoms in this structure is 17. There are si5 nearest neighbors
in the same close packed layer, three in the layer above and three in the layer below. The
packing factor is 9.F=, which is the same as the fcc unit cell. The hcp structure is very
common for elemental metals and some e5amples include beryllium, cadmium, magnesium,
titanium, *inc and *irconium.
A(om0c ,)cA0n+ )c(or
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)n crystallography, )(om0c ,)cA0n+ )c(or ('$! or ,)cA0n+ r)c(0on is the fraction
of volume in a crystal structure that is occupied by atoms. )t is dimensionless and always less
than unity. $or practical purposes, the ('$ of a crystal structure is determined by assuming
that atoms are rigid spheres. The radius of the spheres is taken to be the ma5imal value such
that the atoms do not overlap. $or one-component crystals those that contain only one type
of atom!, the ('$ is represented mathematically by
?
where N
atoms
is the number of atoms in the unit cell, V
atom
is the volume of an atom, and
V
unit cell
is the volume occupied by the unit cell. )t can be proven mathematically that for one-
component structures, the most dense arrangement of atoms has an ('$ of about 9.F=. )n
reality, this number can be higher due to specific intermolecular factors. $or multiple-
component structures, the ('$ can e5ceed 9.F=.
Con(/n(
1 ,orked out e5ample
o 1.1 #ody-centered cubic crystal structure
o 1.7 &e5agonal close-packed crystal structure
7 ('$ of common structures
> "ee also
= 6eferences
C/20(D 7orA/2 o1( /B)m,*/
C/20(D Bo2&@c/n(/r/2 c180c cr&'()* '(r1c(1r/
BCC '(r1c(1r/
The primitive unit cell for the body-centered cubic #CC! crystal structure contains
nine atoms@ one on each corner of the cube and one atom in the center. #ecause the volume
of each corner atom is shared between adLacent cells, each #CC cell contains two atoms.
Each corner atom touches the center atom. ( line that is drawn from one corner of the
cube through the center and to the other corner passes through =r, where r is the radius of an
atom. #y geometry, the length of the diagonal is aO>. Therefore, the length of each side of
the #CC structure can be related to the radius of the atom by
:nowing this and the formula for the volume of a sphere= M >!pi r
>
!, it becomes
possible to calculate the ('$ as follows@
C/20(D H/B)+on)* c*o'/@,)cA/2 cr&'()* '(r1c(1r/
HCP '(r1c(1r/
$or the he5agonal close-packed &C'! structure the derivation is similar. The side
length of the he5agon will be denoted as a while the height of the he5agon will be denoted as
c. Then@
a P 7r
)t is then possible to calculate the ('$ as follows@
APF o common '(r1c(1r/'
19
#y similar procedures, the ideal atomic packing factors of all crystal structures can be
found. The common ones are collected here as reference, rounded to the nearest hundredth.
"imple cubic @ 9.G7
#ody-centered cubic @ 9.IH
&e5agonal close-packed @ 9.F=
$ace-centered cubic @ 9.F=
/iamond cubic @ 9.>=
M0**/r 0n2/B
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8ump to@ navigation, search
'lanes with different Miller indices in cubic crystals
E5amples of directions
M0**/r 0n20c/' are a notation system in crystallography for planes and directions in crystal
#ravais! lattices.
)n particular, a family of lattice planes is determined by three integers , m, and n, the
Miller inices. They are written hkl!, and each inde5 denotes a plane orthogonal to a
direction h, k, l! in the basis of the reciprocal lattice vectors. #y convention, negative
integers are written with a bar, as in > for Q>. The integers are usually written in lowest terms,
i.e. their greatest common divisor should be 1. Miller inde5 199 represents a plane orthogonal
to direction RK inde5 919 represents a plane orthogonal to direction m, and inde5 991
represents a plane orthogonal to n.
There are also several related notations
C1D
@
the notation SRmnT denotes the set of all planes that are e3uivalent to Rmn! by the
symmetry of the lattice.
)n the conte5t of crystal directions not planes!, the corresponding notations are@
CRmnD, with s3uare instead of round brackets, denotes a direction in the basis of the
irect lattice vectors instead of the reciprocal latticeK and
similarly, the notation hkl denotes the set of all directions that are e3uivalent to
CRmnD by symmetry.
Miller indices were introduced in 1H>? by the #ritish mineralogist ,illiam &allowes
Miller. The method was also historically known as the Millerian system, and the indices as
Millerian,
C7D
although this is now rare.
The precise meaning of this notation depends upon a choice of lattice vectors for the
11
crystal, as described below. Usually, three primitive lattice vectors are used. &owever, for
cubic crystal systems, the cubic lattice vectors are used even when they are not primitive
e.g., as in body-centered and face-centered crystals!.
Con(/n('
1 /efinition
7 Case of cubic structures
> Case of he5agonal and rhombohedral structures
= The crystallographic planes and directions
G )nteger vs. irrational Miller indices@ 2attice planes and 3uasicrystals
I "ee also
F 6eferences
H E5ternal links
D/0n0(0on
E5amples of determining indices for a plane using intercepts with a5esK left 111!,
right 771!.
There are two e3uivalent ways to define the meaning of the Miller indices@
C1D
via a
point in the reciprocal lattice, or as the inverse intercepts along the lattice vectors. #oth
definitions are given below. )n either case, one needs to choose the three lattice vectors )
;
, )
6
,
and )
#
as described above. +iven these, the three primitive reciprocal lattice vectors are also
determined denoted 8
;
, 8
6
, and 8
#
!.
Then, given the three Miller indices R, m, n Rmn! denotes planes orthogonal to the
reciprocal lattice vector@
That is, Rmn! simply indicates a normal to the planes in the basis of the primitive
reciprocal lattice vectors. #ecause the coordinates are integers, this normal is itself always a
reciprocal lattice vector. The re3uirement of lowest terms means that it is the shortest
reciprocal lattice vector in the given direction.
E3uivalently, Rmn! denotes a plane that intercepts the three points )
;
MR, )
6
Mm, and
)
#
Mn, or some multiple thereof. That is, the Miller indices are proportional to the inverses of
the intercepts of the plane, in the basis of the lattice vectors. )f one of the indices is *ero, it
means that the planes do not intersect that a5is the intercept is Bat infinityB!.
Considering only Rmn! planes intersecting one or more lattice points the lattice
planes!, the perpendicular distance between adLacent lattice planes is related to the
shortest! reciprocal lattice vector orthogonal to the planes by the formula@ .
C1D
The related notation CRmnD denotes the irection@
17
That is, it uses the direct lattice basis instead of the reciprocal lattice. .ote that CRmnD
is not generally normal to the Rmn! planes, e5cept in a cubic lattice as described below.
C)'/ o c180c '(r1c(1r/'
$or the special case of simple cubic crystals, the lattice vectors are orthogonal and of
e3ual length usually denoted a!K similar to the reciprocal lattice. Thus, in this common case,
the Miller indices Rmn! and CRmnD both simply denote normalsMdirections in Cartesian
coordinates.
$or cubic crystals with lattice constant a, the spacing between adLacent Rmn! lattice
planes is from above!@
#ecause of the symmetry of cubic crystals, it is possible to change the place and sign
of the integers and have e3uivalent directions and planes@
Coordinates in angle brackets such as 199 denote a family of directions which
are e3uivalent due to symmetry operations, such as C199D, C919D, C991D or the negative
of any of those directions.
Coordinates in curly brackets or braces such as S199T denote a family of plane
normals which are e3uivalent due to symmetry operations, much the way angle
brackets denote a family of directions.
$or face-centered cubic and body-centered cubic lattices, the primitive lattice vectors
are not orthogonal. &owever, in these cases the Miller indices are conventionally defined
relative to the lattice vectors of the cubic supercell and hence are again simply the Cartesian
directions.
C)'/ o -/B)+on)* )n2 r-om8o-/2r)* '(r1c(1r/'
Miller-#ravais indices
,ith he5agonal and rhombohedral lattice systems, it is possible to use the #ravais-
Miller inde5 which has = numbers h k i l!
i P Qh Q k.
&ere h, k and l are identical to the Miller inde5, and i is a redundant inde5.
This four-inde5 scheme for labeling planes in a he5agonal lattice makes permutation
symmetries apparent. $or e5ample, the similarity between 119! V 1179! and 179! V 1719!
is more obvious when the redundant inde5 is shown.
)n the figure at right, the 991! plane has a >-fold symmetry@ it remains unchanged by
a rotation of 1M> 7WM> rad, 179X!. The C199D, C919D and the C119D directions are really similar.
)f ! is the intercept of the plane with the C119D a5is, then
1>
i P 1M!.
There are also a hoc schemes e.g. in the transmission electron microscopy
literature! for inde5ing he5agonal lattice vectors rather than reciprocal lattice vectors or
planes! with four indices. &owever they donYt operate by similarly adding a redundant inde5
to the regular three-inde5 set.
$or e5ample, the reciprocal lattice vector hkl! as suggested above can be written as
h)Z[k8Z[lcZif the reciprocal-lattice basis-vectors are )Z, 8Z, and cZ. $or he5agonal crystals
this may be e5pressed in terms of direct-lattice basis-vectors ), 8 and c as
&ence *one indices of the direction perpendicular to plane hkl! are, in suitably-
normali*ed triplet form, simply C7h[k,h[7k,l>M7!aMc!
7
D. ,hen four inices are used for the
*one normal to plane hkl!, however, the literature often uses Ch,k,-h-k,l>M7!aMc!
7
D instead
C>D
.
Thus as you can see, four-inde5 *one indices in s3uare or angle brackets sometimes mi5 a
single direct-lattice inde5 on the right with reciprocal-lattice indices normally in round or
curly brackets! on the left.
T-/ cr&'()**o+r),-0c ,*)n/' )n2 20r/c(0on'
/ense crystallographic planes
The crystallographic directions are fictitious lines linking nodes atoms, ions or
molecules! of a crystal. "imilarly, the crystallographic planes are fictitious planes linking
nodes. "ome directions and planes have a higher density of nodesK these dense planes have an
influence on the behaviour of the crystal@
optical properties @ in condensed matter, the light BLumpsB from one atom to the other
with the 6ayleigh scatteringK the velocity of light thus varies according to the
directions, whether the atoms are close or farK this gives the birefringence
adsorption and reactivity@ the adsorption and the chemical reactions occur on atoms or
molecules, these phenomena are thus sensitive to the density of nodesK
surface tension @ the condensation of a material means that the atoms, ions or
molecules are more stable if they are surrounded by other similar speciesK the surface
tension of an interface thus varies according to the density on the surface
o the pores and crystallites tend to have straight grain boundaries following
dense planes
o cleavage
dislocations plastic deformation!
o the dislocation core tends to spread on dense planes the elastic perturbation is
BdilutedB!K this reduces the friction 'eierls-.abarro force!, the sliding occurs
more fre3uently on dense planesK
o the perturbation carried by the dislocation #urgers vector! is along a dense
direction@ the shift of one node in a dense direction is a lesser distortionK
o the dislocation line tends to follow a dense direction, the dislocation line is
often a straight line, a dislocation loop is often a polygon.
1=
$or all these reasons, it is important to determine the planes and thus to have a
notation system.
In(/+/r >'. 0rr)(0on)* M0**/r 0n20c/'% L)((0c/ ,*)n/' )n2 E1)'0cr&'()*'
Ardinarily, Miller indices are always integers by definition, and this constraint is
physically significant. To understand this, suppose that we allow a plane abc! where the
Miller BindicesB a, b, and c defined as above! are not necessarily integers.
)f a, b, and c have rational ratios, then the same family of planes can be written in
terms of integer indices Rmn! by scaling a, b, and c appropriately@ divide by the largest of
the three numbers, and then multiply by the least common denominator. Thus, integer Miller
indices implicitly include indices with all rational ratios. The reason why planes where the
components in the reciprocal-lattice basis! have rational ratios are of special interest is that
these are the lattice planes@ they are the only planes whose intersections with the crystal are
7d-periodic.
$or a plane abc! where a, b, and c have irrational ratios, on the other hand, the
intersection of the plane with the crystal is not periodic. )t forms an aperiodic pattern known
as a 3uasicrystal. )n fact, this construction corresponds precisely to the standard Bcut-and-
proLectB method of defining a 3uasicrystal, using a plane with irrational-ratio Miller indices.
(lthough many 3uasicrystals, such as the 'enrose tiling, are formed by BcutsB of periodic
lattices in more than three dimensions, involving the intersection of more than one such
hyperplane.!
Im,/r/c(0on' o cr&'()* '(r1c(1r/
Dr. Dmitri Kopeliovich
There are three conventional types of crystal imperfections@
Po0n( 2//c('
The simplest point defects are as follows@
V)c)nc& 1 missing atom at a certain crystal lattice positionK
In(/r'(0(0)* 0m,1r0(& )(om 1 e5tra impurity atom in an interstitial positionK
S/*@0n(/r'(0(0)* )(om 1 e5tra atom in an interstitial positionK
S18'(0(1(0on 0m,1r0(& )(om 1 impurity atom, substituting an atom in crystal latticeK
Fr/nA/* 2//c( 1 e5tra self-interstitial atom, responsible for the vacancy nearby.
1G
L0n/ 2//c('
2inear crystal defects are edge and screw dislocations.
E2+/ 20'*oc)(0on is an e5tra half plane of atoms ;inserted< into the crystal lattice.
/ue to the edge dislocations metals possess high plasticity characteristics@ ductility
and malleability.
1I
Scr/? 20'*oc)(0on forms when one part of crystal lattice is shifted through shear!
relative to the other crystal part. )t is called screw as atomic planes form a spiral
surface around the dislocation line.
$or 3uantitative characteri*ation of a difference between a crystal distorted by a
dislocation and the perfect crystal the #urgers vector is used.
The dislocation density is a total length of dislocations in a unit crystal volume. The
dislocation density of annealed metals is about 1919 - 1917 mQ\. (fter work hardening the
dislocation density increases up to 191G - 191I m-\. $urther increase of dislocation density
causes crackes formation and fracture.
P*)n)r 2//c('
'lanar defect is an imperfection in form of a plane between uniform parts of the
material. The most important planar defect is a grain boundary. $ormation of a boundary
between two grains may be imagined as a result of rotation of crystal lattice of one of them
about a specific a5is. /epending on the rotation a5is direction, two ideal types of a grain
boundary are possible@
T0*( 8o1n2)r& 1 rotation a5is is parallel to the boundary planeK
T?0'( 8o1n2)r& - rotation a5is is perpendicular to the boundary plane@
(n actual boundary is a ;mi5ture< of these two ideal types.
+rain boundaries are called *)r+/@)n+*/ 8o1n2)r0/' if misorientation of two
neighboring grains e5ceeds 19]-1G].
+rain boundaries are called 'm)**@)n+*/ 8o1n2)r0/' if misorientation of two
neighboring grains is G] or less.
1F
+rains, divided by small-angle boundaries are also called '18+r)0n'.
+rain boundaries accumulate crystal lattice defects vacancies, dislocations! and other
imperfections, therefore they effect on the metallurgical processes, occurring in alloys and
their properties.
"ince the mechanism of metal deformation is a motion of crystal dislocations through
the lattice, grain boundaries, enriched with dislocations, play an important role in the
deformation process.
/iffusion along grain boundaries is much faster, than throughout the grains.
"egregation of impurities in form of precipitating phases in the boundary regions
causes a form of corrosion, associated with chemical attack of grain boundaries. This
corrosion is called )ntergranular corrosion.
D0'c1'' (-/ )r(0c*/ )n2 )'A E1/'(0on' 0n o1r M)(/r0)*' For1m
R/*)(/2 0n(/rn)* *0nA'
Metals crystal structure
"olid solutions
/iffusion in alloys
+rain structure
Crystal li*ation
SPECIMEN PREPARATION or SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY
M)(/r0)*' or S)m,*/ Pr/,)r)(0on
( list of e3uipment and materials necessary for preparation of polished specimens is
given in Table 1. $or some items, substitution may be possible if comparable supplies are
available in the laboratory. The list is presented in order of use of the e3uipment or supplies.
T)8*/ ;. EE10,m/n( )n2 S1,,*0/' or Pr/,)r)(0on o Po*0'-/2 S/c(0on'
I(/m P1r,o'/
/iamond blade slab saw large-si*ed sample slabbing
/iamond blade wafering saw cutting of thin mm-si*ed! sections
'ropylene glycol diamond saw cutting lubricant
(lcohol@ 799 proof ethanol cutting lubricant, cleaning aid
Ultrasonic bath specimen cleaning
"pecimen Lars and lids for replacement steps
'otting epo5ies medium and for powders and hardened pastes
1H
low viscosity!
/ye, blue or red, alcohol
miscible
to estimate alcohol replacement depth
6efrigerator epo5y storage
0acuum chamber and pump vacuum impregnation
/rying M curing oven capable of at least IG ]C
+lass plate =99 5 =99 mm! smooth surface for grinding
2apidary wheel minimum 799
mm!
grinding and polishing
Mold cups potting specimens
(luminum foil e5tra heavy
duty!
for forming odd-si*ed specimen molds^MT/^
tr_
Mold release facilitates removal of specimen M epo5y
Metal trays to hold specimens contains any leaking epo5y
/iamond pen label engraving
(brasive papers silicon
carbide!
coarse to fine grinding, 199 to I99 grit
'olishing cloths low-relief! `m and finer polishing
/iamond paste for polishing I, >, 1, 9.7G `m in non-a3ueous suspension
2int-free cloths specimen handling and cleaning
Compressed air specimen cleaning and drying
0acuum dessiccators specimen storage
1?
UNIT = II
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS & FRACTURE
79
M/c-)n0'm o '*0, )n2 (?0nn0n+
The obLectives are to@ 1! demonstrate the mechanisms of deformation in body centered cubic
#CC!, face centered cubic $CC!, and he5agonal close-packed &C'!-structure metals and
alloys and in some ceramics as wellK 7! e5amine the deformed microstructures slip lines and
twin boundaries! in different grains of metallic and ceramic specimensK and >! study visually
the deformed macrostructure slip and twin bands! of metals and alloys. "ome of the topics
71
covered include@ deformation behavior of materials, mechanisms of plastic deformation, slip
bands, twin bands, ductile failure, intergranular fracture, shear failure, slip planes, crystal
deformation, and dislocations in ceramics.
:E4,A6/"@ (lloys, #ody Centered Cubic 2attices, Ceramics, Crystal /efects, Crystal
"tructure, Edge /islocations, $ace Centered Cubic 2attices, Mechanical Twinning, Metals,
Microstructure, /uctility, $ailure (nalysis, $racturing, 'acking /ensity, 'lastic /eformation
S(r/n+(-/n0n+ m/c-)n0'm'
7orA -)r2/n0n+
Main article: Work hardening
The primary species responsible for work hardening are dislocations. /islocations
interact with each other by generating stress fields in the material. The interaction between
the stress fields of dislocations can impede dislocation motion by repulsive or attractive
interactions. (dditionally, if two dislocations cross, dislocation line entanglement occurs,
causing the formation of a Log which opposes dislocation motion. These entanglements and
Logs act as pinning points, which oppose dislocation motion. (s both of these processes are
more likely to occur when more dislocations are present, there is a correlation between
dislocation density and yield strength, where " is the shear modulus, b is the #urgers vector,
and is the dislocation density.
)ncreasing the dislocation density increases the yield strength which results in a higher
shear stress re3uired to move the dislocations. This process is easily observed while working
a material. Theoretically, the strength of a material with no dislocations will be e5tremely
high aP+M7! because plastic deformation would re3uire the breaking of many bonds
simultaneously. , at moderate dislocation density values of around 19
F
-19
?
dislocationsMm
7
,
the material will e5hibit a significantly lower mechanical strength. (nalogously, it is easier to
move a rubber rug across a surface by propagating a small ripple through it than by dragging
the whole rug. (t dislocation densities of 19
1=
dislocationsMm
7
or higher, the strength of the
material becomes high once again. )t should be noted that the dislocation density canYt be
infinitely high because then the material would lose its crystalline structure.
F0+1r/ ;% This is a schematic illustrating how the lattice is strained by the addition of
substitutional and interstitial solute. .otice the strain in the lattice that the solute atoms cause.
The interstitial solute could be carbon in iron for e5ample. The carbon atoms in the interstitial
sites of the lattice creates a stress field that impedes dislocation movement.
C/20(D So*02 So*1(0on S(r/n+(-/n0n+FA**o&0n+
Main article: Solid solution strengthening
$or this strengthening mechanism, solute atoms of one element are added to another,
resulting in either substitutional or interstitial point defects in the crystal see $igure 1!. The
77
solute atoms cause lattice distortions that impede dislocation motion, increasing the yield
stress of the material. "olute atoms have stress fields around them which can interact with
those of dislocations. The presence of solute atoms impart compressive or tensile stresses to
the lattice, depending on solute '0G/, which interfere with nearby dislocations, causing the
solute atoms to act as potential barriers to dislocation propagation andMor multiplication.
The shear stress re3uired to move dislocations in a material is@
,here c is the solute concentration and b is the strain on the material caused by the
solute.
)ncreasing the concentration of the solute atoms will increase the yield strength of a
material, but there is a limit to the amount of solute that can be added, and one should look at
the phase diagram for the material and the alloy to make sure that a second phase is not
created.
)n general, the solid solution strengthening depends on the concentration of the solute
atoms, shear modulus of the solute atoms, si*e of solute atoms, valency of solute atoms for
ionic materials!, and the symmetry of the solute stress field. .ote that the magnitude of
strengthening is higher for non-symmetric stress fields because these solutes can interact with
both edge and screw dislocations whereas symmetric stress fields, which cause only volume
change and not shape change, can only interact with edge dislocations.
F0+1r/ 6% This is a schematic illustrating how the dislocations can interact with a particle. )t
can either cut through the particle or bow around the particle and create a dislocation loop as
it moves over the particle.
C/20(D Pr/c0,0()(0on H)r2/n0n+
Main article: Precipitation strengthening
)n most binary systems, alloying above a concentration given by the phase diagram
will cause the formation of a second phase. ( second phase can also be created by
mechanical or thermal treatments. The particles that compose the second phase precipitates
act as pinning points in a similar manner to solutes, though the particles are not necessarily
single atoms.
The dislocations in a material can interact with the precipitate atoms in one of two
ways see $igure 7!. )f the precipitate atoms are small, the dislocations would cut through
them. (s a result, new surfaces b in $igure 7! of the particle would get e5posed to the matri5
and the particleMmatri5 interfacial energy would increase. $or larger precipitate particles,
looping or bowing of the dislocations would occur which results in dislocations getting
longer. &ence, at a critical radius of about G nm, dislocations will preferably cut across the
obstacle while for a radius of >9 nm, the dislocations will readily bow or loop to overcome
the obstacle.
The mathematical descriptions are as follows@
7>
$or 'article #owing-
$or 'article Cutting-
F0+1r/ #% This is a schematic roughly illustrating the concept of dislocation pile up and how
it effects the strength of the material. ( material with larger grain si*e is able to have more
dislocation to pile up leading to a bigger driving force for dislocations to move from one
grain to another. Thus you will have to apply less force to move a dislocation from a larger
than from a smaller grain, leading materials with smaller grains to e5hibit higher yield stress.
C/20(D Gr)0n Bo1n2)r& S(r/n+(-/n0n+
Main article# "rain bounary strengthening
)n a polycrystalline metal, grain si*e has a tremendous influence on the mechanical
properties. #ecause grains usually have varying crystallographic orientations, grain
boundaries arise. ,hile an undergoing deformation, slip motion will take place. +rain
boundaries act as an impediment to dislocation motion for the following two reasons@
1. /islocation must change its direction of motion due to the differing orientation of grains.
C=D
7. /iscontinuity of slip planes from grain 1 to grain 7.
C=D
The stress re3uired to move a dislocation from one grain to another in order to
plastically deform a material depends on the grain si*e. The average number of dislocations
per grain decreases with average grain si*e see $igure >!. ( lower number of dislocations
per grain results in a lower dislocation YpressureY building up at grain boundaries. This makes
it more difficult for dislocations to move into adLacent grains. This relationship is the &all-
'etch 6elationship and can be mathematically described as follows@
,here k is a constant, is the average grain diameter and c
y,9
is the original yield
stress.
The fact that the yield strength increases with decreasing grain si*e is accompanied by
the caveat that the grain si*e cannot be decreased infinitely. (s the grain si*e decreases, more
free volume is generated resulting in lattice mismatch. #elow appro5imately 19 nm, the grain
boundaries will tend to slide insteadK a phenomenon known as grain-boundary sliding. )f the
grain si*e gets too small, it becomes more difficult to fit the dislocations in the grain and the
stress re3uired to move them is less. )t was not possible to produce materials with grain si*es
below 19 nm until recently, so the discovery that strength decreases below a critical grain si*e
is still e5citing.
C/20(D S(r/n+(-/n0n+ M/c-)n0'm' 0n Amor,-o1' M)(/r0)*'
C/20(D Po*&m/r
'olymers fracture via breaking of inter- and intra molecular bondsK hence, the
chemical structure of these materials plays a huge role in increasing strength. $or polymers
7=
consisting of chains which easily slide past each other, chemical and physical cross linking
can be used to increase rigidity and yield strength. )n thermoset polymers thermosetting
plastic!, disulfide bridges and other covalent cross links give rise to a hard structure which
can withstand very high temperatures. These cross-links are particularly helpful in improving
tensile strength of materials which contain lots of free volume prone to cra*ing, typically
glassy brittle polymers
CID
. )n thermoplastic elastomer, phase separation of dissimilar
monomer components leads to association of hard domains within a sea of soft phase,
yielding a physical structure with increased strength and rigidity. )f yielding occurs by chains
sliding past each other shear bands!, the strength can also be increased by introducing kinks
into the polymer chains via unsaturated carbon-carbon bonds
CID
.
)ncreasing the bulkiness of the monomer unit via incorporation of aryl rings is another
strengthening mechanism. The anisotropy of the molecular structure means that these
mechanisms are heavily dependent on the direction of applied stress. ,hile aryl rings
drastically increase rigidity along the direction of the chain, these materials may still be
brittle in perpendicular directions. Macroscopic structure can be adLusted to compensate for
this anisotropy. $or e5ample, the high strength of :evlar arises from a stacked multilayer
macrostructure where aromatic polymer layers are rotated with respect to their neighbors.
,hen loaded obli3ue to the chain direction, ductile polymers with fle5ible linkages, such as
oriented polyethylene, are highly prone to shear band formation, so macroscopic structures
which place the load parallel to the draw direction would increase strength
CID
.
Mi5ing polymers is another method of increasing strength, particularly with materials
that show cra*ing preceding brittle fracture such as atactic polystyrene ('"!. $or e5ample,
by forming a G9MG9 mi5ture of ('" with polyphenylene o5ide ''A!, this embrittling
tendency can be almost completely suppressed, substantially increasing the fracture strength
CID
.
C/20(D G*)''
Many silicate glasses are strong in compression but weak in tension. #y introducing
compression stress into the structure, the tensile strength of the material can be increased.
This is typically done via two mechanisms@ thermal treatment tempering! or chemical bath
via ion e5change!.
)n tempered glasses, air Lets are used to rapidly cool the top and bottom surfaces of a
softened hot! slab of glass. "ince the surface cools 3uicker, there is more free volume at the
surface than in the bulk melt. The core of the slap then pulls the surface inward, resulting in
an internal compressive stress at the surface. This substantially increases the tensile strength
of the material as tensile stresses e5terted on the glass must now resolve the compressive
stresses before yielding.
c
y P moifie
P c
y,9
[ c
compressive
7G
(lternately, in chemical treatment, a glass slab treated containing network formers
and modifiers is submerged into a molten salt bath containing ions larger than those present
in the modifier. /ue to a concentration gradient of the ions, mass transport must take place.
(s the larger cation diffuses from the molten salt into the surface, it replaces the smaller ion
from the modifier. The larger ion s3uee*ing into surface introduces compressive stress in the
glassYs surface. ( common e5ample is treatment of sodium o5ide modified silicate glass in
molten potassium chloride.
C/20(D A,,*0c)(0on' & C1rr/n( R/'/)rc-
"trengthening of materials is useful in many applications. Ane main application of
strengthened materials is for construction. )n order to have stronger buildings and bridges,
one must have a strong frame that can support high tensile or compressive load and resist
plastic deformation. The steel frame used to make the building should be as strong as possible
so that it does not bend under the entire weight of the building. 'olymeric roofing materials
would also need to be strong so that the roof does not cave in when there is build-up of snow
on the rooftop.
6esearch is also currently being done to increase the strength of metallic materials
through the addition of polymer materials such as bonded carbon fiber reinforced polymer to
C$6'!C1D.
C/20(D Mo*/c1*)r D&n)m0c' S0m1*)(0on'
The use of computation simulations to model work hardening in materials allows for
the direct observation of critical elements that rule the process of strengthening materials. The
basic reasoning derives from the fact that, when e5amining plasticity and the movement of
dislocations in materials, a focus on the atomistic level is many times not accounted for and
the focus rests on the contiuum description of materials. "ince the practice of tracking these
atomistic effects in e5periments and theori*ing about them in te5tbooks cannot provide a full
understanding of these interactions, many turn to molecular dynamics simulations to develop
this understanding.
CFD
The simulations work by utili*ing the known atomic interactions between any two
atoms and the relationship $ P ma, so that the dislocations moving through the material are
ruled by simple mechanical actions and reactions of the atoms. The interatomic potential
usually utili*ed to estimate these interactions is the 2ennard 1 8ones 17@I potential. 2ennard 1
8ones is widely accepted because its e5perimental shortcomings are well-known.
CFDCHD
These
interactions are simply scaled up to millions or billions of atoms in some cases to simulate
materials more accurately.
Molecular dynamic simulations display the interactions based upon the governing
e3uations provided above for the strengthening mechanisms. They provide an effective way
to see these mechanisms in action outside the painstaking realm of direct observation during
e5periments.
7I
r/co>/r r/cr&'()**0G)(0on )n2 Gr)0n +ro?(-
6ECA0E64, 6EC64"T(22)J(T)A., (./ +6(). +6A,T& are
microstructural changes that occur during annealing after cold plastic deformation andMor
during hot working. These three mechanisms are sometimes referred to as restoration
processes, because they restore the microstructural configuration to a lower energy level. (ll
three processes involve diffusion and thus depend on thermal activation to cause
rearrangement of dislocations and grain boundaries. The mechanisms of recovery and
recrystalli*ation also depend on the e5tent of plastic deformation either during hot working
or by cold work prior to annealing!. )n contrast, grain growth is not in direct response to
deformation, but it is a thermally driven restoration process that results in lower surface
energy of individual grains. 6ecovery and recrystalli*ation can occur during hot working or
during annealing after cold plastic deformation. ,hen a metal is cold worked by plastic
deformation, a small portion of the mechanical energy e5pended in deforming the metal is
stored in the specimen. This stored energy resides in the crystals as point defects vacancies
and interstitials!, dislocations, and stacking faults in various forms and combinations,
depending on the metal see the article ;'lastic /eformation "tructures< in this 0olume!.
Therefore, a cold-worked specimen, being in a state of higher energy, is thermodynamically
unstable. ,ith thermal activation, such as provided by annealing, the cold-worked specimen
tends to transform to states of lower energies through a se3uence of processes with
microstructural changes, as shown schematically in $ig.. "uch classification is appro5imateK
some overlapping between the stages usually occurs because of microstructural
nonhomogeneity of the specimen. To some e5tent, the annealing behavior of a metal may be
different from metal to metal and for the same metal of different purity, but the basic
phenomena involved in the various annealing stages are similar. /uring recovery,
accumulated strain is relieved to some e5tent by microstructural and submicroscopic
rearrangements, but the grains are not entirely strain-free. (t higher temperatures, strain-free
grains are created during the restoration process of recrystalli*ation. (long with the
microstructural changes, the properties of the specimen also change correspondingly $ig.!.
Thus, deformation and annealing are important processing methods for producing desired
properties of the material by controlling its microstructures. "imilar restoration process can
also occur during hot working. This is shown in $ig. for hot working with moderate amount
of reduction strain! during working $ig.a! and high strain $ig.b!. The regions of static
recovery and recrystalli*ation, which occur after deformation, are analogous to restoration of
worked structure by annealing. )n addition, dynamic recovery can occur during deformation
at high temperature. $igure also illustrates the occurrence of either static or dynamic
recrystalli*ation at moderate or high strains, respectively, depending on the stacking-fault
energy of a metal. "tacking faults in crystalline structures are planar-type defects that
influence hardening and recrystalli*ation see the article ;'lastic /eformation "tructures< in
this 0olume!.
$rom@ ("M &andbook 0olume 1=(, Metalworking@ #ulk $orming ("M )nternational!
'ublished@ 799G
'ages@ GG7-GI7
S(r)0n -)r2/n0n+
7F
The '(r)0n -)r2/n0n+ /B,on/n( also called '(r)0n -)r2/n0n+ 0n2/B!, noted as n, is
a materials constant which is used in calculations for stress-strain behaviour in work
hardening.
)n the formula c P : b
n
, c represents the applied stress on the material, b is the strain
and : is the strength coefficient. The value of the strain hardening e5ponent lies between 9
and 1. ( value of 9 means that a material is a perfectly plastic solid, while a value of 1
represents a 199d elastic solid. Most metals have an n value between 9.19 and 9.G9.
S(r/''='(r)0n c1r>/
$rom ,ikipedia, the free encyclopedia
6edirected from "tress-strain curve!
8ump to@ navigation, search
$ig.% "tress1strain curve showing typical yield behavior for nonferrous alloys. "tress c! is
shown as a function of strain b!
1@ True elastic limit
7@ 'roportionality limit
>@ Elastic limit
=@ Affset yield strength
This article 2o/' no( c0(/ )n& r//r/nc/' or 'o1rc/'.
'lease help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced
material may be challenged and removed. &'ecember ())*+
/uring tensile testing of a material sample, the '(r/''='(r)0n c1r>/ is a graphical
representation of the relationship between stress, derived from measuring the load applied on
the sample, and strain, derived from measuring the deformation of the sample, i.e. elongation,
compression, or distortion. The area under the elastic portion of the curve is known as the
modulus of resilience.
The nature of the curve varies from material to material. The following diagrams
illustrate the stress1strain behaviour of typical materials in terms of the engineering stress and
engineering strain where the stress and strain are calculated based on the original dimensions
of the sample and not the instantaneous values.
Con(/n('
ChideD
1 /uctile materials
7 #rittle materials
> "ee also
7H
= E5ternal links
C/20(D D1c(0*/ m)(/r0)*'
$ig (. ( stress1strain curve typical of structural steel
1. Ultimate "trength
7. 4ield "trength
>. 6upture
=. "train hardening region
G. .ecking region.
(@ (pparent stress $M(
9
!
#@ (ctual stress $M(!
"teel generally e5hibits a very linear stress1strain relationship up to a well defined
yield point $ig.(!. The linear portion of the curve is the elastic region and the slope is the
modulus of elasticity or 4oungYs Modulus. (fter the yield point, the curve typically decreases
slightly because of dislocations escaping from Cottrell atmospheres. (s deformation
continues, the stress increases on account of strain hardening until it reaches the ultimate
strength. Until this point, the cross-sectional area decreases uniformly because of 'oisson
contractions. The actual rupture point is in the same vertical line as the visual rupture point.
&owever, beyond this point a neck forms where the local cross-sectional area
decreases more 3uickly than the rest of the sample resulting in an increase in the true stress.
(s shown in $ig.(, An an engineering stress1strain curve this is seen as a decrease in the
apparent stress. &owever if the curve is plotted in terms of true stress and true strain the
stress will continue to rise until failure. Eventually the neck becomes unstable and the
specimen ruptures fractures!.
2ess ductile materials such as aluminum and medium to high carbon steels do not
have a well-defined yield point. $or these materials the yield strength is typically determined
by the Boffset yield methodB, by which a line is drawn parallel to the linear elastic portion of
the curve and intersecting the abscissa at some arbitrary value most commonly 9.7d!. The
intersection of this line and the stress1strain curve is reported as the yield point. 'lastic region
is the point where the material will stay deformed, The elastic region is the point where the
material can stretch no further. $ailure point is when the obLect breaks.
C/20(D Br0((*/ m)(/r0)*'
$ig., "tress "train Curve for #rittle materials
#rittle materials such as concrete and carbon fiber do not have a yield point, and do
not strain-harden. Therefore the ultimate strength and breaking strength are the same. ( most
unusual stress-strain curve is shown in $ig.,. Typical brittle materials like glass do not show
any plastic deformation but fail while the deformation is elastic. Ane of the characteristics of
a brittle failure is that the two broken parts can be reassembled to produce the same shape as
the original component as there will not be a neck formation like in the case of ductile
materials. ( typical stress strain curve for a brittle material will be linear. Testing of several
7?
identical specimen, cast iron, or soil, tensile strength is negligible compared to the
compressive strength and it is assumed *ero for many engineering applications. +lass fibers
have a tensile strength stronger than steel, but bulk glass usually does not. This is because of
the stress intensity factor associated with defects in the material. (s the si*e of the sample
gets larger, the si*e of defects also grows. )n general, the tensile strength of a rope is always
less than sum of the tensile strength of its individual fibers.
H/)( (r/)(m/n( of a metal or alloy is a technological procedure, including controlled heating
and cooling operations, conducted for the purpose of changing the alloy microstructure and
resulting in achieving re3uired properties.
There are two general obLectives of heat treatment@ -)r2/n0n+ and )nn/)*0n+.
H)r2/n0n+
H)r2/n0n+ is a process of increasing the metal hardness, strength, toughness, fatigue
resistance.
S(r)0n -)r2/n0n+ (?orA -)r2/n0n+" 1 strengthening by co*2@?orA cold plastic
deformation!.
Cold plastic deformation causes increase of concentration of dislocations, which
mutually entangle one another, making further dislocation motion difficult and therefore
resisting the deformation or increasing the metal strength.
Gr)0n '0G/ '(r/n+(-/n0n+ (-)r2/n0n+" 1 strengthening by grain refining.
+rain boundaries serve as barriers to dislocations, raising the stress re3uired to cause
plastic deformation.
So*02 'o*1(0on -)r2/n0n+ 1 strengthening by dissolving an alloying element.
(toms of solute element distort the crystal lattice, resisting the dislocations motion.
)nterstitial elements are more effective in solid solution hardening, than substitution elements.
D0',/r'0on '(r/n+(-/n0n+ 1 strengthening by addition of second phase into metal
matri5.
The second phase boundaries resist the dislocations motions, increasing the material
strength. The strengthening effect may be significant if fine hard particles are added to a soft
ductile matri5 composite materials!.
H)r2/n0n+ )' ) r/'1*( o S,0no2)* 2/com,o'0(0on. "pinodal structure is
characteri*ed by strains on the coherent boundaries between the spinodal phases
causing hardening of the alloy.
>9
Pr/c0,0()(0on -)r2/n0n+ )+/ -)r2/n0n+! 1 strengthening by precipitation of fine
particles of a second phase from a supersaturated solid solution.
The second phase boundaries resist the dislocations motions, increasing the material
strength.
The age hardening mechanism in (l-Cu alloys may be illustrated by the phase
diagram of (l-Cu system see figure below!
,hen an alloy (l->dCu is heated up to the temperature T
M,
all Cu(l
7
particles are
dissolved and the alloy e5ists in form of single phase solid solution e-phase!. This operation
is called 'o*1(0on (r/)(m/n(.
"low cooling of the alloy will cause formation of relatively coarse particles of Cu(l
7
intermetallic phase, starting from the temperature T
..
&owever if the the cooling rate is high E1/nc-0n+!, solid solution will retain even at
room temperature T
$
. "olid solution in this non-e3uilibrium state is called '1,/r')(1r)(/2
'o*02
So*1(0on.
Abtaining of supersaturated solid solution is possible when cooling is considerably
faster, than diffusion processes.
(s the diffusion coefficient is strongly dependent on the temperature, the precipitation
of Cu(l
7
from supersaturated solution is much faster at elevated temperatures lower than
T
.
!.This process is called )r(00c0)* )+0n+. )t takes usually a time from several hours to one
day.
,hen the aging is conducted at the room temperature, it is called n)(1r)* )+0n+.
>1
.atural aging takes several days or more.
'recipitation from supersaturated solid solution occurred in several steps@
"egregation of Cu atoms into plane clusters. These clusters are called G10n0/r@
Pr/'(on; Gon/' G@P; Gon/'!.
/iffusion of Cu atoms to the +-'1 *ones and formation larger clusters, called GP6
*ones or H: phase. This phase is coherent with the matri5 .
$ormation of HI phase which is partially coherent with the matri5. This phase
provides ma5imum hardening.
Ann/)*0n+
Ann/)*0n+ is a heat treatment procedure involving heating the alloy and holding it at
a certain temperature )nn/)*0n+ (/m,/r)(1r/!, followed by controlled cooling.
(nnealing results in relief of internal stresses, softening, chemical homogeni*ing and
transformation of the grain structure into more stable state.
Ann/)*0n+ '()+/'%
S(r/'' r/*0/ r/co>/r&! 1 a relatively low temperature process of reducing internal
mechanical stresses, caused by cold-work, casting or welding.
/uring this process atoms move to more stable positions in the crystal lattice.
0acancies and interstitial defects are eliminated and some dislocations are annihilated.
6ecovery heat treatment is used mainly for preventing stress-corrosion cracking and
decreasing distortions, caused by internal stresses.
R/cr&'()**0G)(0on = alteration of the grain structure of the metal.
)f the alloy reaches a particular temperature r/cr&'()**0G)(0on or )nn/)*0n+
(/m,/r)(1r/! new grains start to grow from the nuclei formed in the cold worked metal. The
new grains absorb imperfections and distortions caused by cold deformation. The grains are
e3ui-a5ed and independent to the old grain structure.
(s a result of recrystalli*ation mechanical properties strength, ductility! of the alloy
return to the pre-cold-work level.
The annealing temperature and the new grains si*e are dependent on the degree of
cold-work which has been conducted. The more the cold-work degree, the lower the
annealing temperature and the fine recrystalli*ation grain structure. 2ow degrees of cold-
work less than Gd! may cause formation of large grains.
Usually the annealing temperature of metals is between one-third to one-half of the
free*ing point measured in :elvin absolute! temperature scale.
>7
Gr)0n +ro?(- (o>/r@)nn/)*0n+! '/con2)r& r/cr&'()**0G)(0on" = growth of the new
grains at the e5pense of their neighbors, occurring at temperature, above the
recrystalli*ation temperature.
This process results in coarsening grain structure and is undesirable.

"eminar on #rittle and /uctile $racture
Manipal )nstitute of Technology
/epartment of Mechanical Engineering
Effect of "pecimen Arientation
The notched impact properties of rolled or forged products vary with the orientation
in the plate or bar. The figure shows typical form of energy-temperature curves for specimen
cit in longitudinal and transverse directions of the rolled plate. "pecimen ( and # are
oriented in longitudinal directions. The graphs shows that considerably large differences are
e5pected for different specimen orientations at high energy levels, but difference becomes
much less at energy levels below >98. "ince the ductility transition temperatures are evaluated
in this region of energy, it seems that specimen and notch orientation are not very important.
)f, however materials are compared on the basis of room temperature impact properties,
orientation can greatly affect the results.
Effect of orientation of specimen on transition temperature
>>
"eminar on #rittle and /uctile $racture
Manipal )nstitute of Technology
/epartment of Mechanical Engineering
Effect of specimen thickness
'robably the chief deficiency of Charpy impact test is that the small specimen is not
always a realistic model of the actual situation. .ot only does the small specimen lead to
considerable scatter, but a specimen with a thickness of 19mm cannot provide the same
constraint as would be found in a structure with a much greater thickness, at a particular
service temperature the standard Charpy specimen shows a high shelf energy, while actually
the same material in a thick section structure has low toughness at the same temperature.
Effect of section thickness on transition-temperature curves
M/c-)n0'm o Cr//, 0n Br0((*/ RocA
( review of the e5perimental evidence suggests that creep in brittle rock at low temperature
is due to time-dependent cracking. ( transient creep law is derived from the mechanism of
time-dependent cracking in an inhomogeneous brittle material. The behavior is described as a
Markov process with a stationary transition probability that is obtained from e5perimental
observations of static fatigue in glasses. The model is compared with e5perimental
observations and found to predict the observed stress dependence of creep.
Astract
Creep-resistant materials are used in machines and facilities operated at high temperatures
e.g. power engineering e3uipment. They must be able to withstand the highest possible
operating loads at elevated temperatures and also be sufficiently resistant to high-temperature
corrosion. )n contrast to heatresistant materials, the mechanical properties of creep-resistant
materials are of prime importance.
!ullte"t Previe#
>=
S=$ c1r>/
The !1N curve obtained from cantilever-type rotary bending fatigue tests using hour-glass-
shaped specimens of high carbon-chromium bearing steel clearly distinguished the fracture
modes into two groups each having a different crack origin. Ane was governed by crystal slip
on the specimen surface, which occurred in the region of short fatigue life and a high stress
amplitude level. The other was governed by a non-metallic inclusion at a subsurface level
which occurred in the region of long fatigue life and low stress amplitude. The inclusion
developed a fish-eye fracture mode that was distributed over a wide range of stress amplitude
not only below the fatigue limit defined as the threshold for fracture due to the surface slip
mode but also above the fatigue limit. This remarkable shape of the !1N curve was different
from the step-wise one reported in previous literature and is characteri*ed as a duple5 !1N
curve composed of two different !1N curves corresponding to the respective fracture modes.
$rom detailed observations of the fracture surface and the fatigue crack origin, the
mechanisms for the internal fracture mode and the characteristics of the !1N curve are
discussed.
>G
UNIT = III
FERROUS AND NON FERROUS METALS AND PHASE DIAGRAM
5EY (o METALS S/)rc- 8& M/()* Pro,/r(0/'
4ou can 3uickly and easily search over = million metal properties records by
designation, countriesMstandards, type, standard number, chemical composition, mechanical
properties, other properties or any combination of these criteria. $or e5ample, let-s look for a
Chinese stainless steel, which needs to have C ^ 9.9G, Cr _ 1Id, .i _ Hd, tensile stress over
FG9 M'a.
Click A2>)nc/2 S/)rc- from the main window. .e5t, click "TEE2 radio button, choose
ChinaM+# in the CountryM"tandard list. Check bo5es S()0n*/'' S(//*, and enter re3uested
steel properties and alloying elements.
The search results screen appears. Click on a steel from the list to review its
properties, in this e5ample the first will be selected 1 ">1F7>.
(fter clicking on the material, a list of '18+ro1,' appears. )n :E4 to MET(2", the
term ;subgroups< refers to standard specifications that define steel propertiesK in this case the
specification +#MT =7>= is selected. .ote that properties defined according to different
specifications may differ significantly.
"teel properties within the :E4 to MET(2" /atabase include composition, cross-
reference tables, mechanical properties, physical properties, and even creep and fatigue
properties. Click on the e5amples below to enlarge them.
>I
There is no simple definition of metalK however, any chemical element having
Bmetallic propertiesB or Bmetal propertiesB is classed as a metal. Typical metal properties are
luster, good thermal and electrical conductivity, and the capability of being permanently
shaped or deformed at room temperature.
The properties of metals make them suitable for different uses in daily life.
Chemical elements lacking the typical metal properties are classed as nonmetals. ( few
elements, known as metalloids, sometimes behave like a metal and at other times like a
nonmetal. "ome e5amples of metalloids are as follows@ carbon, phosphorus, silicon, and
sulfur.
The properties of different metals can be combined by mi5ing two or more of them together.
The resulting substance is called an alloy. 'ure elemental metals are often too soft to be of
practical use which is why much of metallurgy focuses on formulating useful alloys.
"teel, for e5ample, is a mi5ture of iron and small amounts of carbon and other elements.
Ather alloys like brass copper and *inc! and bron*e copper and tin! are easy to shape and
beautiful to look at. #ron*e is also used fre3uently in ship-building because it is resistant to
corrosion from sea water.
Titanium is much lighter and less dense than steel, but as strongK and although heavier than
aluminum, itYs also twice as strong. )tYs also very resistant to corrosion. (ll these factors
make it an e5cellent alloy material. Titanium alloys are used in aircraft, ships, and spacecraft,
as well as paints, bicycles, and even laptop computersf
Copper is a good conductor of electricity and is ductile. Therefore copper is used for
electrical cables.
+old and silver are very malleable, ductile and very non-reactive. +old and silver are used to
make intricate Lewelry. +old is especially suitable for this purpose since it does not tarnish.
+old can also be used for o5idation-free electrical connections.
)ron and steel are both hard and strong. Therefore they are used to construct bridges and
buildings. ( disadvantage of using iron is that it tends to rust, whereas most steels rust, but
>F
they can be formulated to be rust free.
(luminum is a good conductor of heat and is malleable. )t is used to make saucepans and
foil, and also airplane bodies due to the fact that is very light.
"tainless steel or galvani*ed steel are used where resistance to corrosion is important.
(luminum alloys and magnesium alloys are used for applications where strength and
lightness are re3uired.
Copper-nickel alloys such as Monel are used in highly corrosive environments and for non-
magnetic applications. .ickel-based superalloys like )nconel are used in high temperature
applications such as turbochargers, pressure vessels, and heat e5changers. $or e5tremely
high temperatures, single crystal alloys are used to minimi*e creep.
M)r)+0n+ S(//*'%
M)r)+0n+ '(//*' a portmanteau of martensitic and aging! are iron alloys which are known
for possessing superior strength and toughness without losing malleability, although they can
not hold a good cutting edge. Y(gingY refers to the e5tended heat-treatment process. These
steels are a special class of low-carbon ultra-high-strength steels which derive their strength
not from carbon, but from precipitation of inter-metallic compounds. The principal alloying
element is 1G to 7Gd nickel.
C1D
"econdary alloying elements are added to produce
intermetallic precipitates, which include cobalt, molybdenum, and titanium.
C1D
Ariginal
development was carried out on 79 and 7Gd .i steels to which small additions of (l, Ti, and
.b were made.
The common, non-stainless grades contain 1F11?d nickel, H117d cobalt, >1Gd
molybdenum, and 9.711.Id titanium. (ddition of chromium produces stainless grades
resistant to corrosion. This also indirectly increases hardenability as they re3uire less nickel@
high-chromium, high-nickel steels are generally austenitic and unable to transform to
martensite when heat treated, while lower-nickel steels can transform to martensite.
Pro,/r(0/'
/ue to the low carbon content maraging steels have good machinability. 'rior to aging, they
may also be cold rolled to as much as H91?9d without cracking. Maraging steels offer good
weldability, but must be aged afterward to restore the properties of heat affected *one.
C1D
,hen heat-treated the alloy has very little dimensional change, so it is often machined to its
final dimensions. /ue to the high alloy content the alloys have a high hardenability. "ince
ductile $e.i martensites are formed upon cooling, cracks are non-e5istent or negligible.
They can also be nitrided to increase case hardness. They can be polished to a fine surface
finish.
.on-stainless varieties of maraging steels are moderately corrosion-resistant, and resist stress
corrosion and hydrogen embrittlement. More corrosion protection can be gained by cadmium
plating or phosphating.
C/20(D H/)( (r/)(m/n( c&c*/
>H
The steel is first annealed at appro5imately H79 XC 1,G19 X$! for 1G1>9 minutes for thin
sections and for 1 hour per 7G mm thickness for heavy sections, to ensure formation of a
fully austeniti*ed structure. This is followed by air cooling to room temperature to form a
soft, heavily-dislocated iron-nickel lath untwinned! martensite. "ubse3uent aging
precipitation hardening! of the more common alloys for appro5imately > hours at a
temperature of =H9 to G99 XC produces a fine dispersion of .i
>
g,4! intermetallic phases
along dislocations left by martensitic transformation, where g and 4 are solute elements
added for such precipitation. Averaging leads to a reduction in stability of the primary,
metastable, coherent precipitates, leading to their dissolution and replacement with semi-
coherent 2aves phases such as $e
7
.iM$e
7
Mo. $urther e5cessive heat-treatment brings about
the decomposition of the martensite and reversion to austenite.
.ewer compositions of maraging steels have revealed other intermetallic stoichiometries and
crystallographic relationships with the parent martensite, including rhombohedral and
massive comple5 .i
G9
g,4,J!
G9
, or .i
G9
M
G9
in simplified notation.
C/20(D U'/'
Maraging steelYs strength and malleability in the pre-aged stage allows it to be formed into
thinner rocket and missile skins than other steels, reducing weight for a given strength.
Maraging steels have very stable properties, and, even after overaging due to e5cessive
temperature, only soften slightly. These alloys retain their properties at mildly elevated
operating temperatures and have ma5imum service temperatures of over =99 XC FG7 X$!.
Ccitation neeeD
They are suitable for engine components, such as crankshafts and gears, and the
firing pins of automatic weapons that cycle from hot to cool repeatedly while under
substantial load. Their uniform e5pansion and easy machinability before aging make
maraging steel useful in high-wear components of assembly lines and dies. Ather ultra-high-
strength steels, such as (ermet alloys, are not as machinable because of their carbide content.
)n the sport of fencing, blades used in competitions run under the auspices of the $hdhration
)nternationale dYEscrime are often made with maraging steel. Maraging blades are re3uired in
foil and hphe because crack propagation in maraging steel is 19 times slower than in carbon
steel, resulting in less blade breakage and fewer inLuries. The notion that such blades break
flat is a fencing urban legend@ testing has shown that the blade-breakage patterns in carbon
steel and maraging steel blades are identical
Ccitation neeeD
. "tainless maraging steel is used in
bicycle frames and golf club heads. )t is also used in surgical components and hypodermic
syringes, but is not suitable for scalpel blades because the lack of carbon prevents it from
holding a good cutting edge.
Maraging steel production, import, and e5port by certain states, such as the United "tates,
C7D
is closely monitored by international authorities because it is particularly suited for use in gas
centrifuges for uranium enrichmentK lack of maraging steel significantly hampers this
process. Alder centrifuges used aluminum tubesK modern ones, carbon fiber composite.
P-&'0c)* ,ro,/r(0/'
/ensity @ H.1 gMcmi 9.7? lbMini!
>?
"pecific heat , mean for 91199 XC >71717 X$!@ H1> 8Mkgj:! 9.19H #tuMlbjX$!!
Melting point @ 7GFG X$, 1=1> XC
Thermal conductivity @ 7G.G ,jmMm\j:!
Mean coefficient of thermal e5pansion@ 11.>k19
QI

4ield tensile strength @ typically 19>917=79 M'a 1G9,9991>G9,999 psi!
C>D

Ultimate tensile strength@ typically 1I9917G99 M'a 7>9,9991>I9,999 psi!. +rades
e5ist up to >.G +'a G99,999 psi!
Elongation at break@ up to 1Gd
:
)C
fracture toughness@ up to 1FG M'a-m
N

4oungYs modulus @ 719 +'a
C=D

"hear modulus @ FF +'a
#ulk modulus @ 1=9 +'a
&ardness aged!@ G9 &6C grade 7G9!K G= &6C grade >99!K GH &6C grade >G9!
The mineral +r),-0(/ is one of the allotropes of carbon. )t was named by (braham +ottlob
,erner in 1FH? from the +reek lmnobpq graphein!@ Bto drawMwriteB, for its use in pencils,
where it is commonly called */)2 not to be confused with the metallic element lead!. Unlike
diamond another carbon allotrope!, graphite is an electrical conductor, a semimetal. Thus,
e.g., it is useful in arc lamp electrodes. +raphite is the most stable form of carbon under
standard conditions. Therefore, it is used in thermochemistry as the standard state for
defining the heat of formation of carbon compounds. +raphite may be considered the highest
grade of coal, Lust above anthracite and alternatively called meta-anthracite, although it is not
normally used as fuel because it is hard to ignite.
There are three principal types of natural graphite, each occurring in different types of ore
deposit@
1. Crystalline flake graphite or flake graphite for short! occurs as isolated, flat, plate-
like particles with he5agonal edges if unbroken and when broken the edges can be
irregular or angularK
7. (morphous graphite occurs as fine particles and is the result of thermal
metamorphism of coal, the last stage of coalification, and is sometimes called meta-
anthracite. 0ery fine flake graphite is sometimes called amorphous in the tradeK
>. 2ump graphite also called vein graphite! occurs in fissure veins or fractures and
appears as massive platy intergrowths of fibrous or acicular crystalline aggregates,
and is probably hydrothermal in origin.
&ighly ordered pyrolytic graphite or highly oriented pyrolytic graphite &A'+! refers to
graphite with an angular spread between the graphite sheets of less than 1X. This highest-
3uality synthetic form is used in scientific research.
C>D
The name Bgraphite fiberB is also
sometimes used to refer to carbon fiber or carbon fiber-reinforced polymer.
Occ1rr/nc/
=9
+raphite output in 799G
Minerals associated with graphite include 3uart*, calcite, micas, iron meteorites, and
tourmalines. +raphite has various other characteristics. Thin flakes are fle5ible but inelastic,
the mineral can leave black marks on hands and paper, it conducts electricity, and displays
superlubricity. )ts best field indicators are softness, luster, density and streak.
(ccording to the United "tates +eological "urvey U"+"!, world production of natural
graphite in 799H was 1,119 thousand tonnes kt!, of which the following maLor e5porters are@
China H99 kt!, )ndia 1>9 kt!, #ra*il FI kt!, .orth :orea >9 kt! and Canada 7H kt!.
+raphite is not mined in U", but U" production of synthetic graphite in 799F was 1?H kt
valued at r1.1H billion. U" graphite consumption was =7 kt and 799 kt for natural and
synthetic graphite, respectively.
C=D
"canning tunneling
microscope image of
graphite surface atoms
graphiteYs unit
cell
ball-and-stick model of graphite
7 graphene layers!
side view of
layer stacking
C/20(D Pro,/r(0/'
+raphite has a layered, planar structure. )n each layer, the carbon atoms are arranged in a
he5agonal lattice with separation of 9.1=7 nm, and the distance between planes is 9.>>G nm.
CGD
The two known forms of graphite, alpha he5agonal! and beta rhombohedral!, have very
similar physical properties e5cept that the graphene layers stack slightly differently!.
CID
The
he5agonal graphite may be either flat or buckled.
CFD
The alpha form can be converted to the
beta form through mechanical treatment and the beta form reverts to the alpha form when it
is heated above 1>99 XC.
CHD
The layering contributes to its lower density.
Cclarification neeeD
The acoustic and thermal properties of graphite are highly anisotropic, since phonons
propagate very 3uickly along the tightly-bound planes, but are slower to travel from one
plane to another.
+raphite can conduct electricity due to the vast electron delocali*ation within the carbon
layers a phenomenon called aromaticity!. These valence electrons are free to move, so are
able to conduct electricity. &owever, the electricity is only conducted within the plane of the
layers.
+raphite and graphite powder are valued in industrial applications for its self-lubricating and
dry lubricating properties. There is a common belief that graphiteYs lubricating properties are
solely due to the loose interlamellar coupling between sheets in the structure.
C?D
&owever, it
has been shown that in a vacuum environment such as in technologies for use in space!,
=1
graphite is a very poor lubricant. This observation led to the discovery that the lubrication is
due to the presence of fluids between the layers, such as air and water, which are naturally
adsorbed from the environment. This molecular property is unlike other layered, dry
lubricants such as molybdenum disulfide. 6ecent studies suggest that an effect called
superlubricity can also account for graphiteYs lubricating properties. The use of graphite is
limited by its tendency to facilitate pitting corrosion in some stainless steel,
C19DC11D
and to
promote galvanic corrosion between dissimilar metals due to its electrical conductivity!. )t
is also corrosive to aluminium in the presence of moisture. $or this reason, the U" (ir $orce
banned its use as a lubricant in aluminium aircraft,
C17D
and discouraged its use in aluminium-
containing automatic weapons.
C1>D
Even graphite pencil marks on aluminium parts may
facilitate corrosion.
C1=D
(nother high-temperature lubricant, he5agonal boron nitride, has the
same molecular structure as graphite. )t is sometimes called white graphite, due to its similar
properties.
,hen a large number of crystallographic defects bind these planes together, graphite loses its
lubrication properties and becomes what is known as pyrolytic carbon. This material is
useful for blood-contacting implants such as artificial heart valves. )t is also highly
diamagnetic, thus it will float in mid-air above a strong magnet.
.atural and crystalline graphites are not often used in pure form as structural materials, due
to their shear-planes, brittleness and inconsistent mechanical properties.
C/20(D H0'(or&
+raphite was used by the =th millennium #.C. Marica culture to create a ceramic paint to
decorate pottery during the .eolithic (ge in southeastern Europe.
C1GD
"ome time before 1GIG some sources say as early as 1G99!, an enormous deposit of graphite
was discovered on the approach to +rey :notts from the hamlet of "eathwaite in #orrowdale
parish, Cumbria, England, which the locals found very useful for marking sheep.
C1IDC1FD
This
particular deposit of graphite was e5tremely pure and soft, and could easily be broken into
sticks. This remains the only deposit of graphite found in this packed form.
C1HD
C/20(D O(-/r n)m/'
+raphite has also been known historically under other names@ blacklead and plumbago.
C1?D
'lumbago was commonly used for its massive mineral form. #oth of these names arise from
confusion with the similar-appearing lead ores, particularly galena. The 2atin word for lead
is plumbum, which gave its name to both the English term for this grey metallic-sheened
mineral and even the leadworts or plumbagos, plants with flowers that resemble this colour.
#lacklead has usually been applied to a powdered or processed form, where this fine powder
then appears as a matt non-metallic black.
C/20(D U'/' o n)(1r)* +r),-0(/
=7
.atural graphite is mostly consumed for refractories, steelmaking, e5panded graphite, brake
linings, foundry facings and lubricants.
C=D
+raphene, which occurs naturally in graphite, has
uni3ue physical properties and might be one of the strongest substances knownK however, the
process of separating it from graphite will re3uire some technological development before it
is economically feasible to use it in industrial processes.
C/20(D R/r)c(or0/'
This end-use begins before 1?99 with the graphite crucible used to hold molten metalK this is
now a minor part of refractories. )n the mid 1?H9s, the carbon-magnesite brick became
important, and a bit later the alumina-graphite shape. Currently the order of importance is
alumina-graphite shapes, carbon-magnesite brick, monolithics gunning and ramming
mi5es!, and then crucibles.
Crucibles began using very large flake graphite, and carbon-magnesite brick re3uiring not
3uite so large flake graphiteK for these and others there is now much more fle5ibility in si*e
of flake re3uired, and amorphous graphite is no longer restricted to low-end refractories.
(lumina-graphite shapes are used as continuous casting ware, such as no**les and troughs,
to convey the molten steel from ladle to mold, and carbon magnesite bricks line steel
converters and electric arc furnaces to withstand e5treme temperatures. +raphite #locks are
also used in parts of blast furnace linings where the high thermal conductivity of the graphite
is critical. &igh-purity monolithics are often used as a continuous furnace lining instead of
the carbon-magnesite bricks.
The U" and European refractories industry had a crisis in 79991799>, with an indifferent
market for steel and a declining refractory consumption per tonne of steel underlying firm
buyouts and many plant closings. Many of the plant closings resulted from the ac3uisition of
&arbison-,alker 6efractories by 6ade5-&eraklith, )nc. 6&)!K some plants had their
e3uipment auctioned off. "ince much of the lost capacity was for carbon-magnesite brick,
graphite consumption within refractories area moved towards alumina-graphite shapes and
monolithics, and away from the brick.The maLor source of carbon-magnesite brick is now
imports from China. (lmost all of the above refractories are used to make steel and account
for FGd of refractory consumptionK the rest is used by a variety of industries, such as cement.
(ccording to the U"+", U" natural graphite consumption in refractories was 11,999 tonnes
in 799I.
C=D
C/20(D S(//*m)A0n+
.atural graphite in this end use mostly goes into carbon raising in molten steel, although it
can be used to lubricate the dies used to e5trude hot steel. "upplying carbon raisers is very
competitive, therefore subLect to cut-throat pricing from alternatives such as synthetic
graphite powder, petroleum coke, and other forms of carbon. ( carbon raiser is added to
increase the carbon content of the steel to the specified level. (n estimate based on U"+"
U" graphite consumption statistics indicates that 19,G99 tonnes were used in this fashion in
799G.
C=D
C/20(D EB,)n2/2 +r),-0(/
=>
E5panded graphite is made by immersing natural flake graphite in a bath of chromic acid,
then concentrated sulfuric acid, which forces the crystal lattice planes apart, thus e5panding
the graphite. The e5panded graphite can be used to make graphite foil or used directly as
Bhot topB compound to insulate molten metal in a ladle or red-hot steel ingots and decrease
heat loss, or as firestops fitted around a fire door or in sheet metal collars surrounding plastic
pipe during a fire, the graphite e5pands and chars to resist fire penetration and spread!, or to
make high-performance gasket material for high-temperature use. (fter being made into
graphite foil, the foil is machined and assembled into the bipolar plates in fuel cells. The foil
is made into heat sinks for laptop computers which keeps them cool while saving weight, and
is made into a foil laminate that can be used in valve packings or made into gaskets. Ald-
style packings are now a minor member of this grouping@ fine flake graphite in oils or
greases for uses re3uiring heat resistance. ( +(. estimate of current U" natural graphite
consumption in this end use is F,G99 tonnes.
C=D
C/20(D In(/rc)*)(/2 +r),-0(/
Main article# "raphite intercalation compoun
S(r1c(1r/ o C)C
J
+raphite forms intercalation compounds with some metals and small molecules. )n these
compounds, the host molecule or atom gets BsandwichedB between the graphite layers,
resulting in compounds with variable stoichiometry. ( prominent e5ample of an intercalation
compound is potassium graphite, denoted by the formula :C
H
. +raphite intercalation
compounds are superconductors. The highest transition temperature by 8une 799?! T
c
P 11.G
: is achieved in CaC
I
and it further increases under applied pressure 1G.1 : at H +'a!.
C79D
C/20(D Br)A/ *0n0n+'
.atural amorphous and fine flake graphite are used in brake linings or brake shoes for
heavier nonautomotive! vehicles, and became important with the need to substitute for
asbestos. This use has been important for 3uite some time, but nonasbestos organic .(A!
compositions are beginning to cost graphite market share. ( brake-lining industry shake-out
with some plant closings has not helped either, nor has an indifferent automotive market.
(ccording to the U"+", U" natural graphite consumption in brake linings was I,G19 tonnes
in 799G.
C=D
==
C/20(D Fo1n2r& )c0n+' )n2 *18r0c)n('
( foundry facing mold wash is a water-based paint of amorphous or fine flake graphite.
'ainting the inside of a mold with it and letting it dry leaves a fine graphite coat that will
ease separation of the obLect cast after the hot metal has cooled. +raphite lubricants are
specialty items for use at very high or very low temperatures, as forging die lubricant, an
antisei*e agent, a gear lubricant for mining machinery, and to lubricate locks. &aving low-
grit graphite, or even better no-grit graphite ultra high purity!, is highly desirable. )t can be
used as a dry powder, in water or oil, or as colloidal graphite a permanent suspension in a
li3uid!. (n estimate based on U"+" graphite consumption statistics indicates that 7,799
tonnes was used in this fashion in 799G.
C=D
C/20(D O(-/r 1'/'
.atural graphite has found uses as the marking material BleadB! in common pencils, in *inc-
carbon batteries, in electric motor brushes, and various speciali*ed applications.
C/20(D U'/' o '&n(-/(0c +r),-0(/
C/20(D E*/c(ro2/'
These electrodes carry the electricity that heats electric arc furnaces, the vast maLority steel
furnaces. They are made from petroleum coke after it is mi5ed with petroleum pitch,
e5truded and shaped, then baked to sinter it, and then graphiti*ed by heating it above the
temperature >999 XC! that converts carbon to graphite. They can vary in si*e up to 11 ft.
long and >9 in. in diameter. (n increasing proportion of global steel is made using electric
arc furnaces, and the electric arc furnace itself is getting more efficient and making more
steel per tonne of electrode. (n estimate based on U"+" data indicates that graphite
electrode consumption was 1?F,999 tonnes in 799G.
C=D
C/20(D Po?2/r )n2 'cr),
The powder is made by heating powdered petroleum coke above the temperature of
graphiti*ation, sometimes with minor modifications. The graphite scrap comes from pieces
of unusable electrode material in the manufacturing stage or after use! and lathe turnings,
usually after crushing and si*ing. Most synthetic graphite powder goes to carbon raising in
steel competing with natural graphite!, with some used in batteries and brake linings.
(ccording to the U"+", U" synthetic graphite powder and scrap production was ?G,999
tonnes in 7991 latest data!.
C=D
C/20(D N/1(ron mo2/r)(or
Main article# Nuclear graphite
"pecial grades of synthetic graphite also find use as a matri5 and neutron moderator within
nuclear reactors. )ts low neutron cross-section also recommends it for use in proposed fusion
reactors. Care must be taken that reactor-grade graphite is free of neutron absorbing
materials such as boron, widely used as the seed electrode in commercial graphite deposition
=G
systemsEthis caused the failure of the +ermansY ,orld ,ar )) graphite-based nuclear
reactors. "ince they could not isolate the difficulty they were forced to use far more
e5pensive heavy water moderators. +raphite used for nuclear reactors is often referred to as
nuclear graphite.
C/20(D O(-/r 1'/'
+raphite carbon! fiber and carbon nanotubes are also used in carbon fiber reinforced
plastics, and in heat-resistant composites such as reinforced carbon-carbon 6CC!. 'roducts
made from carbon fiber graphite composites include fishing rods, golf clubs, bicycle frames,
and pool cue sticks and have been successfully employed in reinforced concrete. The
mechanical properties of carbon fiber graphite-reinforced plastic composites and grey cast
iron are strongly influenced by the role of graphite in these materials. )n this conte5t, the
term B199d! graphiteB is often loosely used to refer to a pure mi5ture of carbon
reinforcement and resin, while the term BcompositeB is used for composite materials with
additional ingredients.
C71D
+raphite has been used in at least three radar absorbent materials. )t was mi5ed with rubber
in "umpf and "chornsteinfeger, which were used on U-boat snorkels to reduce their radar
cross section. )t was also used in tiles on early $-11F .ighthawks. Modern smokeless
powder is coated in graphite to prevent the buildup of static charge.
C/20(D Gr),-0(/ m0n0n+! 8/n/0c0)(0on! )n2 m0**0n+
+raphite is mined around the world by both open pit and underground methods. ,hile flake
graphite and amorphous graphite are both mined open pit and underground, lump vein!
graphite is only mined underground in "ri 2anka. The open pit mines usually employ
e3uipment i.e. bulldo*ers! to scoop up the ore, which is usually put in trucks and moved to
the plant. "ince the original rock is usually lateriti*ed or weathered, this amounts to moving
dirt with flecks or pieces of graphite in it from the pit blasting is seldom re3uired!. The
underground graphite mines employ drilling and blasting to break up the hard rock ore!,
which is then moved by mine cars pulled by a locomotive, or moved by automotive vehicles,
to the surface and then to the plant. )n less-developed areas of the world, the ore can be
mined by pick and shovel and transported by mine cars pushed by a laborer or by women
carrying baskets of ore on their heads.
+raphite usually needs beneficiation, although thick-bedded amorphous graphite and vein
graphite is almost always beneficiated, if beneficiated at all, by laborers hand-picking out the
pieces of gangue rock! and hand-screening the product. The great maLority of world flake
graphite production is crushed and ground if necessary and beneficiated by flotation.
Treating graphite by flotation encounters one big difficulty@ graphite is very soft and BmarksB
coats! the particles of gangue. This makes the BmarkedB gangue particles float off with the
graphite to yield a very impure concentrate. There are two ways of obtaining a saleable
concentrate or product@ regrinding and floating it again and again up to seven times! to
obtain a purer and purer concentrate, or by leaching dissolving! the gangue with
hydrofluoric acid for a silicate gangue! or hydrochloric acid for a carbonate gangue!.
=I
)n the milling process, the incoming graphite products and concentrates can be ground before
being classified si*ed or screened!, with the coarser flake si*e fractions below H mesh, H179
mesh, 791G9 mesh! carefully preserved, and then the carbon contents are determined. Then
some standard blends can be prepared from the different fractions, each with a certain flake
si*e distribution and carbon content. Custom blends can also be made for individual
customers who want a certain flake si*e distribution and carbon content. )f flake si*e is
unimportant, the concentrate can be ground more freely. Typical final products include a fine
powder for use as a slurry in oil drillingK in *irconium silicate, sodium silicate and isopropyl
alcohol coatings for foundry moldsK and a carbon raiser in the steel industry "ynthetic
graphite powder and powdered petroleum coke can also be used as carbon raiser!. 6ough
graphite is typically classified, ground, and packaged at a graphite millK often the more
comple5 formulations are also mi5ed and packaged at the mill facility. Environmental
impacts from graphite mills consist of air pollution including fine particulate e5posure of
workers and also soil contamination from powder spillages leading to heavy metals
contaminations of soil. /ust masks are normally worn by workers during the production
process to avoid worker e5posure to the fine airborne graphite and *ircon silicate.
C/20(D Gr),-0(/ r/c&c*0n+
The most common way graphite is recycled occurs when synthetic graphite electrodes are
either manufactured and pieces are cut off or lathe turnings are discarded, or the electrode or
other! are used all the way down to the electrode holder. ( new electrode replaces the old
one, but a si*eable piece of the old electrode remains. This is crushed and si*ed, and the
resulting graphite powder is mostly used to raise the carbon content of molten steel.
+raphite-containing refractories are sometimes also recycled, but often not because of their
graphite@ the largest-volume items, such as carbon-magnesite bricks that contain only 1G1
7Gd graphite, usually contain too little graphite. &owever, some recycled carbon-magnesite
brick is used as the basis for furnace repair materials, and also crushed carbon-magnesite
brick is used in slag conditioners. ,hile crucibles have a high graphite content, the volume
of crucibles used and then recycled is very small.
( high-3uality flake graphite product that closely resembles natural flake graphite can be
made from steelmaking kish. :ish is a large-volume near-molten waste skimmed from the
molten iron feed to a basic o5ygen furnace, and is a mi5 of graphite precipitated out of the
supersaturated iron!, lime-rich slag, and some iron. The iron is recycled on site, so what is
left is a mi5ture of graphite and slag. The best recovery process uses hydraulic classification
,hich utili*es a flow of water to separate minerals by specific gravity@ graphite is light and
settles nearly last.! to get a F9d graphite rough concentrate. 2eaching this concentrate with
hydrochloric acid gives a ?Gd graphite product with a flake si*e ranging from 19 mesh
down.
A**o& C)'( Iron
Cast iron containing the usual components, as well as specially introduced alloying elements,
which impart to it specific properties, such as increased strength, durability, and
refractoriness. (lloy cast irons are usually classified chemically for e5ample, nickel or
chromium cast iron!. )n naturally alloyed cast iron the alloying additives come from the iron
=F
ore.
Co,,/r )n2 Co,,/r A**o&' (Br)''! BronG/"
Mat,eb has data sheets for 7799[ coppers and copper alloys such as brass and bron*e,
including uni3ue data for different product forms and heat treatments. Ance you navigate to
specific data sheets, you will find the properties you need for the copper alloys of your
choice - such as the tensile strength and melting point of "(E =9 #ron*e or the density of
2eaded Munt* Metal, U." C>IG99.
The fastest and surest way to find the database entries for all copper alloys is to follow the
link to our "earch #y Material Category and then select Metal --_ .on-$errous --_ Copper
(lloy.
4ou can also choose BCopper (lloyB in conLunction with property values when you "earch
#y 'roperty. This will help you to naviagate through our large collection to find the e5act
copper, brass, or bron*e alloys that meet your property specifications.
Copper alloys can be difficult to find by a te5t-based search due to ambiguous common
names and misnomers. $or e5ample, the term B"ilver-bearing tough pitch copperB is used for
alloys with at least four different composition ranges with different U." numbers. ,hen
choosing te5t for our K10cA S/)rc-, please keep in mind that the Mat,eb te5t-based search
is sensitive to punctuation, spacing, and abbreviationsK it will treat Copper-tin differently
than Copper tin. The U." number is the most widely available search term but coppers can
sometimes be found in Mat,eb by entering ("TM, C/(, CE., and )"A designations. The
U." .umber is often created from the Copper /evelopment (gency C/(! number by
adding a YCY at the begionning and two *eroes at the end e5@ C/( >I9 P U." C>I999!.
.o matter how you reach Mat,ebYs entries for specific copper, brass, or bron*e entries, you
will find complete physical property data. The Mat,eb staff has collected e5tensive data to
bring you values for properties such as composition, density, hardness, ultimate tensile
strength, electrical resisitivity or conductivity, elastic modulus, etc.
$or more information about copper, choose one of the following links@

Ho? A**o&0n+ E*/m/n(' A/c( (-/ Pro,/r(0/' o Co,,/r

ASTM BJ0; H/)( Tr/)(0n+ T/m,/r Co2/' or Co,,/r' )n2 Co,,/r A**o&'

ASTM S,/c00c)(0on Co2/' or Co,,/r' )n2 Co,,/r A**o&'

F/2/r)* S,/c00c)(0on Co2/' or Co,,/r' )n2 Co,,/r A**o&'

"mall amounts of alloying elements are often added to metals to improve certain
characteristics of the metal. (lloying can increase or reduce the strength, hardness, electrical
and thermal conductivity, corrosion resistance, or change the color of a metal. The addition
of a substance to improve one property may have unintended effects on other properties.
This page describes the effects of various alloying elements on copper and copper alloys
such as brass and bron*e.

S(r/n+(-
"olid solution strengthening of copper is a common strengthening method. "mall amounts
=H
of an alloying element added to molten copper will completely dissolve and form a
homogeneous microstructure a single phase!. (t some point, additional amounts of the
alloying element will not dissolveK the e5act amount is dependent on the solid solubility of
the particular element in copper. ,hen that solid solubility limit is e5ceeded, two distinct
microstructures form with different compositions and hardnesses. Copper by itself is
relatively soft compared with common structural metals. (n alloy with tin added to copper
is known as bron*eK the resulting alloy is stronger and harder than either of the pure metals.
The same is true when *inc is added to copper to form alloys known as brass. Tin is more
effective in strengthening copper than *inc, but is also more e5pensive and has a greater
detrimental effect on the electrical and thermal conductivities than *inc. (luminum forming
alloys known as aluminum bron*es!, Manganese, .ickel, and "ilicon can also be added to
strengthen copper.
(nother copper strengthening method is precipitation hardening. The process involves
3uenching a supersaturated solid solution from an elevated temperature, then reheating to a
lower temperature aging! to allow the e5cess solute to precipitate out and form a second
phase. This process is often used for copper alloys containing beryllium, chromium, nickel,
or *irconium. 'recipitation hardening offers distinct advantages. $abrication is relatively
easy using the soft solution-annealed form of the 3uenched metal. The subse3uent aging
process of the fabricated part can be performed using relatively ine5pensive and
unsophisticated furnaces. Aften the heat treatment can be performed in air, at moderate
furnace temperatures, and with little or no controlled cooling. Many combinations of
ductility, impact resistance, hardness, conductivity, and strength can be obtained by varying
the heat treatment times and temperatures.

E*/c(r0c)* )n2 T-/rm)* Con21c(0>0(&.

'ure copper is a very good conductor of both electricity and heat. The )nternational (nnealed
Copper "tandard )(C"K a high purity copper with a resistivity of 9.999991F Ahm-cm! is
still sometimes used as an electrical conductivity standard for metals. The best way to
increase the electrical and thermal conductivity of copper is to decrease the impurity levels.
The e5istence of impurities and all common alloying elements, e5cept for silver, will
decrease the electrical and thermal conductivity of copper. (s the amount of the second
element increases, the electrical conductivity of the alloy decreases. Cadmium has the
smallest effect on resulting alloyYs electrical conductivity, followed by increasing effects
from *inc, tin, nickel, aluminum, manganese, silicon, then phosphorus. (lthough different
mechanisms are involved in thermal conductivity, the addition of increasing amounts of
elements or impurities also produces a drop in thermal conductivity. Jinc has very minor
effect on the thermal conductivity of copper, followed by increasing effects from nickel, tin,
manganese, silicon, and serious effects from phosphorus. 'hosphorus is often used to
deo5idi*e copper, which can increase the hardness and strength, but severely affect the
conductivity. "ilicon can be used instead of phosphorus to deo5idi*e copper when
conductivity is important.

Co*or
=?
'ure copper has a reddish gold color which 3uickly o5ides to a dull green. "ince copper
often contains natural impurities or is alloyed with more than one element, it is difficult to
state the specific effect each alloying element has on the resulting alloyYs color. Electrolytic
tough pitch copper contains silver and often trace amount of iron and sulfur and has a soft
pink color. +ilding copper is a reddish brown color and contains *inc, iron, and lead. #rass
is often used as an ornamental metal, since it has an appearance very similar to that of gold
and is much less e5pensive. #rasses contain varying amounts of *inc, iron, and lead and can
vary from reddish to greenish to brownish gold. .ickel silver, which contains nickel, *inc,
iron, lead, and manganese, can have a grayish-white to silver appearance.
ASTM BJ0; H/)( Tr/)(0n+ T/m,/r Co2/' or Co,,/r M/()* )n2 Co,,/r A**o&'
#ecause of the wide variation in important physical properties as a function of an alloyYs
treatment history, it is imperitive to know and understand the temper in which a copper alloy
is to be treated prior to its application.
Co,,/r T/m,/r N)m/ ASTM
Co2/
1MH &ard &99
1M= &ard &91
1M7 &ard &97
>M= &ard &9>
&ard &9=
E5tra &ard &9I
"pring &9H
E5tra "pring &19
"pecial "pring &17
Ultra "pring &1>
"uper "pring &1=
E5truded and /rawn &G9
'ierced and /rawn &G7
2ight /rawn, 2ight Cold
6olled
&GG
/rawn +eneral 'urpose &GH
Cold &eading and $orming &I9
6ivet &I>
"crew &I=
#olt &II
#ending &F9
&ard /rawn &H9
Medium &ard /rawn
Electrical ,ire
&HG
&ard /rawn Electrical ,ire &HI
(s $inned &?9
A' M)n1)c(1r/2 T/m,/r'
ASTM
Co2/
(s "and Cast M91
(s Centrifugal Cast M97
(s 'laster Cast M9>
(s 'ressure /ie Cast M9=
(s 'ermanent Mold Cast M9G
(s )nvestment Cast M9I
(s Continuous Cast M9F
(s &ot $orged and (ir Cooled M19
(s $orged and suenched M11
(s &ot 6olled M79
(s &ot E5truded M>9
(s &ot 'ierced M=9
(s &ot 'ierced and 6erolled M=G
Co*2 7orA/2 )n2 S(r/''
R/*0/>/2 T/m,/r'
ASTM
Co2/
&91 Temper and "tress
6elieved
&691
&97 Temper and "tress
6elieved
&697
&9= Temper and "tress
6elieved
&69=
&9H Temper and "tress
6elieved
&69H
&19 Temper and "tress
6elieved
&619
(s $inned &679
/rawn and "tress 6elieved &6G9
G9
Co*2 Ro**/2 )n2 Or2/r
S(r/n+(-/n/2 T/m,/r'
ASTM Co2/
&9= Temper and Arder &eat
Treated
&T9=
&9H Temper and Arder &eat
Treated
&T9H
ASTM S,/c00c)(0on Co2/' or Co,,/r )n2 Co,,/r A**o&' @ Br)'' )n2 BronG/
Co,,/r or Co,,/r A**o&
Pro21c(
ASTM
S,/c
&ard drawn copper wire #1
Medium hard drawn copper
wire
#7
(nnealed copper wire #>
#ron*e trolley wire #?
$ree cutting brass rod, bar,
and shapes for use in screw
machines
#1I
Cartridge brass sheet, strip,
plate, bar, and disks
#1?
.aval brass rod, bar, and
shapes
#77
#ron*e castings for bridges
and turntables
#77
Copper alloy ingots #>9
Tinned soft or annealed
copper electrical wire
#>>
"tandard si*ed seamless
copper pipe
#=>
Copper trolley wire #=F
(nnealed rectangular and
s3uare bare copper electrical
wire
#=H
&ot rolled copper rod redraw
for electrical use
#=?
"team or valve bron*e
castings
#I1
#ron*e rough castings for
locomotive wear parts
#II
Car and tender lined Lournal
bearings
#IF
"eamless bright annealed
copper tube
#IH
Co,,/r or Co,,/r A**o&
Pro21c(
ASTM
S,/c
Copper conductors for
electronic e3uipment wire
hookups
#7HI
Manganese brass Cu-Jn-
Mn! sheet and strip
#7?1
"ilver coated annealed copper
wire
#7?H
$ree cutting copper rod and
bar
#>91
Threadless copper pipe #>97
Copper drainage tube /,0! #>9I
"eamless copper alloy pipe
and tube
#>1G
.ickel coated annealed
copper wire
#>GG
Copper and copper alloy
seamless condenser and heat
e5changer tubes with fins
#>G?
&ard drawn copper capillary
tube for restrictor
applications
#>I9
Cu-.i alloy castings #>I?
Copper sheet and strip for
building construction
#>F9
Cu-Jinc-"i alloy rod #>F1
"eamless copper and copper
alloy rectangular wave guide
tube
#>F7
U-bend seamless copper and
copper alloy heat e5changer
and condenser tubes
#>?G
Cu-.i-"i alloy rod and bar #=11
Cu-.i-"i alloy wire #=17
G1
"eamless copper tube #FG
"eamless copper water tube #HH
+eneral purpose and pressure
vessel Cu-"i alloy plate, sheet,
strip, and rolled bar
#?I
Cu-"i alloy rod, bar, and
shapes
#?H
+eneral purpose Cu-"i alloy
wire
#??
6olled copper alloy bearing
and e5pansion plates and
sheets for bridges and
structural use
#199
2ead coated copper sheet #191
'hosphor bron*e plate, sheet,
strip, and rolled bar
#19>
&ard drawn copper alloy
wires for electrical conductors
#19G
Copper and copper alloy
seamless condenser tubes and
ferrule stock
#111
$ig. ? deep section grooved
and fig. H Cur trolley wire for
industrial haulage
#11I
2eaded brass plate, sheet,
strip, and rolled bar
#171
Copper and copper alloy
forging rod, bar, and shapes
#17=
Cartridge brass cartridge case
cups
#17?
Commercial bron*e strip for
bullet Lackets
#1>9
Copper alloy bullet Lacket
cups
#1>1
Copper rod, bar, and shapes #1>>
#rass wire #1>=
"eamless brass tube #1>G
Manganese bron*e rod, bar,
and shapes
#1>H
'hosphor bron*e rod, bar, and
shapes
#1>?
2eaded red brass hardware
bron*e rod, bar, and shapes
#1=9
(luminum bron*e sand
castings
#1=H
(luminum bron*e rod, bar, #1G9
Cu-(l-"i-Co alloy and Cu-
.i-(l-"i alloy sheet and strip
#=77
+ear bron*e castings #=7F
Copper and copper alloy clad
steel plate
#=>7
Cu-Co-#e U." C1FG99!
and Cu-.i-#e U." C1FG19!
rod and bar
#==1
,elded copper tube #==F
Copper foil, strip and sheet
for printed circuits and carrier
tapes
#=G1
2eaded brass Cu-Jn-'b! rod #=G>
2eaded brass Cu-Jn-'b!
e5truded shapes
#=GG
Cu-$e alloy plate, sheet, strip,
and rolled bar
#=IG
"eamless Cu-.i pipe and
tube
#=II
,elded Cu-.i pipe #=IF
"eamless Cu-.i pipe and
tube
#=I?
#onded copper conductors
for use in hookup wire for
electronic e3uipment
#=F9
Cast Cu-.i ship tailshaft
sleeves
#=?7
Compact round concentric-
lay-stranded copper
conductors
#=?I
Copper alloy continuous
castings
#G9G
Copper clad stainless steel
sheet and strip for building
construction
#G9I
Copper alloy strip for fle5ible
metal hose
#G9H
Cu-Co-#e alloy, plate, sheet,
strip, and rolled bar
#G>=
,elded copper and copper
alloy heat e5changer tube
#G=>
"eamless and welded Cu-.i
tubes for water desalination
plants
#GG7
2ight gauge U." C7I999
brass strip in narrow widths
#GI?
G7
and shapes
.ickel "ilver Cu-.i-Jn! and
Cu-.i rod and bar
#1G1
Copper sheet, strip, plate, and
rolled bar
#1G7
'hosphor bron*e wire #1G?
(luminum bron*e, plate,
sheet, strip, and rolled bar
#1I?
Copper alloy condenser tube
plates
#1F1
6ope lay standard conductors
wM bunch stranded members
#1F7
6ope lay standard conductors
wM concentric stranded
members
#1F>
#unch stranded conductors #1F=
#rass die castings #1FI
Copper bus bar, rod, and
shapes
#1HF
"eamless copper bus pipe and
tube
#1HH
2ead copper and 2ead copper
alloy coated soft copper
electrical wire
#1H?
#eryllium Copper Cu-#e!
alloy plate, sheet, strip, and
rolled bar
#1?=
#eryllium Copper Cu-#e!
alloy rod and bar
#1?I
#eryllium Copper Cu-#e!
alloy wire
#1?F
.ickel "ilver Cu-.i-Jn! and
Cu-.i alloy wire
#79I
Cored, annular, concentric-lay
stranded copper conductors
#77I
Concentric-lay stranded
copper and copper clad steel
conductors
#77?
Tinned hard drawn and
medium hard drawn copper
electrical wire
#7=I
Copper base alloy centrifugal
castings
#7F1
Copper flat wire and strip
wMrolled or drawn edges
#7F7
"eamless copper tube for air #7H9
for heat e5changer tubing
#eryllium Copper Cu-#e!
alloy forgings and e5trusions
#GF9
+eneral purpose copper alloy
sand castings
#GH=
,elded brass tube #GHF
Cu-Jn-"n alloy plate, sheet,
strip, and rolled bar
#G?1
Cu-Jn-(l-Co alloy plate,
sheet, strip, and rolled bar
#G?7
,elded copper alloy pipe #I9H
&igh-strength, high-
conductivity copper alloy
electronic wire
#I7=
Copper and copper alloy solar
heat absorber panels
#I>H
,elded copper and copper
alloy tube for (C or
refrigeration use
#I=9
"eamless and type / welded
copper distribution tube
#I=1
#eryllium Copper Cu-#e!
alloy seamless tube
#I=>
#rass, Cu, and Cr plated pipe
nipples
#IHF
Cu, copper alloy, and Cu-clad
stainless steel sheet and strip
for electrical cable shielding
#I?=
U." CI?199 seamless
copper alloy pipe and tube
#F9I
,elded copper water tube #F1I
$ine wire and rope-lay bunch
stranded copper electrical
conductors
#F>H
Cu-.i-"n spinodal alloy strip #F=9
"eamless copper tube coils #F=>
Cu-Jn alloy sheet and strip #F=F
"and cast copper alloy for
valve applications
#F=>
Cu-Co-#e alloy sheet and
strip
#FIH
6ound wire for use as grid
side rods in electron tubes
$?
,rought o5ygen-free copper
for electronic devices
$IH
,rought electronic grade $?I
G>
conditioning and refrigerator
use
Copper and copper alloy hot
pressed die forgings
#7H>
copper alloys
+eneral use nonferrous nuts $=IF
+eneral use nonferrous bolts,
he5 cap screws, and studs
$=IH
M0'c/**)n/o1'
F/2/r)* S,/c00c)(0on Co2/' or Co,,/r' )n2 Co,,/r A**o&'
Co,,/r or Co,,/r A**o& Pro21c( F/2/r)*
S,/c
$lat or Tubular, tin-coated or silver-coated, copper braid or wire ss-#-GFG
2eaded and non-leaded brass plate, bar, sheet, and strip ss-#-I1>
2eaded and non-leaded brass forging and flat products wM finished
edges i.e. bar and strip!
ss-#-I7I
.aval brass forgings, rod, shapes, wire and flat products wM finished
edges i.e. bar and flat wire!
ss-#-I>F
.aval brass plate, bar, sheet, and strip ss-#-I>?
Copper, Cu-Jn, and Cu-' bra*ing alloy ss-#-IG9
(luminum bron*e ingots ss-#-IFG
Manganese bron*e bar, forgings, flat wire, plate, rod, shapes, sheet,
strip
ss-#-F7H
'hosphor bron*e bar, flat wire, plate, sheet, strip, and structural shapes ss-#-FG9
Copper alloy castings ss-C->?9
(luminum bron*e bar, plate, sheet, and strip ss-C-=G9
(luminum bron*e flat products with finished edges ss-C-=IG
Copper flat products, rods, and shapes with finished edges ss-C-G97
Copper ingot ss-C-G71
4ellow brass, manganese brass, aluminum- manganese bron*e, and
manganese bron*e ingots
ss-C-G7>
2eaded and non-leaded red brass, semi-red brass, and tin bron*e ingots ss-C-G7G
#eryllium-copper #eCu! bar, rod, and wire ss-C-G>9
#eryllium-copper #eCu! strip ss-C-G>>
Copper flat products with slit, slit and edge-rolled, sheared, sawed, or
machined edges
ss-C-GFI
.ickel silver Cu-.i-Jn! sheet, strip and bar ss-C-GHG
.ickel silver Cu-.i-Jn! flat products with finished edges, rod, and
shapes
ss-C-GHI
Cu-"i, Cu-Jn-"i, and Cu-.i-"i alloy flat products, forgings, rod,
shapes, and wire
ss-C-G?1
Copper-.ickel Cu-.i! alloy welding rod ss-6-GF1
Copper alloy wire ss-,->71
Uninsulated electrical wire ss-,->=>
"eamless standard si*e red brass pipe, regular and e5tra strong ,,-'->G1
G=
"eamless standard si*e copper pipe ,,-'->FF
#rass or bron*e pipe fittings ,,-'-=I9
Copper and copper alloy tube fittings ,,-T-F7G
"eamless brass tubing ,,-T-F?1
"eamless copper tubing for use with solder-type or flared-tube fittings ,,-T-F??
#rass or bron*e unions ,,-T-G1I
#rass or bron*e butterfly valves ,,-T-?IF
Br)''
Br)'' is an alloy of copper and *incK the proportions of *inc and copper can be varied to
create a range of brasses with varying properties.
C1D
)n comparison, bron*e is principally an
alloy of copper tin.
C7D
#ron*e does not necessarily contain tin, and a variety of alloys of
copper, including alloys with arsenic, phosphorus, aluminum, manganese, and silicon, are
commonly termed Bbron*eB. The term is applied to a variety of brasses and the distinction is
largely historical.
C>D
#rass is a substitutional alloy. )t is used for decoration for its bright gold-
like appearanceK for applications where low friction is re3uired such as locks, gears,
bearings, doorknobs, ammunition, and valvesK for plumbing and electrical applicationsK and
e5tensively in musical instruments such as horns and bells for its acoustic properties. )t is
also used in *ippers. #ecause it is softer than most other metals in general use, brass is often
used in situations where it is important that sparks not be struck, as in fittings and tools
around e5plosive gases.
C=D
#rass has a muted yellow color, which is somewhat similar to gold. )t is relatively resistant
to tarnishing, and is often used as decoration and for coins. )n anti3uity, polished brass was
often used as a mirror.
(lthough forms of brass have been in use since prehistory,
CGD
its true nature as a copper-*inc
alloy was not understood until the post medieval period because the *inc vapour which
reacted with copper to make brass was not recognised as a metal.
CID
The :ing 8ames #ible
makes many references to BbrassB.
CFD
The "hakespearean English form of the word YbrassY can
mean any bron*e alloy, or copper, rather than the strict modern definition of brass.
Ccitation neeeD
The earliest brasses may have been natural alloys made by smelting *inc-rich copper ores.
CHD
#y the 6oman period brass was being deliberately produced from metallic copper and *inc
minerals using the cementation process and variations on this method continued until the mid
1?th century.
C?D
)t was eventually replaced by speltering, the direct alloying of copper and
*inc metal which was introduced to Europe in the 1Ith century.
CHD
Con(/n('
ChideD
1 'roperties
7 2ead content
> (pplications
= "eason cracking
G #rass types
GG
I &istory
o I.1 Early copper *inc alloys
o I.7 #rass making in the 6oman ,orld
o I.> #rass making in the Medieval 'eriod
o I.= #rass making in 6enaissance and 'ost Medieval Europe
F "ee also
H 6eferences
? E5ternal links
C/20(D Pro,/r(0/'
Microstructure of rolled and annealed brass =99g magnification!
The malleability and acoustic properties of brass have made it the metal of choice for brass
musical instruments such as the trombone, tuba, trumpet, cornet, euphonium, tenor horn, and
the $rench horn. Even though the sa5ophone is classified as a woodwind instrument and the
harmonica is a free reed aerophone, both are also often made from brass. )n organ pipes of
the reed family, brass strips called tongues! are used as the reeds, which beat against the
shallot or beat BthroughB the shallot in the case of a BfreeB reed!.
#rass has higher malleability than bron*e or *inc. The relatively low melting point of brass
?99 to ?=9XC, depending on composition! and its flow characteristics make it a relatively
easy material to cast. #y varying the proportions of copper and *inc, the properties of the
brass can be changed, allowing hard and soft brasses. The density of brass is appro5imately
H=99 to HF>9 kilograms per cubic metre
C19D
e3uivalent to H.= to H.F> grams per cubic
centimetre!.
Today almost ?9d of all brass alloys are recycled.
C11D
#ecause brass is not ferromagnetic, it
can be separated from ferrous scrap by passing the scrap near a powerful magnet. #rass scrap
is collected and transported to the foundry where it is melted and recast into billets. #illets
are heated and e5truded into the desired form and si*e.
(luminium makes brass stronger and more corrosion resistant. (luminium also causes a
highly beneficial hard layer of aluminium o5ide (l
7
A
>
! to be formed on the surface that is
thin, transparent and self healing. Tin has a similar effect and finds its use especially in sea
water applications naval brasses!. Combinations of iron, aluminium, silicon and manganese
make brass wear and tear resistant.
GI
C/20(D L/)2 con(/n(
To enhance the machinability of brass, lead is often added in concentrations of around 7d.
"ince lead has a lower melting point than the other constituents of the brass, it tends to
migrate towards the grain boundaries in the form of globules as it cools from casting. The
pattern the globules form on the surface of the brass increases the available lead surface area
which in turn affects the degree of leaching. )n addition, cutting operations can smear the
lead globules over the surface. These effects can lead to significant lead leaching from
brasses of comparatively low lead content.
C17D
"ilicon is an alternative to leadK however, when silicon is used in a brass alloy, the scrap
must never be mi5ed with leaded brass scrap because of contamination and safety problems.
C1>D
)n Actober 1??? the California "tate (ttorney +eneral sued 1> key manufacturers and
distributors over lead content. )n laboratory tests, state researchers found the average brass
key, new or old, e5ceeded the California 'roposition IG limits by an average factor of 1?,
assuming handling twice a day.
C1=D
)n (pril 7991 manufacturers agreed to reduce lead content
to 1.Gd, or face a re3uirement to warn consumers about lead content. :eys plated with other
metals are not affected by the settlement, and may continue to use brass alloys with higher
percentage of lead content.
C1GDC1ID
(lso in California, lead-free materials must be used for Beach component that comes into
contact with the wetted surface of pipes and pipe fittings, plumbing fittings and fi5tures.B An
8anuary 1, 7919, the ma5imum amount of lead in Blead-free brassB in California was reduced
by more than an order of magnitude from =d to 9.7Gd lead. The common practice of using
pipes for electrical grounding is discouraged, as it accelerates lead corrosion.
C1FDC1HD
C/20(D A,,*0c)(0on'
This section 0' 0n ) *0'( orm)( (-)( m)& 8/ 8/((/r ,r/'/n(/2 1'0n+ ,ro'/. 4ou can
help by converting this section to prose, if appropriate. Editing help is available.
&November ())*+
H)r'- /n>0ronm/n('% The so called de*incification resistant /J6! brasses are used where
there is a large corrosion risk and where normal brasses do not meet the standards.
(pplications with high water temperatures, chlorides present or deviating water 3ualities
soft water! play a role. /J6-brass is e5cellent in water boiler systems. This brass alloy must
be produced with great care, with special attention placed on a balanced composition and
proper production temperatures and parameters to avoid long-term failures.
G/rm0c02)* ,ro,/r(0/'% The copper in brass makes brass germicidal, via the oligodynamic
effect. $or e5ample, brass doorknobs disinfect themselves of many bacteria within eight
hours.
C1?D
This effect is important in hospitals, and useful in many conte5ts.
GF
Br)'' 2oor -)r2?)r/% #rass hardware is generally lac3uered when new, which prevents
tarnishing of the metal. $reshly polished brass is similar to gold in appearance, but becomes
more reddish within days of e5posure to the elements. ( traditional polish is #rasso.
O(-/r% #rass was used to make fan blades, fan cages and motor bearings in many anti3ue
fans that date before the 1?>9s. #rass can also be used for fi5ings for use in cryogenic
systems.
C79D
#rass has also been used to make cymbals for the modern drum kit.
C/20(D S/)'on cr)cA0n+
Cr)cA0n+ 0n 8r)'' c)1'/2 8& )mmon0) )(()cA
#rass is susceptible to stress corrosion cracking, especially from ammonia or substances
containing or releasing ammonia. The problem is sometimes known as season cracking after
it was first discovered in brass cartridge cases used for rifle ammunition during the 1?79s in
the )ndian (rmy. The problem was caused by high residual stresses from cold forming of the
cases during manufacture, together with chemical attack from traces of ammonia in the
atmosphere. The cartridges were stored in stables and the ammonia concentration rose during
the hot summer months, so initiating brittle cracks. The problem was resolved by annealing
the cases, and storing the cartridges elsewhere.
C/20(D Br)'' (&,/'
A2m0r)*(& 8r)'' contains >9d *inc, and 1d tin which inhibits de*incification in
many environments.
A0c-L' )**o& typically contains I9.IId copper, >I.GHd *inc, 1.97d tin, and 1.F=d
iron. /esigned for use in marine service owing to its corrosion resistance, hardness
and toughness. ( characteristic application is to the protection of shipsY bottoms, but
more modern methods of cathodic protection have rendered its use less common. )ts
appearance resembles that of gold.
C71D

A*,-) 8r)''/' with less than >Gd *inc, are malleable, can be worked cold, and are
used in pressing, forging, or similar applications. They contain only one phase, with
face-centered cubic crystal structure. Pr0nc/L' m/()* or Pr0nc/ R1,/r(L' m/()* is a
type of alpha brass containing FGd copper and 7Gd *inc. /ue to its beautiful yellow
color, it is used as an imitation of gold.
C77D
The alloy was named after 'rince 6upert of
GH
the 6hine.
A*,-)@8/() 8r)'' Munt* metal!, also called 21,*/B 8r)'', is >G1=Gd *inc and is
suited for hot working. )t contains both e and tY phaseK the tY-phase is body-centered
cubic and is harder and stronger than e. (lpha-beta brasses are usually worked hot.
A*1m0n01m 8r)'' contains aluminium, which improves its corrosion resistance. )t is
used for seawater service
C7>D
and also in Euro coins .ordic gold!.
Ar'/n0c)* 8r)'' contains an addition of arsenic and fre3uently aluminium and is used
for boiler firebo5es.
B/() 8r)''/', with =G1G9d *inc content, can only be worked hot, and are harder,
stronger, and suitable for casting.
C)r(r02+/ 8r)'' is a >9d *inc brass with good cold working properties.
Common 8r)'', or r0>/( 8r)'', is a >Fd *inc brass, cheap and standard for cold
working.
DMR 8r)'' is de*incification resistant brass with a small percentage of arsenic.
G0*20n+ m/()* is the softest type of brass commonly available. (n alloy of ?Gd
copper and Gd *inc, gilding metal is typically used for ammunition components.
H0+- 8r)'' contains IGd copper and >Gd *inc, has a high tensile strength and is
used for springs, screws, and rivets.
L/)2/2 8r)'' is an alpha-beta brass with an addition of lead. )t has e5cellent
machinability.
L/)2@r// 8r)'' as defined by California (ssembly #ill (# 1?G> contains Bnot more
than 9.7G percent lead contentB.
C1FD

Lo? 8r)'' is a copper-*inc alloy containing 79d *inc with a light golden color and
e5cellent ductilityK it is used for fle5ible metal hoses and metal bellows.
M)n+)n/'/ 8r)'' is a brass most notably used in making golden dollar coins in the
United "tates. )t contains roughly F9d copper, 7?d *inc, and 1.>d manganese.
C7=D

M1n(G m/()* is about I9d copper, =9d *inc and a trace of iron, used as a lining on
boats.
N0cA/* 8r)'' is composed of F9d copper, 7=.Gd *inc and G.Gd nickel used to make
pound coins in the pound sterling currency.
N)>)* 8r)'', similar to admiralty brass, is =9d *inc and 1d tin.
Nor20c +o*2 , used in 19, 79 and G9 cts euro coins, contains H?d copper, Gd
aluminium, Gd *inc, and 1d tin.
R/2 8r)'' is both an (merican term for the copper-*inc-tin alloy known as
gunmetal, and an alloy which is considered both a brass and a bron*e. )t typically
contains HGd copper, Gd tin, Gd lead, and Gd *inc.
C7GD
6ed brass is also an
alternative name for copper alloy -(,))), which is composed of 1=11Id *inc,
9.9Gd iron and lead, and the remainder copper.
C7ID
)t may also refer to ounce metal,
another copper-*inc-tin alloy.
R0c- *o? 8r)'' Tombac! is 1Gd *inc. )t is often used in Lewelry applications.
Ton>)* 8r)'' also called C,I1F. or CJ177 or ATGH! is a copper-lead-*inc alloy.
)t is not recommended for seawater use, being susceptible to de*incification.
C7FDC7HD

7-0(/ 8r)'' contains more than G9d *inc and is too brittle for general use. The term
may also refer to certain types of nickel silver alloys as well as Cu-Jn-"n alloys with
G?
high proportions typically =9d[! of tin andMor *inc, as well as predominantly *inc
casting alloys with copper additive.
Y/**o? 8r)'' is an (merican term for >>d *inc brass.
C/20(D H0'(or&
C/20(D E)r*& co,,/r G0nc )**o&'
)n ,est (sia and the Eastern Mediterranean early copper *inc alloys are now known in small
numbers from a number of third Millennium #C sites in the (egean, )ra3, the United (rab
Emirates, :almikia, Turkmenistan and +eorgia and from 7nd Millennium #C sites in ,est
)ndia, U*bekistan, )ran, "yria, )ra3 and 'alestine.
C7?D
&owever, isolated e5amples of copper-
*inc alloys are known in China from as early as the Gth Millennium #C.
C>9D
The compositions of these early BbrassB obLects are very variable and most have *inc
contents of between Gd and 1Gd wt which is lower than in brass produced by cementation.
C>1D
These may be Bnatural alloysB manufactured by smelting *inc rich copper ores in reducing
conditions. Many have similar tin contents to contemporary bron*e artefacts and it is
possible that some copper-*inc alloys were accidental and perhaps not even distinguished
from copper.
C>1D
&owever the large number of copper-*inc alloys now known suggests that at
least some were deliberately manufactured and many have *inc contents of more than 17d
wt which would have resulted in a distinctive golden color.
C>7D
#y the Hth-Fth century #C (ssyrian cuneiform tablets mention the e5ploitation of the
Bcopper of the mountainsB and this may refer to BnaturalB brass.
C>>D
.reichalkos, the (ncient
+reek translation of this term, was later adapted to the 2atin aurichalcum meaning Bgolden
copperB which became the standard term for brass.
C>=D
)n the =th century #C 'lato knew
oreichalkos as rare and nearly as valuable as gold
C>GD
and 'liny describes how aurichalcum
had come from Cypriot ore deposits which had been e5hausted by the 1st century (/.
C>ID
Y
C/20(D Br)'' m)A0n+ 0n (-/ Rom)n 7or*2
/uring the later part of first Millennium #C the use of brass spread across a wide
geographical area from #ritain
C>FD
and "pain
C>HD
in the west to )ran, and )ndia in the east.
C>?D
This seems to have been encouraged by e5ports and influence from the Middle-East and
eastern Mediterranean where deliberate production of brass from metallic copper and *inc
ores had been introduced.
C=9D
The =th century #C writer Theopompus, 3uoted by "trabo,
describes how heating earth from (ndeira in Turkey produced Bdroplets of false silverB,
probably metallic *inc, which could be used to turn copper into oreichalkos.
C=1D
)n the 1st
century #C the +reek /ioscorides seems to have recognised a link between *inc minerals
and brass describing how Cadmia *inc o5ide! was found on the walls of furnaces used to
heat either *inc ore or brass and e5plaining that it can then be used to make brass.
C=7D
#y the first century #C brass was available in sufficient supply to use as coinage in 'hrygia
and #ithynia,
C=>D
and after the (ugustan currency reform of 7> #C it was also used to make
6oman uponii and sestertii.
C==D
The uniform use of brass for coinage and military
e3uipment across the 6oman world may indicate a degree of state involvement in the
industry,
C=GD
and brass even seems to have been deliberately boycotted by 8ewish
I9
communities in 'alestine because of its association with 6oman authority.
C=ID
#rass was produced by the cementation process where copper and *inc ore are heated
together until *inc vapour is produced which reacts with the copper. There is good
archaeological evidence for this process and crucibles used to produce brass by cementation
have been found on 6oman period sites including ganten
C=FD
and .idda
C=HD
in +ermany, 2yon
in $rance
C=?D
and at a number of sites in #ritain.
CG9D
They vary in si*e from tiny acorn si*ed to
large amphorae like vessels but all have elevated levels of *inc on the interior and are lidded.
C=?D
They show no signs of slag or metal prills suggesting that *inc minerals were heated to
produce *inc vapour which reacted with metallic copper in a solid state reaction. The fabric
of these crucibles is porous, probably designed to prevent a build up of pressure, and many
have small holes in the lids which may be designed to release pressure
C=?D
or to add additional
*inc minerals near the end of the process. /ioscorides mentioned that *inc minerals were
used for both the working and finishing of brass, perhaps suggesting secondary additions.
CG1D
#rass made during the early 6oman period seems to have varied between 79d to 7Hd wt
*inc.
CG7D
The high content of *inc in coinage and brass obLects declined after the first century
(/ and it has been suggested that this reflects *inc loss during recycling and thus an
interruption in the production of new brass.
CG>D
&owever it is now thought this was probably a
deliberate change in composition
CG=D
and overall the use of brass increases over this period
making up around =9d of all copper alloys used in the 6oman world by the =th century (/.
CGGD
C/20(D Br)'' m)A0n+ 0n (-/ M/20/>)* P/r0o2
Baptism of -hrist on the 17th century #aptismal font at "t #artholomewYs Church, 2iuge.
2ittle is known about the production of brass during the centuries immediately after the
collapse of the 6oman Empire. /isruption in the trade of tin for bron*e from ,estern Europe
may have contributed to the increasing popularity of brass in the east and by the Ith-Fth
centuries (/ over ?9d of copper alloy artefacts from Egypt were made of brass.
CGID
&owever
other alloys such as low tin bron*e were also used and they vary depending on local cultural
attitudes, the purpose of the metal and access to *inc, especially between the )slamic and
#y*antine world.
CGFD
Conversely the use of true brass seems to have declined in ,estern
Europe during this period in favour of gunmetals and other mi5ed alloys
CGHD
but by the end of
I1
the first Millennium (/ brass artefacts are found in "candinavian graves in "cotland,
CG?D
brass was being used in the manufacture of coins in .orthumbria
CI9D
and there is
archaeological and historical evidence for the production of brass in +ermany
CI1D
and The
2ow Countries
CI7D
areas rich in calamine ore which would remain important centres of brass
making throughout the medieval period,
CI>D
especially /inant - brass obLects are still
collectively known as inanterie in $rench. The #aptismal font at "t #artholomewYs Church,
2iuge in modern #elgium before 111F! is an outstanding masterpiece of 6omanes3ue brass
casting.
The cementation process continued to be used but literary sources from both Europe and the
)slamic world seem to describe variants of a higher temperature li3uid process which took
places in open topped crucibles.
CI=D
)slamic cementation seems to have used *inc o5ide known
as tutiya or tutty rather than *inc ores for brass making resulting in a metal with lower iron
impurities.
CIGD
( number of )slamic writers and the 1>th century )talian Marco 'olo describe
how this was obtained by sublimation from *inc ores and condensed onto clay or iron bars,
archaeological e5amples of which have been identified at :ush in )ran.
CIID
)t could then be
used for brass making or medicinal purposes. )n 19th century 4emen al-&amdani described
how spreading al-iglimiya, probably *inc o5ide, onto the surface of molten copper produced
tutiya vapour which then reacted with the metal.
CIFD
The 1>th century )ranian writer al-
:ashani describes a more comple5 process whereby tutiya was mi5ed with raisins and gently
roasted before being added to the surface of the molten metal. ( temporary lid was added at
this point presumably to minimise the escape of *inc vapour.
CIHD
)n Europe a similar li3uid process in open topped crucibles took place which was probably
less efficient than the 6oman process and the use of the term tutty by (lbertus Magnus in the
1>th century suggests influence from )slamic technology.
CI?D
The 17th century +erman monk
Theophilus described how preheated crucibles were one si5th filled with powdered calamine
and charcoal then topped up with copper and charcoal before being melted, stirred then filled
again. The final product was cast, then again melted with calamine. )t has been suggested
that this second melting may have taken place at a lower temperature to allow more *inc to
be absorbed.
CF9D
(lbertus Magnus noted that the BpowerB of both calamine and tutty could
evaporate and described how the addition of powdered glass could create a film to bind it to
the metal.
CF1D
+erman brass making crucibles are known from /ortmund dating to the 19th
century (/ and from "oest and "chwerte in ,estphalia dating to around the 1>th century
confirm TheophilusY account as they are open topped, although ceramic discs from "oest may
have served as loose lids which may have been used to reduce *inc evaporation, and have
slag on the interior resulting from a li3uid process.
CF7D
C/20(D Br)'' m)A0n+ 0n R/n)0'')nc/ )n2 Po'( M/20/>)* E1ro,/
The 6enaissance saw important changes to both the theory and practice of brassmaking in
Europe. #y the 1Gth century there is evidence for the renewed use of lidded cementation
crucibles at Jwickau in +ermany.
CF>D
These large crucibles were capable of producing c.79 kg
of brass.
CF=D
There are traces of slag and pieces of metal on the interior. Their irregular
composition suggesting that this was a lower temperature not entirely li3uid process.
CFGD
The
crucible lids had small holes which were blocked with clay plugs near the end of the process
presumably to ma5imise *inc absorption in the final stages.
CFID
Triangular crucibles were then
I7
used to melt the brass for casting.
CFFD
1Ith century technical writers such as #iringuccio, Ercker and (gricola described a variety
of cementation brass making techni3ues and came closer to understanding the true nature of
the process noting that copper became heavier as it changed to brass and that it became more
golden as additional calamine was added.
CFHD
Jinc metal was also becoming more
commonplace #y 1G1> metallic *inc ingots from )ndia and China were arriving in 2ondon
and pellets of *inc condensed in furnace flues at the 6ammelsberg in +ermany were
e5ploited for cementation brass making from around 1GG9.
CF?D
Eventually it was discovered that metallic *inc could be alloyed with copper to make brassK a
process known as speltering
CH9D
and by 1IGF the +erman chemist 8ohann +lauber had
recognised that calamine was Bnothing else but unmeltable *incB and that *inc was a Bhalf
ripe metal.B
CH1D
&owever some earlier high *inc, low iron brasses such as the 1G>9 ,ightman
brass memorial pla3ue from England may have been made by alloying copper with zinc and
include traces of cadmium similar those found in some *inc ingots from China.
CH9D
&owever the cementation process was not abandoned and as late as the early 1?th century
there are descriptions of solid state cementation in a domed furnace at around ?99-?G9
degrees Celsius and lasting up to 19 hours.
CH7D
The European brass industry continued to
flourish into the post medieval period buoyed by innovations such as the 1Ith century
introduction of water powered hammers for the production of battery wares.
CH>D
#y 1GG? the
+ermany city of (achen alone was capable of producing >99,999 cwt of brass per year.
CH>D
(fter several false starts during the 1Ith and 1Fth centuries the brass industry was also
established in England taking advantage of abundant supplies of cheap copper smelted in the
new coal fired reverberatory furnace.
CH=D
)n 1F7> #ristol brass maker .ehemiah Champion
patented the use of granulated copper, produced by pouring molten metal into cold water.
CHGD
This increased the surface area of the copper helping it react and *inc contents of up to >>d
wt were reported using this new techni3ue.
CHID
)n 1F>H .ehemiahYs son ,illiam Champion patented a techni3ue for the first industrial scale
distillation of metallic *inc known as istillation per escencum or Bthe English process.B
CHFD
This local *inc was used in speltering and allowed greater control over the *inc content of
brass and the production of high *inc copper alloys which would have been difficult or
impossible to produce using cementation, for use in e5pensive obLects such as scientific
instruments, clocks, brass buttons and costume Lewellery.
CHHD
&owever Champion continued
to use the cheaper calamine cementation method to produce lower *inc brass
CHHD
and the
archaeological remains of bee-hive shaped cementation furnaces have been identified at his
works at ,armley.
CH?D
#y the mid late 1Hth century developments in cheaper *inc distillation
such as 8ohn-8a3ues /onyYs hori*ontal furnaces in #elgium and the reduction of tariffs on
*inc
C?9D
as well as demand for corrosion resistant high *inc alloys increased the popularity of
speltering and as a result cementation was largely abandoned by the mid 1?th century.
C?1D
BronG/
BronG/ is a metal alloy consisting primarily of copper, usually with tin as the main additive,
but sometimes with other elements such as phosphorus, manganese, aluminum, or silicon. )t
I>
is hard and brittle, and it was particularly significant in anti3uity, so much so that the #ron*e
(ge was named after the metal. &owever, since Bbron*eB is a somewhat imprecise term, and
historical pieces have variable compositions, in particular with an unclear boundary with
brass, modern museum and scholarly descriptions of older obLects increasingly use the more
cautious term Bcopper alloyB instead.
C1D
The word Bronze is believed to be cognate with the )talian@ bronzo and +erman@ brunst,
perhaps ultimately taken from the 'ersian word birin/ Bbron*eB! or possibly from the 2atin
name of the city of #rindisi
HISTORY
The discovery of bron*e enabled people to create metal obLects which were better than was
previously possible. Tools, weapons, armor, and various building materials, like decorative
tiles, made of bron*e were harder and more durable than their stone and copper
BChalcolithicB! predecessors. )nitially bron*e was made out of copper and arsenic to form
arsenic bron*e. )t was only later that tin was used, becoming the sole type of bron*e in the
late >rd millennium #C. Tin bron*e was superior over arsenic bron*e in that the alloying
process itself could more easily be controlled as tin was available as a metal! and the alloy
was stronger and easier to cast. (lso, unlike arsenic, tin is not to5ic.
The earliest tin-alloy bron*es date to the late =th millennium #C in "usa )ran! and some
ancient sites in 2uristan )ran! and Mesopotamia )ra3!.
Copper and tin ores are rarely found together e5ceptions include one ancient site in Thailand
and one in )ran!, so serious bron*e work has always involved trade. )n Europe, the maLor
source for tin was +reat #ritainYs deposits of ore in Cornwall, which were traded as far as
'hoenicia in the Eastern Mediterranean.
Though bron*e is generally harder than wrought iron, with 0ickers hardness of I917GH
C>D
vs.
>91H9,
C=D
the #ron*e (ge gave way to the )ron (geK this happened because iron was easier to
find. #ron*e was still used during the )ron (ge, but, for many purposes, the weaker wrought
iron was found to be sufficiently strong. (rchaeologists suspect that a serious disruption of
the tin trade precipitated the transition. The population migrations around 179911199 #C
reduced the shipping of tin around the Mediterranean and from +reat #ritain!, limiting
supplies and raising prices.
CGD
(s ironworking improved, iron became cheaperK and as cultures
advanced from wrought iron to forged iron, they learned how to make steel, which is
stronger than bron*e and holds a sharper edge longer.
CID
Com,o'0(0on
There are many different bron*e alloys but modern bron*e is typically HHd copper and 17d
tin.
CFD
A*,-) 8ronG/ consists of the alpha solid solution of tin in copper. (lpha bron*e alloys
of =1Gd tin are used to make coins, springs, turbines and blades. &istorical Bbron*esB are
highly variable in composition, as most metalworkers probably used whatever scrap was to
handK the metal of the 17th century English +loucester Candlestick is bron*e containing a
mi5ture of copper, *inc, tin, lead, nickel, iron, antimony, arsenic with an unusually large
amount of silver - between 77.Gd in the base and G.FId in the pan below the candle. The
I=
proportions of this mi5ture may suggest that the candlestick was made from a hoard of old
coins. The #enin #ron*es are really brass, and the 6omanes3ue #aptismal font at "t
#artholomewYs Church, 2iuge is described as both bron*e and brass.
Comm/rc0)* 8ronG/ ?9d copper and 19d *inc! and Arc-0(/c(1r)* 8ronG/ GFd Copper,
>d 2ead, =9d Jinc! are more properly regarded as brass alloys because they contain *inc as
the main alloying ingredient. They are commonly used in architectural applications.
CHDC?D
#ismuth bron*e is a bron*e alloy with a composition of G7d copper, >9d nickel, 17d *inc,
Gd lead, 1d bismuth. )t is able to hold a good polish and so is sometimes used in light
reflectors and mirrors.
C19D
Ather bron*e alloys include aluminum bron*e, phosphor bron*e, manganese bron*e, bell
metal, speculum metal and cymbal alloys.
C/20(D Pro,/r(0/'
(ssorted ancient bron*e castings
#ron*e is considerably less brittle than iron. Typically bron*e only o5idi*es superficiallyK
once a copper o5ide eventually becoming copper carbonate! layer is formed, the underlying
metal is protected from further corrosion. &owever, if copper chlorides are formed, a
corrosion-mode called Bbron*e diseaseB will eventually completely destroy it.
C11D
Copper-
based alloys have lower melting points than steel or iron, and are more readily produced
from their constituent metals. They are generally about 19 percent heavier than steel,
although alloys using aluminum or silicon may be slightly less dense. #ron*es are softer and
weaker than steelEbron*e springs, for e5ample, are less stiff and so store less energy! for
the same bulk. #ron*e resists corrosion especially seawater corrosion! and metal fatigue
more than steel and is also a better conductor of heat and electricity than most steels. The
cost of copper-base alloys is generally higher than that of steels but lower than that of nickel-
base alloys.
Copper and its alloys have a huge variety of uses that reflect their versatile physical,
mechanical, and chemical properties. "ome common e5amples are the high electrical
conductivity of pure copper, the e5cellent deep drawing 3ualities of cartridge case brass, the
low-friction properties of bearing bron*e, the resonant 3ualities of bell bron*e, and the
IG
resistance to corrosion by sea water of several bron*e alloys.
The melting point of #ron*e varies depending on the actual ratio of the alloy components
and is about ?G9 XC.
C/20(D U'/'
II
Ewer from Fth century )ran. Cast, chased, and inlaid bron*e. .ew 4ork Metropolitan
Museum of (rt
#ron*e was especially suitable for use in boat and ship fittings prior to the wide employment
of stainless steel owing to its combination of toughness and resistance to salt water
corrosion. #ron*e is still commonly used in ship propellers and submerged bearings.
)n the twentieth century, silicon was introduced as the primary alloying element, creating an
alloy with wide application in industry and the maLor form used in contemporary statuary.
(luminum is also used for the structural metal aluminum bron*e.
)t is also widely used for cast bron*e sculpture. Many common bron*e alloys have the
unusual and very desirable property of e5panding slightly Lust before they set, thus filling in
the finest details of a mold. #ron*e parts are tough and typically used for bearings, clips,
electrical connectors and springs.
"pring bron*e weatherstripping comes in rolls of thin sheets and is nailed or stapled to wood
windows and doors. There are two types, flat and v-strip. )t has been used for hundreds of
years because it has low friction, seals well and is long lasting. )t is used in building
restoration and custom construction.
#ron*e also has very little metal-on-metal friction, which made it invaluable for the building
of cannon where iron cannonballs would otherwise stick in the barrel.
Ccitation neeeD
)t is still
widely used today for springs, bearings, bushings, automobile transmission pilot bearings,
and similar fittings, and is particularly common in the bearings of small electric motors.
'hosphor bron*e is particularly suited to precision-grade bearings and springs. )t is also used
in guitar and piano strings.
IF
Unlike steel, bron*e struck against a hard surface will not generate sparks, so it along with
beryllium copper! is used to make hammers, mallets, wrenches and other durable tools to be
used in e5plosive atmospheres or in the presence of flammable vapors.
C/20(D BronG/ '()(1/'
!ee also# Bronze sculpture
)ndian &indu artisans from the period of the Chola empire in Tamil .adu, used bron*e to
create intricate statues via the lost wa5 casting method with ornate detailing depicting the
+ods of &induism mostly, but also the lifestyle of the period. The art form survives to this
day, with many silpis, craftsmen, working in the areas of "wamimalai and Chennai.
)n anti3uity other cultures also produced works of high art using bron*e. $or e5ample@ in
(frica, the bron*e heads of the :ingdom of #eninK in Europe, +recian bron*es typically of
figures from +reek mythologyK in east (sia, Chinese bron*es of the "hang and Jhou dynasty
E more often ceremonial vessels but including some figurine e5amples.
#ron*e continues into modern times as one of the materials of choice for monumental
statuary.
C/20(D M1'0c)* 0n'(r1m/n('
#ron*e is the most popular metal for top-3uality bells, particularly bell metal, which is about
7>d tin.
.early all professional cymbals are made from a bron*e alloy. The alloy used in drum kit
cymbal bron*e is uni3ue in the desired balance of durability and timbre.
Modern cymbals consist of several types of bron*e, the most common being B60 8ronG/,
which is roughly 79d tin, H9d copper, with traces of silver. JildLian and "abian use this
alloy for their professional lines. ( "wiss company, 'aiste, uses a softer BN 8ronG/ which is
made from Hd tin and ?7d copper in nearly all of their cymbals. JildLian and "abian use this
metal too, in their budget priced cymbals.
(s the tin content in a bell or cymbal rises, the timbre drops.
C17D
(s well as #H and #79,
Meinl 'ercussion uses B;0 19d tin! and B;6 17d tin! alloys for cymbals, which have
timbres roughly between #H and #79.
C1>D
#ron*e is also used for the windings of steel strings of various stringed instruments such as
the double bass, piano, harpsichord, and the guitar, replacing former gut and nylon strings.
#ron*e strings are commonly reserved on pianoforte for the lower pitch tones, as they
possess a superior sustain 3uality to that of high-tensile steel.
C1=D
IH
#ron*es of various metallurgical properties are widely used in struck idiophones around the
world, notably in "outh East (sia, and most famously for the 8avanese gamelan and other
glockenspiel-like musical instruments. The earliest bron*e archeological finds in )ndonesia
date from 117 #CE, including flat plates probably suspended and struck by a wooden or
bone mallet.
C1=DC1GD
"ome companies are now making sa5ophones from phosphor bron*e >.G to 19d tin and up
to 1d phosphorus content!.
C/20(D M/2)*'
( large bron*e cast medallion, some ?.G by H.F centimetres in measurement, created by the
celebrated medalist 0alerio #elli in the si5teenth century.
#ron*e has been used in the manufacture of various types of medals for centuries, and are
known in contemporary times for being awarded to the second-runner up in sporting
competitions and other events. The later usage was in part attributed to the choices of +old,
"ilver and BronG/ to represent the first three (ges of Man in +reek mythology@ the +olden
(ge, when men lived among the godsK the "ilver age, where youth lasted a hundred yearsK
and the #ron*e (ge, the era of heroes, and was first adopted at the 1?9= "ummer Alympics.
(t the 1H?I event, silver was awarded to winners and bron*e to runners-up, while at 1?99
other pri*es were given, not medals.
C/20(D S// )*'o
$ragment of the grave of Cyprian :amil .orwid in the #ardsY crypt in ,awel Cathedral,
:rakvw, 'oland by sculptor C*eswaw /xwigaL
2ist of copper alloys
(rt obLect
#ron*e medal
#ron*e sculpture
#ron*ing
I?
Chinese bron*e inscriptions
$rench Empire mantel clock
"eagram #uilding
/J6 /e*incification 6esistant #rass
U." CI?199
C1,ron0cA/*
C1,ron0cA/* or co,,/r@n0cA/* sometimes incorrectly referred to as BcupernickelB! is an
alloy of copper that contains nickel and strengthening elements, such as iron and manganese.
Cupronickel is highly resistant to corrosion in seawater, because its electrode potential is
adLusted to be neutral with regard to seawater. #ecause of this, it is used for piping, heat
e5changers and condensers in seawater systems as well as marine hardware, and sometimes
for the propellers, crankshafts and hulls of premium tugboats, fishing boats and other
working boats.
( more familiar common use is in silver-coloured modern circulation coins. ( typical mi5 is
FGd copper, 7Gd nickel, and a trace amount of manganese. )n the past true silver coins were
debased with cupronickel. /espite high copper content, the colour of cupro-nickel
remarkably is silver.
)t is used in thermocouples, and the GGd copperM=Gd nickel alloy constantan is used to make
resistors whose resistance is stable across changes in temperature.
Monel metal is a nickel-copper alloy, containing minimum I>d nickel.
O(-/r n)m/'
(side from cupro-nickel, many other terms e5ist which describe the same material. "till
registered as tradenames are 0lpaka or 0lpacca registered trademark!, 0rgentan Minargent,
the $rench term name -uivre blanc Accasionally cupro-nickel is also referred to as Bhotel
silverB, plata alemana "panish for B+erman "ilverB!, B+erman silverB and BChinese
silverB
C1D
.
C/20(D H0'(or&
C1,ron0cA/* coin of king 'antaleon c. 1F9 #CE.
O8>% #ust of /ionysos with a wreath of leaves.
R/>% 'anther with a small bell around the neck, touching a vine with the left leg. +reek
legend@ #(")2EA" '(.T(2EA.TA" B:ing 'antaleonB.
Cupro-nickel was known to the 6omans as an artificial BwhiteB gold or silver termed
BclauianumB and very possibly theBmolybochalcumB of the (le5andrians.
F9
The cupro-nickel alloy was known by Chinese since circa >rd century #CE as Bwhite
copperB some weapons from the ,arring "tates 'eriod were in copper-nickel alloy!.
C7D
The ancient +reeks were producing it and a lower 3uality imitation of it in the (egean
#ron*e (ge and known as BorichalumB. The +reco-#actrian kings Euthydenus )) dating
from 1H9 to 1F9 #CE and his younger brothers 'antaleon and (gathocles around 1F9 #C.
C>D
The theory of Chinese origins of #actrian cupro-nickel was suggested in 1HIH by $light, who
found the coins and considered the oldest cupro-nickel coins yet discovered were of a very
similar alloy to Chinese paktong.
C=D
Cunningham in 1HF> argued the coins must have been the
result of overland trade from China, through )ndia to +reece E highly controversial at the
time and much derided. )n 1?F>, Cheng and "chwitter in their new analyses argued the
#actrian alloys copper, lead, iron, nickel and cobalt! were closely similar to Chinese
paktong, and that out of nine known (sian nickel deposits, only those in China could provide
same identical chemical content ratios.
C=D
&owever this hypothesis, although widely
publicised, was later disproven by a perhaps over-enthusiastic oversight of the well-known
'ersian arsenic-nickel mines much closer to #actria and known to be e5ploited by the +reeks
and 'ersians.
C=D
C/20(D C-0n/'/ -0'(or& o c1,ron0cA/*
The author-scholar &o ,ei describes most e5actly the process in circa 19?G CE, which
suggest the Chinese were not aware that nickel was a metal in its own right. The paktong
alloy was described as being made from adding small pills of naturally-occurring 12unnan1
ore to a bath of molten copper. ,hen a crust of slag formed, saltpeter was added, the alloy
stirred and the ingot immediately cast. Jinc is mentioned as an ingredient E but not detailed
when e5actly it was added. The ore used is noted as solely available from 4unnan, related
from the story@
"an Mao Chun were at Tanyang during a famine year when many people died, so taking
certain chemicals, 4ing proLected them onto silver, turning it into gold, and he also
transmuted iron into silver E thus enabling the lives of many to be saved Cthrough
purchasing grain through this fake silver and goldD Thereafter all those who prepared
chemical powders by heating and transmuting copper by proLection called their methods
BTanyang techni3uesB.
CGD
The late Ming and Ching literature have very little information about paktong. &owever, it is
first mentioned specifically by name in the 3hien 4ung 4hai 5u of circa 1I>F@
,hen lu kan shih *inc carbonate, calamine! or wo chhein *inc metal! is mi5ed and
combined with chih thung copper!, one gets Yyellow bron*eY ordinary brass!. ,hen phi
shang and other arsenic substances are heated with it, one gets Ywhite bron*eY or white
copper@ pai thong. ,hen alum and niter and other chemicals are mi5ed together one gets
ching thung@ green bron*e.
CGD
F1
:o &ung of the >99 CE stated@B The Tanyang copper was created by throwing a mercuric
eli5ir into Tanyang copper and heated- gold will be formed.B &owever, the 6ha 6hu 3su and
the !hen 7 -hing describing a statue in the ,estern provinces as being of silver, tin, lead and
Tanyang copper E which looked like gold, and could be forged for plating and inlaying
vessels and swords.
C=D
.eedham et al. argue that cupro-nickel was at least known as a uni3ue alloy by the Chinese
during the reign of 2iu (n in 179 #CE in 4unnan. Moreover the 4unnanese "tate of Tien
was founded in >>= #CE as a colony of the Chu. Most likely modern paktong was unknown
to Chinese of the day E but the naturally occurring 4unnan ore upro-nickek alloy was likely
a valuable internal trade commodity.
C=D
C/20(D 7/'(/rn r/@20'co>/r&
The alloy seems to have been re-discovered by the ,est during alchemy e5periments,
notably (ndreas 2ibavius, in his 0lchemia of 1G?F where he mentions a surface-whitened
copper aes album by mercury or silver, but in 'e Natura Metallorum in !ingalarum 'art 1,
of 1G?? the same term was applied to YBtinB from the East )ndies modern-day )ndonesia and
the 'hilippines! and given the "panish name@ tintinaso.
CGD
#ishop ,atson of Cambridge appears to be the first to discover cupro-nickel was an alloy of
three metals. )n attempting to re-discover the secret of white-copper criti3ued du &aldeYs
8istory of -hina 1IHH! confusing the term paktong9, Bishop 5atson note the -hinese of
his ay i not form it as an alloy, but smelt reaily available unprocesse ore#
appeared from a vast series of e5periments made at 'eking- that it occurred naturally as an
ore mined at the region, the most e5traordinary copper is pe:tong or white copper@ it is white
when dug out of the mine and even more white within than without. )t appears , by a vast
number of e5periments made at 'eking, that its colour is owing to no mi5tureK on the
contrary, all mi5tures diminish its beauty, for, when it is rightly managed it looks e5actly like
silver and were there not a necessity of mi5ing a little tutenag or such metal to soften it, it
would be so much more the e5traordinary as this sort of copper is found no where but in
China and that only in the 'rovince of 4unnanB. .otwithstanding what is here said, of the
colour of the copper being owing to no mi5ture, it is certain the Chinese white copper as
brought to us, is a mi5t Csic@ mi5edD metalK so that the ore from which it was e5tracted must
consist of various metallic substancesK and from such ore that the natural orichalum if it ever
e5isted, was madeB.
C=D
/uring the peak European importation of Chinese white-copper during 1FG9 to 1H99,
increased attention was made to its discovering its constituentsE'eat and Cookson found
that@ Bthe darkest proved to contain F.Fd nickel and the lightest said to be indistinguishable
from silver with a characteristic bell-like resonance when struck and considerable resistance
to corrosion, 11.1dB.
(nother trial by $yfe estimated the nickel content at >1.Id. +uesswork ended when a /r
/inwiddie of the Macartney Embassy of 1F?> brought back, at considerable personal risk
F7
smuggling of paktong ore was a capital crime by the Chinese Emperor! some of the ore
from which paktong was made.
CID
Cupro-nickel was now widely understood and published by
E. Thomason, in 1H7>, in his submission later reLected for not being new knowledge to the
6oyal "ociety of (rts.
Efforts to duplicate e5actly the Chinese paktong failed in Europe due to a general lack of
re3uisite comple5 cobalt-nickel-arsenic naturally occurring ore. &owever, the "chneeburg
district of +ermany, where the famous #laufarbenwerke made cobalt blue and other
pigments solely held the re3uisite comple5 cobalt-nickel-arsenic ores in Europe.
(t the same time the 'russian Verein zur Bef;rerung es "ewerbeflei<es B"ociety for the
)mprovement of #usiness /iligenceM)ndustriousnessB! offered a pri*e for the mastery of the
process and unsurprisingly, /r E.(. +eitner and 8.6. von +ersdoff of "chneeburg duly won
the pri*e and launched their G/rm)n '0*>/r under the trade name 0rgentan and Neusilber
Bnew "ilverB!
CID
)n 1H7?, 'ercival .orton 8ohnston persuaded /r +eitner to establish a foundry in #ow
Common behind 6egentsY 'ark Canal in 2ondon and obtained ingots of nickel-silver of 1Hd
.i, GGd Cu and 7Fd Jn.
CID
#etween 1H7? and 1H>>E'ercival .orton 8ohnson was the first man to refine cupro-nickel
on the #ritish )sles@ and became a wealthy man producing in e5cess of 1I.G tonnes per year,
mainly made into cutlery by the #irmingham firm ,illiam &utton and sold under the trade-
name B(rgentineB.
8ohnsonsY most serious competitor, Charles (skin and #rok Evans, under the brilliant
chemist /r. E, #enson devised greatly improved methods of cobalt and nickel suspension
and marketed their own brand of nickel-silver@ British 6late.
CID
C/20(D Co0n)+/
F0>/ S?0'' r)nA'
)n Europe, "wit*erland pioneered the nickel billion coinage in 1HG9, with the addition of
silver. )n 1HF?, "wit*erland adopted the far cheaper FG@7G copper to nickel ratio then being
used by the #elgians, the United "tates, and +ermany.
Cupro-nickel was not used again in coinage until the 79th century. Cupro-nickel is the
cladding on either side of United "tates &alf /ollars G9y! since 1?F1, and all 3uarters 7Gy!
and dimes 19y! made after 1?I=. Currently some circulating coins like the United "tates
8efferson .ickel Gy!,
CFD
the "wiss franc, and the "outh :orean G99 and 199 won are made of
F>
solid cupro-nickel FGM7G ratio!.
CHD
C/20(D M)r0n/ /n+0n//r0n+ +r)2/'
#y the 1?79s, a F9->9 copper-nickel grade was developed for naval condensers. "oon
afterwards, a 7d manganese and 7d iron alloy was also developed for a U: power station
which needed better erosion resistance because the levels of entrained sand in the seawater.
( ?9-19 alloy first became available in the 1?G9s, initially for seawater piping, and is now
the more widely used alloy.
The alloys are@
UNS S()n2)r2 Com,o'0(0on'O o ?ro1+-( )**o&'. M)B0m1m or R)n+/
A**o& UNS No. Common n)m/ N0cA/* Iron M)n+)n/'/ Co,,/r
CF9I99 ?9-19 ?-11 1-1.H 1 6emainder
CF1G99 F9->9 7?->> 9.=-1.9 1 6emainder
CF1I=9 II->9-7-7 7?->7 1.F-7.> 1.G-7.G 6emainder
These values may vary in other standards
There are subtle differences in corrosion resistance and strength which determine which
alloy is selected. /escending the table, the ma5imum allowable flow rate in piping increases
as does the strength.
Typical minimum mechanical properties and ma5imum velocities
Co,,/r N0cA/* A**o&
Y0/*2 '(r/n+(-
(MP)"
T/n'0*/
'(r/n+(-
(MP)"
T&,0c)* m)B. >/*oc0(& )( ;00 mm
,0,0n+ 8or/ 20)m/(/r (mF'"
?9-19 19G 17G >.G
F9->9 7FG >GH =.9
II->9-7-7 1F9 =>G I.9
F=
'anels after 17 months e5posure at 2angstone &arbour, U:. 2eft to right@ steel, ?9-19
copper-nickel sheathed steel, copper-nickelK all three with aluminium sacrificial anodes for
corrosion protection. $ar right@ unprotected copper nickel showing no macrofouling
)n seawater, the alloys have e5cellent corrosion rates which remain low as long as the
ma5imum design flow velocity is not e5ceeded. This velocity depends on geometry and pipe
diameter. They have high resistance to crevice corrosion, stress corrosion cracking and
hydrogen embrittlement that can be troublesome to other alloy systems. Copper-nickels
naturally form a thin protective surface layer over the first several weeks of e5posure to
seawater and this provides its on-going resistance. (dditionally, they have a high inherent
biofouling resistance to attachment by macrofoulers e.g. seagrasses and molluscs! living in
the seawater. To use this property to its full potential, the alloy needs to be free of the effects
or insulated from any form of cathodic protection.
&owever, copper-nickels can show high corrosion rates in polluted or stagnant seawater
when sulfides or ammonia are present. )t is important therefore to avoid e5posure to such
conditions particularly during commissioning and refit while the surface films are maturing.
$errous sulfate dosing to sea water systems can provide improved resistance.
(s copper and nickel alloy with each other easily and have simple structures, the alloys are
ductile and readily fabricated. "trength and hardness for each individual alloy is increased by
cold workingK they are not hardened by heat treatment. 8oining of ?9-19 CF9I99! and F9->9
CF1G99! is possible by both welding or bra*ing. They are both weldable by the maLority of
techni3ues although autogenous welding without weld consumables! or o5y-acetylene
methods are not recommended. F9->9 rather than ?9-19 weld consumables are normally
preferred for both alloys and no post-weld heat treatment is re3uired. They can also be
welded directly to steel providing a IGd nickel-copper weld consumable is used to avoid
iron dilution effects. #ra*ing re3uires appropriate silver-base bra*ing alloys. The CF1I=9
alloy tends to be used as seamless tubing and e5panded rather than welded into the tube
FG
plate.
The (sperida nearing =9 years oldK its F9->9 copper-nickel hull is being inspected before
being refitted.
(pplications for copper-nickels have withstood the test of time as they are still widely used
and range from seawater system piping, condensers and heat e5changers in naval vessels,
commercial shipping, multi-stage flash desalination and power stations. They have also been
used as splash *one cladding on offshore structures and protective cladding on boat hulls as
well as for solid hulls themselves.
$or a discussion about copper nickel alloys in a3uaculture, go to@ CC1DD
C/20(D O(-/r 1')+/
"ingle-core thermocouple cables use a single conductor pair of thermocouple conductors
such as iron-constantan, copper constantan or nickel-chromiumMnickel-aluminium. These
have the heating element of constantan or nickel-chromium alloy within a sheath of copper,
cupro-nickel or stainless steel.
C?D
#eginning around the turn of the 79th century, bullet Lackets were commonly made from this
material. )t was soon replaced with gilding metal to reduce metal fouling in the bore.
Currently, cupronickel remains the basic material for silver-plated cutlery. )t is commonly
used for mechanical and electrical e3uipment, medical e3uipment, *ippers, Lewelry items,
and as material for strings for string instruments.
$or side-arms pistols!, nickel is the favoured metal for the trigger. $or high-3uality cylinder
lock and locking systems, the cylinder core is made from wear-resistant cupronickel.
FI
C/20(D P-&'0c)* ,ro,/r(0/'
Cupro-nickel F9M>9 ratio! melts at 11F9 XC and has a density of H,?19 kgMm
>
9.>77 lbMin
>
!.
C19D
#road properties overview for the whole family of Cupro-nickel alloys@
Melting point @ from about ?99 XC, depending on alloy content
/ensity @ H.1 to H.F gjcm
Q>
depending on the mi5!
Electrical conductivity @ appro5 >1G!k19
I
zjm!
Q1

Thermal conductivity @ about 7G->G ,jm
Q1
j:
Q1

Thermal e5pansion coefficient @ 1I to 1F `mjm
Q1
j:
Q1
A*1m0n01m U:
i
/ lj m n i m / AL-ew-MIN-ee- m !
C=D
or )*1m0n1m U"
i
/
lu m n m / -LOO-mi-n m ! is a silvery white member of the boron group of chemical
elements. )t has the symbol A* and its atomic number is 1>. )t is not soluble in water under
normal circumstances. (luminium is the most abundant metal in the EarthYs crust, and the
third most abundant element, after o5ygen and silicon. )t makes up about Hd by weight of
the EarthYs solid surface. (luminium is too reactive chemically to occur in nature as a free
metal. )nstead, it is found combined in over 7F9 different minerals.
CGD
The chief source of
aluminium is bau5ite ore.
(luminium is remarkable for the metalYs low density and for its ability to resist corrosion due
to the phenomenon of passivation. "tructural components made from aluminium and its
alloys are vital to the aerospace industry and are very important in other areas of
transportation and building. )ts reactive nature makes it useful as a catalyst or additive in
chemical mi5tures, including ammonium nitrate e5plosives, to enhance blast power.
/espite its prevalence in the environment, aluminum salts are not known to be used by any
form of life. (lso in keeping with the elementYs abundance, it is well tolerated by plants in
soils in which it is a maLor component!, and to a lesser e5tent, by animals as a component of
plant materials in the diet which often contain traces of dust and soil!. "oluble aluminum
salts have some demonstrated to5icity to animals if delivered in 3uantity by unnatural routes,
such as inLection. Controversy still e5ists about aluminumYs possible long-term to5icity to
humans from larger ingested amounts.
C-)r)c(/r0'(0c'
FF
Etched surface from a high purity ??.???Hd! aluminium bar, si*e GGk>F mm
(luminium is a soft, durable, lightweight, ductile and malleable metal with appearance
ranging from silvery to dull gray, depending on the surface roughness. (luminium is
nonmagnetic and nonsparking. )t is also insoluble in alcohol, though it can be soluble in
water in certain forms. The yield strength of pure aluminium is F111 M'a, while aluminium
alloys have yield strengths ranging from 799 M'a to I99 M'a.
CID
(luminium has about one-
third the density and stiffness of steel. )t is easily machined, cast, drawn and e5truded.
Corrosion resistance can be e5cellent due to a thin surface layer of aluminium o5ide that
forms when the metal is e5posed to air, effectively preventing further o5idation. The
strongest aluminium alloys are less corrosion resistant due to galvanic reactions with alloyed
copper.
CID
This corrosion resistance is also often greatly reduced when many a3ueous salts are
present, particularly in the presence of dissimilar metals.
(luminium atoms are arranged in a face-centered cubic fcc! structure. (luminium has a
stacking-fault energy of appro5imately 799 m8Mm
7
.
CFD
(luminium is one of the few metals that retain full silvery reflectance in finely powdered
form, making it an important component of silver paints. (luminium mirror finish has the
highest reflectance of any metal in the 7991=99 nm U0! and the >,999119,999 nm far )6!
regionsK in the =991F99 nm visible range it is slightly outperformed by tin and silver and in
the F991>999 near )6! by silver, gold, and copper.
CHD
(luminium is a good thermal and electrical conductor, having I7d the conductivity of
copper. (luminium is capable of being a superconductor, with a superconducting critical
temperature of 1.7 kelvins and a critical magnetic field of about 199 gauss 19 milliteslas!.
C?D
Cr/)(0on
"table aluminium is created when hydrogen fuses with magnesium in either large stars or in
supernovae.
C19D
FH
I'o(o,/'
Main article# 7sotopes of aluminium
(luminium has nine isotopes, whose mass numbers range from 7> to >9. Anly
7F
(l stable
isotope! and
7I
(l radioactive isotope, t
1M7
P F.7k19
G
y! occur naturallyK
7F
(l has a natural
abundance above ??.?d.
7I
(l is produced from argon in the atmosphere by spallation caused
by cosmic-ray protons. (luminium isotopes have found practical application in dating
marine sediments, manganese nodules, glacial ice, 3uart* in rock e5posures, and meteorites.
The ratio of
7I
(l to
19
#e has been used to study the role of transport, deposition, sediment
storage, burial times, and erosion on 19
G
to 19
I
year time scales.
C11D
Cosmogenic
7I
(l was first
applied in studies of the Moon and meteorites. Meteoroid fragments, after departure from
their parent bodies, are e5posed to intense cosmic-ray bombardment during their travel
through space, causing substantial
7I
(l production. (fter falling to Earth, atmospheric
shielding drastically reduces
7I
(l production, and its decay can then be used to determine the
meteoriteYs terrestrial age. Meteorite research has also shown that
7I
(l was relatively
abundant at the time of formation of our planetary system. Most meteorite scientists believe
that the energy released by the decay of
7I
(l was responsible for the melting and
differentiation of some asteroids after their formation =.GG billion years ago.
C17D
N)(1r)* occ1rr/nc/
!ee also# 0luminium in 0frica
)n the EarthYs crust, aluminium is the most abundant H.>d by weight! metallic element and
the third most abundant of all elements after o5ygen and silicon!.
C1>D
#ecause of its strong
affinity to o5ygen, it is almost never found in the elemental stateK instead it is found in o5ides
or silicates. $eldspars, the most common group of minerals in the EarthYs crust, are
aluminosilicates. .ative aluminium metal can be found as a minor phase in low o5ygen
fugacity environments, such as the interiors of certain volcanoes.
C1=D
)t also occurs in the
minerals beryl, cryolite, garnet, spinel and tur3uoise.
C1GD
)mpurities in (l
7
A
>
, such as
chromium or cobalt yield the gemstones ruby and sapphire, respectively.
C1>D
'ure (l
7
A
>
,
known as corundum, is one of the hardest materials known.
C1GD
(lthough aluminium is an e5tremely common and widespread element, the common
aluminium minerals are not economic sources of the metal. (lmost all metallic aluminium is
produced from the ore bau5ite (lA
=
A&!
>-7=
!. #au5ite occurs as a weathering product of low
iron and silica bedrock in tropical climatic conditions.
C1ID
2arge deposits of bau5ite occur in
(ustralia, #ra*il, +uinea and 8amaica but the primary mining areas for the ore are in +hana,
F?
)ndonesia, 6ussia and "urinam.
C1FD
"melting of the ore mainly occurs in (ustralia, #ra*il,
Canada, .orway, 6ussia and the United "tates.
C1FD
#ecause smelting is an energy-intensive
process, regions with e5cess natural gas supplies such as the United (rab Emirates! are
becoming aluminium refiners.
Pro21c(0on )n2 r/0n/m/n(
(lthough aluminium is the most abundant metallic element in the EarthYs crust, it is never
found in free, metallic form, and it was once considered a precious metal more valuable than
gold. .apoleon ))), Emperor of $rance, is reputed to have given a ban3uet where the most
honoured guests were given aluminium utensils, while the others made do with gold.
C1HDC1?D
The ,ashington Monument was completed, with the 199 ounce 7.H kg! aluminium capstone
being put in place on /ecember I, 1HH=, in an elaborate dedication ceremony. )t was the
largest single piece of aluminium cast at the time, when aluminium was as e5pensive as
silver.
C79D
(luminium has been produced in commercial 3uantities for Lust over 199 years.
B)1B0(/
(luminium is a strongly reactive metal that forms a high-energy chemical bond with o5ygen.
Compared to most other metals, it is difficult to e5tract from ore, such as bau5ite, due to the
energy re3uired to reduce aluminium o5ide (l
7
A
>
!. $or e5ample, direct reduction with
carbon, as is used to produce iron, is not chemically possible, since aluminium is a stronger
reducing agent than carbon. There is an indirect carbothermic reduction possible by using
carbon and (l
7
A
>
, which forms an intermediate (l
=
C
>
and this can further yield aluminium
metal at a temperature of 1?9917999XC. This process is still under development. This
process costs less energy and yields less CA
7
than the &all-&hroult process, the maLor
industrial process for aluminium e5traction.
C71D
(luminium o5ide has a melting point of about
7,999 XC >,I99 X$!. Therefore, it must be e5tracted by electrolysis. )n this process, the
aluminium o5ide is dissolved in molten cryolite with calcium fluoride and then reduced to
the pure metal. The operational temperature of the reduction cells is around ?G9 to ?H9 XC
1,F=9 to 1,H99 X$!. Cryolite is found as a mineral in +reenland, but in industrial use it has
been replaced by a synthetic substance. Cryolite is a chemical compound of aluminium and
sodium fluorides@ .a
>
(l$
I
!. The aluminium o5ide a white powder! is obtained by refining
bau5ite in the #ayer process of :arl #ayer. 'reviously, the /eville process was the
predominant refining technology.!
H9
The electrolytic process replaced the ,{hler process, which involved the reduction of
anhydrous aluminium chloride with potassium. #oth of the electrodes used in the electrolysis
of aluminium o5ide are carbon. Ance the refined alumina is dissolved in the electrolyte, its
ions are free to move around. The reaction at the cathode is@
(l
>[
[ > e
Q
| (l
&ere the aluminium ion is being reduced. The aluminium metal then sinks to the bottom and
is tapped off, usually cast into large blocks called aluminium billets for further processing.
(t the anode, o5ygen is formed@
7 A
7Q
| A
7
[ = e
Q
This carbon anode is then o5idi*ed by the o5ygen, releasing carbon dio5ide@
A
7
[ C | CA
7
The anodes in a reduction cell must therefore be replaced regularly, since they are consumed
in the process.
Unlike the anodes, the cathodes are not o5idi*ed because there is no o5ygen present, as the
carbon cathodes are protected by the li3uid aluminium inside the cells. .evertheless,
cathodes do erode, mainly due to electrochemical processes and metal movement. (fter five
to ten years, depending on the current used in the electrolysis, a cell has to be rebuilt because
of cathode wear.
,orld production trend of aluminium
(luminium electrolysis with the &all-&hroult process consumes a lot of energy, but
alternative processes were always found to be less viable economically andMor ecologically.
The worldwide average specific energy consumption is appro5imately 1G}9.G kilowatt-hours
per kilogram of aluminium produced G7 to GI M8Mkg!. The most modern smelters achieve
appro5imately 17.H k,jhMkg =I.1 M8Mkg!. Compare this to the heat of reaction, >1 M8Mkg,
and the +ibbs free energy of reaction, 7? M8Mkg.! 6eduction line currents for older
technologies are typically 199 to 799 kiloamperesK state-of-the-art smelters
C77D
operate at
about >G9 k(. Trials have been reported with G99 k( cells.
Electric power represents about 79d to =9d of the cost of producing aluminium, depending
on the location of the smelter. "melters tend to be situated where electric power is both
plentiful and ine5pensive, such as "outh (frica, +hana, the "outh )sland of .ew Jealand,
(ustralia, the 'eopleYs 6epublic of China, the Middle East, 6ussia, suebec and #ritish
Columbia in Canada, and )celand.
C7>D
A*1m0n01m o1(,1( 0n 6003
)n 799G, the 'eopleYs 6epublic of China was the top producer of aluminium with almost a
one-fifth world share, followed by 6ussia, Canada, and the U"(, reports the #ritish
+eological "urvey.
H1
Aver the last G9 years, (ustralia has become a maLor producer of bau5ite ore and a maLor
producer and e5porter of alumina.
C7=D
(ustralia produced I7 million tonnes of bau5ite in
799G. The (ustralian deposits have some refining problems, some being high in silica, but
have the advantage of being shallow and relatively easy to mine.
C7GD
!ee also# -ategory#0luminium minerals
R/c&c*0n+
(luminium recycling code
Main article# 0luminium recycling
(luminium is 199d recyclable without any loss of its natural 3ualities. 6ecovery of the
metal via recycling has become an important facet of the aluminium industry.
6ecycling involves melting the scrap, a process that re3uires only Gd of the energy used to
produce aluminium from ore, though a significant part up to 1Gd of the input material! is
lost as dross ash-like o5ide!.
C7ID
The dross can undergo a further process to e5tract
aluminium.
6ecycling was a low-profile activity until the late 1?I9s, when the growing use of
aluminium beverage cans brought it to the public awareness.
)n Europe aluminium e5periences high rates of recycling, ranging from =7d of beverage
cans, HGd of construction materials and ?Gd of transport vehicles.
C7FD
6ecycled aluminium is known as secondary aluminium, but maintains the same physical
properties as primary aluminium. "econdary aluminium is produced in a wide range of
formats and is employed in H9d of the alloy inLections. (nother important use is for
e5trusion.
,hite dross from primary aluminium production and from secondary recycling operations
still contains useful 3uantities of aluminium that can be e5tracted industrially.
C7HD
The process
produces aluminium billets, together with a highly comple5 waste material. This waste is
difficult to manage. )t reacts with water, releasing a mi5ture of gases including, among
others, hydrogen, acetylene, and ammonia!, which spontaneously ignites on contact with airK
C7?D
contact with damp air results in the release of copious 3uantities of ammonia gas. /espite
these difficulties, the waste has found use as a filler in asphalt and concrete.
C>9D
C-/m0'(r&
H7
OB02)(0on '()(/ P;
(l& is produced when aluminium is heated in an atmosphere of hydrogen. (l
7
A is made by
heating the normal o5ide, (l
7
A
>
, with silicon at 1,H99 XC >,7F7 X$! in a vacuum.
C>1D
(l
7
" can be made by heating (l
7
"
>
with aluminium shavings at 1,>99 XC 7,>F7 X$! in a
vacuum.
C>1D
)t 3uickly disproportionates to the starting materials. The selenide is made in a
parallel manner.
(l$, (lCl and (l#r e5ist in the gaseous phase when the tri-halide is heated with aluminium.
(luminium halides usually e5ist in the form (lg
>
, where g is $, Cl, #r, or ).
C>1D
OB02)(0on '()(/ P6
(luminium mono5ide, (lA, has been detected in the gas phase after e5plosion
C>7D
and in
stellar absorption spectra.
C>>D
OB02)(0on '()(/ P#
$aLansY rules show that the simple trivalent cation (l
>[
is not e5pected to be found in
anhydrous salts or binary compounds such as (l
7
A
>
. The hydro5ide is a weak base and
aluminium salts of weak acids, such as carbonate, cannot be prepared. The salts of strong
acids, such as nitrate, are stable and soluble in water, forming hydrates with at least si5
molecules of water of crystalli*ation.
(luminium hydride, (l&
>
!
n
, can be produced from trimethylaluminium and an e5cess of
hydrogen. )t burns e5plosively in air. )t can also be prepared by the action of aluminium
chloride on lithium hydride in ether solution, but cannot be isolated free from the solvent.
(lumino-hydrides of the most electropositive elements are known, the most useful being
lithium aluminium hydride, 2iC(l&
=
D. )t decomposes into lithium hydride, aluminium and
hydrogen when heated, and is hydrolysed by water. )t has many uses in organic chemistry,
particularly as a reducing agent. The aluminohalides have a similar structure.
(luminium hydro5ide may be prepared as a gelatinous precipitate by adding ammonia to an
a3ueous solution of an aluminium salt. )t is amphoteric, being both a very weak acid, and
forming aluminates with alkalis. )t e5ists in various crystalline forms.
(luminium carbide, (l
=
C
>
is made by heating a mi5ture of the elements above 1,999 XC
1,H>7 X$!. The pale yellow crystals have a comple5 lattice structure, and react with water or
dilute acids to give methane. The acetylide, (l
7
C
7
!
>
, is made by passing acetylene over
heated aluminium.
(luminium nitride, (l., can be made from the elements at H99 XC 1,=F7 X$!. )t is
hydrolysed by water to form ammonia and aluminium hydro5ide. (luminium phosphide,
(l', is made similarly, and hydrolyses to give phosphine.
H>
(luminium o5ide, (l
7
A
>
, occurs naturally as corundum, and can be made by burning
aluminium in o5ygen or by heating the hydro5ide, nitrate or sulfate. (s a gemstone, its
hardness is only e5ceeded by diamond, boron nitride, and carborundum. )t is almost
insoluble in water. (luminium sulfide, (l
7
"
>
, may be prepared by passing hydrogen sulfide
over aluminium powder. )t is polymorphic.
(luminium iodide, (l)
>
, is a dimer with applications in organic synthesis. (luminium
fluoride, (l$
>
, is made by treating the hydro5ide with &$, or can be made from the elements.
)t is a macromolecule, which sublimes without melting at 1,7?1 XC 7,>GI X$!. )t is very
inert. The other trihalides are dimeric, having a bridge-like structure.
,hen aluminium and fluoride are together in a3ueous solution, they readily form comple5
ions such as C(l$&
7
A!
G
D
7[
, (l$
>
&
7
A!
>
, and C(l$
I
D
>Q
. Af these, C(l$
I
D
>Q
is the most stable.
This is e5plained by the fact that aluminium and fluoride, which are both very compact ions,
fit together Lust right to form the octahedral aluminium he5afluoride comple5. ,hen
aluminium and fluoride are together in water in a 1@I molar ratio, C(l$
I
D
>Q
is the most
common form, even in rather low concentrations.
Arganometallic compounds of empirical formula (l6
>
e5ist and, if not also polymers, are at
least dimers or trimers. They have some uses in organic synthesis, for instance
trimethylaluminium.
An)*&'0'
The presence of aluminium can be detected in 3ualitative analysis using aluminon.
A,,*0c)(0on'
G/n/r)* 1'/
(luminium is the most widely used non-ferrous metal.
C>=D
+lobal production of aluminium in
799G was >1.? million tonnes. )t e5ceeded that of any other metal e5cept iron H>F.G million
tonnes!.
C>GD
$orecast for 7917 is =71=G million tons, driven by rising Chinese output.
C>ID
6elatively pure aluminium is encountered only when corrosion resistance andMor workability
is more important than strength or hardness. ( thin layer of aluminium can be deposited onto
a flat surface by physical vapour deposition or very infre3uently! chemical vapour
deposition or other chemical means to form optical coatings and mirrors. ,hen so deposited,
a fresh, pure aluminium film serves as a good reflector appro5imately ?7d! of visible light
and an e5cellent reflector as much as ?Hd! of medium and far infrared radiation.
'ure aluminium has a low tensile strength, but when combined with thermo-mechanical
processing, aluminium alloys display a marked improvement in mechanical properties,
especially when tempered. (luminium alloys form vital components of aircraft and rockets
as a result of their high strength-to-weight ratio. (luminium readily forms alloys with many
elements such as copper, *inc, magnesium, manganese and silicon e.g., duralumin!. Today,
almost all bulk metal materials that are referred to loosely as BaluminiumB, are actually
alloys. $or e5ample, the common aluminium foils and beverage cans are alloys of ?7d to
H=
??d aluminium.
C>FD
&ousehold aluminium foil
(luminium-bodied (ustin 10>) !ports1 circa 1?G1!
(luminium slabs being transported from a smelter.
"ome of the many uses for aluminium metal are in@
Transportation automobiles, aircraft, trucks, railway cars, marine vessels, bicycles
etc.! as sheet, tube, castings etc.
'ackaging cans, foil, etc.!
Construction windows, doors, siding, building wire, etc.!
( wide range of household items, from cooking utensils to baseball bats, watches.
C>HD

"treet lighting poles, sailing ship masts, walking poles etc.
Auter shells of consumer electronics, also cases for e3uipment e.g. photographic
e3uipment.
Electrical transmission lines for power distribution
M:M steel and (lnico magnets
"uper purity aluminium "'(, ??.?H9d to ??.???d (l!, used in electronics and
C/s.
HG
&eat sinks for electronic appliances such as transistors and C'Us.
"ubstrate material of metal-core copper clad laminates used in high brightness 2E/
lighting.
'owdered aluminium is used in paint, and in pyrotechnics such as solid rocket fuels
and thermite.
(luminium can be reacted with hydrochloric acid to form hydrogen gas.
( variety of countries, including $rance, )taly, 'oland, $inland, 6omania, )srael, and
the former 4ugoslavia, have issued coins struck in aluminium or aluminium-copper
alloys.
C>?D

A*1m0n01m com,o1n2'
(luminium ammonium sulfate C(l.&
=
!D"A
=
!
7
!, ammonium alum is used as a
mordant, in water purification and sewage treatment, in paper production, as a food
additive, and in leather tanning.
(luminium acetate is a salt used in solution as an astringent.
(luminium borate (l
7
A
>
#
7
A
>
! is used in the production of glass and ceramic.
(luminium borohydride (l#&
=
!
>
! is used as an additive to Let fuel.
(luminium bron*e Cu(l
G
!
(luminium chloride (lCl
>
! is used in paint manufacturing, in antiperspirants, in
petroleum refining and in the production of synthetic rubber.
(luminium chlorohydrate is used as an antiperspirant and in the treatment of
hyperhidrosis.
(luminium fluorosilicate (l
7
"i$
I
!
>
! is used in the production of synthetic
gemstones, glass and ceramic.
(luminium hydro5ide (lA&!
>
! is used@ as an antacid, as a mordant, in water
purification, in the manufacture of glass and ceramic and in the waterproofing of
fabrics.
(luminium o5ide (l
7
A
>
!, alumina, is found naturally as corundum rubies and
sapphires!, emery, and is used in glass making. "ynthetic ruby and sapphire are used
in lasers for the production of coherent light. Used as a refractory, essential for the
production of high pressure sodium lamps.
(luminium phosphate (l'A
=
! is used in the manufacture@ of glass and ceramic, pulp
and paper products, cosmetics, paints and varnishes and in making dental cement.
(luminium sulfate (l
7
"A
=
!
>
! is used in the manufacture of paper, as a mordant, in a
fire e5tinguisher, in water purification and sewage treatment, as a food additive, in
fireproofing, and in leather tanning.
(3ueous aluminium ions such as found in a3ueous aluminium sulfate! are used to
treat against fish parasites such as "yroactylus salaris.
)n many vaccines, certain aluminium salts serve as an immune adLuvant immune
response booster! to allow the protein in the vaccine to achieve sufficient potency as
an immune stimulant.
A*1m0n01m )**o&' 0n '(r1c(1r)* ),,*0c)(0on'
HI
(luminium foam
Main article# 0luminium alloy
(luminium alloys with a wide range of properties are used in engineering structures. (lloy
systems are classified by a number system (.")! or by names indicating their main
alloying constituents /). and )"A!.
The strength and durability of aluminium alloys vary widely, not only as a result of the
components of the specific alloy, but also as a result of heat treatments and manufacturing
processes. ( lack of knowledge of these aspects has from time to time led to improperly
designed structures and gained aluminium a bad reputation.
Ane important structural limitation of aluminium alloys is their fatigue strength. Unlike
steels, aluminium alloys have no well-defined fatigue limit, meaning that fatigue failure
eventually occurs, under even very small cyclic loadings. This implies that engineers must
assess these loads and design for a fi5ed life rather than an infinite life.
(nother important property of aluminium alloys is their sensitivity to heat. ,orkshop
procedures involving heating are complicated by the fact that aluminium, unlike steel, melts
without first glowing red. $orming operations where a blow torch is used therefore re3uire
some e5pertise, since no visual signs reveal how close the material is to melting. (luminium
alloys, like all structural alloys, also are subLect to internal stresses following heating
operations such as welding and casting. The problem with aluminium alloys in this regard is
their low melting point, which make them more susceptible to distortions from thermally
induced stress relief. Controlled stress relief can be done during manufacturing by heat-
treating the parts in an oven, followed by gradual coolingEin effect annealing the stresses.
The low melting point of aluminium alloys has not precluded their use in rocketryK even for
use in constructing combustion chambers where gases can reach >G99 :. The (gena upper
stage engine used a regeneratively cooled aluminium design for some parts of the no**le,
including the thermally critical throat region.
HF
Ho1'/-o*2 ?0r0n+
!ee also# 0luminium wire
Compared to copper, aluminium has about IGd of the electrical conductivity by volume,
although 799d by weight. Traditionally copper is used as household wiring material. )n the
1?I9s aluminium was considerably cheaper than copper, and so was introduced for
household electrical wiring in the United "tates, even though many fi5tures were not
designed to accept aluminium wire. )n some cases the greater coefficient of thermal
e5pansion of aluminium causes the wire to e5pand and contract relative to the dissimilar
metal screw connection, eventually loosening the connection. (lso, pure aluminium has a
tendency to creep under steady sustained pressure to a greater degree as the temperature
rises!, again loosening the connection. $inally, galvanic corrosion from the dissimilar metals
increased the electrical resistance of the connection.
(ll of this resulted in overheated and loose connections, and this in turn resulted in fires.
#uilders then became wary of using the wire, and many Lurisdictions outlawed its use in very
small si*es in new construction. Eventually, newer fi5tures were introduced with connections
designed to avoid loosening and overheating. The first generation fi5tures were marked
B(lMCuB and were ultimately found suitable only for copper-clad aluminium wire, but the
second generation fi5tures, which bear a BCAM(26B coding, are rated for unclad aluminium
wire. To adapt older assemblies, workers forestall the heating problem using a properly done
crimp of the aluminium wire to a short BpigtailB of copper wire. Today, new alloys, designs,
and methods are used for aluminium wiring in combination with aluminium termination.
H0'(or&
HH
The statue of the (nteros commonly mistaken for either 3he 0ngel of -hristian -harity or
Eros! in 'iccadilly Circus 2ondon, was made in 1H?> and is one of the first statues to be cast
in aluminium.
(ncient +reeks and 6omans used aluminium salts as dyeing mordants and as astringents for
dressing woundsK alum is still used as a styptic. )n 1FI1 +uyton de Morveau suggested
calling the base alum alumine. )n 1H9H, &umphry /avy identified the e5istence of a metal
base of alum, which he at first termed alumium and later aluminum see Etymology section,
below!.
The metal was first produced in 1H7G in an impure form! by /anish physicist and chemist
&ans Christian ~rsted. &e reacted anhydrous aluminium chloride with potassium amalgam
and yielded a lump of metal looking similar to tin.
C=9D
$riedrich ,{hler was aware of these
e5periments and cited them, but after redoing the e5periments of ~rsted he concluded that
this metal was pure potassium. &e conducted a similar e5periment in 1H7F by mi5ing
anhydrous aluminium chloride with potassium and yielded aluminium.
C=9D
,{hler is
generally credited with isolating aluminium 2atin alumen, alum!, but also ~rsted can be
listed as its discoverer.
C=1D
$urther, 'ierre #erthier discovered aluminium in bau5ite ore and
successfully e5tracted it.
C=7D
$renchman &enri Etienne "ainte-Claire /eville improved
,{hlerYs method in 1H=I, and described his improvements in a book in 1HG?, chief among
these being the substitution of sodium for the considerably more e5pensive potassium.
/evilleYs book is 'e l9aluminium, ses propri?t?s, sa fabrication 'aris, 1HG?!. /eville likely
also conceived the idea of the electrolysis of aluminium o5ide dissolved in cryoliteK Charles
Martin &all and 'aul &hroult might have developed the more practical process after /eville.!
#efore the &all-&hroult process was developed, aluminium was e5ceedingly difficult to
e5tract from its various ores. This made pure aluminium more valuable than gold.
C=>D
#ars of
aluminium were e5hibited at the E5position Universelle of 1HGG,
C==D
and .apoleon ))) was
said
Ccitation neeeD
to have reserved a set of aluminium dinner plates for his most honoured
guests.
(luminium was selected as the material to be used for the ape5 of the ,ashington
Monument in 1HH=, a time when one ounce >9 grams! cost the daily wage of a common
worker on the proLectK
C=GD
aluminium was about the same value as silver.
The Cowles companies supplied aluminium alloy in 3uantity in the United "tates and
England using smelters like the furnace of Carl ,ilhelm "iemens by 1HHI.
C=ID
Charles Martin
&all of Ahio in the U.". and 'aul &hroult of $rance independently developed the &all-
&hroult electrolytic process that made e5tracting aluminium from minerals cheaper and is
now the principal method used worldwide. The &all-&eroult process cannot produce "uper
'urity (luminium directly. &allYs process,
C=FD
in 1HHH with the financial backing of (lfred E.
&unt, started the 'ittsburgh 6eduction Company today known as (lcoa. &hroultYs process
was in production by 1HH? in "wit*erland at (luminium )ndustrie, now (lcan, and at #ritish
(luminium, now 2u5fer +roup and (lcoa, by 1H?I in "cotland.
C=HD
H?
#y 1H?G the metal was being used as a building material as far away as "ydney, (ustralia in
the dome of the Chief "ecretaryYs #uilding.
Many navies have used an aluminium superstructure for their vesselsK the 1?FG fire aboard
U"" Belknap that gutted her aluminium superstructure, as well as observation of battle
damage to #ritish ships during the $alklands ,ar, led to many navies switching to all steel
superstructures. The 0rleigh Burke class was the first such U.". ship, being constructed
entirely of steel.
)n 799H the price of aluminium peaked at r1.=GMlb in 8uly but dropped to r9.F9Mlb by
/ecember.
C=?D
E(&mo*o+&
Nom/nc*)(1r/ -0'(or&
The earliest citation given in the A5ford English /ictionary for any word used as a name for
this element is alumium, which #ritish chemist and inventor &umphry /avy employed in
1H9H for the metal he was trying to isolate electrolytically from the mineral alumina. The
citation is from the Lournal 6hilosophical 3ransactions of the @oyal !ociety of Aonon@ B&ad
) been so fortunate as to have obtained more certain evidences on this subLect, and to have
procured the metallic substances ) was in search of, ) should have proposed for them the
names of silicium, alumium, *irconium, and glucium.B
CG9DCG1D
/avy settled on aluminum by the time he published his 1H17 book -hemical 6hilosophy@
BThis substance appears to contain a peculiar metal, but as yet (luminum has not been
obtained in a perfectly free state, though alloys of it with other metalline substances have
been procured sufficiently distinct to indicate the probable nature of alumina.B
CG7D
#ut the
same year, an anonymous contributor to the Buarterly @eview, a #ritish political-literary
Lournal, in a review of /avyYs book, obLected to aluminum and proposed the name
aluminium, Bfor so we shall take the liberty of writing the word, in preference to aluminum,
which has a less classical sound.B
CG>D
The :ium suffi5 conformed to the precedent set in other newly discovered elements of the
time@ potassium, sodium, magnesium, calcium, and strontium all of which /avy isolated
himself!. .evertheless, :um spellings for elements were not unknown at the time, as for
e5ample platinum, known to Europeans since the si5teenth century, molybdenum,
discovered in 1FFH, and tantalum, discovered in 1H97. The :um suffi5 is consistent with the
universal spelling alumina for the o5ide, as lanthana is the o5ide of lanthanum, and
magnesia, ceria, and thoria are the o5ides of magnesium, cerium, and thorium respectively.
The spelling used throughout the 1?th century by most U.". chemists ended in :ium, but
common usage is less clear.
CG=D
The :um spelling is used in the ,ebsterYs /ictionary of 1H7H.
)n his advertising handbill for his new electrolytic method of producing the metal 1H?7,
Charles Martin &all used the :um spelling, despite his constant use of the :ium spelling in all
the patents
C=FD
he filed between 1HHI and 1?9>.
CGGD
)t has conse3uently been suggested that the
?9
spelling reflects an easier to pronounce word with one fewer syllable, or that the spelling on
the flier was a mistake. &allYs domination of production of the metal ensured that the spelling
aluminum became the standard in .orth (mericaK the 5ebster Cnabrige 'ictionary of
1?1>, though, continued to use the :ium version.
)n 1?7I, the (merican Chemical "ociety officially decided to use aluminum in its
publicationsK (merican dictionaries typically label the spelling aluminium as a #ritish
variant.
The name BaluminiumB derives from its status as a base of alum. B(lumB in turn is a 2atin
word that literally means Bbitter saltB.
CGID
Pr/'/n(@2)& ',/**0n+
Most countries use the spelling aluminium with an i before -um!. )n the United "tates, this
spelling is largely unknown, and the spelling aluminum predominates.
CGFDCGHD
The Canadian
A5ford /ictionary prefers aluminum, whereas the (ustralian Mac3uarie /ictionary prefers
aluminium.
The )nternational Union of 'ure and (pplied Chemistry )U'(C! adopted aluminium as the
standard international name for the element in 1??9, but three years later recogni*ed
aluminum as an acceptable variant. &ence their periodic table includes both.
CG?D
)U'(C
prefers the use of aluminium in its internal publications, although nearly as many )U'(C
publications use the spelling aluminum.
CI9D
H/)*(- conc/rn'
NFPA <04
9
9
9
$ire
diamond for
aluminium
shot
/espite its natural abundance, aluminium has no known function in living cells and presents
some to5ic effects in elevated concentrations. )ts to5icity can be traced to deposition in bone
and the central nervous system, which is particularly increased in patients with reduced renal
function. #ecause aluminium competes with calcium for absorption, increased amounts of
dietary aluminium may contribute to the reduced skeletal minerali*ation osteopenia!
observed in preterm infants and infants with growth retardation. )n very high doses,
aluminium can cause neuroto5icity, and is associated with altered function of the blood-brain
barrier.
CI1D
( small percentage of people are allergic to aluminium and e5perience contact
dermatitis, digestive disorders, vomiting or other symptoms upon contact or ingestion of
products containing aluminium, such as deodorants or antacids. )n those without allergies,
?1
aluminium is not as to5ic as heavy metals, but there is evidence of some to5icity if it is
consumed in e5cessive amounts.
CI7D
(lthough the use of aluminium cookware has not been
shown to lead to aluminium to5icity in general, e5cessive consumption of antacids
containing aluminium compounds and e5cessive use of aluminium-containing antiperspirants
provide more significant e5posure levels. "tudies have shown that consumption of acidic
foods or li3uids with aluminium significantly increases aluminium absorption,
CI>D
and maltol
has been shown to increase the accumulation of aluminium in nervous and osseus tissue.
CI=D
$urthermore, aluminium increases estrogen-related gene e5pression in human breast cancer
cells cultured in the laboratory.
CIGD
The estrogen-like effects of these salts have led to their
classification as a metalloestrogen.
#ecause of its potentially to5ic effects, aluminiumYs use in some antiperspirants, dyes such
as aluminium lake!, and food additives is controversial. (lthough there is little evidence that
normal e5posure to aluminium presents a risk to healthy adults,
CIID
several studies point to
risks associated with increased e5posure to the metal.
CIFD
(luminium in food may be absorbed
more than aluminium from water.
CIHD
"ome researchers have e5pressed concerns that the
aluminium in antiperspirants may increase the risk of breast cancer,
CI?D
and aluminium has
controversially been implicated as a factor in (l*heimerYs disease.
CF9D
The Camelford water
pollution incident involved a number of people consuming aluminium sulfate. )nvestigations
of the long-term health effects are still ongoing, but elevated brain aluminium concentrations
have been found in post-mortem e5aminations of victims who have later died, and further
research to determine if there is a link with cerebral amyloid angiopathy has been
commissioned.
CF1D
(ccording to The (l*heimerYs "ociety, the overwhelming medical and scientific opinion is
that studies have not convincingly demonstrated a causal relationship between aluminium
and (l*heimerYs disease.
CF7D
.evertheless, some studies, such as those on the '(sU)/
cohort,
CF>D
cite aluminium e5posure as a risk factor for (l*heimerYs disease. "ome brain
pla3ues have been found to contain increased levels of the metal.
CF=D
6esearch in this area has
been inconclusiveK aluminium accumulation may be a conse3uence of the disease rather than
a causal agent. )n any event, if there is any to5icity of aluminium, it must be via a very
specific mechanism, since total human e5posure to the element in the form of naturally
occurring clay in soil and dust is enormously large over a lifetime.
CFGDCFID
"cientific consensus
does not yet e5ist about whether aluminium e5posure could directly increase the risk of
(l*heimerYs disease.
CF7D
E/c( on ,*)n('
(luminium is primary among the factors that reduce plant growth on acid soils. (lthough it
is generally harmless to plant growth in p&-neutral soils, the concentration in acid soils of
to5ic (l
>[
cations increases and disturbs root growth and function.
CFFDCFHDCF?D
Most acid soils are saturated with aluminium rather than hydrogen ions. The acidity of the
soil is therefore a result of hydrolysis of aluminium compounds.
CH9D
This concept of
Bcorrected lime potentialB
CH1D
to define the degree of base saturation in soils became the basis
for procedures now used in soil testing laboratories to determine the Blime re3uirementB
CH7D
of
soils.
CH>D
?7
,heatYs adaptation to allow aluminium tolerance is such that the aluminium induces a
release of organic compounds that bind to the harmful aluminium cations. "orghum is
believed to have the same tolerance mechanism. The first gene for aluminium tolerance has
been identified in wheat. )t was shown that sorghumYs aluminium tolerance is controlled by a
single gene, as for wheat.
CH=D
This is not the case in all plants.
S// )*'o
%ook:Aluminium
#ooks are collections of articles that can be downloaded or ordered in print.
0luminium# 3he 3hirteenth Element
(luminium alloy
The (luminum (ssociation
(luminium battery
(luminium foil
#everage can
)nstitute for the &istory of (luminium )&(!
2ist of countries by aluminium production
(luminium industry in 6ussia
(l-Cu
Copper has been the most common alloying element almost since the beginning of the
aluminum industry, and a variety of alloys in which copper is the maLor addition were
developed.
)n the cast alloys the basic structure consists of cored dendrites of aluminum solid solution,
with a variety of constituents at the grain boundaries or interdendritic spaces, forming a
brittle, more or less continuous network of eutectics. ,rought products consist of a matri5 of
aluminum solid solution with the other solible and insoluble constituents dispersed within it.
Copper has been the most common alloying element almost since the beginning of the
aluminum industry, and a variety of alloys in which copper is the maLor addition were
developed. Most of these alloys fall within one of the following groups@
Cast alloys with Gd C1, often with small amounts of silicon and magnesium.
Cast alloys with F-Hd C1, which often contain large amounts of iron and silicon and
appreciable amounts of manganese, chromium, *inc, tin, etc.
Cast alloys with 19-1=d C1. These alloys may contain small amounts of magnesium
9.19-9.>9d M+!, iron up to 1.Gd, up to Gd "i and smaller amounts of nickel, manganese,
chromium.
,rought alloys with G-Id C1 and often small amounts of manganese, silicon,
cadmium, bismuth, tin, lithium, vanadium and *irconium. (lloys of this type containing lead,
?>
bismuth, and cadmium have superior machinability.
/urals, whose basic composition is =-=.Gd C1, 9.G-1.Gd M+, 9.G-1.9d Mn,
sometimes with silicon additions.
Copper alloys containing nickel, which can be subdivided in two groups@ the Y alloy
type, whose basic composition is =d Cu, 7d .i, 1.Gd MgK and the H&21m0n01m', which
usually have lower copper contents and in which iron replaces >9me of the nickel.
)n most of the alloys in this group aluminum is the primary constituent and in the cast alloys
the basic structure consists of cored dendrites of aluminum solid solution, with a variety of
constituents at the grain boundaries or interdendritic spaces, forming a brittle, more or less
continuous network of eutectics.
,rought products consist of a matri5 of aluminum solid solution with the other constituents
dispersed within it. Constituents formed in the alloys can be divided in two groups@ in the
soluble ones are the constituents containing only one or more of copper, lithium, magnesium,
silicon, *incK in the insoluble ones are the constituents containing at least one of the more or
less insoluble iron, manganese, nickel, etc.
The type of soluble constituents formed depends not only on the amount of soluble elements
available but also on their ratio. (vailable copper depends on the iron, manganese and nickel
contentsK the copper combined with them is not available.
Copper forms (C1F/"A*
J
and C1
6
F/A
*<
, with iron, (C1F/Mn"A*
J
and C1
6
Mn
#
A*
60
with
manganese, C1
4
N0A*, and several not too well known compounds with nickel and iron. The
amount of silicon available to some e5tent controls the copper compounds formed. "ilicon
above 1d favors the F/S0A*
3
, over the iron-copper compounds and (C1F/Mn"
#
S0
6
A*
;3
, over
the (C1F/Mn"A*
J
and C1
6
Mn
#
A*
60
compounds.
"imilarly, but to a lesser e5tent, available silicon is affected by iron and manganese contents.
,ith the Cu@Mg ratio below 7 and the Mg@"i ratio well above 1.F the C1M+
4
A*
J
compound
is formed, especially if appreciable *inc is present. ,hen Cu@Mg _ 7 and Mg@"i _ 1.F,
C1M+A*
6
is formed. )f the Mg@"i ratio is appro5imately 1.F, M+
6
S0 and C1A*
6
are in
e3uilibrium. ,ith the Mg@"i ratio 1 or less, C1
6
M+
N
S0
J
A*
3
, is formed, usually together with
C1A*
6
. ,hen the copper e5ceeds Gd, commercial heat treatment cannot dissolve it and the
network of eutectics does not break up. Thus, in the 19-1Gd Cu alloys there is little
difference in structure between the as-cast and heat treated alloys.
M)+n/'01m is usually combined with silicon and copper. Anly if appreciable amounts of
lead, bismuth or tin are present, M+
6
Sn, M+
6
P8, M+
6
B0
#
can be formed.
The effect of alloying elements on density and thermal e5pansion is additiveK thus, densities
range from 7 F99 to 7 HG9 kgMm
>
, with the lower values for the high-magnesium, high-silicon
and low-copper alloys, the higher for the high-copper, high-nickel, high-manganese and
high-iron contents.
?=
E5pansion coefficients are of the order of 71-7= 5 19
-I
1M: for the >99-=999 : range and 7>-
7I 5 19
-I
1M: for the >99-F99 : range, with the higher values for the high-magnesium, low-
copper and low-silicon alloys, the lower ones for the higher silicon and higher copper
contents. (t sub*ero temperatures the coefficient decreases practically in the same way as
that of pure aluminum. &owever, release of casting stresses or precipitation and solution of
copper and magnesium produce changes in length of up to 9.7d, which may affect the
dimensional accuracy of parts e5posed to high temperature. "ub*ero treatment of castings to
reduce warpage has been recommended.
"pecific heat of the commercial alloys is practically the same as for the binary aluminum-
copper. Thermal conductivity is little affected by alloying elements other than copper@ for the
commercial alloys with =-17d C1, ^ =d other elements, it is appro5imately F9d of that of
pure aluminum at room temperature, some FG-H9d at I99 : and >9->Gd at 799 :.
Electric conductivity is very sensitive to copper in solution, and to a much lesser e5tent to
magnesium and *inc, but is little affected by alloying elements out of solution. )n an alloy
with Gd C1 in solution the conductivity is appro5imately half that of pure aluminum >9-
>>d )(C"!, but in the annealed state an alloy with 17d C1 and up to Gd other elements has
a conductivity of >F-=7d )(C", only 7G->9d lower than that of pure aluminum.
The mechanical properties of the alloys vary over an e5tremely wide range, from those of the
sand cast Hd C1 alloys, which are among the lowest in aluminum alloys, to those of durals
or wrought Gd C1 alloys, which may reach values of up to IG9 M'a.
&igher purity, special compositions, fabricating techni3ues or heat treatments may produce
higher properties. 'orosity, poor feeding of castings, e5cessive amounts of impurities,
segregation and poor 3uality control in fabrication may reduce the properties well below the
determined limits. "urface defects reduce the properties of castings more than internal ones.
'restrain or elastic strain during testing have no effect on properties. Ultrasonic vibration
may reduce or increase themK and irradiation at cryogenic temperatures may slightly increase
strength. /ynamic loading may produce strength and ductility values higher or lower,
depending on the speed, but not at high temperature. Temperatures below room temperature
increase strength and hardness, with some loss of ductility and a decrease in anisotropy.
Correspondingly, e5posure to temperatures above room temperature eventually results in a
decrease in strength and hardness with a decided increase in elongation. &eat treatment has a
substantial effect@ if the alloys are 3uenched from high temperature and only naturally aged,
e5posure to temperatures in the range up to G99-I99 : may produce a temporary increase in
hardness and strength due to artificial aging. Eventually this increase disappears, the faster
the higher the temperature, and the normal decline sets in, as in alloys already aged to peak
hardness. 'rolonged heating for up to 7 years! results in appreciable softening at all
temperatures. $or intermediate e5posure times this softening is less if the materials are
thermo-mechanically treated. )n short-time tests fast heating to test temperature increases the
strength.
)mpact resistance is low, as for all aluminum alloys@ in the Charpy test values range from a
minimum of 7-> 5 19
=
.Mm for cast alloys with Fd Cu to a ma5imum of >9-=9 5 19
=
.Mm for
?G
wrought products in the naturally aged temper. .otch sensitivity is usually low, especially in
the wrought alloys, or in the cast alloys heat treated to ma5imum ductility. The plane strain
fracture toughness ranges from HG to 199d of the yield strength, depending on a variety of
factors. #oth impact resistance and notch toughness increase with increasing temperature,
but the decrease with sub*ero temperatures is limited. )n the softer alloys at F9 : the
difference is within error of testingK only for the higher-strength alloys is the decrease
appreciable.
"hear strength is of the order of F9-FGd of tensile strength, even at high temperatureK
bearing strength is appro5imately 1.G of tensileK compressive yield strength is 19-1Gd higher
or lower than ultimate tensile strength.
Most alloying elements raise the modulus of elasticity of aluminum, but the increase is not
substantial@ for the aluminum-copper alloys the modulus of elasticity at room temperature is
of the order of F9-FG +'a and practically the same in tension and in compression. )t changes
regularly with temperature from a value of FI-FH +'a at F9 : to a value of the order of I9
+'a at G99 :. The change during aging is negligible for practical purposes. The 'oisson
ratio is slightly lower and of the order of 9.>7-9.>=, and so is the compressibility. The
'oisson ratio increases with increasing temperature.
Many of the cast alloys and of the aluminum-copper-nickel alloys are used for high-
temperature applications, where creep resistance is important. 6esistance is the same whether
the load is tensile or compressive.
,ear resistance is favored by high hardness and the presence of hard constituents. (lloys
with 19-1Gd C1 or treated to ma5imum hardness have very high wear resistance.
S0*0con increases the strength in cast alloys, mainly by increasing the castability and thus the
soundness of the castings, but with some loss of ductility and fatigue resistance, especially
when it changes the iron-bearing compounds from $eM
7
"i(l
H
or Cu
7
$e(l
F
, to $e"i(l
G
.
M)+n/'01m increases the strength and hardness of the alloys, but, especially in castings,
with a decided decrease in ductility and impact resistance.
Iron has some beneficial strengthening effect, especially at high temperature and at the
lower contents ^ 9.Fd F/!.
N0cA/* has a strengthening effect, similar to that of manganese, although more limited
because it only acts to reduce the embrittling effect of iron. Manganese and nickel together
decrease the room-temperature properties because they combine in aluminum-manganese-
nickel compounds and reduce the beneficial effects of each other. The main effect of-nickel
is the increase in high-temperature strength, fatigue and creep resistance.
T0()n01m is added as grain refiner and it is very effective in reducing the grain si*e. )f this
results in a better dispersion of insoluble constituents, porosity and nonmetallic inclusions, a
decided improvement in mechanical properties results.
?I
L0(-01m has an effect very similar to that of magnesium@ it increases strength, especially
after heat treatment and at high temperatures, and there is a corresponding decrease in
ductility. Jinc increases the strength but reduces ductility.
Pr/c0,0()(0on -)r2/n0n+
Pr/c0,0()(0on -)r2/n0n+, also called )+/ -)r2/n0n+, is a heat treatment techni3ue used to
increase the yield strength of malleable materials, including most structural alloys of
aluminium, magnesium, nickel and titanium, and some stainless steels. )t relies on changes in
solid solubility with temperature to produce fine particles of an impurity phase, which
impede the movement of dislocations, or defects in a crystalYs lattice. "ince dislocations are
often the dominant carriers of plasticity, this serves to harden the material. The impurities
play the same role as the particle substances in particle-reinforced composite materials. 8ust
as the formation of ice in air can produce clouds, snow, or hail, depending upon the thermal
history of a given portion of the atmosphere, precipitation in solids can produce many
different si*es of particles, which have radically different properties. Unlike ordinary
tempering, alloys must be kept at elevated temperature for hours to allow precipitation to
take place. This time delay is called )+0n+.
.ote that two different heat treatments involving precipitates can alter the strength of a
material@ solution heat treating and precipitation heat treating. "olid solution strengthening
involves formation of a single-phase solid solution via 3uenching and leaves a material
softer. 'recipitation heat treating involves the addition of impurity particles to increase a
materialYs strength.
C1D
'recipitation hardening via precipitation heat treatment is the main
topic of discussion in this article.
50n/(0c' >/r'1' (-/rmo2&n)m0c'
This techni3ue e5ploits the phenomenon of supersaturation, and involves careful balancing
of the driving force for precipitation and the thermal activation energy available for both
desirable and undesirable processes.
.ucleation occurs at a relatively high temperature often Lust below the solubility limit! so
that the kinetic barrier of surface energy can be more easily overcome and the ma5imum
number of precipitate particles can form. These particles are then allowed to grow at lower
temperature in a process called aging. This is carried out under conditions of low solubility
so that thermodynamics drive a greater total volume of precipitate formation.
/iffusionYs e5ponential dependence upon temperature makes precipitation strengthening, like
all heat treatments, a fairly delicate process. Too little diffusion uner aging!, and the
particles will be too small to impede dislocations effectivelyK too much over aging!, and
they will be too large and dispersed to interact with the maLority of dislocations.
C/20(D A**o& 2/'0+n
'recipitation strengthening is possible if the line of solid solubility slopes strongly toward
?F
the center of a phase diagram. ,hile a large volume of precipitate particles is desirable, a
small enough amount of the alloying element should be added that it remains easily soluble
at some reasonable annealing temperature.
Elements used for precipitation strengthening in typical aluminum and titanium alloys, make
up about 19d of their composition. ,hile binary alloys are more easily understood as an
academic e5ercise, commercial alloys often use three components for precipitation
strengthening, in compositions such as (lMg, Cu! and Ti(l, 0!. ( large number of other
constituents may be unintentional, but benign, or may be added for other purposes such as
grain refinement or corrosion resistance. )n some cases, such as many aluminum alloys, an
increase in strength is achieved at the e5pense of corrosion resistance.
The addition of large amounts of nickel and chromium needed for corrosion resistance in
stainless steels means that traditional hardening and tempering methods are not effective.
&owever, precipitates of chromium, copper or other elements can strengthen the steel by
similar amounts in comparison to hardening and tempering. The strength can be tailored by
adLusting the annealing process, with lower initial temperatures resulting in higher strengths.
The lower initial temperature increase driving force of nucleation. More driving force means
more nucleation sites, and more sites, means more places for dislocations to be disrupted
while the finished part is in use.
Many alloy systems allow the aging temperature to be adLusted. $or instance, some
aluminium alloys used to make rivets for aircraft construction are kept in dry ice from their
initial heat treatment until they are installed in the structure. (fter this type of rivet is
deformed into its final shape, aging occurs at room temperature and increases its strength,
locking the structure together. &igher aging temperatures would risk over-aging other parts
of the structure, and re3uire e5pensive post-assembly heat treatment. Too high of an aging
temperature promotes the precipitate to grow too readily.
C/20(D T-/or&
The primary species of precipitation strengthening are second phase particles. These particles
impede the movement of dislocations throughout the lattice. 4ou can determine whether or
not second phase particles will precipitate into solution from the solidus line on the phase
diagram for the particles. 'hysically, this strengthening effect can be attributed both to si*e
and modulus effects, and to interfacial or surface energy.
The presence of second phase particles often causes lattice distortions. These lattice
distortions result when the precipitate particles differ in si*e from the host atoms. "maller
precipitate particles in a host lattice leads to a tensile stress, whereas larger precipitate
particles leads to a compressive stress. /islocation defects also create a stress field. (bove
the dislocation there is a compressive stress and below there is a tensile stress. Conse3uently,
there is a negative interaction energy between a dislocation and a precipitate that each
respectively cause a compressive and a tensile stress or vice versa. )n other words, the
dislocation will be attracted to the precipitate. )n addition, there is a positive interaction
energy between a dislocation and a precipitate that have the same type of stress field. This
means that the dislocation will be repulsed by the precipitate.
?H
'recipitate particles also serve by locally changing the stiffness of a material. /islocations
are repulsed by regions of higher stiffness. Conversely, if the precipitate causes the material
to be locally more compliant, then the dislocation will be attracted to that region.
$urthermore, a dislocation may cut through a precipitate particle. This interaction causes an
increase in the surface area of the particle. The area created is where, r is the radius of the
particle and b is the magnitude of the burgers vector. The resulting increase in surface energy
is where is the surface energy. The dislocation can also bow around a precipitate particle.
C/20(D Go>/rn0n+ EE1)(0on'
There are two e3uations to describe the two mechanisms for precipitation hardening@
/islocations cutting through particles@
where a is material strength, r is the second phase particle radius, l is the surface energy, b is
the magnitude of the #urgers vector, and A is the spacing between pinning points. This
governing e3uation shows that the strength is proportional to r, the radius of the precipitate
particles. This means that it is easier for dislocations to cut through a material with smaller
second phase particles small r!. (s the si*e of the second phase particles increases, the
particles impede dislocation movement and it becomes increasingly difficult for the particles
to cut through the material. )n other words, the strength of a material increases with
increasing r.
D0'*oc)(0on' 8o?0n+ )ro1n2 ,)r(0c*/%
,here a is the material strength, " is the shear modulus, b is the magnitude of the #urgers
vector, A is the distance between pinning points, and r is the second phase particle radius.
This governing e3uation shows that for dislocation bowing the strength is inversely
proportional to the second phase particle radius r. /islocation bowing is more likely to occur
when there are large particles present in the material.
These governing e3uations show that the precipitation hardening mechanism depends on the
si*e of the precipitate particles. (t small r, cutting will dominate, while at large r, bowing
will dominate.
2ooking at the plot of both e3uations, it is clear that there is a critical radius at which ma5
strengthening occurs. This critical radius is typically G->9 nm.
C/20(D Som/ ,r/c0,0()(0on -)r2/n0n+ m)(/r0)*'
7999-series aluminum alloys important e5amples@ 797= and 791?, also 4 alloy and
&iduminium!
I999-series aluminum alloys important e5ample@ I9I1 for bicycle frames and
aeronautical structures!
F999-series aluminum alloys important e5amples@ F9FG and F=FG!
1F-='& stainless steel U." "1F=99!
Maraging steel
??
)nconel F1H
(lloy g-FG9
6enh =1
,aspaloy
"ee also
(lfred ,ilm
"trength of Materials
"trengthening mechanisms of materials
Metallurgy
"uperalloy
B/)r0n+ )**o&'.
Pro,/r(0/' o (-/ A**o&'% Tinbase babbitts commonly containcopper and antimony
following the pattern, though not necessarily the proportions, of )saac #abbitt-s original
alloy. They have hardness up to >7#&. which gives them e5cellent load-carrying
characteristics. They show low friction resistance, low wear, good run-in properties and good
emergency behavior in the absence of ade3uate lubrication. They ;wet< easily and maintain
an oil film, resist corrosion, are easily cast and bonded and retain good mechanical properties
at elevated temperatures. Conventional leadbase babbitts contain antimony and tin, which
greatly increase the strength and hardness of lead. 'roperties of the lead-base alloy simprove
with the addition of antimony up to a ma5imum of 1Hd, above which the alloy becomes
e5cessively brittle. The addition of tin to the lead and antimony improves mechanical and
casting properties. (t 19d tin, room-temperature strength and hardness reach a ma5imum.
The lead-antimony-tin alloys are not the e3ual of tin-base alloys but are fully ade3uate for
lower loads and moderate temperatures. Though alloys with lower tin content are easier to
handle in the kettle, they are more difficult to bond. The very good frictional properties,
reasonably good corrosion resistance and low cost of the lead-antimony-tin alloys makes
them ideal for a wide range of applications.The lead-antimony-arsenic alloys are the e3ual of
tin-base alloys in their ability to retain hardness and strength at elevated temperatures. )n this
respect they are superior to conventional lead-base alloys.
B/)r0n+ O,/r)(0n+ Con20(0on'%
The method or efficiency of lubrication is one of the factors affecting the choice of an alloy.
Under poor lubricating conditions, an alloy of good conformity and run-in behavior is
re3uired. Temperature, rotating speed, pressure per unit area and even the procedure for
fabricating the bearing have an influence on alloy selectionK the design of the bearing and its
bonding are also significant. $or e5ample, a thick lining, mechanically anchored, re3uires a
babbitt of good ductility at room temperature that will seat itself in the anchors under load.
The tin-base alloys, which have good plasticity at room temperature, adLust well to these
conditions under moderate to severe loads. $or bearings which are difficult to seal and align,
and where line contact occurs in the early moments of operation before full lubrication is
established, the conventional lead-base alloys have the re3uired ductility and conformability.
199
Their use is limited, however, to moderate speeds and loads.,here thin linings and precision
castings are used, certain leadbase alloys containing only a nominal 1d tin should be
consideredK in properly designed and properly cast bearings they perform as well as tin-base
babbitts and are much less e5pensive. They have e5cellent fatigue resistance, which is
important to bearings of this type. .aturally, they do not have the ductility of lead-base
antimony-tin bearings but this is a minor factor with thin liners. Most important of all@ )n
selecting a bearing alloy, seek the advice of your $ry Technology representative. Through
$ry Technology you can draw on our group-s Central 6esearch /epartment and their many
years of e5perience in the theory and application of bearing alloys.
M/*(0n+ o B/)r0n+ A**o&'
#ecause of the relatively low melting point of bearing metal alloys, it is easy to convert in
gots to li3uid alloy. To make molten metal suitable for casting, however, re3uires careful
control. The melting pot can be of any si*e suitable for the amount of metal needed.
&eatresistant iron containing nickel, chromium or molybdenum is the preferred material for
its long service life. Clay graphite crucibles are sometimes used where contamination from
iron is a serious problem.
&he melting pot must e clean. (fter melting, the pot should be scraped to remove
accumulations of metal and dross. )f not, subse3uent casting may show hard spots on the
machined surface. ( semi-spherical melting pot with a flange supported by a refractory shell
is recommended, and heating should be arranged so that a uniform temperature prevails
throughout the melt. Uneven heating may cause segregation or allow partial solidification.
"egregation may occur in tin-base alloys of high copper content and may result in a deposit in
the kettle after pouring which is much higher in copper than the desired alloy. This obviously
deprives the cast metal of some of its specified alloy content of copper. (fter complete
melting, the metal should be stirred, manually or mechanically, to insure uniformity of the
melt but carefully to avoid producing too much dross. Manual stirring is best done with a
circular perforated plate on a long-handled steel rod. "tirring is from the bottom upward
using a figure ;H< motion. (fter stirring, the metal should remain at rest for a few minutes,
then be skimmed. The temperature of the melt should be controlled-or checked-by pyrometer.
Constant thermal control is re3uired for efficient and uniform results. &igh temperatures lead
to e5cessive drossing, which is wasteful. $urther, dross may be carried over into the casting
and causefailure of the bearing. (lso, fuel costs are higher and pot life shortened. An the
other hand, a melt temperature which is too low can cause segregation in the pot as well as
premature solidification before bonding on the shell takes place. The most suitable pyrometer
is the shielded type which is submerged in the melt and records on a wall-mounted
instrument. .o portion of the melt should ever be allowed to remain between the solidus and
li3uidus temperatures for any length of time. This often happens when the casting set-up is
not 3uite ready or when metal is left overnight for use the ne5t day. Under these
circumstances, crystal aggregates are precipitated. The heavier crystals sink, the lighter float.
"tirring after reheating does now always dissolve all the crystals and the result may be hard
spots in the bearings. (bove all, metal should not be allowed to solidify in the melting pot
overnight. Unused metal at day-s end should be poured into pigs, and the pot thoroughly
cleaned before re-use.
191
(ccumulations of dross, sweepings, skimmings and machine-shop borings should be
sold to a smelter or collector, not used in the pot. 'lean orings o( kno#n constituents may
e used in the melt i( magnetically screened to remove (errous chips and particles. This will
not remove brass and bron*e chips which may also be harmful. Af course, alloys must not be
mi5ed. )t cannot be emphasi*ed too strongly that metal waste should be sold rather than re-
used. )f used, it must be clean and sorted with scrupulous care. +ood housekeeping is
imperative to thecasting of dependable bearings.
(dditions to the melt should be made in such a way as to assure rapid coalescence
with the bath to prevent o5idation of the metals being added. ,hen melting, pouring,
machining or otherwise working with these alloys, care should be taken to comply with
health standards promulgated by the $ederal Accupational &ealth and "afety (dministration
or the state e3uivalent relating to the concentrations of airborne metal fumes and dust and
work practices. Upon re3uest, $ry Technology will supply to customers copies of Material
"afety /ata "heets for the maLor constituents of these alloys. Employees should be fully
informed of any ha*ards that may e5ist and the necessary steps to be taken to eliminate or
minimi*e them.
Bon20n+ (-/ B/)r0n+
There are two basic methods 1 chemical or metallurgical, and mechanical 1 by which babbitt
metals are bonded to the supporting shell. Chemical bonding is the preferred modern practice
and is used almost e5clusively. Mechanical bonding is sometimes used for bearings of an
inch or more in thickness which are secured to the shell with the help of grooves, dovetails,
anchors, undercuts or holes to keep the bearing metal in place. The metallurgical bond is a
thin layer of alloy between the bearing metal and the shell or supportK the bond alloys with
both, and secures them firmly in relation to one another. The bonding layer, though strong, is
brittle and must be as thin as is practicable to minimi*e stress concentration in the area. Tin-
base bearing alloys are commonly bonded to steel and bron*e shells. )n the former case, tin-
iron compounds are formed at the bond and in the latter, tincopper. The tin-copper compound
is weaker than the tin-iron compound and dictates the preference for steel shells, though
bron*e shells are serviceable if bonding is properly done. 2ead-base alloys give e3ually good
results with either type of shell. $or arsenic-hardened alloys, the steel shell is preferred.
#ron*e shells invite the possibility of forming a weak and brittle copper-arsenic bonding
layer. This can be avoided, however, by careful control of shell and bearing metal
temperature and by rapid solidification of the bearing metal into the copper constituent of the
bron*e.
( 'o*02 'o*1(0on is a solid-state solution of one or more solutes in a solvent. "uch a mi5ture is
considered a solution rather than a compound when the crystal structure of the solvent
remains unchanged by addition of the solutes, and when the mi5ture remains in a single
homogeneous phase.This often happens when the two elements generally metals! involved
are close together on the periodic tableK conversely, a chemical compound is generally a
result of the non pro5imity of the two metals involved on the periodic table.
C1D
D/()0*'
197
The solute may incorporate into the solvent crystal lattice substitutionally, by replacing a
solvent particle in the lattice, or interstitially, by fitting into the space between solvent
particles. #oth of these types of solid solution affect the properties of the material by
distorting the crystal lattice and disrupting the physical and electrical homogeneity of the
solvent material.
C7D
"ome mi5tures will readily form solid solutions over a range of concentrations, while other
mi5tures will not form solid solutions at all. The propensity for any two substances to form a
solid solution is a complicated matter involving the chemical, crystallographic, and 3uantum
properties of the substances in 3uestion. "olid solutions, in accordance with the &ume-
6othery rules, may form if the solute and solvent have@
"imilar atomic radii 1Gd or less difference!
"ame crystal structure
"imilar electronegativities
"imilar valency
The phase diagram in $ig. % displays an alloy of two metals which forms a solid solution at
all relative concentrations of the two species. )n this case, the pure phase of each element is
of the same crystal structure, and the similar properties of the two elements allow for
unbiased substitution through the full range of relative concentrations.
"olid solutions have important commercial and industrial applications, as such mi5tures often
have superior properties to pure materials. Many metal alloys are solid solutions. Even small
amounts of solute can affect the electrical and physical properties of the solvent.
F0+. 6 This binary phase diagram shows two solid solutions@ e and t.
The binary phase diagram in $ig. ( at right shows the phases of a mi5ture of two substances
in varying concentrations, e and t. The region labeled BeB is a solid solution, with t acting as
the solute in a matri5 of e. An the other end of the concentration scale, the region labeled BtB
is also a solid solution, with e acting as the solute in a matri5 of t. The large solid region in
between the e and t solid solutions, labeled Be and tB, is not a solid solution. )nstead, an
e5amination of the mi crostructure of a mi5ture in this range would reveal two phases E solid
solution e-in-t and solid solution t-in-e would form separate phases, perhaps lamella or
grains.
C/20(D A,,*0c)(0on
)n the phase diagram, the unalloyed e5treme left and right concentrations, and the dip in the
center, the material will be solid and become li3uid as heat is added, where at other
proportions the material will enter a mushy or pasty phase. The mi5ture at dip point of the
diagram is called a eutectic alloy. 2ead-tin mi5tures formulated at that point >FMI> mi5ture!
are useful when soldering electronic components, particularly if done manually, since the
solid phase is 3uickly entered as the solder cools. )n contrast, when lead-tin mi5tures were
used to solder seams in automobile bodies a pasty state enabled a shape to be formed with a
wooden paddle or tool, so a F9->9 lead to tin ratio was used. 2ead is being removed from
19>
such applications owing to its to5icity and conse3uent difficulty in recycling devices and
components that include lead.!
C/20(D EB'o*1(0on
,hen a solid solution becomes unstable E due to a lower temperature, for e5ample E
e5solution occurs and the two phases separate into distinct microscopic to megascopic
lamellae. (n e5ample of this is the alkali feldspar mineral variety perthite in which thin white
albite layers alternate between typically pink microcline.
C/20(D EB)m,*/'
Chen, 8ingK gu, Jhi-3inK Chen, J-J.K 2i, T-$.K Chen, $-4. /ecember 799G!.
B'argasite and ilmenite e5solution te5ture in clinopyro5ene from the &uLialing
+arnet-'yro5enite, "u-lu U.&.'. Terrane, Central China@ ( geodynamic )mplicationB.
European Dournal of Mineralogy ;< I!@ H?G1?9>. doi@19.117FM9?>G-
1771M799GM991F-9H?G. http@MMwww.uni-gra*.atM)EC-FM'/$-filesMChen.pdf.
'etersen, U.. B)ntroduction to Are Microscopy ))K Mineral 'aragenesisB.
http@MMwww.mines.utah.eduMwmepMG?7?HMG?7'/$Mrlm7.pdf.
C/20(D S// )*'o
'hase diagram
Eutectic point
L/>/r r1*/
$rom ,ikipedia, the free encyclopedia
8ump to@ navigation, search
( phase diagram with tie line 2"!. The 5 dimension defines the percent weight of elements
( and #.
The */>/r r1*/ is a tool used to determine weight percentages of each phase of a binary
e3uilibrium phase diagram. )t is used to determine the percent weight of li3uid and solid
phases for a given binary composition and temperature that is between the li3uidus and
solidus.
C1D
C/20(D C)*c1*)(0on'
#efore any calculations can be made a tie line is drawn on the phase diagram to determine the
percent weight of each elementK on the phase diagram to the right it is line segment 2". This
tie line is drawn hori*ontally at the compositions temperature from the li3uid to the solidus.
The percent weight of element # at the li3uidus is given by w
l
and the percent weight of
element # at the solidus is given by w
s
. The percent weight of solid and li3uid can then be
calculated using the following lever rule e3uations@
C1D
19=
where w
o
is the percent weight of element # for the given composition.
Iron@Iron C)r802/ D0)+r)m
F0+1r/ ;. Iron@0ronc)r802/ 20)+r)m
Cementite is also known as iron carbide which has a chemical formula, $e
>
C. )t contains I.IF d
Carbon by weight. )t is a typical hard and brittle interstitial compound of low tensile strength
appro5imately G,999 psi! but high compressive strength. )ts crystal structure is orthorhombic.
AUSTENITE ( 0ron"%
)t is also known as ! gamma-iron, which is an interstitial solid solution of carbon dissolved in iron
with a face centered cubic crystal $.C.C! structure. (verage properties of austenite are@
Tensile strength 1G9,999 psi.
Elongation 19 d in 7 in gage length.
&ardness 6ockwell C =9
Toughness &igh
T)8*/ ;. Pro,/r(0/' o A1'(/n0(/
19G
F0+1r/ 6. A1'(/n0(/ (+)mm) 0ron" cr&'()* '(r1c(1r/
(ustenite is normally unstable at room temperature. Under certain conditions it is possible to
obtain austenite at room temperature.
FERRITE ( 0ron"%
)t is also known as ! alpha -iron, which is an interstitial solid solution of a small amount of
carbon dissolved in iron with a #ody Centered Cubic #.C.C.! crystal structure. )t is the softest
structure on the iron-iron carbide diagram. (verage properties are@
Tensile "trength =9,999 psi
Elongation =9 d in 7 in gage length
&ardness 2ess than 6ockwell C 9 or less than
6ockwell # ?9.
Toughness 2ow
T)8*/ 6. Pro,/r(0/' o F/rr0(/.
19I
F0+1r/ 6. F/rr0(/ ()*,-) 0ron" cr&'()* '(r1c(1r/
PEARLITE ( P F/
#
C"
)t is the eutectoid mi5ture containing 9.H> d Carbon and is formed at 1>>>
o
$ on very slow cooling. )t
is very fine platelike or lamellar mi5ture of ferrite and cementite. The structure of pearlite includes a
white matri5 ferritic background! which includes thin plates of cementite. (verage properties are@
Tensile "trength 179,999 psi
Elongation 79 d in 7 in gage length
&ardness 6ockwell C 79 or #&. 7G9->99
T)8*/ #. Pro,/r(0/' o ,/)r*0(/.
F0+1r/ #. P/)r*0(/ m0cro'(r1c(1r/ (L0+-( 8)cA+ro1n2 0' (-/ /rr0(/ m)(r0B! 2)rA *0n/' )r/
(-/ c/m/n(0(/ n/(?orA"
( fi5ed amount of carbon and a fi5ed amount of iron are needed to form cementite $e>C!. (lso,
pearlite needs fi5ed amounts of cementite and ferrite.
)f there is not enough carbon, that is less than 9.H> d, the carbon and the iron will combine to
form $e
>
C until all the carbon is consumed. This cementite will combine with the re3uired
amount of ferrite to form pearlite. The remaining amount of ferrite will stay in the structure as
free ferrite. $ree ferrite is also known as proeutectoid ferrite. The steel that contains proeutectoid
ferrite is referred to as hypoeutectoid steel.
)f, however, there is an e5cess of carbon above 9.H> d in the austenite, pearlite will form, and
the e5cess carbon above 9.H> d will form cementite. The e5cess cementite deposits in the grain
boundaries. This e5cess cementite is also known as proeutectoid cementite.
LEDEBURITE ( P F/
#
C"
)t is the eutectic mi5ture of austenite and cementite. )t contains =.> d Carbon and represents the
19F
eutectic of cast iron. 2edeburite e5ists when the carbon content is greater than 7 d, which represents
the dividing line on the e3uilibrium diagram between steel and cast iron.
( " DELTA IRON %
/elta iron e5ists between 7GG7 and 7H97
o
$. )t may e5ist in combination with the melt to about 9.G9
d Carbon, in combination with austenite to about 9.1H d Carbon and in a single phase state out to
about 9.19 d carbon. /elta iron has the #ody Centered Cubic #.C.C! crystal structure and is
magnetic.
UNIT = IV
MECHANICAL TESTING
U*(0m)(/ (/n'0*/ '(r/n+(-
$rom ,ikipedia, the free encyclopedia
8ump to@ navigation, search
U*(0m)(/ (/n'0*/ '(r/n+(- UTS!, often shortened to (/n'0*/ '(r/n+(- TS! or 1*(0m)(/
'(r/n+(-,
C1DC7D
is the ma5imum stress that a material can withstand while being stretched or
pulled before necking, which is when the specimenYs cross-section starts to significantly
contract. Mechanically, tensile strength is is opposite of compressive strength, although in
many materials the magnitudes of these two strengths are 3uite different.
The UT" is usually found by performing a tensile test and recording the stress versus strainK
the highest point of the stress-strain curve is the UT". )t is an intensive propertyK therefore its
value does not depend on the si*e of the test specimen. &owever, it is dependent on other
factors, such as the preparation of the specimen, the presence or otherwise of surface defects,
and the temperature of the test environment and material.
19H
Tensile strengths are rarely used in the design of ductile members, but they are important in
brittle members. They are tabulated for common materials such as alloys, composite
materials, ceramics, plastics, and wood.
Tensile strength is defined as a stress, which is measured as force per unit area. )n the ")
system, the unit is pascal 'a! or, e3uivalently, newtons per s3uare metre .Mm\!. The
customary unit is pounds-force per s3uare inch lbfMin\ or '")!, or kilo-pounds per s3uare
inch :")!, which is e3ual to 1999 '")K kilo-pounds per s3uare inch are commonly used for
convenience when measuring tensile strengths.
Con(/n('
ChideD
1 Concept
o 1.1 /uctile materials
o 1.7 #rittle materials
o 1.> 2i3vors
7 Testing
> Typical tensile strengths
= "ee also
G 6eferences
I $urther reading
C/20(D Conc/,(
C/20(D D1c(0*/ m)(/r0)*'
"tress vs. "train curve typical of aluminum Ultimate strength 4ield strength 'roportional
limit stress $racture Affset strain typically 9.7d!
"tress vs. strain curve typical of structural steel
Ultimate strength 4ield strength $racture "train hardening region .ecking region (@
Engineering stress
B% Tr1/ '(r/''
Many materials display linear elastic behavior, defined by a linear stress-strain relationship,
as shown in the figure up to point 7, in which deformations are completely recoverable upon
removal of the loadK that is, a specimen loaded elastically in tension will widen, but will
return to its original shape and si*e when unloaded. #eyond this linear region, for ductile
materials, such as steel, deformations are plastic. ( plastically deformed specimen will not
19?
return to its original si*e and shape when unloaded. .ote that there will be elastic recovery of
a portion of the deformation. $or many applications, plastic deformation is unacceptable, and
is used as the design limitation.
(fter the yield point, ductile metals will undergo a period of strain hardening, in which the
stress increases again with increasing strain, and they begin to neck, as the cross-sectional
area of the specimen decreases due to plastic flow. )n a sufficiently ductile material, when
necking becomes substantial, it causes a reversal of the engineering stress-strain curve curve
(!K this is because the engineering stress is calculated assuming the original cross-sectional
area before necking. The reversal point is the ma5imum stress on the engineering stress-strain
curve, and the engineering stress coordinate of this point is the tensile ultimate strength, given
by point 1.
The UT" is not used in the design of ductile static members because design practices dictate
the use of the yield stress. )t is, however, used to for 3uality control, because of the ease of
testing. )t is also used to rough determine material types for unknown samples.
C>D
C/20(D Br0((*/ m)(/r0)*'
#rittle materials, such as concrete and carbon fiber, are characteri*ed by failure at small
strains. They often fail while still behaving in a linear elastic manner, and thus do not have a
defined yield point. #ecause strains are low, there is negligible difference between the
engineering stress and the true stress. Testing of several identical specimens will result in
different failure stresses, this is due to the ,eibull Modulus of the brittle material.
The UT" is a common engineering parameter when design brittle members, because there is
no yield point.
C>D
C/20(D L0E>or'
Tensile strength can be defined for li3vors as well as solors. $or e5ample, when a tree draws
water from its roots to its upper leaves by transpiration, the column of water is pulled
upwards from the top by capillary action, and this force is transmitted down the column by its
tensile strength.
C/20(D T/'(0n+
119
6ound bar tensile specimen after testing
Main article# 3ensile testing
Typically, the testing involves taking a small sample with a fi5ed cross-section area, and then
pulling it with a controlled, gradually increasing force until the sample changes shape or
breaks.
,hen testing metals, indentation hardness correlates linearly with tensile strength. This
important relation permits economically important nondestructive testing of bulk metal
deliveries with lightweight, even portable e3uipment, such as hand-held 6ockwell hardness
testers.
C=D
C/20(D T&,0c)* (/n'0*/ '(r/n+(-'
M)(/r0)*
Y0/*2
'(r/n+(-
(MP)"
U*(0m)(/
'(r/n+(-
a
(MP)"
D/n'0(&
(+FcmQ"
carbon nanotube
b

911,999 ",!11G9,999
M,!
99.9>F1
91.>=
graphene 1>9,999
CGD
91.9
silicon, monocrystalline m-"i! 99F,999 97.>>
colossal carbon tube 99F,999 91.9
Toray carbon fiber T1999+!
CID
99I,>F9 91.H9
polyben*o5a*ole Jylon!
CFD
99G,H99 91.GI
carbon fiber 99G,IG9 91.FG
basalt fiber
CHD
99=,H=9 97.F
"-+lass 99=,F19 97.=H
silica glass strands, ultra-pure
C?D
99=,199 97.7
aramid, polyparaphenylene terephalamide
:evlar-=?!
99>,I79 91.=G
carbon nanotube, first 99>,I99 91.>
U&M,'E strands
C19D

C11D
/yneema or 997,>99199>,G99 99.?F
111
"pectra!
E-+lass 99>,=G9 97.GF
silicon carbide "iC! 99>,==9 9>.71
0ectran 997,HG9199>,>=9 91.=1
boron 99>,199 97.=I
aramid, polyparaphenylene terephalamide
Twaron!
997,?79 91.==
steel, ()") 19I9, 9.Id carbon piano
wire!
C17D
997,7991997,=H7 9F.H
sapphire (l
7
A
>
! 991,?99 9>.?19=.1
steel, prestressing strands 991,IG9 991,HI9 9F.H
/arwinYs bark spider silk 999,?F9 991,HG9
C1>D
2i3uidmetal alloy 991,F7> 999,GG91991,I99 9I.1
tungsten 991,G19 1?.7G
carbon nanotube-polyvinyl alcohol
composite
C1=D
991,799
spider silk
c
991,999 91.>
titanium alloy, Id (l, =d 0 999,H>9 999,?99 9=.G1
stainless steel, ()") >97, cold-rolled 999,G79 999,HI9 9H.1?
carbon steel, ()") 19?9 999,I=9 999,H=1 9F.GH
steel, high-strength alloy, ("TM (G1= 999,I?9 999,FI9 9F.H
steel, (') G2 gIG
C1GD
999,==H 999,G>1 9F.H
steel, ()") =1>9, 3uench % temper at
1799X$
C1ID
999,F9> 999,H1= 9F.FG
silk, silkworm 999,G99 91.>
brass 999,799[ 999,GG9 9G.>
bamboo 999,>G91999,G99 99.=
beryllium, ??.?d
C1FD
999,>=G 999,==H 91.H=
steel, structural ("TM (>I 999,7G9 999,=99 9F.H
aluminium alloy, 791=-TI
C1HD
999,=1= 999,=H> 97.H
human hair
d
999,>H9 91.>G
cupronickel, 19d .i, 1.Id $e, 1d Mn 999,1>9 999,>G9 9H.?=
aluminium alloy, I9I>-TI 999,7=H 97.I>
copper, ??.?d 999,9F9 999,779 9H.?7
cast iron, ("TM (=H, =.Gd C 999,1>9 999,799 9F.1G
bone limb!
999,19=1
999,171
999,1>9 91.I
polypropylene
999,9171
999,9=>
999,91?.F1999,9H9 99.?1
.ylon, IMI 999,9=G 999,9FG 91.1G
polyethylene, ultra-high molecular weight
U&M,'E!
999,97> 999,9=I 99.?F
pinewood 999,9=9 99.G
117
polyethylene, high-density &/'E!
999,97I1
999,9>>
999,9>F 99.?G
glass
C1?D
999,9>> 97.G>
epo5y adhesive
C79D
999,9171999,9>9 99.FG197.
concrete
999,99>1999,9>9
compressed!
97.=
marble 999,91G 97.GI
rubber 999,91G 91.1
R) Many of the values depend on manufacturing process and purityMcomposition.
R8 Multiwalled carbon nanotubes have the highest tensile strength of any material yet
measured, with labs producing them at a tensile strength of I> +'a
C71D
, still well below their
theoretical limit of >99 +'a
Ccitation neeeD
. The first nanotube ropes 79mm! whose tensile
strength was published in 7999! had a strength of >.I +'a.
C77D
The density depends on the
manufacturing method, and the lowest value is 9.9>F or 9.GG solid!
C7>D
.
Rc The strength of spider silk is highly variable. )t depends on many factors including kind of
silk Every spider can produce several for sundry purposes.!, species, age of silk,
temperature, humidity, swiftness at which stress is applied during testing, length stress is
applied, and way the silk is gathered forced silking or natural spinning!
C7=D
. The value shown
in the table, 1999 M'a, is roughly representative of the results from a few studies involving
several different species of spider however specific results varied greatly.
C7GD

R2 &uman hair strength varies by ethnicity and chemical treatments.
Typical properties for annealed elements
C7ID
E*/m/n(
Yo1n+L'
mo21*1'
(GP)"
O'/( or
&0/*2 '(r/n+(-
(MP)"
U*(0m)(/
'(r/n+(-
(MP)"
silicon 19F G9991?999
tungsten =11 GG9 9GG919I79
iron 711 9H91199 9>G9
titanium 179 199177G 97=919>F9
copper 1>9 9>> 9719
tantalum 1HI 1H9 9799
tin 9=F 99?191= 991G19799
*inc wrought! 19G 911919799
nickel 1F9 91=19>G 91=9191?G
silver 9H> 91F9
gold 9F? 9199
aluminium 9F9 91G1979 99=9-99G9
lead 91I 9917
11>
C/20(D S// )*'o
$le5ural strength
"pecific strength
"trength of materials
Tensile structure
Toughness
Ultimate failure
"tress-"train Curves
The relationship between the stress and strain
that a material displays is known as a S(r/''@
S(r)0n c1r>/. )t is uni3ue for each material and
is found by recording the amount of
deformation strain! at distinct intervals of
tensile or compressive loading. These curves
reveal many of the properties of a material
including data to establish the Mo21*1' o
E*)'(0c0(&! E!. ,hat does a comparison of the
curves for mild steel, cast iron and concrete
illustrate about their respective properties
)t can be seen that the concrete curve is almost a straight line. There is an abrupt end
to the curve. This, and the fact that it is a very steep line, indicate that it is a brittle
material. The curve for cast iron has a slight curve to it. )t is also a brittle material.
#oth of these materials will fail with little warning once their limits are surpassed.
.otice that the curve for mild steel seems to have a long gently curving BtailB. This
indicates a behavior that is distinctly different than either concrete or cast iron. The
graph shows that after a certain point mild steel will continue to strain in the case of
tension, to stretch! as the stress the loading! remains more or less constant. The steel
will actually stretch like taffy. This is a material property which indicates a high
ductility. There are a number of significant points on a stress-strain curve that help
one understand and predict the way every building material will behave.
11=
(n e5ample plot of a test on two grades of steel is illustrated above. )f one begins at
the origin and follows the graph a number of points are indicated. 'oint ( is known as
the ,ro,or(0on)* *0m0(. Up to this point the relationship between stress and strain is
e5actly proportional. The number which describes the relationship between the two is
the Modulus of Elasticity. This is discussed in more detail in the ne5t lecture.
"train increases faster than stress at all points on the curve beyond point (. Up to this
point, any steel speciment that is loaded and unloaded would return to its original
length. This is known as elastic behavior. 'oint # is the point after which any
continued stress results in permanent, or inelastic, deformation. Thus, point # is
known as the /*)'(0c *0m0(. "ince the stress resistence of the material decreases after
the peak of the curve, this is also known as the &0/*2 ,o0n(.
The line between points C and / indicates the behavior of the steel specimen if it
e5perienced continued loading to stress indicated as point C. .otice that the dashed
line is parallel to the elastic *one of the curve between the origin and point (!. ,hen
the specimen is unloaded the magnitude of the inelastic deformation would be
determined in this case 9.9F7G inches Minch!. )f the same specimen was to be loaded
again, the stress-strain plot would climb back up the line from / to C and continue
along the initial curve. 'oint E indicates the location of the value of the ultimate
stress. .ote that this is 3uite different from the yield stress. The yield stress and
ultimate stress are the two values that are most often used to determine the allowable
loads for building materials and should never be confused.
( material is considered to have completely failed once it reaches the ultimate stress.
The point of rupture, or the actual tearing of the material, does not occur until point $.
)t is interesting to note the curve that indicates the actual stress e5perienced by the
specimen. This curve is different from the apparent stress since the cross sectional
area is actually decreasing. There is 3uite a bit to be learned from both the study of the
ideal and actual behavior of all building materials. Changes in that body of knowledge
have had large impacts on the way in which building structures are designed.
11G
The earliest methods of design limited the stresses that a structure would be BallowedB
to e5perience. Thus, the method of design was known as the (llowable "tress
Method. 6ecognition of the additional strength potential of most materials resulted in
the Ultimate "tress Method of design. Contemporary thought centers on the limitation
of the various service conditions of the structure at hand. This is known as the 2imit
"tates /esign method. )n the end, it is the authors opinion that the actual method of
design is less important than the legal bodies would like us to believe. &uman factors
in the construciton process "&AU2/ prevent a good designer from pushing too hard
against the envelope of safety.
"T6E""-"T6(). CU60E"
/avid 6oylance
/epartment of Materials "cience and Engineering
Massachusetts )nstitute of Technology
Cambridge, M( 971>?
(ugust 7>, 7991
)ntroduction
"tress-strain curves are an e5tremely important graphical measure of a material-s
mechanical properties, and all students of Mechanics of Materials will encounter them
often. &owever, they are not without some subtlety, especially in the case of ductile
materials that can undergo substantial geometrical change during testing. This module
will provide an introductory discussion of several points needed to interpret these
curves, and in doing so will also provide a preliminary overview of several aspects of
a material-s mechanical properties. &owever, this module will not attempt to survey
the broad range of stress-strain curves e5hibited by modern engineering materials the
atlas by #oyer cited in the 6eferences section can be consulted for this!. "everal of
the topics mentioned here E especially yield and fracture E will appear with more
detail in later modules.
;Engineering< "tress-"train Curves 'erhaps the most important test of a material-s
mechanical response is the tensile test1, in which one end of a rod or wire specimen is
clamped in a loading frame and the other subLected to a controlled displacement see
$ig. 1!. ( transducer connected in series with the specimen provides an electronic
reading of the load '! corresponding to the displacement. (lternatively, modern
servo-controlled testing machines permit using load rather than displacement as the
controlled variable, in which case the displacement '! would be monitored as a
function of load.
The engineering measures of stress and strain, denoted in this module as ce and e
respectively, are determined from the measured the load and deflection using the
original specimen cross-sectional area (9 and length 29 as ce P '
(9 , e P 29 1!
,hen the stress ce is plotted against the strain e, an engineering stress-strain curve
such as that shown in $ig. 7 is obtained. 1"tress-strain testing, as well as almost all
e5perimental procedures in mechanics of materials, is detailed by standards-setting
11I
organi*ations, notably the (merican "ociety for Testing and Materials ("TM!.
Tensile testing of metals is prescribed by ("TM Test EH, plastics by ("TM /I>H,
and composite materials by ("TM />9>?.
$igure 1@ The tension test.
$igure 7@ 2ow-strain region of the engineering stress-strain curve for annealed
polycrystalline copperK this curve is typical of that of many ductile metals.
)n the early low strain! portion of the curve, many materials obey &ooke-s law to a
reasonable appro5imation, so that stress is proportional to strain with the constant of
proportionality being the modulus of elasticity or 4oung-s modulus, denoted E@
ce P Ee 7!
(s strain is increased, many materials eventually deviate from this linear
proportionality, the point of departure being termed the proportional limit. This
nonlinearity is usually associated with stress-induced ;plastic< flow in the specimen.
&ere the material is undergoing a rearrangement of its internal molecular or
microscopic structure, in which atoms are being moved to new e3uilibrium positions.
This plasticity re3uires a mechanism for molecular mobility, which in crystalline
materials can arise from dislocation motion discussed further in a later module.!
Materials lacking this mobility, for instance by having internal microstructures that
block dislocation motion, are usually brittle rather than ductile. The stress-strain curve
for brittle materials are typically linear over their full range of strain, eventually
terminating in fracture without appreciable plastic flow.
.ote in $ig. 7 that the stress needed to increase the strain beyond the proportional
limit in a ductile material continues to rise beyond the proportional limitK the material
re3uires an ever-increasing stress to continue straining, a mechanism termed strain
hardening. These microstructural rearrangements associated with plastic flow are
usually not reversed when the load is removed, so the proportional limit is often the
same as or at least close to the materials-s elastic limit. Elasticity is the property of
complete and immediate recovery from an imposed displacement on release of the
load, and the elastic limit is the value of stress at which the material e5periences a
permanent residual strain that is not lost on unloading. The residual strain induced by
a given stress can be determined by drawing an unloading line from the highest point
reached on the se - ee curve at that stress back to the strain a5is, drawn with a slope
e3ual to that of the initial elastic loading line. This is done because the material
unloads elastically, there being no force driving the molecular structure back to its
original position. ( closely related term is the yield stress, denoted c4 in these
modulesK this is the stress needed to induce plastic deformation in the specimen. "ince
it is often difficult to pinpoint the e5act stress at which plastic deformation begins, the
yield stress is often taken to be the stress needed to induce a specified amount of
permanent strain, typically 9.7d. The construction used to find this ;offset yield
stress< is shown in $ig. 7, in which a line of slope E is drawn from the strain a5is at e
P 9.7dK this is the unloading line that would result in the specified permanent strain.
The stress at the point of intersection with the ce Q e curve is the offset yield stress.
$igure > shows the engineering stress-strain curve for copper with an enlarged scale,
now showing strains from *ero up to specimen fracture. &ere it appears that the rate
of strain hardening 7 diminishes up to a point labeled UT", for Ultimate Tensile
11F
"trength denoted cf in these modules!. #eyond that point, the material appears to
strain soften, so that each increment of additional strain re3uires a smaller stress.
$igure >@ $ull engineering stress-strain curve for annealed polycrystalline copper. The
apparent change from strain hardening to strain softening is an artifact of the plotting
procedure, however, as is the ma5imum observed in the curve at the UT". #eyond the
yield point, molecular flow causes a substantial reduction in the specimen cross-
sectional area (, so the true stress ct P 'M( actually borne by the material is larger
than the engineering stress computed from the original cross-sectional area ce P
'M(9!. The load must e3ual the true stress times the actual area ' P ct(!, and as long
as strain hardening can increase ct enough to compensate for the reduced area (, the
load and therefore the engineering stress will continue to rise as the strain increases.
Eventually, however, the decrease in area due to flow becomes larger than the
increase in true stress due to strain hardening, and the load begins to fall. The strain
hardening rate is the slope of the stress-strain curve, also called the tangent modulus,
is a geometrical effect, and if the true stress rather than the engineering stress were
plotted no ma5imum would be observed in the curve.
(t the UT" the differential of the load ' is *ero, giving an analytical relation between
the true stress and the area at necking@
' P c t( | d' P 9 P c td( [ (dc t
d(
( P dct ct >!
The last e5pression states that the load and therefore the engineering stress will reach
a ma5imum as a function of strain when the fractional decrease in area becomes e3ual
to the fractional increase in true stress. Even though the UT" is perhaps the materials
property most commonly reported in tensile tests, it is not a direct measure of the
material due to the influence of geometry as discussed above, and should be used with
caution. The yield stress c4 is usually preferred to the UT" in designing with ductile
metals, although the UT" is a valid design criterion for brittle materials that do not
e5hibit these flow-induced reductions in cross-sectional area. The true stress is not
3uite uniform throughout the specimen, and there will always be some location -
perhaps a nick or some other defect at the surface - where the local stress is
ma5imum. Ance the ma5imum in the engineering curve has been reached, the
locali*ed flow at this site cannot be compensated by further strain hardening, so the
area there is reduced further.
This increases the local stress even more, which accelerates the flow further. This
locali*ed and increasing flow soon leads to a ;neck< in the gage length of the
specimen such as that seen in $ig. =.
$igure =@ .ecking in a tensile specimen.
Until the neck forms, the deformation is essentially uniform throughout the specimen,
but after necking all subse3uent deformation takes place in the neck. The neck
becomes smaller and smaller, local true stress increasing all the time, until the
specimen fails. This will be the failure mode for most ductile metals. (s the neck
shrinks, the nonuniform geometry there alters the unia5ial stress state to a comple5
one involving shear components as well as normal stresses.
11H
The specimen often fails finally with a ;cup and cone< geometry as seen in $ig. G, in
which the outer regions fail in shear and the interior in tension. ,hen the specimen
fractures, the engineering strain at break E denoted f E will include the
deformation in the necked region and the unnecked region together. "ince the true
strain in the neck is larger than that in the unnecked material, the value of f will
depend on the fraction of the gage length that has necked. Therefore, f is a function
of the specimen geometry as well as the material, and thus is only a crude measure of
material ductility. $igure G@ Cup-and-cone fracture in a ductile metal.
$igure I shows the engineering stress-strain curve for a semicrystalline thermoplastic.
The response of this material is similar to that of copper seen in $ig. >, in that it shows
a proportional limit followed by a ma5imum in the curve at which necking takes
place. )t is common to term this ma5imum as the yield stress in plastics, although
plastic flow has actually begun at earlier strains.!
$igure I@ "tress-strain curve for polyamide nylon! thermoplastic. The polymer,
however, differs dramatically from copper in that the neck does not continue
shrinking until the specimen fails. 6ather, the material in the neck stretches only to a
;natural draw ratio< which is a function of temperature and specimen processing,
beyond which the material in the neck stops stretching and new material at the neck
shoulders necks down. The neck then propagates until it spans the full gage length of
the specimen, a process called drawing.
This process can be observed without the need for a testing machine, by stretching a
polyethylene ;si5-pack holder,< as seen in $ig. F. .ot all polymers are able to sustain
this drawing process. (s will be discussed in the ne5t section, it occurs when the
necking process produces a strengthened microstructure whose breaking load is
greater than that needed to induce necking in the untransformed material Lust outside
the neck.
$igure F@ .ecking and drawing in a I-pack holder. ;True< "tress-"train Curves (s discussed
in the previous section, the engineering stress-strain curve must be interpreted with caution
beyond the elastic limit, since the specimen dimensions e5perience substantial change from
their original values. Using the true stress ct P 'M( rather than the engineering stress ce P
'M(9 can give a more direct measure of the material-s response in the plastic flow range. (
measure of strain often used in conLunction with the true stress takes the increment of strain
to be the incremental increase in displacement d2 divided by the current length 2 @ d t P d2 l
| t P 2
l9 1 2 d2 P ln
This is called the ;true< or ;logarithmic< strain. /uring yield and the plastic-flow regime
following yield, the material flows with negligible change in volumeK increases in length are
offset by decreases in cross-sectional area. 'rior to necking, when the strain is still uniform
along the specimen length, this volume constraint can be written@
d0 P 9 | (2 P ( 9 2 9 | 2
29 ( (9 G!
11?
The ratio 2M29 is the e5tension ratio, denoted as . Using these relations, it is easy to
develop relations between true and engineering measures of tensile stress and strain
see 'rob. 7!@
ct P ce 1 [ e! P ce, t P ln1[e! P ln I!
These e3uations can be used to derive the true stress-strain curve from the engineering
curve, up to the strain at which necking begins. $igure H is a replot of $ig. >, with the
true stress-strain curve computed by this procedure added for comparison. #eyond
necking, the strain is nonuniform in the gage length and to compute the true
stressstrain curve for greater engineering strains would not be meaningful. &owever, a
complete true stress-strain curve could be drawn if the neck area were monitored
throughout the tensile test, since for logarithmic strain we have
2 2 9 P ( ( 9 | t P ln P ln (
2 29 (9 F!
/uctile metals often have true stress-strain relations that can be described by a simple
power-law relation of the form@ I $igure H@ Comparison of engineering and true
stress-strain curves for copper. (n arrow indicates the position on the ;true< curve of
the UT" on the engineering curve.
c t P ( nt
| log ct P log( [ n log t H!
$igure ? is a log-log plot of the true stress-strain data> for copper from $ig. H that
demonstrates this relation. &ere the parameter n P 9.=F= is called the strain hardening
parameter, useful as a measure of the resistance to necking. /uctile metals at room
temperature usually e5hibit values of n from 9.97 to 9.G. $igure ?@ 'ower-law representation
of the plastic stress-strain relation for copper. ( graphical method known as the ;Considere
construction< uses a form of the true stressstrain curve to 3uantify the differences in necking
and drawing from material to material. This method replots the tensile stress-strain curve with
true stress ct as the ordinate and e5tension ratio P 2M29 as the abscissa. $rom E3n. I, the
engineering stress ce corresponding to any. &ere percent strain was used for tK this produces
the same value for n but a different ( than if full rather than percentage values were used.
value of true stress ct is slope of a secant line drawn from origin P 9, not P 1! to intersect
the ct Q curve at ct. $igure 19@ Considere construction. a! True stress-strain curve with no
tangents - no necking or drawing. b! Ane tangent - necking but not drawing. c! Two
tangents - necking and drawing. (mong the many possible shapes the true stress-strain curves
could assume, let us consider the concave up, concave down, and sigmoidal shapes shown in
$ig. 19. These differ in the number of tangent points that can be found for the secant line, and
produce the following yield characteristics@
a! .o tangents@ &ere the curve is always concave upward as in part a! of $ig. 19, so
the slope of the secant line rises continuously. Therefore the engineering stress rises
as well, without showing a yield drop. Eventually fracture intercedes, so a true stress-
strain curve of this shape identifies a material that fractures before it yields.
b! Ane tangent@ The curve is concave downward as in part b! of $ig. 19, so a secant
line reaches a tangent point at P 4 . The slope of the secant line, and therefore the
179
engineering stress as well, begins to fall at this point. This is then the yield stress c4
seen as a ma5imum in stress on a conventional stress-strain curve, and 4 is the
e5tension ratio at yield. The yielding process begins at some adventitious location in
the gage length of the specimen, and continues at that location rather than being
initiated elsewhere because the secant modulus has been reduced at the first location.
The specimen is now flowing at a single location with decreasing resistance, leading
eventually to failure. /uctile metals such as aluminum fail in this way, showing a
marked reduction in cross sectional area at the position of yield and eventual fracture.
c! Two tangents@ $or sigmoidal stress-strain curves as in part c! of $ig. 19, the
engineering stress begins to fall at an e5tension ration 4 , but then rises again at d.
(s in the previous one-tangent case, material begins to yield at a single position when
P 4 , producing a neck that in turn implies a nonuniform distribution of strain
along the gage length. Material at the neck location then stretches to d, after which
the engineering stress there would have to rise to stretch it further. #ut this stress is
greater than that needed to stretch material at the edge of the neck from 4 to d, so
material already in the neck stops stretching and the neck propagates outward from
the initial yield location. Anly material within the neck shoulders is being stretched
during propagation, with material inside the necked-down region holding constant at
d, the material-s ;natural draw ratio,< and material outside holding at 4 . ,hen all
the material has been drawn into the necked region, the stress begins to rise uniformly
in the specimen until eventually fracture occurs.
The increase in strain hardening rate needed to sustain the drawing process in
semicrystalline polymers arises from a dramatic transformation in the material-s
microstructure. These materials are initially ;spherulitic,< containing flat lamellar
crystalline plates, perhaps 19 nm H thick, arranged radially outward in a spherical
domain. (s the induced strain increases, these spherulites are first deformed in the
straining direction. (s the strain increases further, the spherulites are broken apart and
the lamellar fragments rearranged with a dominantly a5ial molecular orientation to
become what is known as the fibrillar microstructure. ,ith the strong covalent bonds
now dominantly lined up in the load-bearing direction, the material e5hibits markedly
greater strengths and stiffnesses E by perhaps an order of magnitude E than in the
original material. This structure re3uires a much higher strain hardening rate for
increased strain, causing the upturn and second tangent in the true stress-strain curve.
"train energy
The area under the ce Q e curve up to a given value of strain is the total mechanical
energy per unit volume consumed by the material in straining it to that value. This is
easily shown as follows@
)n the absence of molecular slip and other mechanisms for energy dissipation, this
mechanical energy is stored reversibly within the material as strain energy. ,hen the
stresses are low enough that the material remains in the elastic range, the strain energy
is Lust the triangular area in $ig. 11@
$igure 11@ "train energy P area under stress-strain curve. .ote that the strain energy
increases 3uadratically with the stress or strainK i.e. that as the strain increases the
energy stored by a given increment of additional strain grows as the s3uare of the
strain. This has important conse3uences, one e5ample being that an archery bow
cannot be simply a curved piece of wood to work well. ( real bow is initially straight,
171
then bent when it is strungK this stores substantial strain energy in it. ,hen it is bent
further on drawing the arrow back, the energy available to throw the arrow is very
much greater than if the bow were simply carved in a curved shape without actually
bending it.
$igure 17 shows schematically the amount of strain energy available for two e3ual
increments of strain , applied at different levels of e5isting strain. The area up to
the yield point is termed the modulus of resilience, and the total area up to fracture is
termed the modulus of toughnessK these are shown in $ig. 1>. The term ;modulus< is
used because the units of strain energy per unit volume are .-mMm> or .Mm7, which
are the same as stress or modulus of elasticity. The term ;resilience< alludes to the
concept that up to the point of yielding, the material is unaffected by the applied stress
and upon unloading.
$igure 17@ Energy associated with increments of strain
Table 1@ Energy absorption of various materials.
Material Ma5imum Ma5imum Modulus of /ensity Ma5. Energy
"train, d "tress, M'a Toughness, M8Mm> kgMm> 8Mkg
(ncient )ron 9.9> F9 9.91 F,H99 1.>
Modern spring steel 9.> F99 1.9 F,H99 1>9
4ew wood 9.> 179 9.G I99 ?99
Tendon H.9 F9 7.H 1,199 7,G99
6ubber >99 F 19.9 1,799 H,999
,ill return to its original shape. #ut when the strain e5ceeds the yield point, the material is
deformed irreversibly, so that some residual strain will persist even after unloading. The
modulus of resilience is then the 3uantity of energy the material can absorb without suffering
damage. "imilarly, the modulus of toughness is the energy needed to completely fracture the
material. Materials showing good impact resistance are generally those with high moduli of
toughness.
$igure 1>@ Moduli of resilience and toughness.
Table 1= lists energy absorption values for a number of common materials. .ote that
natural and polymeric materials can provide e5tremely high energy absorption per
unit weight. /uring loading, the area under the stress-strain curve is the strain energy
per unit volume absorbed by the material. Conversely, the area under the unloading
curve is the energy released by the material. )n the elastic range, these areas are e3ual
and no net energy is absorbed. #ut =8.E. +ordon, "tructures, or ,hy Things /on-t
$all /own, 'lenum 'ress, .ew 4ork, 1?FH. if the material is loaded into the plastic
range as shown in $ig. 1=, the energy absorbed e5ceeds the energy released and the
difference is dissipated as heat.
$igure 1=@ Energy loss P area under stress-strain loop.
Compression
177
The above discussion is concerned primarily with simple tension, i.e. unia5ial loading
that increases the interatomic spacing. &owever, as long as the loads are sufficiently
small stresses less than the proportional limit!, in many materials the relations
outlined above apply e3ually well if loads are placed so as to put the specimen in
compression rather than tension. The e5pression for deformation and a given load P
'2M(E applies Lust as in tension, with negative values for and ' indicating
compression. $urther, the modulus E is the same in tension and compression to a good
appro5imation, and the stress-strain curve simply e5tends as a straight line into the
third 3uadrant as shown in $ig. 1G.
$igure 1G@ "tress-strain curve in tension and compression.
There are some practical difficulties in performing stress-strain tests in compression.
)f e5cessively large loads are mistakenly applied in a tensile test, perhaps by wrong
settings on the testing machine, the specimen simply breaks and the test must be
repeated with a new specimen. #ut in compression, a mistake can easily damage the
load cell or other sensitive components, since even after specimen failure the loads are
not necessarily relieved. "pecimens loaded cyclically so as to alternate between
tension and compression can e5hibit hysteresis loops if the loads are high enough to
induce plastic flow stresses above the yield stress!. The enclosed area in the loop
seen in $ig. 1I is the strain energy per unit volume released as heat in each loading
cycle. This is the well-known tendency of a wire that is being bent back and forth to
become 3uite hot at the region of plastic bending. The temperature of the specimen
will rise according to the magnitude of this internal heat generation and the rate at
which the heat can be removed by conduction within the material and convection
from the specimen surface.
$igure 1I@ &ysteresis loop.
"pecimen failure by cracking is inhibited in compression, since cracks will be closed
up rather than opened by the stress state. ( number of important materials are much
stronger in compression than in tension for this reason. Concrete, for e5ample, has
good compressive strength and so finds e5tensive use in construction in which the
dominant stresses are compressive. #ut it has essentially no strength in tension, as
cracks in sidewalks and building foundations attest@ tensile stresses appear as these
structures settle, and cracks begin at very low tensile strain in unreinforced concrete.
'restressed Concrete "tructures /r. (mlan : "engupta and 'rof. /evdas Menon
)ndian )nstitute of Technology Madras 1.I Concrete 'art ))!
This section covers the following topics.
'roperties of &ardened Concrete 'art ))!
'roperties of +rout
Codal 'rovisions of Concrete
;.J.; Pro,/r(0/' o H)r2/n/2 Concr/(/ (P)r( II"
The properties that are discussed are as follows.
1! "tress-strain curves for concrete
7! Creep of concrete
17>
>! "hrinkage of concrete
S(r/''@'(r)0n C1r>/' or Concr/(/
Curve under unia5ial compression
The stress versus strain behaviour of concrete under unia5ial compression is initially
linear stress is proportional to strain! and elastic strain is recovered at unloading!. ,ith the
generation of micro-cracks, the behaviour becomes nonlinear and inelastic. (fter the
specimen reaches the peak stress, the resisting stress decreases with increase in strain.
IS%;#4# @ ;.N0 recommends a parabolic characteristic stress-strain curve, proposed by
&ognestad, for concrete under unia5ial compression F0+1r/ # in the Code!.
F0+1r/ ;@J.; a! Concrete cube under compression, b! /esign stress-strain curve for concrete
under compression due to fle5ure 'restressed Concrete "tructures /r. (mlan : "engupta and
'rof. /evdas Menon )ndian )nstitute of Technology Madras
The e3uation for the design curve under compression due to fle5ure is as follows.
$or Ec E9



c c
ck ck
f F f E : E
E E
7
9 9
$or Ec ^ Ec Ecu
fc P fck (;@J.6"
&ere,
fc P compressive stress
fck P characteristic compressive strength of cubes
Ec P compressive strain
E9 P strain corresponding to fck P 9.997
Ecu P ultimate compressive strain P 9.99>G
$or concrete under compression due to a5ial load, the ultimate strain is restricted to
9.997. $rom the characteristic curve, the design curve is defined by multiplying the stress
with a si*e factor of 9.IF and dividing the stress by a material safety factor of Gm P 1.G. The
design curve is used in the calculation of ultimate strength. The following sketch shows the
two curves.
E9 Ecu Ec
17=
fc
fck
9.==F fck
Characteristic curve
/esign curve
F0+1r/ ;@J.6 "tress-strain curves for concrete under compression due to fle5ure
)n the calculation of deflection at service loads, a linear stress-strain curve is assumed
up to the allowable stress. This curve is given by the following e3uation.
fc P EcEc (;@J.#"
.ote that, the si*e factor and the material safety factor are not used in the elastic
modulus Ec.
'restressed Concrete "tructures /r. (mlan : "engupta and 'rof. /evdas Menon
)ndian )nstitute of Technology Madras
$or high strength concrete say M199 grade of concrete and above! under unia5ial
compression, the ascending and descending branches are steep.
E9 Ec
fc
fck
Es
Eci
F0+1r/ ;@J.# "tress-strain curves for high strength concrete under compression
The e3uation proposed by Thorenfeldt, Toma5*ewic* and 8ensen is appropriate for
high strength concrete.






c c ck nk cn E Ef Ffn : H EE 991 (;@J.4"
The variables in the previous e3uation are as follows.
fc P compressive stress
fck P characteristic compressive strength of cubes in .Mmm7
Ec P compressive strain
E9 P strain corresponding to fck
k P 1 for Ec E9
P 9.IF [ fck M FF.G! for Ec _ E9. The value of k should be greater than 1.
n P Eci M Eci 1 Es!
Eci P initial modulus
Es P secant modulus at fck P fck M E9.
17G
The previous e3uation is applicable for both the ascending and descending branches
of the curve. (lso, the parameter k models the slope of the descending branch, which
increases with the characteristic strength fck. To be precise, the value of E9 can be
considered to vary with the compressive strength of concrete.
'restressed Concrete "tructures /r. (mlan : "engupta and 'rof. /evdas Menon
)ndian )nstitute of Technology Madras
Curve under unia5ial tension
The stress versus strain behaviour of concrete under unia5ial tension is linear elastic
initially. Close to cracking nonlinear behaviour is observed.
fc Ec fc a! b!
F0+1r/ ;@J.4 a! Concrete panel under tension, b! "tress-strain curve for concrete
under tension
)n calculation of deflections of fle5ural members at service loads, the nonlinearity is
neglected and a linear elastic behaviour fc P EcEc is assumed. )n the analysis of
ultimate strength, the tensile strength of concrete is usually neglected.
Cr//, o Concr/(/
Creep of concrete is defined as the increase in deformation with time under constant
load. /ue to the creep of concrete, the prestress in the tendon is reduced with time.
&ence, the study of creep is important in prestressed concrete to calculate the loss in
prestress.
The creep occurs due to two causes.
1. 6earrangement of hydrated cement paste especially the layered products!
7. E5pulsion of water from voids under load
)f a concrete specimen is subLected to slow compressive loading, the stress versus strain curve
is elongated along the strain a5is as compared to the curve for fast loading. This can be
e5plained in terms of creep. )f the load is sustained at a level, the increase in strain due to
creep will lead to a shift from the fast loading curve to the slow loading curve $igure 1-I.G!.
'restressed Concrete "tructures /r. (mlan : "engupta and 'rof. /evdas Menon
)ndian )nstitute of Technology Madras
fc
$ast loading
"low loading
Effect of creep
Ec
F0+1r/ ;@J.3 "tress-strain curves for concrete under compression
Creep is 3uantified in terms of the strain that occurs in addition to the elastic strain
due to the applied loads. )f the applied loads are close to the service loads, the creep
strain increases at a decreasing rate with time. The ultimate creep strain is found to be
proportional to the elastic strain. The ratio of the ultimate creep strain to the elastic
strain is called the cr//, co/0c0/n( I.
17I
$or stress in concrete less than about one-third of the characteristic strength, the
ultimate creep strain is given as follows.
Ecr,ult F IEel (;@J.3"
The variation of strain with time, under constant a5ial compressive stress, is
represented in the following figure.
strain
Time linear scale!
Ecr, ult P ultimate creep strain
Eel P elastic strain
F0+1r/ ;@J.J 0ariation of strain with time for concrete under compression
)f the load is removed, the elastic strain is immediately recovered. &owever the
recovered elastic strain is less than the initial elastic strain, as the elastic modulus
increases with age.
There is reduction of strain due to creep recovery which is less than the creep strain.
There is some residual strain which cannot be recovered $igure 1-I.F!.
'restressed Concrete "tructures /r. (mlan : "engupta and 'rof. /evdas Menon
)ndian )nstitute of Technology Madras strain Time linear scale! 6esidual strain Creep
recovery Elastic recovery Unloading.
F0+1r/ ;@J.< 0ariation of strain with time showing the effect of unloading. The creep strain
depends on several factors. )t increases with the increase in the following variables.
1! Cement content cement paste to aggregate ratio!
7! ,ater-to-cement ratio
>! (ir entrainment
=! (mbient temperature.
The creep strain decreases with the increase in the following variables.
1! (ge of concrete at the time of loading.
7! 6elative humidity
>! 0olume to surface area ratio.
The creep strain also depends on the type of aggregate.
IS%;#4# @ ;.N0 gives guidelines to estimate the ultimate creep strain in S/c(0on 3.6.3.
)t is a simplified estimate where only one factor has been considered. The factor is age
of loading of the prestressed concrete structure. The creep coefficient I is provided for
three values of age of loading.
T)8*/ ;@J.; Creep coefficient for three values of age of loading (ge of 2oading Creep
Coefficient
F days 7.7
7H days 1.I
1 year 1.1
17F
'restressed Concrete "tructures /r. (mlan : "engupta and 'rof. /evdas Menon )ndian
)nstitute of Technology Madras. )t can be observed that if the structure is loaded at F days,
the creep coefficient is 7.7.
This means that the creep strain is 7.7 times the elastic strain. Thus, the total strain is
more than thrice the elastic strain. &ence, it is necessary to study the effect of creep in
the loss of prestress and deflection of prestressed fle5ural members. Even if the
structure is loaded at 7H days, the creep strain is substantial. This implies higher loss
of prestress and higher deflection.
Curing the concrete ade3uately and delaying the application of load provide long term
benefits with regards to durability, loss of prestress and deflection.
)n special situations detailed calculations may be necessary to monitor creep strain
with time. "pecialised literature or international codes can provide guidelines for such
calculations.
S-r0nA)+/ o Concr/(/
"hrinkage of concrete is defined as the contraction due to loss of moisture. The study
of shrinkage is also important in prestressed concrete to calculate the loss in prestress.
The shrinkage occurs due to two causes.
1. 2oss of water from voids
7. 6eduction of volume during carbonation
The following figure shows the variation of shrinkage strain with time. &ere, t9 is the
time at commencement of drying. The shrinkage strain increases at a decreasing rate with
time. The ultimate shrinkage strain Esh! is estimated to calculate the loss in prestress.
"hrinkage strain t9 Time linear scale! Esh
F0+1r/ ;@J.N 0ariation of shrinkage strain with time
'restressed Concrete "tructures /r. (mlan : "engupta and 'rof. /evdas Menon
)ndian )nstitute of Technology Madras
2ike creep, shrinkage also depends on several factors. The shrinkage strain increases
with the increase in the following variables.
1! (mbient temperature
7! Temperature gradient in the members
>! ,ater-to-cement ratio
=! Cement content.
The shrinkage strain decreases with the increase in the following variables.
1! (ge of concrete at commencement of drying
7! 6elative humidity
>! 0olume to surface area ratio.
The shrinkage strain also depends on the type of aggregate.
IS%;#4# @ ;.N0 gives guidelines to estimate the shrinkage strain in S/c(0on 3.6.4. )t is
a simplified estimate of the ultimate shrinkage strain Esh!.
17H
$or pre-tension
Esh P 9.999> (;@J.J"
$or post-tension
(;@J.<"
! Esh F
log19 t H
9.9997 7
&ere, t is the age at transfer in days. .ote that for post-tension, t is the age at transfer in days
which appro5imates the curing time. )t can be observed that with increasing age at transfer,
the shrinkage strain reduces. (s mentioned before, curing the concrete ade3uately and
delaying the application of load provide long term benefits with regards to durability and loss
of prestress. )n special situations detailed calculations may be necessary to monitor shrinkage
strain with time. "pecialised literature or international codes can provide guidelines for such
calculations.
'restressed Concrete "tructures /r. (mlan : "engupta and 'rof. /evdas Menon
)ndian )nstitute of Technology Madras
;.J.6 Pro,/r(0/' o Gro1(
+rout is a mi5ture of water, cement and optional materials like sand, water-reducing
admi5tures, e5pansion agent and po**olans. The water-to-cement ratio is around 9.G.
$ine sand is used to avoid segregation.
The desirable properties of grout are as follows.
1! $luidity
7! Minimum bleeding and segregation
>! 2ow shrinkage
=! (de3uate strength after hardening
G! .o detrimental compounds
I! /urable.
IS%;#4# @ ;.N0 specifies the properties of grout in S/c(0on' ;6.#.; and S/c(0on ;6.#.6.
The following specifications are important.
1! The sand should pass 1G9 m )ndian "tandard sieve.
7! The compressive strength of 199 mm cubes of the grout shall not be less than 1F
.Mmm7 at F days.
'restressed Concrete "tructures /r. (mlan : "engupta and 'rof. /evdas Menon )ndian
)nstitute of Technology Madras
;.J.3 Co2)* Pro>0'0on' o Concr/(/
The following topics are covered in IS%;#4# @ ;.N0 under the respective sections.
These provisions are not duplicated here.
T)8*/ ;@J.6 Topics and sections
17?
,orkability of concrete "ection I
Concrete mi5 proportioning "ection H
'roduction and control of concrete "ection ?
$ormwork "ection 19
Transporting, placing, compacting "ection 1>
Concrete under special conditions "ection 1=
"ampling and strength test of concrete "ection 1G
(cceptance criteria "ection 1I
)nspection and testing of structures "ection 1F
LS2/r' 8)n2
$rom ,ikipedia, the free encyclopedia
8ump to@ navigation, search
( LS2/r' 8)n2 is a locali*ed band of plastic deformation which occurs in certain materials
before fracture
C1D
. Those are well-known in low carbon steels and some (l-Mg (lloys. The
reason for their apparition is the pinning of dislocations by interstitial atoms in steel, those
are typically carbon and nitrogen!, which naturally tend to form atmospheres-- around them.
They were first reported by +uillaume 'iobert and ,. 2ders. The bands tend to form at the
shoulders of tensile test pieces as the stress can be highest in these regions. The formation of
luders bands depends on the grain si*e of the metal being stressed and the geometry of the
material, with flatter specimens showing more bands than a round bar.
C7D
C/20(D S// )*'o
'ortevin12e Chatelier effect
C/20(D R//r/nc/'
6ichard ,. &ert*berg , 'eformation an $racture Mechanics of Engineering
Materials, >th Eition, pp. 7?1>9 )"#. 9=F19171=?
http@MMiopscience.iop.orgM1=FH-FH1=M7>M1M>>1
1. R )ntergranular strain and te5ture in steel 2uders bands 6o5ana &utanua, 2ynann
Claphama, , and 6.#. 6oggeK (cta Materialia, 0olume G>, )ssue 17, 8uly 799G, 'ages
>G1F->G7=
7. R Macroscopic aspects of 2ders band deformation in mild steel 0.". (nanthan, and
E.A. &allK (cta Metallurgica et Materialia, 0olume >?, )ssue 17, /ecember 1??1,
'ages >1G>->1I9
#. Com,r/''0>/! B/)r0n+! & S-/)r Pro,/r(0/'
4. Com,r/''0>/ Pro,/r(0/'
1>9

)n theory, the compression test is simply the opposite of the
tension test with respect to the direction of loading. )n
compression testing the sample is s3uee*ed while the load and
the displacement are recorded. Compression tests result in
mechanical properties that include the compressive yield stress,
compressive ultimate stress, and compressive modulus of
elasticity.
G. Compressive yield stress is measured in a manner identical to
that done for tensile yield strength. ,hen testing metals, it is
defined as the stress corresponding to 9.997 in.Min. plastic strain.
$or plastics, the compressive yield stress is measured at the point
of permanent yield on the stress-strain curve. Moduli are
generally greater in compression for most of the commonly used
structural materials.
I. Ultimate compressive strength is the stress re3uired to rupture a specimen. This value
is much harder to determine for a compression test than it is for a tensile test since
many material do not e5hibit rapid fracture in compression. Materials such as most
plastics that do not rupture can have their results reported as the compressive strength
at a specific deformation such as 1d, Gd, or 19d of the sampleYs original height.
F. $or some materials, such as concrete, the compressive strength is the most important
material property that engineers use when designing and building a structure.
Compressive strength is also commonly used to determine whether a concrete mi5ture
meets the re3uirements of the Lob specifications.
N. B/)r0n+ Pro,/r(0/'
#earing properties are used when designing mechanically fastened Loints. The
purpose of a bearing test is to determine the the deformation of a hole as a function of
the applied bearing stress. The test specimen is basically a piece of sheet or plate with
a carefully prepared hole some standard distance from the edge. Edge-to-hole
diameter ratios of 1.G and 7.9 are common. ( hardened pin is inserted through the
hole and an a5ial load applied to the specimen and the pin. The bearing stress is
computed by dividing the load applied to the pin, which bears against the edge of the
hole, by the bearing area the product of the pin diameter and the sheet or plate
thickness!. #earing yield and ultimate stresses are obtained from bearing tests. #4" is
computed from a bearing stress deformation curve by drawing a line parallel to the
initial slope at an offset of 9.97 times the pin diameter. #U" is the ma5imum stress
withstood by a bearing specimen.
1>1
.. S-/)r Pro,/r(0/'
( shearing stress acts parallel to the stress plane, whereas a tensile or compressive
stress acts normal to the stress plane. "hear properties are primarily used in the design
of mechanically fastened components, webs, and torsion members, and other
components subLect to parallel, opposing loads. "hear properties are dependant on the
type of shear test and their is a variety of different standard shear tests that can be
performed including the single-shear test, double-shear test, blanking-shear test,
torsion-shear test and others. The shear modulus of elasticity is considered a basic
shear property. Ather properties, such as the proportional limit stress and shear
ultimate stress, cannot be treated as basic shear properties because of ;form factor<
effects.
;0. P/rm)n/n( /*0m0n)(0on o (-/ &0/*2@,o0n(
@, Cr//, )n2 )(0+1/ (/'(' or 'o*2/r )**o&'
The creep and cyclic fatigue tests of the lead-free solder, two-ball solder alloy and the solder
Loint were conducted by using the I-a5is thermal-mechanical micro fatigue tester. The
specimens and the testing results are shown as follows.
1>7
Cr//, c1r>/ o ) */)2 r// 'o*2/r )**o&

T&,0c)* cr//, c1r>/' or (?o 'o*2/r )**o&'
1>>
A (&,0c)* '(r/''@con(ro**/2 )(0+1/ (/'( o (-/ */)2@r// 'o*2/r
1>=

T&,0c)* 20',*)c/m/n(@con(ro**/2 )(0+1/ (/'(%c&c*0c 'o(/n0n+ o (?o@8)** '0n+*/@*),
'-/)r0n+

1>G

F)(0+1/ (/'( o (-/ 'o*2/r To0n(
)n materials science, r)c(1r/ (o1+-n/'' is a property which describes the ability of a
material containing a crack to resist fracture, and is one of the most important properties of
any material for virtually all design applications. )t is denoted :
)c
and has the units of .
The subscript Y)cY denotes mode ) crack opening under a normal tensile stress perpendicular to
the crack, since the material can be made thick enough to resist shear mode ))! or tear mode
)))!.
$racture toughness is a 3uantitative way of e5pressing a materialYs resistance to brittle
fracture when a crack is present. )f a material has a large value of fracture toughness it will
probably undergo ductile fracture. #rittle fracture is very characteristic of materials with a
low fracture toughness value.
C1D
$racture mechanics, which leads to the concept of fracture toughness, was largely based on
the work of (. (. +riffith who, among other things, studied the behavior of cracks in brittle
materials.
( related concept is the work of fracture l
wof
! which is directly proportional to , where E is
1>I
the 4oungYs modulus of the material.
C7D
.ote that, in ") units, l
wof
is given in 8Mm
7
.
Con(/n('
ChideD
1 Table of values
7 Crack growth as a stability problem
> Transformation toughening
= ConLoint action
G "tress-corrosion cracking "CC!
I "ee also
F 6eferences
H Ather references
C/20(D T)8*/ o >)*1/'
&ere are some typical values of fracture toughness for various materials@
M)(/r0)* 5
Ic
(MP)@m
; F 6
"
M/()*'
(luminum alloy F9FG! 7=
"teel alloy =>=9! G9
Titanium alloy ==-II
(luminum 1=-7H
C/r)m0c'
(luminum o5ide >-G
"ilicon carbide >-G
"oda-lime-glass 9.F-9.H
Concrete 9.7-1.=
Po*&m/r'
'olymethyl methacrylate 9.F-1.I
'olystyrene 9.F-1.1
Com,o'0(/'
Mullite fiber reinforced-mullite composite 1.H->.>
C>D
"ilica aerogels 9.999H-9.99=H
C=D
C/20(D Cr)cA +ro?(- )' ) '()80*0(& ,ro8*/m
Consider a body with flaws cracks! that is subLect to some loadingK the stability of the crack
1>F
can be assessed as follows. ,e can assume for simplicity that the loading is of constant
displacement or displacement controlled type such as loading with a screw Lack!K we can
also simplify the discussion by characteri*ing the crack by its area, (. )f we consider an
adLacent state of the body as being one with a larger crack area ([d(!, we can then assess
strain energy in the two states and evaluate strain energy release rate.
The rate is reckoned with respect to the change in crack area, so if we use U for strain energy,
the strain energy release rate is numerically dUMd(. )t may be noted that for a body loaded in
constant displacement mode, the displacement is applied and the force level is dictated by
stiffness or compliance! of the body. )f the crack grows in si*e, the stiffness decreases, so the
force level will decrease. This decrease in force level under the same displacement strain!
level indicates that the elastic strain energy stored in the body is decreasing - is being
released. &ence the term strain energy release rate which is usually denoted with symbol ".
The strain energy release rate is higher for higher loads and larger cracks. )f the strain energy
so released e5ceeds a critical value "
c
, then the crack will grow spontaneously. $or brittle
materials, "
c
can be e3uated to the surface energy of the two! new crack surfacesK in other
words, in brittle materials, a crack will grow spontaneously if the strain energy released is
e3ual to or greater than the energy re3uired to grow the crack surfaces!. The stability
condition can be written as
elastic energy release F surface energy create
)f the elastic energy releases is less than the critical value, then the crack will not growK
e3uality signifies neutral stability and if the strain energy release rate e5ceeds the critical
value, the crack will start growing in an unstable manner. $or ductile materials, energy
associated with plastic deformation has to be taken into account. ,hen there is plastic
deformation at the crack tip as occurs most often in metals! the energy to propagate the crack
may increase by several orders of magnitude as the work related to plastic deformation may
be much larger than the surface energy. )n such cases, the stability criterion has to restated as
elastic energy release F surface energy H plastic eformation energy
'ractically, this means a higher value for the critical value "
c
. $rom the definition of ", we
can deduce that it has dimensions of work or energy! Marea or forceMlength. $or ductile metals
"
)c
is around G9 to 799 k8Mm
7
, for brittle metals it is usually 1-G and for glasses and brittle
polymers it is almost always less than 9.G. The ) subscript here refers to mode ) or crack
opening mode as described in the section on fracture mechanics.
The problem can also be formulated in terms of stress instead of energy, leading to the terms
stress intensity factor 4 or 4
)
for mode )! and critical stress intensity factor 4
c
and 4
)c
!.
These 4
c
and 4
)c
etc.! 3uantities are commonly referred to as fracture toughness, though it is
e3uivalent to use "
c
. Typical values for 4
)c
are 1G9 M.Mm
>M7
for ductile very tough! metals,
7G for brittle ones and 1-19 for glasses and brittle polymers. .otice the different units used by
"
)c
and 4
)c
. Engineers tend to use the latter as an indication of toughness.
1>H
C/20(D Tr)n'orm)(0on (o1+-/n0n+
Composites e5hibiting the highest level of fracture toughness are typically made of a pure
alumina or some silica-alumina "iA7 M(l7A>! matri5 with tiny inclusions of *irconia JrA7!
dispersed as uniformly as possible within the solid matri5. Z.ote@ a wet chemical approach
is typically necessary in order to establish the compositional uniformity of the ceramic body
before firing!.
The process of Btransformation tougheningB is based on the assumption that *irconia
undergoes several martensitic displacive, diffusionless! phase transformations cubic |
tetragonal | monoclinic! between room temperature and practical sintering or firing!
temperatures. Thus, due to the volume restrictions induced by the solid matri5, metastable
crystalline structures can become fro*en in which impart an internal strain field surrounding
each *irconia inclusion upon cooling. This enables a *irconia particle or inclusion! to absorb
the energy of an approaching crack tip front in its nearby vicinity.
Thus, the application of large shear stresses during fracture nucleates the transformation of a
*irconia inclusion from the metastable phase. The subse3uent volume e5pansion from the
inclusion via an increase in the height of the unit cell! introduces compressive stresses which
therefore strengthen the matri5 near the approaching crack tip front. Jirconia BwhiskersB may
be used e5pressly for this purpose.
(ppropriately referred to by its first discoverers as Bceramic steelB, the stress intensity factor
values for window glass silica!, transformation toughened alumina, and a typical ironMcarbon
steel range from 1 to 79 to G9 respectively.
C/20(D ConTo0n( )c(0on
There are number of instances where this picture of a critical crack is modified by corrosion.
Thus, fretting corrosion occurs when a corrosive medium is present at the interface between
two rubbing surfaces. $retting in the absence of corrosion! results from the disruption of
very small areas that bond and break as the surfaces undergo friction, often under vibrating
conditions. The bonding contact areas deform under the localised pressure and the two
surfaces gradually wear away. $racture mechanics dictates that each minute localised fracture
has to satisfy the general rule that the elastic energy released as the bond fractures has to
e5ceed the work done in plastically deforming it and in creating the very tiny! fracture
surfaces. This process is enhanced when corrosion is present, not least because the corrosion
products act as an abrasive between the rubbing surfaces.
$atigue is another instance where cyclical stressing, this time of a bulk lump of metal, causes
small flaws to develop. Ultimately one such flaw e5ceeds the critical condition and fracture
propagates across the whole structure. The Yfatigue lifeY of a component is the time it takes for
criticality to be reached, for a given regime of cyclical stress. Corro'0on )(0+1/ is what
happens when a cyclically stressed structure is subLected to a corrosive environment at the
same time. This not only serves to initiate surface cracks but see below! actually modifies
the crack growth process. (s a result the fatigue life is shortened, often considerably.
1>?
C/20(D S(r/''@corro'0on cr)cA0n+ (SCC"
Main article# !tress corrosion cracking
This phenomenon is the une5pected sudden failure of normally ductile metals subLected to a
constant tensile stress in a corrosive environment. Certain austenitic stainless steels and
aluminium alloys crack in the presence of chlorides, mild steel cracks in the presence of
alkali 8o0*/r cr)cA0n+! and copper alloys crack in ammoniacal solutions '/)'on cr)cA0n+!.
,orse still, high-tensile structural steels crack in an une5pectedly brittle manner in a whole
variety of a3ueous environments, especially chloride. ,ith the possible e5ception of the
latter, which is a special e5ample of hyrogen cracking, all the others display the
phenomenon of subcritical crack growth, i.e. small surface flaws propagate usually
smoothly! under conditions where fracture mechanics predicts that failure should not occur.
That is, in the presence of a corrodent, cracks develop and propagate well below 4
)c
. )n fact,
the subcritical value of the stress intensity, designated as 4
)scc
, may be less than 1d of 4
)c
, as
the following table shows@
(lloy
:
)c
MN M m
> M 7
!
"CC environment
:
)scc
MN M m
> M 7
!
1>Cr steel I9 >d .aCl 17
1HCr-H.i 799 =7d MgCl
7
19
Cu->9Jn 799 .&
=
A&, p&F 1
(l->Mg-FJn 7G (3ueous halides G
Ti-I(l-10 I9 9.IM :Cl 79
The subcritical nature of propagation may be attributed to the chemical energy released as the
crack propagates. That is,
elastic energy release H chemical energy F surface energy H eformation energy
The crack initiates at 4
)scc
and thereafter propagates at a rate governed by the slowest process,
which most of the time is the rate at which corrosive ions can diffuse to the crack tip. (s the
crack advances so 4 rises because crack length appears in the calculation of stress intensity!.
$inally it reaches 4
)c
, whereupon fast fracture ensues and the component fails. Ane of the
practical difficulties with "CC is its une5pected nature. "tainless steels, for e5ample, are
employed because under most conditions they are YpassiveY, i.e. effectively inert. 0ery often
one finds a single crack has propagated while the rest of the metal surface stays apparently
unaffected.
C/20(D S// )*'o
'uncture resistance
$racture mechanics
#rittle-ductile transition *one
Charpy impact test
1=9
)mpact mechanics!
)*od impact strength test
Toughness of ceramics by indentation
"hock mechanics!
"tress corrosion cracking
$racture toughening mechanisms
UNIT = V
HEAT TREATMENT
$ull annealing
Ann/)*0n+ (m/()**1r+&"
$rom ,ikipedia, the free encyclopedia
1=1
8ump to@ navigation, search
)t has been suggested that 0nnealing by short circuit be merged into this article or section.
/iscuss!
This article n//2' )220(0on)* c0()(0on' or >/r00c)(0on.
'lease help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be
challenged and removed. &.ctober ()%)+
Ann/)*0n+, in metallurgy and materials science, is a heat treatment wherein a material is
altered, causing changes in its properties such as strength and hardness. )t is a process that
produces conditions by heating to above the recrystalli*ation temperature and maintaining a
suitable temperature, and then cooling. (nnealing is used to induce ductility, soften material,
relieve internal stresses, refine the structure by making it homogeneous, and improve cold
working properties.
)n the cases of copper, steel, silver, and brass, this process is performed by substantially
heating the material generally until glowing! for a while and allowing it to cool. Unlike
ferrous metalsEwhich must be cooled slowly to annealEcopper, silver
C1D
and brass can be
cooled slowly in air or 3uickly by 3uenching in water. )n this fashion the metal is softened
and prepared for further work such as shaping, stamping, or forming.
Con(/n('
ChideD
1 Thermodynamics of annealing
o 1.1 "tages of annealing
7 (nnealing in a controlled atmosphere
> "etup and e3uipment
= /iffusion annealing of semiconductors
G "peciali*ed annealing cycles
o G.1 .ormali*ation
o G.7 'rocess annealing
o G.> $ull anneal
o G.= "hort cycle anneal
I 6esistive heating
F "ee also
H 6eferences
? $urther reading
19 E5ternal links
C/20(D T-/rmo2&n)m0c' o )nn/)*0n+
(nnealing occurs by the diffusion of atoms within a solid material, so that the material
progresses towards its e3uilibrium state. &eat is needed to increase the rate of diffusion by
providing the energy needed to break bonds. The movement of atoms has the effect of
1=7
redistributing and destroying the dislocations in metals and to a lesser e5tent! in ceramics.
This alteration in dislocations allows metals to deform more easily, so increases their
ductility.
The amount of process-initiating +ibbs free energy in a deformed metal is also reduced by
the annealing process. )n practice and industry, this reduction of +ibbs free energy is termed
Bstress reliefB.
The relief of internal stresses is a thermodynamically spontaneous processK however, at room
temperatures, it is a very slow process. The high temperatures at which the annealing process
occurs serve to accelerate this process.
The reaction facilitating the return of the cold-worked metal to its stress-free state has many
reaction pathways, mostly involving the elimination of lattice vacancy gradients within the
body of the metal. The creation of lattice vacancies is governed by the (rrhenius e3uation,
and the migrationMdiffusion of lattice vacancies are governed by $ick-s laws of diffusion.
C7D
Mechanical properties, such as hardness and ductility, change as dislocations are eliminated
and the metalYs crystal lattice is altered. An heating at specific temperature and cooling it is
possible to bring the atom at the right lattice site and new grain growth can improve the
mechanical properties.
C/20(D S()+/' o )nn/)*0n+
There are three stages in the annealing process, with the first being the recovery phase, which
results in softening of the metal through removal of crystal defects the primary type of which
is the linear defect called a dislocation! and the internal stresses which they cause. 6ecovery
phase covers all annealing phenomena that occur before the appearance of new strain-free
grains.
C>D
The second phase is recrystalli*ation, where new strain-free grains nucleate and
grow to replace those deformed by internal stresses.
C>D
)f annealing is allowed to continue
once recrystalli*ation has been completed, grain growth will occur, in which the
microstructure starts to coarsen and may cause the metal to have less than satisfactory
mechanical properties.
C/20(D Ann/)*0n+ 0n ) con(ro**/2 )(mo',-/r/
The high temperature of annealing may result in o5idation of the metal-s surface, resulting in
scale. )f scale is to be avoided, annealing is carried out in an o5ygen-, carbon-, and nitrogen-
free atmosphere to avoid o5idation, carburi*ation, and nitriding respectively! such as
endothermic gas a mi5ture of carbon mono5ide, hydrogen gas, and nitrogen
Cclarification neeeD
!.
The magnetic properties of mu-metal Espey cores! are introduced by annealing the alloy in a
hydrogen atmosphere.
1=>
C/20(D S/(1, )n2 /E10,m/n(
Typically, large ovens are used for the annealing process. The inside of the oven is large
enough to place the workpiece in a position to receive ma5imum e5posure to the circulating
heated air. $or high volume process annealing, gas fired conveyor furnaces are often used.
$or large workpieces or high 3uantity parts Car-bottom furnaces will be used in order to
move the parts in and out with ease. Ance the annealing process has been successfully
completed, the workpieces are sometimes left in the oven in order for the parts to have a
controlled cooling process. ,hile some workpieces are left in the oven to cool in a controlled
fashion, other materials and alloys are removed from the oven. (fter being removed from the
oven, the workpieces are often 3uickly cooled off in a process known as 3uench hardening.
"ome typical methods of 3uench hardening materials involve the use of media such as air,
water, oil, or salt.
C/20(D D01'0on )nn/)*0n+ o '/m0con21c(or'
)n the semiconductor industry, silicon wafers are annealed, so that dopant atoms, usually
boron, phosphorus or arsenic, can diffuse into substitutional positions in the crystal lattice,
resulting in drastic changes in the electrical properties of the semiconducting material.
C/20(D S,/c0)*0G/2 )nn/)*0n+ c&c*/'
C/20(D Norm)*0G)(0on
Normalization is an annealing process in which a metal is cooled in air after heating in order
to relieve stress.
)t can also be referred to as@ &eating a ferrous alloy to a suitable temperature above the
transformation temperature range and cooling in air to a temperature substantially below the
transformation range.
This process is typically confined to hardenable steel. )t is used to refine grains which have
been deformed through cold work, and can improve ductility and toughness of the steel. )t
involves heating the steel to Lust above its upper critical point. )t is soaked for a short period
then allowed to cool in air. "mall grains are formed which give a much harder and tougher
metal with normal tensile strength and not the ma5imum ductility achieved by annealing. )t
eliminates columnar grains and dendritic segregation that sometimes occurs during casting.
.ormali*ing improves machinability of a component and provides dimensional stability if
subLected to further heat treatment processes.
C/20(D Proc/'' )nn/)*0n+
'rocess annealing, also called Bintermediate annealingB, Bsubcritical annealingB, or Bin-
process annealingB, is a heat treatment cycle that restores some of the ductility to a work
1==
piece allowing it be worked further without breaking. /uctility is important in shaping and
creating a more refined piece of work through processes such as rolling, drawing, forging,
spinning, e5truding and heading. The piece is heated to a temperature typically below the
austeni*ing temperature, and held there long enough to relieve stresses in the metal. The
piece is finally cooled slowly to room temperature. )t is then ready again for additional cold
working. This can also be used to ensure there is reduced risk of distortion of the work piece
during machining, welding, or further heat treatment cycles.
The temperature range for process annealing ranges from G99 X$ to 1=99 X$, depending on
the alloy in 3uestion.
C/20(D F1** )nn/)*
$ull annealing temperature ranges
( full anneal typically results in the second most ductile state a metal can assume for metal
alloy. )t creates an entirely new homogeneous and uniform structure with good dynamic
properties. To perform a full anneal, a metal is heated to its annealing point about G9XC
above the austenic temperature as graph shows! and held for sufficient time to allow the
material to fully austeniti*e, to form austenite or austenite-cementite grain structure. The
material is then allowed to cool slowly so that the e3uilibrium microstructure is obtained. )n
some cases this means the material is allowed to air cool. )n other cases the material is
allowed to furnace cool. The details of the process depend on the type of metal and the
precise alloy involved. )n any case the result is a more ductile material that has greater stretch
ratio and reduction of area properties but a lower yield strength and a lower tensile strength.
This process is also called 2' annealing for lamellar pearlite in the steel industry as opposed
to a process anneal which does not specify a microstructure and only has the goal of
softening the material. Aften material that is to be machined, will be annealed, then be
followed by further heat treatment to obtain the final desired properties.
C/20(D S-or( c&c*/ )nn/)*
S-or( c&c*/ )nn/)*0n+ is used for turning normal ferrite into malleable ferrite. )t consists of
heating, cooling, and then heating again from = to H hours.
C/20(D R/'0'(0>/ -/)(0n+
6esistive heating can be used to efficiently anneal copper wireK the heating system employs a
controlled electrical short circuit. )t can be advantageous because it does not re3uire a
temperature-regulated furnace like other methods of annealing.
The process consists of two conductive pulleys step pulleys! which the wire passes across
after it is drawn. The two pulleys have an electrical potential across them, which causes the
wire to form a short circuit. The 8oule effect causes the temperature of the wire to rise to
appro5imately =99 XC. This temperature is affected by the rotational speed of the pulleys, the
ambient temperature, and the voltage applied. ,here t is the temperature of the wire, : is a
constant, 0 is the voltage applied, r is the number of rotations of the pulleys per minute, and
1=G
t
a
is the ambient temperature@
t P :0 \!Mr!![t
a
The constant : depends on the diameter of the pulleys and the resistivity of the copper.
'urely in terms of the temperature of the copper wire, an increase in the speed with which the
wire passes through the pulley system has the same effect as an increase in resistance.
Therefore, the speed with which the wire can be drawn through varies 3uadratically as the
voltage applied.
C/20(D S// )*'o
(nnealing glass!
&ollomon-8affe parameter
2ow hydrogen annealing
Tempering
C/20(D R//r/nc/'
1. R http@MMwww.handyharmancanada.comMhbpmMsilverMsilver.htm
7. R 0an 0lack, 2.&. Elements of Materials !cience an Engineering, (ddison-,esley,
1?HG, p 1>=
>.
a

0erhoeven, 8./. $unamentals of 6hysical Metallurgy, ,iley, .ew 4ork, 1?FG,

p. >7I
C/20(D F1r(-/r r/)20n+
Thesis of /egree, Cable Manufacture and Tests of +eneral Use and Energy. - 8orge
2uis 'edra* 1??=!, U.), $iles, 'eru.
/ynamic annealing of the Copper wire by using a Controlled "hort circuit. P 8orge
2uis 'edra* 1???!, 'eru@ 2ima , CA.)ME6( 1???, ).TE6CA. ??,
C/20(D EB(/rn)* *0nA'
(nnealing with induction @ (meritherm offers annealing overview and (pplication
.otes
(nnealing @efunda - engineering fundamentals
$ull (nnealing @Material "cience
(nnealing @ (luminum and (ircraft Metal (lloys
6etrieved from Bhttp@MMen.wikipedia.orgMwikiM(nnealingmetallurgy!B
Categories@ Metal heat treatments
&idden categories@ (rticles to be merged from .ovember 7919 (ll articles to be merged
(rticles needing additional references from Actober 7919 (ll articles needing additional
references (ll pages needing cleanup ,ikipedia articles needing clarification from
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D/0n0(0on% ( heat treatment process that has the obLect of relieving internal stresses,
refining the grain si*e and improving the mechanical properties. The steel is heated to H99-
1=H
?99oC according to analysis, held at temperature to allow a full soak and cooled in still air.
HOME CONTACT
1=?
HARDENING AND TEMPERING
0. 6yan 799G - 799?
PDF FILE - C2)C: &E6E $A6 '6).T(#2E ,A6:"&EET
1G9
"teel can be treated by intense heat to give it different properties of hardness and softness. This
depends on the amount of carbon in the steel only high carbon steel can be hardened and
tempered!.
C(6#A. CA.TE.T A$ CAMMA. "TEE2"@ Mild steel@ 9.=d carbon, Medium carbon steel
appro5imately 9.Hd carbon, &igh Carbon "teel appro5imately 1.7d carbon this steel is also
known as Tool "teel and includes "ilver "teel and +auge 'late!.
Mild steel and medium carbon steel do not have enough carbon to change their crystalline structure
and conse3uently cannot be hardened and tempered. Medium carbon steel may become slightly
tougher although it cannot be harden to the point where it cannot be filed or cut with a hacksaw
the classic test of whether steel has been hardened!.
)f steel is heated until it glows red and is 3uenched in clean water immediately, it becomes very
hard but also brittle. This means it is likely to break or snap if put under great pressure. An the
other hand, if the red hot steel is allowed to cool slowly, the resulting steel will be easier to cut,
shape and file as it will be relatively soft. &owever, the industrial heat treatment of steel is a very
comple5 and precise science.
)n a school workshop most heat treatment of metals takes place on a bra*ing hearth. ( rotating
table and fire bricks are essential. The fire bricks reflect the intense heat back on to the metal being
heated. This is achieved by arranging the bricks in a semi-circle behind the metal being heated.
,ithout the bricks, heat would escape and this would limit the temperature that could be reached.
&(6/E.).+ (./ TEM'E6).+
&eat treatment of steel in a school workshop is normally a two stage process. $or e5ample, if a
high carbon steel or silver steel screw driver blade has been manufactured, at some point it will
1G1
have to be -hardened- to prevent it wearing down when used. An the other hand it will have to be
tempered-. This second heating process reduces the hardness a little but toughens the steel. )t also
significantly reduces the brittleness of the steel so that it does not break easily. The whole process
is called hardening and tempering-.
The screw driver blade is heated,
slowly at first, warming up the
whole blade. Then the heat is
concentrated on the area at the end
of the blade. This gradually
becomes red- hot.
The screw driver blade is removed
3uickly from the bra*ing heart, with
blacksmiths tongs and plunged into
clean, cold water. "team boils off
from the water as the steel cools
rapidly. (t this stage the blade is
very hard but brittle and will break
easily.
"T(+E T&6EE@
The screw driver blade is cleaned
with emery cloth and heated again
on the bra*ing hearth. &eat is
concentrated at the end of the steel
blade. The steel must be watched
very carefully as it changes colour
3uite 3uickly. ( blue line of heat
will appear near the end of the blade
and it travels towards the tip as the
temperature rises along the blade.
,hen the line of blue reaches the
tip the bra*ing torch is turned off.
The blue indicates the correct
temperature of tempering-.
1G7
The screw driver blade is placed on
a steel surface, such as an anvil
face. This conducts the heat away
and allows slow cooling of the
screw driver blade. ,hen cold, the
blade should be tough and hard
wearing and unlikely to break or
snap. This is due to the tempering
process.
U"E$U2 CA2AU6 )./)C(TA6" A$ TEM'E6(TU6E
,hen heating steel on the bra*ing
hearth, colour changes take place.
These can be used to indicate the
temperature of the metal. The table
opposite is a rough guide.
The table opposite shows the
temperatures and the associated
colours re3uired when tempering
steel for particular uses. $or
instance, when making wood
turning tools, they must be heated to
a brown colour, whilst tempering.
H)r2/n)80*0(&
1G>
$rom ,ikipedia, the free encyclopedia
8ump to@ navigation, search
Cross-section of 8ominy test apparatus. ,ater from a pipe cools the bottom of the specimen
and then hardness measurements are taken across the length of the specimen.
8ominy test apparatus
This article includes a list of references, related reading or e5ternal links, but 0(' 'o1rc/'
r/m)0n 1nc*/)r 8/c)1'/ 0( *)cA' 0n*0n/ c0()(0on'. 'lease improve this article by introducing
more precise citations where appropriate. &0pril ())*+
The -)r2/n)80*0(& of a metal alloy is its capability to be hardened by heat treatment. )t
should not be confused with hardness, which is a measure of a sampleYs resistance to
indentation or scratching. )t is an important property for welding, since it is inversely
proportional to weldability, that is, the ease of welding a material.
The hardenability of ferrous alloys, i.e. steels, is a function of the carbon content and other
alloying elements and the grain si*e of the austenite. The relative importance of the various
alloying elements is calculated by finding the e3uivalent carbon content of the material. The
fluid used for 3uenching the material influences the cooling rate due to varying thermal
conductivities and specific heats. "ubstances like brine and water cool much more 3uickly
than oil or air. (dditionally, if the fluid is agitated cooling occurs even more 3uickly. The
geometry of the part also affects the cooling rate@ of two samples of e3ual volume, the one
with higher surface area will cool faster.
The hardenability of a ferrous alloy is measured by a 8ominy test@ a round metal bar of
standard si*e is transformed to 199d austenite through heat treatment, and is then 3uenched
on one end with room-temperature water. The cooling rate will be highest at the end being
3uenched, and will decrease as distance from the end increases. The hardenability is then
found by measuring the hardness along the bar@ the farther away from the 3uenched end that
the hardness e5tends, the higher the hardenability.
$om0n& -)r2/n)80*0(& (E1/nc-" (/'(

1G=
The 8ominy Test involves heating a test piece from the steel 7Gmm diameter and 199mm
long! to an austenitising temperature and 3uenching from one end with a controlled and
standardised Let of water.
Take a sample from the furnace and place it on the 8ominy test
fi5tures and observe the cooling pattern.
(fter 3uenching the hardness profile is measured at intervals
from the 3uenched end after the surface has been ground back to remove any effects of
decarburisation 9.>Hmm is removed from the surface!. The hardness variation along the test
surface is a result of microstructural variation which arises since the cooling rate decreases
with distance from the 3uenched end. The cooling rate along the 8ominy test specimen varies
from about 77G C s
-1
to 7 C s
-1
.

A1'(/m,/r0n+
$rom ,ikipedia, the free encyclopedia
8ump to@ navigation, search
This article m)& r/E10r/ c*/)n1, (o m//( 70A0,/20)L' E1)*0(& '()n2)r2'. 'lease improve
this article if you can. The talk page may contain suggestions. &!eptember ())*+
A1'(/m,/r0n+ is an isothermal heat treatment that is applied to ferrous metals, most notably
steel and ductile iron. )n steel it produces a lower #ainite microstructure whereas in cast irons
it produces a structure of acicular ferrite and high carbon, stabili*ed (ustenite known as
ausferrite. )t is primarily used to improve mechanical properties.
(ustempering is defined by both the process and the resultant microstructure . Typical
austempering process parameters applied to an unsuitable material will not result in the
formation of #ainite or ausferrite and thusly the final product will not be called austempered.
both microstructures may also be produced via other methods. for e5ample, they may be
produced as-cast or air cooled with the proper alloy content. These materials are also not
refered to as austempered.
Con(/n('
ChideD
1 &istory
7 'rocess
o 7.1 (usteniti*ing
o 7.7 suenching
o 7.> Cooling
o 7.= Tempering
1GG
> (dvantages of (ustempering
= 6eferences
C/20(D H0'(or&
The austempering of steel was first pioneered by Edgar C. #ain and Edmund ". /avenport in
the 1?>9-s who were working for the United "tates "teel Corporation at that time. #ainite
must have been present in steels long before its acknowledged
discovery date, but was not identified because of the limited metalographic techni3ues
available and the mi5ed microstructures formed by the heat treatment practices of the time.
Coincidental circumstances led inspired #ain to study isothermal phase transformations.
(ustneite and the higher temperature phases of steel were becoming more and more
understood and it was already known that austenite could be retained at room temperature.
through his contacts at the (merican "teel and ,ire Company #ain was aware of isothermal
transformations being used in industry and he began to concieve of new e5periments
C1D
$urther research into the isothermal transformation of steels was a result of #ain and
/avenportYs discovery of a new microstructure consisting of an Bacicular, dark etching
aggregate.B This microstructure was found to be Btougher for the same hardness than
tempered MartensiteB
C7D
.
Commercial e5ploitation of bainitic steel did not become common overnight. Common heat
treating practices at the time featured continuous cooling methods and were not capable, in
practice, of producing fully #ainitic microstructures. The range of alloys available produced
either mi5ed microstructures or e5cessive amounts of Martensite. The advent of low-carbon
steels containing boron and molybdenum in 1?GH allowed fully #ainitic steel to be produced
by continuous cooling
C1D

C>D
. Commercial use of bainitic steel thus came about as a result of
the development of new heat treating methods, those that involve a step holding the work
piece at a fi5ed temperature for a period of time sufficient to allow transformation became
colelctively know as austempering.
Ane of the first uses of austempered steel was in rifle bolts during ,orld ,ar ))
C=D
. The high
impact strength possible at high hardnesses, and the relatively small section si*e of the
components made austempered steel ideal for this application. Aver subse3uent decades
austempering revolutioni*ed the spring industry followed by clips and clamps. These
components, which are usually thin, formed parts do not re3uire e5pensive alloys and
generally possess better elastic properties than their tempered Martensite counterparts.
eventually austempered steel made its way into the automotive industry where one of its first
uses was in safety critical components. The maLority of car seat brackets and seat belt
components are made of austempered steel because of its high strength and ductility
C=D
.
These properties allow it to absorb significantly more energy during a crash without the risk
of brittle failure. Currently, austempered steel is also used in bearings, mower blades,
transmission gear, wave plate, and turf aeration tines
C=D
. in the second half of the twentieth
1GI
century the austempering process began to be commercially applied to cast irons.
(ustempered
/uctile )ron (/)! was first commerciali*ed in the early 1?F9-s and has since become a
maLor industry.
C/20(D Proc/''
The most notable difference between austempering and conventional 3uench and tempering
is that it involves holding the workpiece at the 3uenching temperature for an e5tended period
of time. The basic steps are the same whether applied to cast iron or steel and are as follows@
C/20(D A1'(/n0(0G0n+
)n order for any transformation to take place the microstructure of the metal must be
austenite. The e5act boundaries of the austenite phase region depend on the chemistry of the
alloy being heat treated. however, austeniti*ing temperatures are typically between F?9 and
?1GXC 1=GG to 1IH9X$!
CGD
. The amount of time spent at this temperature will vary with the
alloy and process specifics for a through-hardened part the best results are acheived when
austeniti*ation is long enough to produce a fully austenitic metal microstructure there will
still be graphite present in cast irons! with a consistent carbon content. )n steels this may only
take a few minutes after the austeniti*ing temperature has been reached throughout the part
section, but in cast irons it takes longer. This is because carbon must diffuse out of the
graphite until it has reached the e3uilibrium concentration dictated by the temperature and the
phase diagram.
This step may be done in many types of furnaces, in a high temperature salt bath, via direct
flame or induction heating numerous patents e5ist for specific methods and variations.
C/20(D K1/nc-0n+
(s with conventional 3uench and tempering the material being heat treated must be cooled
from the austeniti*ing temperature 3uickly enough to avoid the formation of pearlite. The
specific cooling rate that is necessary to avoid the formation of pearlite is a product of the
chemistry of the austenite phase and thus the alloy being processed. the actually cooling rate
is a product of both the 3uench severity, which is influenced by 3uench media, agitation,
load@3uenchant ratio, etc, and the thickness and geometry of the part. (s a result, heavier
section components re3uired greater hardenability. in austempering the heat treat load is
3uenched to a temperature which is typically above the Martensite start of the austenite and
held. )n some patented processes the parts are 3uench Lust below the Martensite start so that
the resulting microstructure is a controlled mi5ture of Martensite and #ainite.
The two important aspects of 3uenching are the cooling rate and the holding time. The most
common practice is to 3uench into a bath of li3uid nitrie-nitrate salt and hold in the bath.
#ecause of the restricted temperature range for processing it is not usually possible to 3uench
in water or brine, but high temperature oils are used for a narrow temperature range. some
1GF
processes feature 3uenching and then removal from the 3uench media for and then holding in
a furnace.
The 3uench and holding temperature are primary processing paramters that control the final
hardness, and thus properties of the material.
C/20(D Coo*0n+
(fter 3uenching and holding there is no danger of crackingK parts are typically air cooled or
put directly into a room temperature wash system.
C/20(D T/m,/r0n+
.o tempering is re3uired after austempering if the part is through hardened and fully
transformed to either #ainite or ausferrite
CGD
. tempering adds another stage and thus cost to
the processK it does not provide the same property modification and stress relief in #ainite or
ausferrite that it does for virgin Martensite.
C/20(D A2>)n()+/' o A1'(/m,/r0n+
(ustempering offers many manufacturing and performance advantages over traditional
materialMprocess combinations. )t may be applied to numerous materials, and each
combination has its own advantages, which are listed below. Ane of the advantages that is
common to all austempered materials is a lower rate of distortion than for 3uench and
tempering. This can be translated into significant cost savings by adLusting the entire
manufacturing process.
The most immediate cost savings are reali*ed by machining before heat treatment. There are
many such savings possible in the specific case of converting a 3uench and tempered steel
component to austempered ductile iron (/)!. )n .orth (merica and many other parts of the
world the cost of ductile iron per kilogram is less than that for steel
Ccitation neeeD
. /uctile iron is
19d less dense than steel and can be cast near to net shape, both characteristics that reduce
the casting weight. .ear net shap casting also reduces the machining cost further, which is
already reduced by machining soft ductile iron instead of hardened steel. ( lighter finished
part reduces freight charges and the streamlined production flow often reduces lead time. )n
many cases strength and wear resistance can also be improved
C=D
.
'rocessMMaterial combinations include@
austempered steel
Carbo-(ustempered steel
Marbain steel
(ustempered /uctile )ron (/)!
2ocally (ustempered /uctil )ron 2(/)!
(ustempered +ray )ron (+)!
Carbidic (ustempered /uctile )ron C(/)!
1GH
,hen speaking of performance improvements, austempered materials are typically compared
to conventionally 3uench and tempered materials with a tempered Martensite microstructure.
)n steels above =9 6c these improvements include@
&igher ductility, impact strength and wear resistance for a given hardness,
( low distortion, repeatable dimensional response,
)ncreased fatigue strength,
6esistance to hydrogen and environmental embrittlement.
)n cast irons from 7G9-GG9 &#,! these improvements include@
&igher ductility and impact resistance for a given hardness,
( low distortion, repeatable dimensional response,
)ncreased fatigue strength,
)ncreased wear resistance for a given hardness.
C/20(D R//r/nc/'
1.
a

#hadeshis, &. :. /. &., B#ainite in "teels@ Transformations, Microstructure, and

propertiesB second edition, )AM Communications, 2ondon, England, 7991
7. R #ain, Edgar C., B$unctions of the (lloying Elements in "teelB (merican "ociety for
Metals, Cleveland, Ahio, 1?>?
>. R )rvine, :.8. and 'ickering, $.# 8)") 1HH, 1?GH.
=.
a

c

d
http@MMwww.appliedprocess.com
G.
a

B&eat TreaterYs +uide@ 'ractices and procedures for )rons and "teelsB ("M
)nternational, Materials 'ark, Ahio, "econd Edition,1??G
6etrieved from Bhttp@MMen.wikipedia.orgMwikiM(ustemperingB Categories@ Metal heat
treatments &idden categories@ ,ikipedia articles needing cleanup from "eptember 799? (ll
articles needing cleanup (ll articles with unsourced statements (rticles with unsourced
statements
Personal tools
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This page was last modified on 1? .ovember 7919 at 9G@G?.
1I9
Te5t is available under the Creative Commons (ttribution-"hare(like 2icenseK
additional terms may apply. "ee Terms of Use for details.
,ikipedia is a registered trademark of the ,ikimedia $oundation, )nc., a non-profit
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C)r8on '(//*
$rom ,ikipedia, the free encyclopedia
8ump to@ navigation, search
Iron )**o& ,-)'/'
v d e
$errite e-iron, -iron!
(ustenite l-iron!
'earlite HHd ferrite, 17d cementite!
Martensite
#ainite
2edeburite ferrite-cementite eutectic, =.>d carbon!
Cementite iron carbide, $e
>
C!
S(//* c*)''/'
Crucible steel
C)r8on '(//* 7.1d carbonK low alloy!
"pring steel low or no alloy!
(lloy steel contains non-carbon elements!
Maraging steel contains nickel!
"tainless steel contains 19.Gd chromium!
,eathering steel
Tool steel alloy steel for tools!
O(-/r 0ron@8)'/2 m)(/r0)*'
Cast iron _7.1d carbon!
/uctile iron
+ray iron
Malleable iron
,hite iron
1I1
,rought iron contains slag!
C)r8on '(//*, also called ,*)0n@c)r8on '(//*, is steel where the main alloying constituent is
carbon. The (merican )ron and "teel )nstitute ()")! defines carbon steel as@ B"teel is
considered to be carbon steel when no minimum content is specified or re3uired for
chromium, cobalt, columbium, molybdenum, nickel, titanium, tungsten, vanadium or
*irconium, or any other element to be added to obtain a desired alloying effectK when the
specified minimum for copper does not e5ceed 9.=9 percentK or when the ma5imum content
specified for any of the following elements does not e5ceed the percentages noted@
manganese 1.IG, silicon 9.I9, copper 9.I9.B
C1D
The term Bcarbon steelB may also be used in reference to steel which is not stainless steelK in
this use carbon steel may include alloy steels.
(s the carbon content rises, steel has the ability to become harder and stronger through heat
treating, but this also makes it less ductile. 6egardless of the heat treatment, a higher carbon
content reduces weldability. )n carbon steels, the higher carbon content lowers the melting
point.
C7D
Eighty-five percent of all steel used in the United "tates is carbon steel.
C1D
Con(/n('
ChideD
1 Types
o 1.1 Mild and low carbon steel
o 1.7 &igher carbon steels
7 &eat treatment
> Case hardening
= "ee also
G 6eferences
I #ibliography
C/20(D T&,/'
!ee also# !0E steel graes
Carbon steel is broken down in to four classes based on carbon content@
C/20(D M0*2 )n2 *o? c)r8on '(//*
Mild steel is the most common form of steel because its price is relatively low while it
provides material properties that are acceptable for many applications. 2ow carbon steel
contains appro5imately 9.9G19.1Gd carbon
C1D
and mild steel contains 9.1I19.7?d
C1D
carbon,
1I7
therefore it is neither brittle nor ductile. Mild steel has a relatively low tensile strength, but it
is cheap and malleableK surface hardness can be increased through carburi*ing.
C>D
)t is often used when large 3uantities of steel are needed, for e5ample as structural steel. The
density of mild steel is appro5imately F.HG gMcm
>
9.7H= lbMin
>
!
C=D
and the 4oungYs modulus is
719,999 M'a >9,999,999 psi!.
CGD
2ow carbon steels suffer from yiel:point runout where the material has two yield points. The
first yield point or upper yield point! is higher than the second and the yield drops
dramatically after the upper yield point. )f a low carbon steel is only stressed to some point
between the upper and lower yield point then the surface may develop 2der bands.
CID
C/20(D H0+-/r c)r8on '(//*'
Carbon steels which can successfully undergo heat-treatment have a carbon content in the
range of 9.>911.F9d by weight. Trace impurities of various other elements can have a
significant effect on the 3uality of the resulting steel. Trace amounts of sulfur in particular
make the steel red-short. 2ow alloy carbon steel, such as (>I grade, contains about 9.9Gd
sulfur and melts around 1,=7I11,G>H XC 7,G??17,H99 X$!.
CFD
Manganese is often added to
improve the hardenability of low carbon steels. These additions turn the material into a low
alloy steel by some definitions, but ()")Ys definition of carbon steel allows up to 1.IGd
manganese by weight.
Medium carbon steel
(ppro5imately 9.>919.G?d carbon content.
C1D
#alances ductility and strength and has good
wear resistanceK used for large parts, forging and automotive components.
CHD
&igh carbon steel
(ppro5imately 9.I19.??d carbon content.
C1D
0ery strong, used for springs and high-strength
wires.
C?D
Ultra-high carbon steel
(ppro5imately 1.917.9d carbon content.
C1D
"teels that can be tempered to great hardness.
Used for special purposes like non-industrial-purpose! knives, a5les or punches. Most steels
with more than 1.7d carbon content are made using powder metallurgy. .ote that steel with
a carbon content above 7.9d is considered cast iron.
"teel can be heat treated which allows parts to be fabricated in an easily-formable soft state.
)f enough carbon is present, the alloy can be hardened to increase strength, wear, and impact
resistance. "teels are often wrought by cold working methods, which is the shaping of metal
through deformation at a low e3uilibrium or metastable temperature.
C/20(D H/)( (r/)(m/n(
1I>
)ron-carbon phase diagram, showing the temperature and carbon ranges for certain types of
heat treatments.
Main article# 8eat treatment
The purpose of heat treating carbon steel is to change the mechanical properties of steel,
usually ductility, hardness, yield strength, or impact resistance. .ote that the electrical and
thermal conductivity are slightly altered. (s with most strengthening techni3ues for steel,
4oungYs modulus is unaffected. "teel has a higher solid solubility for carbon in the austenite
phaseK therefore all heat treatments, e5cept spheroidi*ing and process annealing, start by
heating to an austenitic phase. The rate at which the steel is cooled through the eutectoid
reaction affects the rate at which carbon diffuses out of austenite. +enerally speaking, cooling
swiftly will give a finer pearlite until the martensite critical temperature is reached! and
cooling slowly will give a coarser pearlite. Cooling a hypoeutectoid less than 9.FF wtd C!
steel results in a pearlitic structure with e-ferrite at the grain boundaries. )f it is
hypereutectoid more than 9.FF wtd C! steel then the structure is full pearlite with small
grains of cementite scattered throughout. The relative amounts of constituents are found
using the lever rule. &ere is a list of the types of heat treatments possible@
S,-/ro020G0n+@ "pheroidite forms when carbon steel is heated to appro5imately
F99 XC for over >9 hours. "pheroidite can form at lower temperatures but the time
needed drastically increases, as this is a diffusion-controlled process. The result is a
structure of rods or spheres of cementite within primary structure ferrite or pearlite,
depending on which side of the eutectoid you are on!. The purpose is to soften higher
carbon steels and allow more formability. This is the softest and most ductile form of
steel. The image to the right shows where spheroidi*ing usually occurs.
C19D

F1** )nn/)*0n+ @ Carbon steel is heated to appro5imately =9 XC above (c
>
or (c
1
for 1
hourK this assures all the ferrite transforms into austenite although cementite might
still e5ist if the carbon content is greater than the eutectoid!. The steel must then be
cooled slowly, in the realm of >H XC 199 X$! per hour. Usually it is Lust furnace
cooled, where the furnace is turned off with the steel still inside. This results in a
coarse pearlitic structure, which means the BbandsB of pearlite are thick. $ully-
annealed steel is soft and ductile, with no internal stresses, which is often necessary
for cost-effective forming. Anly spheroidi*ed steel is softer and more ductile.
C11D

Proc/'' )nn/)*0n+@ ( process used to relieve stress in a cold-worked carbon steel
with less than 9.> wtd C. The steel is usually heated up to GG91IG9 XC for 1 hour, but
sometimes temperatures as high as F99 XC. The image rightward shows the area
where process annealing occurs.
I'o(-/rm)* )nn/)*0n+@ )t is a process in which hypoeutectoid steel is heated above
the upper critical temperature and this temperature is maintained for a time and then
the temperature is brought down below lower critical temperature and is again
maintained. Then finally it is cooled at room temperature. This method rids any
temperature gradient.
Norm)*0G0n+@ Carbon steel is heated to appro5imately GG XC above (c
>
or (c
m
for 1
hourK this assures the steel completely transforms to austenite. The steel is then air-
cooled, which is a cooling rate of appro5imately >H XC IH X$! per minute. This
1I=
results in a fine pearlitic structure, and a more-uniform structure. .ormali*ed steel has
a higher strength than annealed steelK it has a relatively high strength and ductility.
C17D

K1/nc-0n+ @ Carbon steel with at least 9.= wtd C is heated to normali*ing
temperatures and then rapidly cooled 3uenched! in water, brine, or oil to the critical
temperature. The critical temperature is dependent on the carbon content, but as a
general rule is lower as the carbon content increases. This results in a martensitic
structureK a form of steel that possesses a super-saturated carbon content in a
deformed body-centered cubic #CC! crystalline structure, properly termed body-
centered tetragonal #CT!, with much internal stress. Thus 3uenched steel is
e5tremely hard but brittle, usually too brittle for practical purposes. These internal
stresses cause stress cracks on the surface. suenched steel is appro5imately three to
four with more carbon! fold harder than normali*ed steel.
C1>D

M)r(/m,/r0n+ (M)rE1/nc-0n+"@ Martempering is not actually a tempering
procedure, hence the term Bmar3uenchingB. )t is a form of isothermal heat treatment
applied after an initial 3uench of typically in a molten salt bath at a temperature right
above the Bmartensite start temperatureB. (t this temperature, residual stresses within
the material are relieved and some bainite may be formed from the retained austenite
which did not have time to transform into anything else. )n industry, this is a process
used to control the ductility and hardness of a material. ,ith longer mar3uenching,
the ductility increases with a minimal loss in strengthK the steel is held in this solution
until the inner and outer temperatures e3uali*e. Then the steel is cooled at a moderate
speed to keep the temperature gradient minimal. .ot only does this process reduce
internal stresses and stress cracks, but it also increases the impact resistance.
C1=D

K1/nc- )n2 (/m,/r0n+ @ This is the most common heat treatment encountered,
because the final properties can be precisely determined by the temperature and time
of the tempering. Tempering involves reheating 3uenched steel to a temperature
below the eutectoid temperature then cooling. The elevated temperature allows very
small amounts of spheroidite to form, which restores ductility, but reduces hardness.
(ctual temperatures and times are carefully chosen for each composition.
C1GD

A1'(/m,/r0n+ @ The austempering process is the same as martempering, e5cept the
steel is held in the molten salt bath through the bainite transformation temperatures,
and then moderately cooled. The resulting bainite steel has a greater ductility, higher
impact resistance, and less distortion. The disadvantage of austempering is it can only
be used on a few steels, and it re3uires a special salt bath.
C1ID

C/20(D C)'/ -)r2/n0n+
Main article# -ase harening
Case hardening processes harden only the e5terior of the steel part, creating a hard, wear
resistant skin the BcaseB! but preserving a tough and ductile interior. Carbon steels are not
very hardenableK therefore wide pieces cannot be thru-hardened. (lloy steels have a better
hardenability, so they can through-harden and do not re3uire case hardening. This property of
carbon steel can be beneficial, because it gives the surface good wear characteristics but
1IG
leaves the core tough.
C/20(D S// )*'o
Cold working
&ot working
C/20(D R//r/nc/'
1.
a

c

d

e

(

g
-lassification of -arbon an Aow:0lloy !teel, archived from the original
on 7919-9>-11, http@MMwww.webcitation.orgMGo?"/yE(b, retrieved 7919-9>-11.
7. R :nowles, 'eter 6eginald 1?HF!, 'esign of structural steelwork 7nd ed.!, Taylor %
$rancis, p. 1, )"#. ?FH9?9>>H=G??, http@MMbooks.google.comMbooksidPUIwg-
>CHygcC%pgP'(1.
>. R Engineering fundamentals page on low-carbon steel
=. R Elert, +lenn, 'ensity of !teel,
http@MMhyperte5tbook.comMfactsM799=M:aren"utherland.shtml, retrieved 799?-9=-7>.
G. R Moulus of Elasticity, !trength 6roperties of Metals : 7ron an !teel,
http@MMwww.engineersedge.comMmanufacturingspecMpropertiesofmetalsstrength.ht
m, retrieved 799?-9=-7>.
I. R /egarmo, p. >FF.
F. R (meristeel article on carbon steel
H. R Engineering fundamentals page on medium-carbon steel
?. R Engineering fundamentals page on high-carbon steel
19. R "mith, p. >HH.
11. R "mith, p. >HI.
17. R "mith, pp. >HI1>HF.
1>. R "mith, pp. >F>1>FF.
1=. R "mith, pp. >H?1>?9.
1G. R "mith, pp. >HF->HH.
1I. R "mith, p. >?1.
C/20(D B08*0o+r),-&
/egarmo, E. 'aulK #lack, 8 T.K :ohser, 6onald (. 799>!, Materials an 6rocesses in
Manufacturing ?th ed.!, ,iley, )"#. 9-=F1-IGIG>-=.
Aberg, E.K et al. 1??I!, Machinery9s 8anbook 7Gth ed.!, )ndustrial 'ress )nc,
)"#. 9H>117G??>.
"mith, ,illiam $.K &ashemi, 8avad 799I!, $ounations of Materials !cience an
Engineering =th ed.!, Mc+raw-&ill, )"#. 9-9F-7?G>GH-I.
6etrieved from Bhttp@MMen.wikipedia.orgMwikiMCarbonsteelB
Categories@ "teels Metallurgical processes
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Ti ng 0i t
This page was last modified on H .ovember 7919 at 11@1=.
Te5t is available under the Creative Commons (ttribution-"hare(like 2icenseK
additional terms may apply. "ee Terms of Use for details.
,ikipedia is a registered trademark of the ,ikimedia $oundation, )nc., a non-profit
organi*ation.
Contact us
'rivacy policy
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/isclaimers
C)r81r0G/2 '(//* ,)r(' )r/ r)r/*& 1'/2 ?0(-o1( '18'/E1/n( -/)( (r/)(m/n(! ?-0c-
con'0'(' o '/>/r)* '(/,' (o o8()0n optimum hardness in the case, and optimum strength and
ductility in the core. +rain si*e of the core and case is refined. a. 6efining the core is
accomplished by reheating the parts to a point Lust above the critical temperature of
the steel. (fter soaking for a sufficient time to insure uniform heating, the parts are
3uenched in oil. b. The hardening temperature for the high carbon case is well below that of
the core. )t is, therefore, necessary to heat the parts again to the critical temperature of the
case and 3uench them in oil to produce the re3uired hardness. ( soaking period of 19
minutes is generally sufficient. c. ( final stress relieving operation is necessary to
minimi*e the hardening stresses produced by the previous treatment. The stress
relieving temperature is generally around >G9U $. This is accomplished by heating, soaking
until uniformly heated, and cooling in still air. ,hen e5treme hardness is desired, the
1IH
temperature should be carefully held to the lower limit of the range. 6@4;. CYANIDING.
S(//* ,)r(' m)& 8/ '1r)c/@-)r2/n/2 8& -/)(0n+ ?-0*/ 0n con()c( ?0(- ) c&)n02
')*(! o**o?/2 8& 3uenching. Anly a thin case is obtained by this method and it is,
therefore, seldom used in connection with aircraft construction or repair. Cyaniding is,
however, a rapid and economical method of case hardening, and may be used in some
instances for relatively unimportant parts. The work to be hardened is immersed in a bath of
molten sodium or potassium cyanide from >9 to I9 minutes. The cyanide bath should be
mainlined at temperature to FI9U C to H??U C 1,=99U $ to 1,IG9UU $!. )mmediately after
removal from the bath, the parts are 3uenched in water. The case obtained in this manner is
due principally to the formation of carbides and nitrides on the surface of the steel. The use
of a closed pot and ventilating hood are re3uired for cyaniding, as cyanide vapors are
e5tremely poisonous. 6@46. NITRIDING. T-0' m/(-o2 o c)'/ -)r2/n0n+ 0'
)2>)n()+/o1' 21/ (o (-/ )c( (-)( ) -)r2/r c)'/ 0' o8()0n/2 (-)n by carburi*ing. Many
engine parts such as cylinder barrels and gears may be treated in this way. .itriding is
generally applied to certain special steel alloys, one of the essential constituents of which is
aluminum. The process involves the e5posing of the parts to ammonia gas or other
nitrogenous materials for 79 to 199 hours at ?G9U$. The container in which the work
and (mmonia gas are brought in contact must be airtight and capable of maintaining good
circulation and even temperature throughout. The depth of case obtained by nitriding is
about 9.91G inch if heated for G9 hours. The nitriding process does not affect the physical
state of the core if the preceding tempering temperature was ?G9U $ or over. ,hen a
part is to be only partially treated, tinning of any surface will prevent it from being nitrides.
.itrided surfaces can be reheated to ?G9U $ with out losing any of their hardness. &owever,
if heated above that temperature, the hardness is rapidly lost and cannot be regained by
retreatment. 'rior to any nitriding treatment, all decarburi*ed metal must be removed
to prevent flaking of the nitrided case. ,hen no distortion is permissible in the nitrided part,
it is necessary to normali*e the steel prior to nitriding to remove all strains resulting from the
forging, 3uenching, or machining. 6@4#. HEAT TREATING EKUIPMENT. E3uipment
necessary for heat treating consists of a suitable means for bringing the metal to the re3uired
temperature measuring and controlling device, and 3uenching medium. &eat may, in
some instances, be supplied by means of a forge or welding torchK however, for the
treatment re3uired in aircraft work, a furnace is necessary. 0arious Ligs and fi5tures
are sometimes needed for controlling 3uenching and preventing warping. 6@44.
FURNACES. H/)( (r/)(0n+ 1rn)c/' )r/ o m)n& 2/'0+n' )n2 no on/ '0G/ or (&,/
,/r/c(*& 0**' />/r& -/)( (r/)(0n+ re3uirement. The si*e and 3uantity of metal to be treated
and the various treatments re3uired determine the si*e and type of furnace most suitable
for each individual case. The furnace should be of a suitable type and design for
the purpose intended and should be capable of maintaining within the working *one a
temperature varying not more than [ or 1=U C 7GU$! for the desired value
N0(r020n+
$rom ,ikipedia, the free encyclopedia
8ump to@ navigation, search
This article n//2' )220(0on)* c0()(0on' or >/r00c)(0on.
'lease help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be
1I?
challenged and removed. &March ()%)+
N0(r020n+ is a heat treating process that alloys nitrogen onto the surface of a metal to create a
case hardened surface. )t is predominantly used on steel, but also titanium, aluminum and
molybdenum.
Typical applications include gears, crankshafts, camshafts, cam followers, valve parts,
e5truder screws, die-casting tools, forging dies, e5trusion dies, inLectors and plastic-mold
tools.
Con(/n('
ChideD
1 'rocesses
o 1.1 +as nitriding
o 1.7 "alt bath nitriding
o 1.> 'lasma nitriding
7 Materials for nitriding
> &istory
= "ee also
G 6eferences
I $urther reading
F E5ternal links
C/20(D Proc/''/'
The processes are named after the medium used to donate nitrogen. The three main methods
used are@ gas nitriing, salt bath nitriing, and plasma nitriing.
C/20(D G)' n0(r020n+
)n gas nitriding the donor is a nitrogen rich gas usually ammonia .&
>
!, which is why it is
sometimes known as ammonia nitriing.
C1D
,hen ammonia comes into contact with the
heated work piece it disassociates into nitrogen and hydrogen. The nitrogen then diffuses
from the surface into the core of the material. This process has been around for nearly a
century though only in the last few decades has there been a concentrated effort to investigate
the thermodynamics and kinetics involved. 6ecent developments have led to a process that
can be accurately controlled. The thickness and phase constitution of the resulting nitriding
layers can be selected and the process optimi*ed for the particular properties re3uired. The
advantages of gas nitriding over the other variants are@
(ll round nitriding effect can be a disadvantage in some cases, compared with
plasma nitriding!
1F9
2arge batch si*es possible - the limiting factor being furnace si*e and gas flow
,ith modern computer control of the atmosphere the nitriding results can be tightly
controlled
6elatively cheap e3uipment cost - especially compared with plasma
The disadvantages of gas nitriding are@
6eaction kinetics heavily influenced by surface condition - an oily surface or one
contaminated with cutting fluids for e5ample will deliver poor results
"urface activation is sometimes re3uired to successfully treat steels with a high
chromium content - compare sputtering during plasma nitriding
(mmonia as nitriding medium - though not especially to5ic it can be harmful when
inhaled in large 3uantities. (lso, care must be taken when heating in the presence of
o5ygen to reduce the risk of e5plosion
C/20(D S)*( 8)(- n0(r020n+
)n salt bath nitriding the nitrogen donating medium is a nitrogen containing salt such as
cyanide salt. The salts used also donate carbon to the workpiece surface making salt bath a
nitrocarburi*ing process. The temperature used is typical of all nitrocarburi*ing processes@
GG91G?9 XC 1,97711,9?= X$!. The advantages of salt nitriding are@
suick processing time - usually in the order of = hours or so to achieve
"imple operation - heat the salt and workpieces to temperature and submerge until the
duration has e5pired
The disadvantages are@
The salts used are highly to5ic - /isposal of salts are controlled by stringent
environmental laws in western countries and has increased the costs involved in using
salt baths. This is one of the most significant reasons the process has fallen out of
favor in the last decade or so.
Anly one process possible with a particular salt type - since the nitrogen potential is
set by the salt, only one type of process is possible
C/20(D P*)'m) n0(r020n+
'lasma nitriding, also known as ion nitriing, plasma ion nitriing or glow:ischarge
nitriing, is an industrial surface hardening treatment for metallic materials.
)n plasma nitriding, the reactivity of the nitriding media is not due to the temperature but to
the gas ioni*ed state. )n this techni3ue intense electric fields are used to generate ioni*ed
molecules of the gas around the surface to be nitrided. "uch highly active gas with ioni*ed
molecules is called plasma, naming the techni3ue. The gas used for plasma nitriding is
usually pure nitrogen, since no spontaneous decomposition is needed as is the case of gas
nitriding with amonia!. There are hot plasmas typified by plasma Lets used for metal cutting,
1F1
welding, cladding or spraying. There are also cold plasmas, usually generated inside vacuum
chambers, at low pressure regimes.
Usually steels are very beneficially treated with plasma nitriding. 'lasma nitriding advantage
is related to the close control of the nitrided microstructure, allowing nitriding with or
without compound layer formation. .ot only the performance of metal parts gets enhanced
but working lifespan gets boosted. "o does the strain limit, and the fatigue strength of the
metals being treated.
( plasma nitrided part is usually ready for use. )t calls for no machining, or polishing or any
other post-nitriding operations. Thus the process is user-friendly, saves energy since it works
fastest, and causes little or no distortion.
This process was invented by /r. #ernhardt #erghaus of +ermany who later settled in Jurich
to escape persecution of his community by the .a*is in 1?>?. )t was only after his death in
late 1?I9s that the process was ac3uired by :lockner group and populari*ed world over.
'lasma nitriding is often coupled with physical vapor deposition '0/! process and labeled
/uple5 Treatment, to avail of immensely enhanced benefits. Many users prefer to have a
plasma o5idation step combined at the last phase of processing to generate a smooth Letblack
layer of o5ides which is very resistant to not only wear but corrosion.
"ince nitrogen ions are made available by ioni*ation, differently from gas or salt bath, plasma
nitriding efficiency does not depend on the temperature. 'lasma nitriding can thus be
performed in a broad temperature range, from 7I9XC to more than I99XC.
C7D
$or instance, at
moderate temperatures like =79XC!, stainless steels can be nitrided without the formation of
chromium nitride precipitates and hence maintaining their corrosion resistance properties.
)n plasma nitriding processes nitrogen gas .
7
! is usually the nitrogen carrying gas. Ather
gasses like hydrogen or (rgon are also used. )ndeed, (rgon and &
7
can be used before the
nitriding process during the heating up of the parts in order to clean the surfaces to be
nitrided. This cleaning procedure effectively removes the o5ide layer from surfaces and may
remove fine layers of solvants that could remain. This also helps the thermal stability of the
plasma plant since the heat added by the plasma is already present during the warm up and
hence once the process temperature is reached the actual nitriding begins with minor heating
changes. $or the nitriding process &
7
gas is also added in order keep the surface clear of
o5ides.
C/20(D M)(/r0)*' or n0(r020n+
E5amples of easily nitridable steels include the "(E =199, =>99, G199, I199, HI99, HF99,
?>99 and ?H99 series, U: aircraft 3uality steel grades #" =" 19I, #" >" 1>7, ?9GM>?
E.=1#!, stainless steels, some tool steels &1> and '79 for e5ample! and certain cast irons.
)deally, steels for nitriding should be in the hardened and tempered condition, re3uiring
nitriding take place at a lower temperature than the last tempering temperature. ( fine-turned
or ground surface finish is best. Minimal amounts of material should be removed post
1F7
nitriding to preserve the surface hardness.
.itriding alloys are alloy steels with nitride forming elements such as aluminum, chromium,
molybdenum and titanium.
C/20(D H0'(or&
"ystematic investigation into the effect of nitrogen on the surface properties of steel only
started in the 1?79s. )nvestigation into gas nitriding began independently in both +ermany
and (merica. The process was greeted with enthusiasm in +ermany and several steel grades
were developed with nitriding especially in mind, these are the so called nitriding steels. The
reception in (merica, on the other hand, was less impressive. ,ith so little demand the
process was more or less forgotten in the U". )t was only after ,orld ,ar )) that the process
was reintroduced from Europe. ( great deal of research has taken place in the last few
decades to understand the thermodynamics and kinetics of the reactions taking place.
C/20(D S// )*'o
Carburi*ation
Carbonitriding
"urface finishing
C/20(D R//r/nc/'
1. R )on .itriding and .itrocarburi*ing of "intered 'M 'arts, Actober F, 799=
7. R Jagonel, 2K $igueroa, CK /roppaLr, 6K (lvare*, $ 799I!. B)nfluence of the process
temperature on the steel microstructure and hardening in pulsed plasma nitridingB.
!urface an -oatings 3echnology 60;@ =G7. doi@19.191IML.surfcoat.799G.11.1>F.
C/20(D F1r(-/r r/)20n+
6uth ChatterLee-$ischer - ,rmebehandlung von Eisenwerkstoffen@ .itrieren und
.itrocarburieren C&eat treatment of ferrous materials@ nitriding and nitrocarburisingD
1??G 7nd Edition E5pert 0erlag )"#. >-H1G?-19?7
Chattopadhyay, 6amnarayan 799=!. B'lasma .itridingB. 0vance 3hermally
0ssiste !urface Engineering 6rocesses. #erlin@ "pringer. pp. ?91?=. )"#. 1-=979-
FI?I-F.
C/20(D EB(/rn)* *0nA'
:ey to "teel - .itriding
BM)2-"-I9?9(, Military "pecification@ 'rocess for "teels Used )n (ircraft
Carburi*ing and .itridingB. United "tates /epartment of /efense. 9F 8U. 1?F1.
http@MMwww.everyspec.comMM)2-"'EC"MM)2["'EC"[M)2-"!MM)2-"-
I9?9(HH19M.
1F>
C)r8on0(r020n+
$rom ,ikipedia, the free encyclopedia
8ump to@ navigation, search
Not to be confuse with Nitrocarburizing.
This article n//2' )220(0on)* c0()(0on' or >/r00c)(0on.
'lease help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be
challenged and removed. &0ugust ())*+
C)r8on0(r020n+ is a metallurgical surface modification techni3ue that is used to increase the
surface hardness of a metal, thereby reducing wear. /uring the process, atoms of carbon and
nitrogen diffuse interstitially into the metal, creating barriers to slip, increasing the hardness
and modulus near the surface. Carbonitriding is often applied to ine5pensive, easily machined
low carbon steel to impart the surface properties of more e5pensive and difficult to work
grades of steel.
C1D
"urface hardness of carbonitrided parts ranges from GG to I7 &6C.
Certain pre-industrial case hardening processes include not only carbon-rich materials such as
charcoal, but nitrogen-rich materials such as urea, which implies that traditional surface
hardening techni3ues were a form of carbonitriding.
Con(/n('
ChideD
1 'rocess
7 Characteristics of carbonitrided parts
> (dvantages
= (pplications
G "ee also
I 6eferences
C/20(D Proc/''
Carbonitriding is similar to gas carburi*ation with the addition of ammonia to the carburi*ing
atmosphere. which provides a source of nitrogen. .itrogen is adsorbed at the surface and
diffuses into the workpiece along with carbon. Carbonitriding around HG9 XC M 1GG9 X$! is
carried out at temperatures substantially higher than plain nitriding around G>9 XC M ??9 X$!
but slightly lower than those used for carburi*ing around ?G9 XC M 1F99 X$! and for shorter
times. Carbonitriding tends to be more economical than carburi*ing, and also reduces
distortion during 3uenching. The lower temperature allows oil 3uenching, or even gas
3uenching with a protective atmosphere.
C/20(D C-)r)c(/r0'(0c' o c)r8on0(r02/2 ,)r('
Carbonitriding forms a hard, wear resistant case, typically .9Fmm -.Gmm thick, and generally
1F=
has higher hardness than a carburi*ed case. Case depth is tailored to the application, and a
thicker case, increases wear life of the part. Carbonitriding alters only the top layers of the
workpieceK and does not deposit an additional layer, so the process does not significantly alter
the dimensions of the part.
Ma5imum case depth is typically restricted to 9.FGmmK case depths greater than this take too
long to diffuse to be economical. "horter processing times are preferred to restrict the
concentration of nitrogen in the case, as nitrogen addition is more difficult to control than
carbon. (n e5cess of nitrogen in the work piece can cause high levels of retained austenite
and porosity, which are undesirable in producing a part of high hardness.
C/20(D A2>)n()+/'
Carbonitriding also has other advantages over carburi*ingK it has a greater resistance to
softening during tempering and increased fatigue and impact strength. )t is possible to use
both carbonitriding and carburi*ing together to form optimum conditions of deeper case
depths and therefore performance of the part in industry. This method is applied particularly
to steels with low case hardenability, such as the seat of the valve. The process applied is
initially carburi*ing to the re3uired case depth up to 7.Gmm! at around ?99-?GGXC, and then
carbonitriding to achieve re3uired carbonitrided case depth. The parts are then oil 3uenched,
and the resulting part has a harder case than possibly achieved for carburi*ation, and the
addition of the carbonitrided layer increases the residual compressive stresses in the case such
that the contact fatigue resistance and strength gradient are both increased.
C/20(D A,,*0c)(0on'
Typical applications for case hardening are gear teeth, cams, shafts, bearings, fasteners, pins,
automotive clutch plates, tools, and dies.
C/20(D S// )*'o
.itridi*ation
Carburi*ation
/ifferential hardening
suench polish 3uench
"urface engineering
F*)m/ -)r2/n0n+ VS 0n21c(0on -)r2/n0n+ VS *)'/r (r)n'orm)(0on -)r2/n0n+
&i Melrose
;. F*)m/ H)r2/n0n+
1FG
#asic, cheap, relatively easy set-up. 'rocess not very accurate and gives relatively thick
hardened cases. 'rocess relies on heat conduction from component surface, so relatively
slow.
6. In21c(0on H)r2/n0n+
6elatively e5pensive and comple5 set-up. 'rocess can be very accurate and repeatable and
good for mass production. 'rocess does not solely rely on heat conduction, but from
internally generated heat from induced electrical currents. Can be e5tremely fast heating even
for thick case hardening fre3uency dependent!.
#. L)'/r Tr)n'orm)(0on H)r2/n0n+
6elatively e5pensive and comple5 set-up. 'rocess can be very accurate and repeatable and
good for mass production. 'rocess relies on heat conduction. $ast for thin transformation
layers or la*er gla*ing, but time re3uired for deeper hardening.
)t is best to look at this from the point of view of the component and its intended application.
4ou should be able find detailed information on this subLect by searching +oogle or the like
or reading a good book on heat treatment.
Br0n/** 'c)*/
$rom ,ikipedia, the free encyclopedia
8ump to@ navigation, search
$orce diagram
The Br0n/** 'c)*/ characteri*es the indentation hardness of materials through the scale of
penetration of an indenter, loaded on a material test-piece. )t is one of several definitions of
hardness in materials science.
'roposed by "wedish engineer 8ohan (ugust #rinell in 1?99, it was the first widely used and
standardised hardness test in engineering and metallurgy. The large si*e of indentation and
possible damage to test-piece limits its usefulness.
The typical test uses a 19 millimetres 9.>? in! diameter steel ball as an indenter with a
>,999 kgf 7?,999 .K I,I99 lbf! force. $or softer materials, a smaller force is usedK for harder
materials, a tungsten carbide ball is substituted for the steel ball. The indentation is measured
1FI
and hardness calculated as@
where@
6 P applied force kgf!
' P diameter of indenter mm!
P diameter of indentation mm!
The #&. can be converted into the ultimate tensile strength UT"!, although the relationship
is dependent on the material, and therefore determined empirically. The relationship is based
on MeyerYs inde5 n! from MeyerYs law. )f MeyerYs inde5 is less than 7.7 then the ratio of UT"
to #&. is 9.>I. )f MeyerYs inde5 is greater than 7.7, then the ratio increases.
C1D
B8N is designated by the most commonly used test standards ("TM E19-9H
C7D
and )"A
IG9I-1@799G
C>D
! as 8B5 8 from hardness, B from brinell and 5 from the material of the
indenter, tungsten wolfram! carbide!. )n former standards &# or &#" were used to refer to
measurements made with steel indenters.
&#, is calculated in both standards using the ") units as
where@
$ P applied force .!
' P diameter of indenter mm!
P diameter of indentation mm!
Con(/n('
ChideD
1 Common values
7 "tandards
> "ee also
= 6eferences
o =.1 .otes
o =.7 #ibliography
G E5ternal links
C/20(D Common >)*1/'
,hen 3uoting a #rinell hardness number #&. or more commonly &#!, the conditions of
the test used to obtain the number must be specified. The standard format for specifying tests
can be seen in the e5ample B&#, 19M>999B. B&#,B means that a tungsten carbide from the
chemical symbol for tungsten! ball indenter was used, as opposed to B&#"B, which means a
hardened steel ball. The B19B is the ball diameter in millimeters. The B>999B is the force in
kilograms force.
1FF
#rinell hardness numbers
M)(/r0)* H)r2n/''
"oftwood e.g., pine! 1.I &#" 19M199
&ardwood 7.I1F.9 &#" 1.I 19M199
(luminium 1G &#
Copper >G &#
Mild steel 179 &#
1H-H >9=! stainless steel annealed 799 &#
C=D
+lass 1GG9 &#
&ardened tool steel 1G9911?99 &#
6henium diboride =I99 &#
.ote@ "tandard test conditions unless otherwise stated
C/20(D S()n2)r2'
)nternational )"A! and European CE.! "tandard
o E. )"A IG9I-1@799G@ Metallic materials - #rinell hardness test - 'art 1@ test
method
o E. )"A IG9I-7@799G@ Metallic materials - #rinell hardness test - 'art 7@
verification and calibration of testing machine
o E. )"A IG9I->@799G@ Metallic materials - #rinell hardness test - 'art >@
calibration of reference blocks
o E. )"A IG9I-=@799G@ Metallic materials - #rinell hardness test - 'art =@ Table
of hardness values
U" standard ("TM )nternational!
o ("TM E19-9H@ "tandard method for #rinell hardness of metallic materials.
C/20(D S// )*'o
#rinelling
&ardness comparison
:noop hardness test
2eeb 6ebound &ardness Test
6ockwell scale
0ickers hardness test
C/20(D R//r/nc/'
1FH
C/20(D No(/'
1. R Tabor, p. 1F.
7. R ("TM E19 - 9H "tandard Test Method for #rinell &ardness of Metallic Materials
>. R )"A IG9I-1@799G Metallic materials - #rinell hardness test - 'art 1@ Test method
=. R ,)># the place to start, http@MMwww.assda.asn.auMinde5.php
optionPcomcontent%taskPview%idPIG%)temidP?1, retrieved 799?-9>->1.
C/20(D B08*0o+r),-&
Tabor, /avid 7999!, 3he 8arness of Metals, A5ford University 'ress,
)"#. 91?HG9FFI>, http@MMbooks.google.comMidPb-?2d8G$&g4C.
C/20(D EB(/rn)* *0nA'
6ockwell to #rinell conversion chart
"truers hardness conversion table
#rinell &ardness &# conversion chart
6etrieved from Bhttp@MMen.wikipedia.orgMwikiM#rinellscaleB
Categories@ &ardness tests /imensionless numbers
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C-)r,& 0m,)c( (/'(

$rom ,ikipedia, the free encyclopedia
8ump to@ navigation, search
M)(/r0)*' )0*1r/ mo2/'
#uckling
Corrosion
Creep
$atigue
$racture
1H1
)mpact
Mechanical overload
Thermal shock
,ear
4ielding
This bo5@ view talk edit
The C-)r,& 0m,)c( (/'(, also known as the C-)r,& >@no(c- (/'(, is a standardi*ed high
strain-rate test which determines the amount of energy absorbed by a material during fracture.
This absorbed energy is a measure of a given materialYs toughness and acts as a tool to study
temperature-dependent brittle-ductile transition. )t is widely applied in industry, since it is
easy to prepare and conduct and results can be obtained 3uickly and cheaply. #ut a maLor
disadvantage is that all results are only comparative.
C1D
The test was developed in 1?9G by the $rench scientist +eorges Charpy. )t was pivotal in
understanding the fracture problems of ships during the second ,orld ,ar. Today it is used
in many industries for testing building and construction materials used in the construction of
pressure vessels, bridges and to see how storms will affect materials used in building.
C7D
Con(/n('
ChideD
1 /efinition
7 suantitative results
> sualitative results
= "ample si*es
G "ee also
I .otes
F E5ternal links
C/20(D D/0n0(0on
1H7
( vintage impact test machine.
The apparatus consists of a pendulum a5e swinging at a notched sample of material. The
energy transferred to the material can be inferred by comparing the difference in the height of
the hammer before and after a big fracture.
The notch in the sample affects the results of the impact test,
C>D
thus it is necessary for the
notch to be of a regular dimensions and geometry. The si*e of the sample can also affect
results, since the dimensions determine whether or not the material is in plane strain. This
difference can greatly affect conclusions made.
C=D
The B"tandard methods for .otched #ar )mpact Testing of Metallic MaterialsB can be found
in ("TM E7>
CGD
, )"A 1=H-1
CID
or E. 199=G-1
CFD
, where all the aspects of the test and
e3uipment used are described in detail.
C/20(D K1)n(0()(0>/ r/'1*('
The 3uantitative result of the impact testEthe energy needed to fracture a materialEcan be
used to measure the toughness of the material and the yield strength. (lso, the strain rate may
be studied and analy*ed for its effect on fracture.
The ductile-brittle transition temperature /#TT! may be derived from the temperature
where the energy needed to fracture the material drastically changes. &owever, in practice
there is no sharp transition and so it is difficult to obtain a precise transition temperature. (n
e5act /#TT may be empirically derived in many ways@ a specific absorbed energy, change in
aspect of fracture such as G9d of the area is cleavage!, etc.
C1D
C/20(D K1)*0()(0>/ r/'1*('
1H>
The 3ualitative results of the impact test can be used to determine the ductility of a material.
CHD
)f the material breaks on a flat plane, the fracture was brittle, and if the material breaks with
Lagged edges or shear lips, then the fracture was ductile. Usually a material does not break in
Lust one way or the other, and thus comparing the Lagged to flat surface areas of the fracture
will give an estimate of the percentage of ductile and brittle fracture.
C1D
C/20(D S)m,*/ '0G/'
(ccording to ("TM (>F9,
C?D
the standard specimen si*e for Charpy impact testing is
19mmk19mmkGGmm. "ubsi*e specimen si*es are@ 19mmkF.GmmkGGmm,
19mmkI.FmmkGGmm, 19mmkGmmkGGmm, 19mmk>.>mmkGGmm, 19mmk7.GmmkGGmm.
/etails of specimens as per ("TM (>F9 "tandard Test Method and /efinitions for
Mechanical Testing of "teel 'roducts!.
(ccording to E. 199=G-1,
CFD
standard specimen si*es are 19mm519mm5GGmm. "ubsi*e
specimens are@ 19mm5F.Gmm5GGmm and 19mm5Gmm5GGmm.
C/20(D S// )*'o
)*od impact strength test
#rittle
)mpact force
C/20(D No(/'
1.
a

c
Meyers Marc (, Chawla :rishan :umar 1??H!. Mechanical Behaviors of
Materials. 'rentice &all. )"#. ?FH91>7I7H1F=.
7. R 8acobs 8ames (, :ilduff Thomas $ 799G!. Engineering Materials 3echnology Gth
ed.!. 'earson 'rentice &all. pp. 1G>11GG. )"#. ?FH91>9=H1HGI.
>. R :urishita &, :ayano &, .arui M, 4ama*aki M, :ano 4, "hibahara ) 1??>!.
BEffects of 0-notch dimensions on Charpy impact test results for differently si*ed
miniature specimens of ferritic steelB. Materials 3ransactions : D7M 8apan )nstitute of
Metals! #4 11!@ 19=71G7. )"". 9?1I-1H71.
=. R Mills .8 $ebruary 1?FI!. BThe mechanism of brittle fracture in notched impact
tests on polycarbonateB. Dournal of Materials !cience ;; 7!@ >I>1FG.
doi@19.199FM#$99GG1==H.
G. R ("TM E7> "tandard Test Methods for .otched #ar )mpact Testing of Metallic
Materials
I. R )"A 1=H-1 Metallic materials - Charpy pendulum impact test - 'art 1@ Test method
F.
a

E. 199=G-1 Charpy impact test on metallic materials. Test method 0- and U-

notches!
H. R Mathurt ::, .eedleman (, Tvergaard 0 May 1??=!. B>/ analysis of failure
modes in the Charpy impact testB. Moeling an !imulation in Materials !cience
Engineering 6@ I1F1>G. doi@19.19HHM9?IG-9>?>M7M>(M91=.
?. R ("TM (>F9 "tandard Test Methods and /efinitions for Mechanical Testing of
"teel 'roducts
1H=
C/20(D EB(/rn)* *0nA'
Charpy )mpact Testing module at steeluniversity.org , including a fully interactive
simulation
6etrieved from Bhttp@MMen.wikipedia.orgMwikiMCharpyimpacttestB
Categories@ $racture mechanics Materials testing
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1HG
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'olski
"lovenina
Ti ng 0i t
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RocA?/** 'c)*/
$rom ,ikipedia, the free encyclopedia
8ump to@ navigation, search
1HI
( hardness tester of the 6ockwell type.
( closeup of the business end of a 6ockwell-type hardness tester.
The RocA?/** 'c)*/ is a hardness scale based on the indentation hardness of a material. The
6ockwell test determines the hardness by measuring the depth of penetration of an indenter
under a large load compared to the penetration made by a preload.
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There are different
scales, which are denoted by a single letter, that use different loads or indenters. The result,
which is a dimensionless number, is noted by &6g where g is the scale letter.
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,hen testing metals, indentation hardness correlates linearly with tensile strength.
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This
important relation permits economically important nondestructive testing of bulk metal
deliveries with lightweight, even portable e3uipment, such as hand-held 6ockwell hardness
testers.
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Con(/n('
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1 &istory
7 Aperation
> "cales and values
o >.1 Typical values
= "tandards
G "ee also
I 6eferences
F E5ternal links
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The differential depth hardness measurement was conceived in 1?9H by a 0iennese professor
'aul 2udwik in his book 'ie 4egelprobe crudely, Bthe cone trialB!.
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The differential-depth
method subtracted out the errors associated with the mechanical imperfections of the system,
such as backlash and surface imperfections. The #rinell hardness test, invented in "weden,
was developed earlierEin 1?99Ebut it was slow, not useful on fully hardened steel, and left
too large an impression to be considered nondestructive.
The 6ockwell hardness tester, a differential-depth machine, was co-invented by Connecticut
natives &ugh M. 6ockwell 1H?911?GF! and "tanley '. 6ockwell 1HHI11?=9!. ( patent was
applied for on 8uly 1G, 1?1=.
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The re3uirement for this tester was to 3uickly determine the
effects of heat treatment on steel bearing races. The application was subse3uently approved
on $ebruary 11, 1?1?, and holds patent number 1,7?=,1F1. (t the time of invention, both
&ugh and "tanley 6ockwell not direct relations! worked for the .ew /eparture
Manufacturing Co. of #ristol, CT. .ew /eparture was a maLor ball bearing manufacturer
that, in 1?1I, became part of United Motors and, shortly thereafter, +eneral Motors Corp.
(fter leaving the Connecticut company, "tanley 6ockwell, then in "yracuse, .4, applied for
an improvement to the original invention on "eptember 11, 1?1?, which was approved on
.ovember 1H, 1?7=. The new tester holds patent 1,G1I,79F.
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6ockwell moved to ,est
&artford, CT, and made an additional improvement in 1?71.
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"tanley collaborated with
instrument manufacturer Charles &. ,ilson of the ,ilson-Mauelen Company in 1?79 to
commerciali*e his invention and develop standardi*ed testing machines.
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"tanley started a
heat-treating firm circa 1?7>, the "tanley '. 6ockwell Company, which still e5ists in
&artford, CT. The later-named ,ilson Mechanical )nstrument Company has changed
ownership over the years, and was most recently ac3uired by )nstron Corp. in 1??>.
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The determination of the 6ockwell hardness of a material involves the application of a minor
load followed by a maLor load, and then noting the depth of penetration, vis a vis, hardness
value directly from a dial, in which a harder material gives a higher number. The chief
advantage of 6ockwell hardness is its ability to display hardness values directly, thus
obviating tedious calculations involved in other hardness measurement techni3ues.
)t is typically used in engineering and metallurgy. )ts commercial popularity arises from its
speed, reliability, robustness, resolution and small area of indentation.
)n order to get a reliable reading the thickness of the test-piece should be at least 19 times the
depth of the indentation.
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(lso, readings should be taken from a flat perpendicular surface,
because round surfaces give lower readings. ( correction factor can be used if the hardness
must be measured on a round surface.
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There are several alternative scales, the most commonly used being the B#B and BCB scales.
#oth e5press hardness as an arbitrary dimensionless number.
0arious 6ockwell scales
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Sc)*/ A88r/>0)(0on Lo)2 In2/n(/r U'/
( &6( I9 kgf 179X diamond cone

Tungsten carbide
# &6# 199 kgf
1

1I
-inch-diameter 1.I mm! steel
sphere
(luminium, brass, and soft
steels
C &6C 1G9 kgf 179X diamond cone &arder steels
/ &6/ 199 kgf 179X diamond cone
E &6E 199 kgf
1

H
-inch-diameter >.7 mm! steel
sphere
$ &6$ I9 kgf
1

1I
-inch-diameter 1.I mm! steel
sphere
+ &6+ 1G9 kgf
1

1I
-inch-diameter 1.I mm! steel
sphere

(lso called a brale inenter

E5cept for one very limited e5ception,
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the steel indenter balls have been
replaced by tungsten carbide balls of the varying diameters. "cales using the ball
indenter have a B,B suffi5 added to the scale name to indicate usage of the carbide
ball, for e5ample B&6>9TB is now B&6>9T,B.
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The superficial 6ockwell scales use lower loads and shallower impressions on brittle and
very thin materials. The =G. scale employs a =G-kgf load on a diamond cone-shaped #rale
indenter, and can be used on dense ceramics. The 1GT scale employs a 1G-kgf load on a
1

1I
-
inch-diameter 1.I mm! hardened steel ball, and can be used on sheet metal.
6eadings below &6C 79 are generally considered unreliable, as are readings much above
&6# 199.
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0ery hard steel e.g. a good knife blade!@ &6C GG1I7 &ardened tool steels such as
/7!
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(5es, chisels, etc.@ &6C =91=G about 19=G carbon steel!
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#rass@ &6# GG 2ow brass, U." C7=999, &91 Temper! to &6# ?> Cartridge #rass,
U." C7I999 7I9 #rass!, &19 Temper!
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"everal other scales, including the e5tensive (-scale, are used for speciali*ed applications.
There are special scales for measuring case-hardened specimens.
C/20(D S()n2)r2'
)nternational )"A!
)"A IG9H-1@ Metallic materials -- 6ockwell hardness test -- 'art 1@ Test
method scales (, #, C, /, E, $, +, &, :, ., T!
)"A 79>?-7@ 'lastics -- /etermination of hardness -- 'art 7@ 6ockwell
hardness
U" standard ("TM )nternational!
("TM E1H @ "tandard methods for 6ockwell hardness and 6ockwell
superficial hardness of metallic materials
C/20(D S// )*'o
0ickers hardness test
#rinell hardness test
2eeb 6ebound &ardness Test
:noop hardness test
"hore durometer
&ardness comparison
&olger $. "truer
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