Radiography IQI Selection 2

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Radiography Part 2

Job Knowledge
The previous article dealt mostly with the basic principles of radiography
this part will cover the methods of ensuring that a radiograph is of an
acceptable quality and capable of showing relevant imperfections. As
mentioned in the previous article the quality of a radiograph is assessed
using three factors: density, contrast and definition or sharpness of the
image. Density and contrast have already been covered but there also
has to be some method by which the sensitivity (the ability to reveal
imperfections) can be measured. To do this devices known as image
quality indicators (IQIs), formerly called, are used. These can be of
several forms as illustrated in Fig.1

Fig. 1. Image Quality Indicators
The wire type is the most frequently used IQI in radiography-by-film. The
design of the IQI is given in EN ISO 19232 Part 1 or ASTM E747. Both
specifications list a series of IQIs containing six or seven wires of
increasing diameter, from 1-8mm, from 10-50mm in length and in a
range of metals iron, nickel, aluminium, magnesium, copper and
titanium. The wires are mounted side by side in a flexible plastic sheath
which also carries appropriate identification, generally lead letters that
will be clearly seen on the radiograph. The IQI is selected with respect to
the metal type and the component thickness; the thicker the component
the thicker the IQIs wires. The IQI carries an identification and serial
number so that it can be confirmed at a later stage that the correct IQI
has been used.

Ideally the IQI is placed on the source side of the component and, in the
case of a weld, transversely across the joint although this is not always
possible when radiographing pipe and tube butt welds. The sensitivity is
taken as the smallest diameter wire that can be seen divided by the
component thickness, expressed as a percentage. Most application codes
specify a sensitivity of between 2-4% ; this is a maximum, the smaller
the figure the greater the sensitivity of the radiograph. Alternatively an
actual wire diameter that must be visible is specified.

The step hole IQI is used less frequently. It is a stepped wedge with a
hole drilled in each step, the hole diameter matching the thickness of the
step. As with the wire IQI, the material and dimensions of the step wedge
are selected to match the application. The diameter of the smallest hole
visible on the radiograph determines the sensitivity, this being calculated
as hole diameter divided by component thickness expressed as a
percentage. The sensitivity measured by the use of a wire IQI is not the
same as the sensitivity using a step wedge IQI.

As with any film, the method of processing will affect the quality of the
image. Care must be taken to ensure that there is no light contamination,
the processing chemicals are at the correct concentrations and
temperatures and that drying the film does not leave marks and stains
that would leave spurious indications and would make accurate
interpretation difficult.

Interpretation of the radiographs must be undertaken by trained and
experienced radiographers. In addition to being fully conversant with
radiographic techniques such individuals should also have a
comprehensive knowledge of welding processes, joint design and the
various imperfections that may occur. Many application specifications
require such individuals to be independently certified to a suitable
certification scheme such as PCN, administered by the British Institute for
NDT or CSWIP, administered by TWI Certification Ltd. Viewing should be
carried out in a darkened room, allowing a period of time for the viewers
eyes to be accustomed to the conditions. The luminance of the viewing
screen will need to vary with the density of the radiograph there is
generally a rheostat control (a dimmer switch) on the viewer to enable
the luminance to be varied. The light itself should be white and diffuse
and there should be as little light as possible leaking around the edges of
the radiograph.

Radiography of flat plates and cylinders large enough to permit entry for
placement of the film is a relatively simple operation, as shown in Fig. 1
of the previous article. Lead numbers are placed at fixed intervals along
the plate adjacent to the weld or around the circumference of a pipe to
enable the position of any imperfections to be accurately located. The
weld also carries a unique identification number reproduced on the
radiograph by the use of lead figures placed adjacent to the weld.

Radiography of pipes, however, where access to the bore to place the
film is not possible presents some problems and terms such as SWSI and
DWSI are used as shorthand to identify the various techniques that may
be used.

Single wall, single image (SWSI) is a technique whereby the radiographic
source is placed inside the pipe by some suitable method, the film
wrapped around the outside of the pipe and the exposure made as shown
in Fig. 2. This may also be known as a panoramic exposure. The IQI is
placed on the outside of the pipe immediately beneath the film. Both X-
and gamma-radiography can be used, the source being placed in position
by the use of a pre-placed spider or by means of a crawler unit. This
method is most commonly used for the inspection of pipelines where the
weld can be radiographed in one exposure, making the technique rapid
and cost effective.

Fig. 2 Single wall, single image (SWSI) or panoramic radiographic technique
Where access to the bore is not possible or the pipe diameter is too small
to permit the use of an internal source then the double wall, single image
(DWSI) technique is used. Here the film is placed on the outside of the
pipe on the farthest side from the radiographic source, as shown in Fig. 3.
The source may be offset slightly to avoid an image of the upper part of
the weld to be projected onto the film or directly in line. The source may
be close to or a substantial distance from the pipe, the location being a
compromise between a less sharp image but short exposure time for a
small stand-off and sharper image but longer exposure time for a large
stand-off. The need to penetrate two wall thicknesses means that the
sensitivity will be poorer than with the single wall single image technique.
The technique also requires multiple exposures to enable the complete
circumference of the pipe to be examined specification or contract
requirements frequently specify the minimum numbers of exposures to
ensure complete coverage and images of an acceptable quality. The
technique is generally used on pipes over 80mm in diameter.

Fig. 3 Double wall, single image
The last technique is double wall, double image (DWDI), generally used
only on pipes less than 75-80mm in diameter. By offsetting the source
from the weld centre line and using a long source to film distance it is
possible to project an image onto the film of both the upper and the
lower parts of the weld as shown in Fig. 4. As with the DWSI technique
multiple exposures are required to achieve complete coverage.

Fig. 4. Double wall double image radiograph of a pipe butt weld. Note the IQI,
identification numbers and position markers.
Part 3 will look at some of the more sophisticated radiographic techniques
and the advantages and disadvantages of radiography.

This article was written by Gene Mathers.

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