MC NAVEDTRA 15010A (Basic)

Mass Communication Specialist
(MC)

Basic

NAVEDTRA 15010A
S/N 0504LP1132231
March 2013

NONRESIDENT
TRAINING
COURSE

Notice: NETPDTC is no longer responsible for the content accuracy of the
Nonresident Training Courses (NRTCs).

For content issues, contact the servicing Center of Excellence: Center for Service
Support (401) 8411044 or DSN: 8411044

DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A: Approved for public release; distribution is
unlimited.
ii

Although the words "he," "him," and "his" are
used sparingly in this course to enhance
communication, they are not intended to be
gender driven or to affront or discriminate
against anyone.
iii

iv

THE UNITED STATES NAVY

GUARDIAN OF OUR COUNTRY
The United States Navy is responsible for maintaining control of the sea and is a
ready force on watch at home and overseas, capable of strong action to preserve
the peace or of instant offensive action to win in war.
It is upon the maintenance of this control that our country's glorious future
depends; the United States Navy exists to make it so.

WE SERVE WITH HONOR, COURAGE, AND COMMITMENT
Tradition, valor, and victory are the Navy's heritage from the past. To these may
be added dedication, discipline, and vigilance as the watchwords of the present
and the future.
At home or on distant stations, we serve with pride, confident in the respect of our
country, our shipmates, and our families.
Our responsibilities sober us; our adversities strengthen us.
Service to God and Country is our special privilege. We serve with honor.

THE FUTURE OF THE NAVY
The Navy will always employ new weapons, new techniques, and greater power
to protect and defend the United States on the sea, under the sea, and in the air.
Now and in the future, control of the sea gives the United States her greatest
advantage for the maintenance of peace and for victory in war.
Mobility, surprise, dispersal, and offensive power are the keynotes of the new
Navy. The roots of the Navy lie in a strong belief in the future, in continued
dedication to our tasks, and in reflection on our heritage from the past.
Never have our opportunities and our responsibilities been greater.
v

Center for Service Support
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Center for Service Support (CSS), Newport, RI would like to acknowledge assistance of the
following personnel in writing this NRTC:

CMDCM(SW/NAC) Spike Call VAW-117
MCCM(AW/SW) Wayne Edwards COMCAM
MCCM(SW/AW) Bill Houlihan USS CARL VINSON
MCCM(SW/AW) Priscilla Kirsh USS HARRY S. TRUMAN
MCCM(SW/AW/EXW) Jon McMillan OFFICE OF INFORMATION
MCCM(SW/AW) Mike Viola NPASE
MCCS(SW/AW) Cheryl Elliott NPASE
MCCS (AW/SW/NAC/EXW/IDW) Robert Fluegel USS EISENHOWER
MCCS(SW/AW) Ernie Frazier COMCAM
MCCS(SW/AW) John Harrington DMA
MCCS(SW/AW) Christina Johnson DMA
MCCS(EXW) Tom Jones CNRC
MCCS(SW/AW/EXW) Mike Lewis CNE-CNA/C6F
MCCS(SW/AW) Dean Lohmeyer USS RONALD REGAN
MCCS(SW/AW/SCW/FMF) Eric Powell NPASE
MCCS(SW/AW) Tony Sisti Fleet Forces
MCCS(SW/AW) Dan Smithyman NPC
MCCS(SW/DV) Eric Tilford COMCAM
MCCS(SW/AW) Misty Trent DINFOS
MCCS(SW/AW) Melissa Weatherspoon COMCAM
MCC(SW/AW) Katrin Albritton NPASE
MCC(EXW/SW/NAO) Greg Badger DINFOS
MCC(SW/EXW/AW) Matthew Bash USS GEORGE H.W. BUSH
MCC(SW/AW) Scott Boyle 25th Naval Construction Regiment
MCC(SW/EXW/AW) Joel B. Cesar COMCAM
MCC(SW/AW) Karen Cozza SURFOR
MCC(SW/AW) Denise Davis NPC
MCC(SW/AW) Terry Feeney COM 3rd FLT
MCC(SS) David Gordon NOSC Kitsap VTU
MCC(SW/AW) Aaron Glover NPASE
MCC(AW/EXW/SW) Bill Gowdy COMCAM
MCC(SW/AW) Monique Hilley CNIC
MCC(SW/AW) Laura James USS AMERICA
MCC(SW/AW) Mike Jones USS NIMITZ
MCC(SW/AW/EXW) Keith Jones DIA
vi

MCC (EXW/SW/AW/PJ) Phil McDaniel DMA
MCC(SW/AW/EXW)
MCC(SW/AW)
David Rush
Leah Stiles
NPASE
NAVSTA Norfolk
MCC (SCW/EXW/AW) Stan Travioli GTMO
MCC(SW/AW) Christopher Fowler NPASE West
MC1(AW) Richard Brunson COMCAM
MC1(SW/AW) Heather Ewton USS Blue Ridge
MC1(NAO/EXW/AW/SW) Joan Jennings Naval Air Station, Whidbey Island
MC1(SW/AW) Nathanael Miller NPASE
MC1(SW/AW) Robert Stratchko NPASE
MC1(SW/AW) Jason Thompson DINFOS

RTM Development Group personnel who provided direct support for this RTM:
Mr. Richard Rangel NRTC Model Manager/Conference Facilitator
MCCS (SW/AW) Joel Huval CSS Training Manager
The Training Manager for this RTM is Center for Service Support Newport, RI DSN 841-1044.

vii

NAVEDTRA 15010A COPYRIGHT MATERIAL

Copyright material has been identified, approved, and is listed below within this document.

Copyright Owner Date Chapter Pages Remarks

viii

PREFACE
ABOUT THIS COURSE:
This is a self-study course. By studying this course, you can improve your professional/military
knowledge, as well as prepare for the Navy-wide advancement-in-rate examination. It contains
subject matter about day-to-day occupational knowledge and skill requirements and includes
text, tables, and illustrations to help you understand the information. An additional important
feature of this course is its reference to useful information in other publications. The well-
prepared Sailor will take the time to look up the additional information.
By enrolling in this self-study course, you have demonstrated a desire to improve yourself and
the Navy. Remember, however, this self-study course is only one part of the Navy training
program. Practical experience, schools, selected reading, and your desire to succeed are also
necessary to successfully round out a fully meaningful training program.
COURSE OVERVIEW: In completing this non-resident training course, you will demonstrate
knowledge of the subject matter by correctly answering questions on the following subjects: the
Navy Mass Communications Specialist (MC) roles and responsibilities, public affairs functions,
introduction to newswriting, writing headlines and captions, feature writing, information and
newsgathering, broadcasting, introduction to visual information, lighting and color, photography,
specialized documentation, multimedia, print production, file management and transmission.
THE COURSE: This self-study course is organized into subject matter areas, each containing
learning objectives to help you determine what you should learn along with text and illustrations
to help you understand the information. The subject matter reflects day-to-day requirements and
experiences of personnel in the rating or skill area. Also, it reflects guidance provided by
Enlisted Community Managers (ECMs) and other senior personnel, technical references,
instruction, etc., and either the occupational or Naval standards, which are listed in Manual of
Navy Enlisted Manpower and Personnel Classifications and Occupations Standards, NAVPERS
18068.
THE ASSIGNMENTS: The assignments that appear in this course are designed to help you
understand the material in the text.
COURSE OBJECTIVE
The objective of this course is to provide Mass Communication Specialist (MC) with Public
Affairs (PA) information.
INSTRUCTIONS FOR TAKING THE COURSE ASSIGNMENTS
The links and material that you are to study are included in each chapter. Study the material and
links carefully before attempting to answer the questions. Pay close attention to tables and
illustrations, and read the information in the links.

ix

SELECTING YOUR ANSWERS
Read each question carefully, and then select the BEST answer. You may refer freely to the
text. The answers must be the result of your own work and decisions. You are prohibited from
referring to or copying the answers of others and from giving answers to anyone else taking the
course.
SUBMITTING YOUR ASSIGNMENTS
To have your assignments graded, you must be enrolled in the course with the Non-Resident
Training Course Administration Branch. Following enrollment, there are two ways of having your
assignments graded:
Use the Internet to submit your assignments as you complete them.
Send all the assignments at one time by mail to CPPD, NRTC.
Grading on the Internet: Advantages to Internet grading are as follows:
You may submit your answers as soon as you complete an assignment.
You get your results faster.
In addition to receiving grade results for each assignment, you will receive course
completion confirmation once you have completed all the assignments.
To submit your assignment answers via the Internet, go to the following site:
https.//www.courses.netc.navy.mil
Grading by Mail: When you submit answer sheets by mail, send all of your assignments at one
time. Do NOT submit individual answer sheets for grading. Mail all of your assignments in an
envelope, which you either provide yourself or obtain from your nearest Educational Services
Officer (ESO). Submit answer sheets to the following:
Commanding Officer
Center for Personal and Professional Development
ATTN: VOLED Det. (NRTC)
6490 Saufley Field Road
Pensacola, FL 32509
Answer Sheets: Each course includes an answer sheet for your assignments. If you are going
to mail in your answer sheets, please make copies of the included answer sheets. Explanations
for completing the answer sheets are on the answer sheet.
Follow the instructions for marking your answer on the answer sheet. Be sure that blocks 1, 2,
and 3 are filled in correctly. This information is necessary for your course to be properly
processed and for you to receive credit for your work.

x

COMPLETION TIME
Courses must be completed within 12 months from the date of enrollment. This includes time
required to resubmit failed assignments.
PASS/FAIL ASSIGNMENT PROCEDURES
You will be given the opportunity to resubmit failed assignments. You may resubmit failed
assignments only once. Internet students will receive notification when they have failed an
assignment; they may then resubmit failed assignments on the Web site. Internet students may
view and print results for failed assignments from the Web site. Students who submit by mail will
receive a failing result letter and a new answer sheet for resubmission of each failed
assignment.
COMPLETION CONFIRMATION
After successfully completing this course, you can download a copy of your letter of completion
on the NRTC Web site:
https://www.courses.netc.navy.mil

xi

STUDENT FEEDBACK QUESTIONS
We value your suggestions, questions, and criticisms on our courses. If you would like to
communicate with us regarding this course, we encourage you, if possible, to use e-mail. If you
write or fax, please use a copy of the Student Comment form that follows this page.
For subject matter questions:
Contact the Center for Service Support, Newport, RI
Email: NWPT_CSS_RTM@navy.mil
Phone: 401-841-1583 or DSN 841-1583
For enrollment, shipping, grading, or completion letter questions:
Email: NRTC@navy.mil
Phone: Toll Free 1-877-264-8583
Comm: 850-452-1511
DSN: 922-1511
FAX: 850-452-1370
(Do NOT fax answer sheets.)
ADDRESS:
Commanding Officer
Center for Personal and Professional Development
ATTN: VOLED Det. (NRTC)
6490 Saufley Field Road
Pensacola, FL 32509

Privacy Act Statement: Under authority of Title 5, USC 301, information regarding your military
status is requested in processing your comments and in preparing a reply. This information will
not be divulged without written authorization to anyone other than those within DOD for official
use in determining performance.

xii

Students' Comments
Course Title: __Mass Communication Specialist (MC) Basic__________________________
NAVEDTRA: __15010A____________________Date: ______________________________

We need some information about you:
Rate/Rank and Name: _______________________________________________________
Command/Unit: ____________________________________________________________
Street Address: ____________________________________________________________
City: _____________________________________________________________________
State/FPO: ________________________________________________________________
Zip: ______________________________________________________________________
Email Address: _____________________________ DSN: __________________________

Your comments, suggestions, etc.: _____________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

xiii

TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
1. The Navy MC Roles and Responsibilities ......................................................... 1-1
2. Public Affairs Functions ..................................................................................... 2-1
3. Introduction to Newswriting ............................................................................... 3-1
4. Writing Headlines and Captions ........................................................................ 4-1
5. Feature Writing .................................................................................................. 5-1
6. Information and Newsgathering ........................................................................ 6-1
7. Broadcasting: Audio and Production ................................................................. 7-1
8. Broadcasting: Videography ............................................................................... 8-1
9. Introduction to Visual Information ...................................................................... 9-1
10. Lighting and Color ........................................................................................... 10-1
11. Photography .................................................................................................... 11-1
12. Specialized Documentation ............................................................................. 12-1
13. Multimedia ....................................................................................................... 13-1
14. Print Production ............................................................................................... 14-1
15. File Management and Transmission ............................................................... 15-1
APPENDICES
I. Acronyms Used In This RTM .......................................................................... AI-1
II. References Used To Develop This RTM ......................................................... AII-1
ASSIGNMENTS
Assignment 1 Chapter 1 .................................................................................... .AS1-1
Assignment 10 Chapter 10 .............................................................................. .AS10-1
CHAPTER 1
THE NAVY MASS COMMUNICATION SPECIALIST (MC):
ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES
To the young man or woman choosing a Navy career field, whether for one enlistment or for 30 years,
the Mass Communication Specialist (MC) rating offers endless avenues for an imaginative, yet
mature thinker.
The MC rating was born July 1, 2006, when the Navy officially merged four ratings: Illustrator
Draftsman, Lithographer, Journalist and Photographers Mate. Each brought to the new rating a rich
history and heritage as well as valuable skill sets.
Many of the duties and responsibilities of todays MC rank among Americans favorite hobbies and
pastimes, such as writing, photography, and graphic design. The Navy MC learns and practices a
distinguished profession and is an official representative of the Navy in public affairs and visual
information matters.
As public affairs and visual information experts, MCs present the story of Americas Navy to
audiences in the Navy and to the rest of the world through a variety of mediums. MCs write and
produce print and broadcast journalism news and feature stories for military and civilian newspapers,
magazines, and television and radio broadcast stations. They capture video and still imagery of
military operations, exercises and other Navy events. They serve overseas, on ships and at stateside
commands as photographers, videographers, public affairs specialists, newspaper and magazine
staff members, and TV and radio station staff and talent. MCs also create graphic designs in support
of the public affairs mission, create and manage official websites, and perform high-speed, high-
volume graphic reproduction.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
When you have completed this chapter, you will be able to do the following:
1. Identify the major tasks and responsibilities of a Mass Communication Specialist (MC).
2. Discuss the personal traits required for one to best perform the duties of an MC.
3. Identify the applicable Navy Enlisted Classification (NEC) Codes.
4. State the purpose of the MC Basic Nonresident Training Course (NRTC).
5. Identify the Navy principles of public affairs.
6. List the Department of Defense (DoD) Principles of Information.
7. Identify the role of the Chief of Information (CHINFO).
8. Discuss the Navy public affairs organization.
9. Discuss the roles of CHINFO field activities.
10. Identify the instructions that govern DoD and Navy public affairs.
11. Identify the procedure for releasing information to the public.
12. Identify the basic provisions of the Freedom of Information Act (FOIA).
13. Explain defamation and copyright laws.
MAJOR TASKS AND RESPONSIBILITIES
In our representative republic, government depends on the consent of the governed. This important
principle means that, in the long run, the U.S. Government does only what the people want it to do.
Therefore, we can have a Navy only if the people know and understand the importance of the Navy
and support it.
The Navy, like other services, depends on this countrys citizens for the four key tools of its trade
personnel, money, materials and the authority to carry out its mission. As a Navy MC, your main
function is to make the facts about your Navy available to the Navys three main publicsthe people
at your command, Navy people in general and the people of the United States as a whole.
Former Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Adm. Mike Mullen stated: Effectively communicating
with our Sailors, their families and the American people is one of our most important responsibilities.
Like the battle for people, this responsibility is one that must be embraced every day. If we dont take
the lead in the communication business, we are forced to react to other competing, and in some
cases incorrect, messages.
Although the responsibility of communicating the Navys message to both internal and external
audiences lies in the hands of our commanders, the Navy MC successfully completes this mission
from the deckplates by delivering the message in a way everyone can understand.
In order to perform these duties, the MC must master verbal, oral and visual communication
techniques. He or she must be a constant reader who is always abreast of current events in and out
of the Navy as well as with professional trends from around the visual communication specialty. He or
she must know enough about the Navy to interpret and translate its activities and actions intelligently
to the civilian public. In other words, an MC must stay up to date with what ships or units are on
deployment, what new technology is being used in the Navy, who is in the chain of command, etc.
As an MC, you must have the ability and the desire to learn and grasp new ideas. You must be better
than average in your use of the English language, know your way around camera equipment, and be
proficient in your computer skills. Your aim is to create news-quality products in minimal time and with
minimal need for editing or reproduction.
The major areas in which you will be expected to develop knowledge and skills are audio/visual
production, digital imaging, information and newsgathering, multimedia production, photography, print
production, planning, public affairs and writing.
As you progress in experience, maturity, and service seniority, you likely will become the trusted
executive of the Public Affairs Officer (PAO). As such, you will find yourself performing many of the
functions of a PAO. This will be particularly true if your boss is a collateral-duty PAO. Collateral duty
means that the individual has other assignments that are considered primary duties. In such cases,
the collateral duty PAOs primary responsibilities often allow only minimal time for public affairs work.
Therefore, you also must learn the theory and practice of public affairs policy.
All MCs must also hold a secret clearance.
A Common Misperception
There is a tendency for Navy MCs to believe they are part of Americas free press and thus part of the
investigative photojournalism genre. This notion could not be further from the truth.
Navy MCs are assigned combat camera, visual communication, command information, public
information and community relations duties. Navy MCs write releases to tell the Navy story and to
respond to queries by the investigative free press. When assigned to command information staffs,
MCs may write for civilian enterprise (CE) or command-funded newspaperswhat the industry terms
in-house publications. (We will discuss in-house publications in subsequent chapters.)
Just as a writer for commercial industry would not write investigative articles concerning his company
for the in-house publication, Navy MCs do not write investigative pieces concerning their own
commands or the Navy. Navy MCs may tackle controversial social issues, but they must avoid works
that attack or injure, or give the impression of attacking or injuring, their commands or the Navy. MCs
serve as the window for all Americans to see into the Navy.
The Navy community is much like a town community. An MCs job within this community is to
enhance morale, increase readiness and productivity, be the voice of the commanding officer (CO) to
his/her community, and inform, educate, and entertain the Navys internal audience.
PERSONAL TRAITS
The Navy MC must possess certain personal characteristics. Some are general in that they can
contribute to success in any rating, but others are an integral part of the public affairs/visual
information profession. The importance of appearance, voice, military bearing, courtesy and
personality will become more evident as you read and complete this Nonresident Training Course
(NRTC), informally known as a rate training manual.
Appearance
Impeccable personal appearance is important to the Navy MC. Your duties place you in a position to
meet visitors, escort media, interview senior leadership, cover high-level events and serve as a tour
guide, among other duties. Your professional appearance is more important than in some other jobs
in the Navy. Always make sure every aspect of your personal appearance- from your haircut to the
edge dressing on your shoes-is first-rate.
Voice
Navy MCs must be well spoken; voice and manner of speaking are important. To meet this standard,
you should avoid an overly loud voice, but likewise, you should avoid speaking too low or indistinctly.
Localisms of vocabulary or an accent may be merely pleasant marks of individuality, or they may be
hindrances because they make the speaker hard to understand. If you have conspicuous speech
habits of this sort, you should attempt to correct them. Remember, MCs are often the voice of the
command, so your attention to the proper pronunciation of words will always be worthwhile.
MILITARY BEARING
All Sailors have an obligation to conduct themselves with dignity and in such a manner as to reflect
credit on the naval service. Dignity exists only where the individual has a proper sense of his/her own
worth and of the worthiness of his/her cause. The person who possesses true dignity also will respect
the dignity of others.
Military bearing is dignity within military relationships. It exists when the individual is proud of his/her
military organization and of his/her part in it. He/she respects his/her seniors and is guided by the
example of those he/she admires most among them. He/she also respects his/her juniors and
provides an example they will be proud to follow. Whether he/she is squaring his/her hat, rendering a
salute, carrying on the work of his/her office, or going on liberty, his/her manner says he/she is proud
of Americas Navy and is doing his/her best to make the Navy proud of him/her.
More than any other rating in the Navy, MCs interact frequently with senior leaders as well as the
civilian community. It is for this reason that your military bearing must be top-notch.

Mass Communication Specialist 3rd Class Kevin Murphy films nighttime flight operations
aboard the Nimitz-class aircraft carrier USS John C. Stennis (CVN 74). (US Navy photo by
Mass Communication Specialist 2nd Class Elliot Fabrizio/Released)
NAVY ENLISTED CLASSIFICATIONS
MCs can be found throughout the fleet, serving aboard aircraft carriers and large-deck amphibious
assault ships, with Seabees, at Defense Media Activities, with combat camera, at shore facilities, with
recruiting commands, or at the Navy Public Affairs Support Element (NPASE). They support the fleet
with a wide variety of skills and expertise. These job skills are categorized as Navy Enlisted
Classifications (NECs). NECs are four-digit numbers that indicate special qualifications earned by an
individual. The NECs described below are available to MCs.
8143Motion Media Cameraman
A motion media cameraman primarily functions as a camera operator who creates controlled and
uncontrolled motion media productions, prepares shooting scripts, and performs post-production
editing. An 8143 MC also acts as a director on small production crews.
To earn the 8143 NEC, you must complete the 14-week Video Production and Documentation course
at the Defense Information School (DINFOS).
8144Motion Media Editor/Director
A motion media editor or director serves as the senior editor for motion media productions and
combat camera missions and acts as the on-scene crew chief for video and multimedia products. In
doing such, an 8144 MC must determine equipment and material requirements, direct action in the
production of scenes and episodes, analyze existing scripts and recommend appropriate revisions,
determine scene composition, coordinate action of performing personnel, direct audio recording
during filming, supervise the preparation of the set, and approve set design and props to be used.
To earn an 8144 NEC, you must attend the 10-month advanced motion media program at Syracuse
University. This is a selection-only program that requires a submission package. A Navy-specific
administrative message (NAVADMIN) released annually outlines submission requirements. Upon
completion of the program, graduates earn approximately 30 college credit hours. Through the
course, you learn from some of the industrys finest professionals to create professional, high-impact
communications and become top-quality storytellers.
8147Photojournalism Specialist
Sailors with this NEC cover and photograph events of news or documentary interest, while supporting
and effectively meeting the public affairs objectives and programs of the military services. They apply
layout and design principles, news and feature writing skills, basic and advanced photographic
techniques and production skills, and demonstrate the ability to combine writing and photographic
skills.
To earn this 8147 NEC, you must complete the eight-week Intermediate Photojournalism Course
(IPC) offered at DINFOS. The course requires one-year minimum fleet experience as well.
8148Photojournalist
Sailors with the 8148 NEC photograph newsworthy events, prepare photography in news form, write
captions and text for news stories, and maintain liaison with their counterparts in the news media.
They also train personnel in photojournalism techniques.
To earn the 8148 NEC, you must attend the 10-month advanced photojournalism course at Syracuse
University. As with the 8144 NEC, MCs interested in this program must submit a package. Package
requirements and deadline submissions can be found in the annual NAVADMIN. Upon completion of
the program, graduates earn approximately 30 college credit hours. Through this course, you will
learn to tell the Navys story with pictures by attending courses in graphics, news writing and
photography.
8150Broadcaster
Navy broadcasters collect, evaluate and prepare military information for broadcast over the airways
via Armed Forces Radio and Television Service (AFRTS) networks as well as over Shipboard
Information, Training and Entertainment (SITE) closed-circuit television systems. They use all skills
gained in their public affairs and visual information experience to visually and verbally tell the story of
Americas Navy. Broadcasters will most likely be assigned aboard aircraft carriers and large-deck
amphibious ships or at the Defense Media Activity (DMA) or its subordinate commands.
To earn the 8150 NEC and become a broadcaster, you need to attend the 75-day Basic Combat
Correspondence Course at DINFOS. A voice audition is required before a quota in the course is
granted.
8151Graphic Illustrator
The graphic illustrator is an expert at design and layout, color theory, realistic drawing, color media
and desktop publishing with a strong background in computer management and visual
communication.
To earn the 8151 NEC and become a multimedia illustrator, you must attend the 13-week Basic
Multimedia Illustrator Course at DINFOS and be in paygrades E-1 to E-6. Normal color vision and
distance visual acuity correctable to 20/20 are also required.
8152Public Affairs Officer (Enlisted)
An 8152 MC performs master-level duties as a PAO or special assistant to his/her COs. The enlisted
PAO may also serve as a spokesperson for the Navy and the DoD.
The enlisted PAO NEC is open to paygrades E-7 through E-9 (waivers for MC1s with orders to
specific billets may be available through the detailer). To earn the 8152 NEC, you must attend the
nine week Public Affairs Qualification Course at DINFOS.
8153Public Affairs Supervisor
Public affairs supervisors manage public affairs programs as command representatives or special
assistants by gathering information for press releases, answering media and public questions, and
being command spokespersons. In this job, MCs work independently and with PAOs and senior
public affairs enlisted personnel.
The 8153 NEC is earned by attending the week long Intermediate Public Affairs Specialist Course at
DINFOS and is open to personnel in paygrades E-5 through E-7.
8193 Electronic Imaging System Specialist
A MC who holds the 8193 NEC installs, configures and operates advanced electronic imaging
systems to acquire, import, enhance, print, store, export and electronically transmit and receive digital
images from shore-based, afloat, or airborne platforms.
To earn the 8193 NEC, you must attend the seven week Digital Multimedia Course at DINFOS;
however, waivers are available when specialized university training in photojournalism has been
completed. For more information on submitting a waiver, talk to your career counselor and review the
Navy Enlisted Manpower and Enlisted Classification and Occupational Standards (NEOCS Manual),
NAVPERS 18086F.
8288Aerial Cameraman
An MC qualified as an 8288 performs in-flight duties as an aerial cameraman and is knowledgeable of
photographic equipment, aerial photographic techniques, aircraft equipment, emergency procedures,
and flight procedures.
To earn the 8288 NEC, you must attend the three week Naval Aircrew Candidate School at Naval Air
Station Pensacola, Fla. More information on the program can be found in the Naval Military Personnel
Manual (MILPERSMAN).
3251Broadcast Manager
The MC broadcast manager directs the operation of radio, television, satellite, cable, and shipboard
SITE systems as coordinated elements of the command information broadcasting function. He or she
also coordinates with the DMA to support American Forces Information Service products and tasks.
To earn the 3251 NEC, you must attend the two-week Broadcast Managers Course at DINFOS or
complete at least two previous management assignments with AFRTS activities.
5345 Scuba Diver
MCs who possess the 5345 SCUBA diver qualification provide underwater photographic support to
the Navy diving community during underwater operations, detailed ship-bottom repairs, SEAL delivery
vehicle team (SDV) training and operations, explosive ordnance disposal (EOD) missions, and search
and recovery operations. MC billets requiring the 5345 NEC are unique to combat camera.
To earn the 5345 NEC, you must be placed in one of the combat camera billets and attend the four
week SCUBA Diver Course at the Naval Diving and Salvage Training Center in Panama City, Fla.

NOTE
You may obtain further information on all NECs by consulting the Navy Enlisted Manpower and
Personnel Classifications and Occupational Standards (NEOCS Manual), Volume I (Navy Enlisted
Occupational Standards), NAVPERS 18068F. Additionally, the MC Learning and Development
Roadmap (LaDR pronounced ladder) is a navigable, rate-specific guide that provides an overview
of what is required from E-1 to E-9 with regards to professional development. A link to the MC rating
roadmap is available via the Mass Communication Specialist page on Navy Knowledge Online (NKO).

110928-N-OE749-002 PACIFIC OCEAN (Sept. 28, 2011) Mass Communication Specialist 3rd
Class Adam Randolph updates a training schedule from the site TV control room aboard the
aircraft carrier USS Abraham Lincoln (CVN 72). Abraham Lincoln is underway conducting a
composite training unit exercise. (U.S. Navy photo by Mass Communication Specialist 1st
Class Barry A. Riley/Released)
PRINCIPLES, FUNDAMENTALS, AND ORGANIZATION
Introduction
As a member of the Navy public affairs and visual information (PA/VI) team, you will be responsible
for delivering truthful, timely and accurate information to your audiences. The following chapters will
provide you with the basic tools needed to become an effective communicator. However, these tools
provide only the basics. Every day as a Navy MC should be spent building upon what you learn here.
More detailed information and resources can be found in Department of Defense (DoD) Directive
5400.13 (Defense Public Affairs Doctrine), Joint Publication 3-61 (Joint Public Affairs Doctrine),
SECNAVINST 5720.44C (Public Affairs Policy and Regulations PA Regs), Public Affairs Tactics
Manual, P-A Net and Navy Knowledge Online.
Principles
In the Navy, our job as PA/VI communicators is driven by basic principlesaccountability to the public,
full disclosure, expeditious release, message alignment and ethics.
Accountability to the Public - An open, ambitious public information policy is the assurance that the
Department of the Navy (DON) remains accountable to the public. We accomplish this by
encouraging a free flow of information, restricted only by legitimate constraints of security, accuracy,
propriety and policy (SAPP).
Full Disclosure - For a government founded on the principle of an empowered public, the default
position is full and prompt disclosure. Withholding information must be the exception and justified for
specific and legally defensible reasons. Potential embarrassment is not justification to withhold
information. Delays in the release of information can be damaging and even more embarrassing.
Expeditious Release - Information should be released as quickly as practical, and from the lowest
possible level, consistent with release policies and required reviews. As a junior MC, you should
verify local releasing procedures within your leadership chain. Chapter 2 of the Navy Public Affairs
Regulations and Chapter 3 of this manual further outline policy and guidance on the release of
information.
Message Alignment - Message alignment is crucial to ensuring audiences receive consistent
information through all internal communication mediums. Message alignment is accomplished
through development, approval, distribution, and use of command-generated and higher-level public
affairs guidance and CHINFO products. In addition to specific public affairs guidance, other examples
of message-alignment tools include Rhumb Lines, quick responses and the maritime strategy. These
items will be defined in detail in Chapter 3.
Ethics - Ethics is the discipline of moral duty and obligation. The Navy holds itself to a high ethical
standard. In its dealings with the public, DON must adhere rigorously to such a standard because a
loss of public confidence can undermine DON's ability to complete its mission on all levels. Thus, the
loss of confidence can have negative consequences on the Navys warfighting capability.
The Navy public affairs principles of information are founded on the DoD Principles of Information.
While the differences are minimal, it is important to be familiar with both sets of principles. DoD
principles of information apply to all Navy public affairs and visual information products:
DoD Principles of Information

Information shall be made fully and readily available, consistent with statutory requirements,
unless its release is precluded by national security constraints or valid statutory mandates or
exceptions. The Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) will be supported in both letter and spirit.
FOIA will be further discussed in Chapter 3.
A free flow of general and military information shall be made available, without censorship or
propaganda, to the men and women of the armed forces and their family members.
Information will not be classified or otherwise withheld to protect the government from criticism
or embarrassment, when the information itself is unclassified.
Information shall be withheld when disclosure would adversely affect national security,
threaten the safety or privacy of U.S. government personnel or their families, violate the
privacy of the citizens of the United States, or be contrary to law.
The DoD obligation to provide the public with information on its major programs and operations
may require detailed public affairs planning and coordination within the DoD and with other
government agencies. The purpose of such activity is to expedite the flow of information to the
public; propaganda has no place in DoD public affairs programs.
Fundamentals
The foundation of public affairs rests upon a four-step, cyclical process known as RPIE, pronounced
are-pie. The RPIE process includes research, planning, implementation, and evaluation. Every
event, incident, or occasionplanned or unplannedcovered by PA or VI requires you to go through
these steps. Each step is as important as the next, and none should be skipped.
Research is the starting point for developing any project you need to accomplish. In this step, you will
gather information and define the situation, problem, event or opportunity. You will also identify your
audiences and needed resources. Resist the tendency to skip this step; research sets the foundation
for the other steps to be successful.
Planning is the second and most important step. In this step, you build upon your research, using
information gathered to make your plan, considering your goals and identifying what needs to be
done.
NOTE
To download a full-color graphic of the DoD Principles of Information, click here.
Implementation is the third step. This is the time to put your research and planning into action. Resist
the urge to make changes when carrying out the plan because it usually will create more problems
than it will solve. However, dont discard proposed changes; make note of them. These notes will
come in handy when you are evaluating.
Evaluation begins during the implementation phase as you are jotting down any changes or
improvements you want to make. It is an assessment of the preparation, implementation and
outcome (impact) of the situation. Results of the evaluation should be documented for use in future
projects. Lessons learned, as these results are commonly referred, are invaluable for not only
planning future events, but also handling unexpected crises.
Organization
Public affairs organization, as with all other aspects, within DON is designed to provide maximum flow
of information to the American people with minimum delay, subject only to operational security,
statutory limitations and the safety of personnel. Further explanation of this organization is found in
SECNAVINST 5720.44C (PA Regs).
Multiple Channels of Authority - U.S. national policy is multi-faceted, and a number of agencies
execute portions of that policy. This gives rise to multiple channels of authority within the U.S.
Government and the Navy.
ASD(PA) Authority - The Secretary of Defense (SECDEF) delegated authority to the Assistant
Secretary of Defense for Public Affairs, or ASD(PA), to communicate directly with DoD components
on public affairs matters, provide public affairs guidance directly to the Unified Commanders and
direction to the Navy and Marine Corps through the Secretary of the Navy (SECNAV).
Department of the Navy - SECNAV is responsible for establishing DON public affairs policy and
directing its implementation. SECNAV monitors and controls Navy and Marine Corps relations with
Congress, SECDEF, other principal government officials and the public. Implementation of
SECNAVs policies is the responsibility of the Chief of Naval Operations (CNO), the Commandant of
the Marine Corps, and other senior commanders who report directly to the SECNAV. The SECNAV
Organization page can be found on Navy.mil.
Chief of Information (CHINFO) - As the direct representative of SECNAV, CHINFO is the Navys
information chief and is delegated the responsibility for coordinating, planning, and implementing the
Navys public affairs policies and programs. This includes exercising command of the Navy Offices of
Information and other CHINFO field activities and providing direction to public affairs programs
throughout the DON.
CHINFO Field Activities - To achieve the public affairs objective in an efficient and cost-effective
manner, CHINFO must communicate at the regional and national levels with local and regional news
media, local governmental leaders, key community leaders, key educators, and local/regional
business leadership. Through its field activities, CHINFO is responsible for Navy reputation
management, including national image and branding efforts, by bringing the Navy message directly to
the American public.
CHINFO Field Activities include two Navy Offices of Information (NAVINFO) and Navy Public Affairs
Support Elements (NPASE).
Navy Offices of Information
NAVINFO East, headquartered in New York, informs the men and women of the U.S. Navy, their
families, and the American public of key issues relating to the Navy. From assisting Girl Scout troops
during Operation Cookie Drop, to escorting embarks at Fleet Week, to informing media on the
commissioning of USS New York (LPD 21), NAVINFO East is involved in many diverse activities in
the New York metropolitan area. NAVINFO East also serves as a Navy contact for publishers
requesting Navy support in coordination with CHINFO and related Navy commands and assists with
requests for Navy props and assets for productions in the New York area.
NAVINFO West coordinates requests for Navy support with the major film, television, and
documentary production companies both throughout Los Angeles and worldwide. Production
assistance from the DoD means filming access to the Navy's professional people and the most
modern equipment.
Navy Public Affairs Support Element is headquartered in Norfolk. However, the CHINFO field activity
is divided into NPASE East and West, located in Norfolk and San Diego respectively. NPASE teams,
made up of PAOs and MCs, provide expeditionary public affairs forces and support the Fleet and
Component Commanders with scalable and immediate deployable forces trained and equipped to
support current and emerging public affairs requirements. NPASE detachments are located in
Coronado, Calif., Mayport, Fla.; Bremerton, Everett, Silverdale, and Whidbey Island, Wash.; Pearl
Harbor; Yokosuka and Sasebo, Japan; and Naples and Sigonella, Italy.
Defense Media Activity (DMA) Established in October 2008 as a result of the Defense Base
Realignment and Closure Act, DMA consolidates the Soldiers Media Center, Naval Media Center,
Marine Corps News, Air Force News Service, and American Forces Information Service into a single
field activity. DMA also includes Stars and Stripes newspaper and the Defense Information School.
DMA is the DoDs direct line of communication for news and information to U.S. forces worldwide.
The agency presents news, information, and entertainment on a variety of media platforms, including
radio, television, Internet, print media, and emerging media technologies.
Operating Forces - Subject to the direction of senior authority, each officer who exercises command
authority is responsible for the conduct and planning of public affairs. Public affairs (PA) is a
command function, and PAOs report to their respective commanders or COs on all PA issues. In
most instances, however, commanders and COs delegate public affairs planning and execution to
PAOs.
Public Affairs Officers - PAOs serve as principal assistants to combatant commanders and COs,
advising them on all public affairs matters. Additionally, the PAO is the primary spokesperson for the
command and liaises with media.
POLICIES AND GUIDANCE
Introduction
DoD and Navy policies, instructions, and guidance exist to assist you with your duties as an MC. This
chapter will briefly touch on the most common of these. More detailed information and links to the
documents discussed in this chapter can be found on the DoD Issuances and DON Issuances
websites as well as on P-A Net.
Public Affairs Governing Instructions
DoD Instruction 5400.13 (Public Affairs Operations) This instruction addresses PA roles and
responsibilities across the DoD, including the secretaries of the military departments, the joint chiefs
of staff, combatant commanders, and the heads of the other DoD components.
Joint Publication 3-61 (Joint Public Affairs Doctrine) This PA publication provides joint doctrine for
public affairs support during joint operations and U.S. military support to news media in conjunction
with military operations. It provides guidance to the joint force commander (JFC) when
communicating with national, international, and internal audiences.
SECNAVINST 5720.44 (series) (Public Affairs Policy and Regulations) Known as the PA Regs, this
instruction provides basic policy and regulations for carrying out public information/media relations,
community relations, and internal information for the DON. As an MC, you should use this as your
primary resource and reference it whenever questions about Navy public affairs arise.
Public Affairs Tactics Manual - The PA Tactics Manual is a how-to partner to the PA Regs.

110819-N-XG305-210 BUSAN, Republic of Korea (Aug. 19, 2011) Mass
Communication Specialist 1st Class Jerry Foltz escorts Republic of Korea sailors
for a tour of the U.S. 7th Fleet command ship USS Blue Ridge (LCC 19). Blue Ridge
is in Republic of Korea to participate in Ulchi Freedom Guardian 2011. (U.S. Navy
photo by Mass Communication Specialist 3rd Class Mel Orr/Released)
OPNAVINST 3104.1A (Navy Visual Information Policy and Responsibilities) This instruction
provides information on forms of visual or pictorial representation, either with or without sound. Visual
information (VI) includes still and motion imagery; hand- or computer-generated graphic art and
animations; related captions, overlays, and intellectual control data; and the processes and resources
that support them. Module 2 of this manual focuses on VI and provides more in-depth information into
this instruction.
Public Affairs Guidance (PAG) PAGs overarching purpose is to ensure message alignment, and it
is tailored to specific events, subjects, or issues. Within PAG, you will find themes and messages,
possible questions and proposed answers, and background information. As an MC, you should use
PAG in the development of all your products, to include print stories, imagery captions, and
multimedia productions. Examples of previous PAG, Rhumb Lines, and quick responses can be
found on P-A Net.
Rhumb Lines CHINFO produces Rhumb Lines for senior Navy leadership, including SECNAV, the
CNO, flag and general officers, and civilians to give them the situational awareness and information
they need to effectively communicate Navy priorities. In every Rhumb Lines, you will find quotations
from senior leadership, talking points, key messages, and pertinent facts and figures. Rhumb Lines is
CHINFOs principal message alignment tool for ensuring that the diverse and dispersed cadre of
naval leaders can speak with one voice on critical issues.
Quick Responses A quick response summarizes a specific issue or incident and provides
background information, while giving the response information for a potential media query. Facts or
talking points are also included.
P-A Net The Navy PA/VI community of practice is CHINFOs integrated suite of knowledge
management, workflow processes, and collaboration tools. P-A Net gives us the opportunity to share
information across the entire enterprise. Since P-A Net is web-based, it can be accessed from any
computer with Internet connectivity. Access to P-A Net is obtained through CHINFOs Policy,
Doctrine, and Technology division. However, prior to requesting access, you must be registered with
up-to-date information in the Navy PA Directory.
The Associated Press Stylebook and Briefing on Media Law - The Associated Press (AP) Stylebook
is the gold standard of news writing and allows you to write with the consistency and
professionalism of civilian news writers throughout the world. Not only does it offer more than 3,000
A-to-Z entries, but it also includes rules on grammar, spelling, punctuation, capitalization,
abbreviation, and word and numeral usage. Additionally, as the name implies, the AP Stylebook
provides guidance on business reporting, sports reporting, and media law, to include libel and
copyright infringement. Such legal concerns will be further discussed in the media law portion of this
chapter. The AP updates this reference annually; however, periodic updates are available through the
online version.
U.S. Navy Style Guide Unless otherwise noted in the U.S. Navy Style Guide, MCs should follow the
most recent edition of the AP Stylebook. Like the AP Stylebook, the Navy reference provides
guidance unique to the Navy. Local style items, specific to your command or unit, should also be
established and maintained to ensure consistency not only for MCs, but also for the commands
audiences.
These references are the foundation for Navy MCs. However, many additional documents exist to aid
us with our job as Navy PA/VI specialists. Various instructions and directives are interwoven into this
manual.

110724-N-WH671-103 ARABIAN SEA (July 24, 2011) Mass Communication Specialist Seaman
Apprentice Brian M. Read Castillo takes intelligence photographs aboard the Nimitz-class
aircraft carrier USS George H.W. Bush (CVN 77). George H.W. Bush is deployed to the U.S. 5th
Fleet area of responsibility on its first operational deployment conducting maritime security
operations and support missions as part of Operations Enduring Freedom and New Dawn.
(U.S. Navy Photo by Mass Communication Specialist Seaman Gregory M. Wilhelmi/Released)
Guidelines for Release
Understanding the basic policy on the release of information is the cornerstone of everything we do in
Navy public affairs. It affects what information we release to the public, how we handle the media,
what we publish, and how we respond to the public in general. Remember, DoD and Navy public
affairs policies mandate us to be as open as possible and release information with minimum delay.
Some information is not releasable, such as that which would adversely affect national security,
threaten the privacy or safety of personnel or their families, violate the privacy of an individual or that
which is contrary to law. Command leadership is responsible for all public affairs activities, including
the release of information; however, the authority to release information is often delegated to the
PAO.
As a junior MC it is not likely that you will be given the authority to release information, but it's
imperative for you to understand the guidelines. For more information, see Chapter 2 of the PA Regs
and when in doubt, a good rule of thumb is to consult your PAO or your chief.
The general limitations to the maximum disclosure policy can be easily remembered by the acronym
SAPP, pronounced sap, which stands for security, accuracy, propriety, and policy.
Security Security is the first and most important limitation. It refers to information that is
formally classified or falls under operational security (OPSEC) or the Essential Elements of
Friendly Information (EEFI). Release of this type of information can cause harm to national
security. OPSEC and EEFI guidance can be found in OPNAVINST 3432.1A (Operations
Security).
Accuracy The second most important limitation is accuracy. As an MC writing a story,
shooting imagery, or producing a multimedia production, you wont normally be the subject-
matter expert. However, your job requires you to verify all information for accuracy BEFORE
the product is released. NEVER shall you release information unless you are sure it is
accurate. Inaccuracy wrecks credibility.
Propriety Ensuring propriety means verifying all released products are in good taste. For
example, if you write news or a feature story, it is inappropriate to include tasteless humor and
embarrassing comments. Propriety also applies to photographs. Dont release photographs
that may cause distress to members of your audience. An obvious example is a photograph of
a deceased service member. If ever in doubt, ask your chief or supervisor.
Policy In some situations, policy may specify release guidance. For example, DoD policy
calls for releasing at the seat of government the names of personnel killed in action. Here are
some other examples of a DoD policy that must be followed:
o ACCIDENTS and INCIDENTS Major accidents or incidents require public affairs
support immediately as well as around the clock in the days following. It is a good bet
that you will never be 100 percent prepared for all accidents and incidents, but as
mentioned earlier in the manual, planning is key.
o In the event of a significant accident or incident, it is imperative the information is made
available to the public using the maximum disclosure, minimum delay guideline and not
be held pending inquiry. Per the PA Regs, the goal is to release the information within
one hour of the time the command is notified. However, releases should not be
distributed before the situational or operational reports (SITREPs and OPREPs) have
been sent. Doing so can unduly influence an investigation and inadvertently drive the
crisis.
Nuclear Accident and Incident guidance According to DoD Directive 5230.16, Nuclear
Accident and Incident Public Affairs Guidance, responses to all public queries about the
locations of nuclear weapons must include one of the following statements, as appropriate:
o It is U.S. policy to neither confirm nor deny the presence or absence of nuclear
weapons at any general or specific location.
o It is general U.S. policy not to deploy nuclear weapons aboard surface ships, tactical
submarines, and naval aircraft. However, we do not discuss the presence or absence of
nuclear weapons aboard specific platforms.
More information on producing news releases in conjunction with accidents and incidents can be
found in limited length in the Newswriting Chapter of this manual.
Personal Information Information released on military and civilian personnel is governed by the
Privacy Act of 1974 and SECNAVINST 5211.5E (Department of the Navy Privacy Program).
Generally, the following personal information is releasable and not considered an invasion of personal
privacy:
For civilian employees:
Name
Present and past grades
Present and past salaries
Present and past duty stations
Office or duty telephone number(s)
For military service members:
Name
Rank and date of rank
Gross salary
Present and past duty stations
Future assignments that are officially established
Office or duty telephone number(s)
Source of commission
Promotion sequence number
Awards and decorations
Attendance at professional military schools
Duty status at any given time (active, reserve)
While this information is releasable on a case-by-case basis, blanket requests seeking information on
a group of individuals or records should be considered with the help of a Privacy Act expert. If ever in
doubt, talk to your chain of command.
The Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) In 1966, FOIA gave the public the right to access records of
the executive branch of the federal government, establishing for the first time in U.S. history the right
of any person to seek access to these records. FOIA requests often center on the programs and
activities of the DoD, including, but not limited to, the following:
Projected retirees
Deck logs
Investigations
Contracts
Nuclear weapons
Disposal of toxic substances
FOIA requests must be made in writing to be official. Once received, the Navy must respond to the
request within 10 working days. However, you may make a written formal time-extension request
back to the requester of up to 10 additional working days. This letter must be approved and signed by
higher authority and include the reason for which an extension is required. The letter must also
indicate that the requester may make an appeal to the appropriate appellate authority within 60
calendar days.
The FOIA generally provides access to U.S. government records that result from the gathering of
data. While many records qualify for release under FOIA, some records that do not include:
Objects or articles (such as structures, furniture, paintings, sculpture, three-dimensional
models, vehicles, and equipment)
Administrative tools (such as computer software)
Intangible records (such as an individuals memory or oral communication)
Personal records not subject to agency creation/retention (such as notes to jog the memory of
an employee)
Unaltered publications and processed documents available to the public through other means
(such as regulations, maps, and manuals)
According to the PA Regs, however, information releasable under FOIA will be released without the
requestor having to submit a FOIA request, particularly if the requestor is a news media
representative. Release of information without requiring a FOIA request will often save labor and cost
for both the requestor and the DON activity. Always check with your chief and/or PAO before making
this exception though.
More information regarding FOIA can be found in the Department of the Navy FOIA Instruction
Program (SECNAVINST 5720.42F) and in Chapter 7 of the PA Regs.
Website Policy The management and oversight of all content on a publicly accessible Navy
command website is a public affairs function, while the design and layout of websites is a visual
information function.
The instruction governing official command websites is SECNAVINST 5720.47B, entitled Department
of the Navy Policy for Content of Publicly Accessible World Wide Web Sites.
MCs serving as webmasters, should become familiar with all regulations governing websites and
should bookmark DoDs page for webmasters.
The need to provide public information to the Navys various audiences must be balanced with the
need to protect operational security, privacy of information, information security, and personal safety.
The appearance, accuracy, currency and relevance of the information presented by Navy commands
on their websites reflect on the Navys professional standards and credibility. Commands should limit
posted information to information unique to their command. If you dont own the information, dont
post it directly. Linking to other government sites is the best practice in this case. Another tip for
managing and maintaining websites is to visit other Navy command sites and talk to other
webmasters about what works and doesnt work with their audiences.
Media Law As you have learned in this chapter, nearly everything you do as an MC is governed by
policies and directives. Yet, in addition to our military regulations, your products are also governed by
federal and state laws, which include communications law.
The Constitutions First Amendment states: Congress will make no laws abridging the freedom of the
press. To the grief of many a publisher and reporter, the First Amendment does not give reporters
and editors a free license to print whatever they please.
Free speech and free press, as guaranteed by the Constitution, have two sides: on one side, the right
to use them; on the other, the duty not to abuse them. Because your job is to tell the Navys story,
you should become acquainted with defamation laws, the right of privacy, and copyright laws.
Defamation, the harming of ones reputation, is typically broken up into two typeslibel and slander.
Libel is published defamation, while slander is spoken. As it may be clear that defamation printed in a
newspaper or on a website is libelous, it may not be as clear when it comes to broadcasted products
on television or radio.
Libel laws are state laws not federal laws, meaning that what is libelous and how it will be punished is
different in each state. In most states, libel is a civil offense and convictions typically result in
monetary damages instead of jail time.
Staff judge advocates can assist you in understanding local libel laws. Additional information on
media law can be found in the latest version of the Associated Press Stylebook and Briefing on Media
Law. (Subscription required to browse online version of AP Stylebook.)
Privacy Rights While the right to privacy is not specifically stated in the Constitution like freedom of
speech, it is often regarded as one of our most cherished rights. In 1890, future Supreme Court
Justice Louis Brandeis said in the Harvard Law Review that privacy is the right to be left alonethe
most comprehensive of rights and the right most valued by civilized man. The Privacy Act of 1974
gives citizens the right to control information about themselves.
MCs must not violate a persons privacy. Privacy can be violated by disclosure of private facts, if the
facts are offensive to a reasonable person and are NOT newsworthy.
More information regarding the Privacy Act of 1974 can be found in SECNAVINST 5211.5 (series) at
the Navy Privacy website.
Copyright Laws Copyright is the right of an author, composer, artist, photographer, etc., to own,
control, and/or profit from the production of his/her work. Copyrighted material may not be
republished without consent of the copyright owner, who is not always the author. Facts, historical
events, and titles cannot be copyrighted, nor can work produced by government employees (MCs
included) working within the scope of their jobs.
Generally, copyrights issued since 1978 are good for the authors life plus 70 years, and those issued
before 1978 are good for 75 years and are renewable. The Library of Congress contains more
information on length of copyrights.
The Fair Use Doctrine legally allows use of portions of copyrighted work without permission in certain
instances. These exceptions are:
Criticism: In reviewing books, television programs, movies, and music, portions of the work may be
repeated in the review. However, the portions used cannot give away resolution of major plots.
Comment: In commentaries, you may use portions of other works to make or refute a point.
News reporting: At times, a book, television program, movie, or song becomes a news item. Relevant
portions of the work may be used to support the article.
Teaching: Teachers may use portions of other peoples work in their instruction.
Scholarship: Term papers, theses, and dissertations may be used; however, footnotes and
bibliographies must be used to give credit to these pieces.
Research: This includes documents such as research papers, magazine/journal articles, and books
produced outside of an academic requirement. Again, remember to use footnotes and bibliographies.
If you have any doubt about copyright or fair use, you should err on the side of caution and receive
permission from the copyright owner prior to use. More information and an example template to
request copyright permission can be found in" SECNAVINST 5870.4A Copyright. Supplemental
copyright information specific to public and visual information can also be found in the Associated
Press Stylebook and Briefing on Media Law as well as OPNAVINST 3104.1 (series) (Navy Visual
Information Policy and Responsibilities). (These are two sources. Associated Press Stylebook and
Briefing on Media Law is one source: book.)
SUMMARY
In this chapter, you learned the requirements to be, and the many jobs you can perform as a U.S.
Navy Mass Communication Specialist. You also learned the basic principles and fundamentals of
DoD and Navy public affairs, and the policies, guidance and directives we live by. As a reminder,
further information on these items can be found on the DoD Issuances and DoN Issuances websites
as well as on P-A Net. More information about the Navy MC rating can be found in the Navy Enlisted
Manpower and Personnel Classifications and Occupational Standards (NEOCS Manual). As you
continue through the pages of this manual, you will build upon this knowledge, gaining a strong base
of knowledge to draw on for the rest of your career, but this is only the beginning. Every day should
be one of learning new skills to perform your role as the Navys storyteller.
CHAPTER 2
PUBLIC AFFAIRS FUNCTIONS

Public affairs can be divided into three functionsinternal information, public information, and
community relations. To be successful in public affairs, you must master all three functions and
incorporate each into the commands mission. In this chapter, we will discuss the basics of each
function and how they work together to inform our audiences and tell the Navys story.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to do the following:
1. Discuss the three functions of public affairs and how MCs use each to tell the Navys story.
2. Explain the types of media and their characteristics.
3. Identify the information included in a media query.
4. Assemble a media information kit.
5. Assemble a welcome aboard kit.
6. Discuss steps necessary to escort media.
PUBLIC AFFAIRS APPROACH
Internal information, public information and community outreach are directed toward internal and
external audiences. As an MC working within these three functions, you must decide what approach
you will take when reaching out and releasing information to your audiences. The two approaches are
proactive and reactive.
Proactive (Preventive) - This approach requires you to plan ahead and include the day-to-day
activities of the office and regularly occurring events, such as changes of command, tours, and
distinguished visitor or media embarks. Being proactive adheres to the maximum disclosure policy
and is always the preferred approach, as it spells out what needs to be done and identifies
opportunities to provide good exposure for your command and your Sailors and Marines. Proper
planning is the foundation of successful public affairs.
Reactive - This approach involves responding to a surprise (often crisis or bad news) situation that
cannot be predicted or hasnt been practiced or fully planned. However, a public affairs shop is better
equipped to handle an unexpected crisis if there is a plan in place. There is no substitute for a good
crisis communication plan.
All three functions of public affairs are equally important to reaching your intended audiences. You
must be familiar with all three functions and how they work in concert to tell the Navys story. Whether
you take the preferred preventive approach or circumstances dictate a reactive approach, timely and
accurate information flow is the key to successful public affairs operations.
INTERNAL INFORMATION
Your internal audience consists of active and reserve Navy and Marine Corps members, Navy and
Marine Corps families, civilian employees, contract employees, retirees, and Navy and Marine Corps
organizations. The primary internal communication goal is to ensure our people and their families
understand they are at the core of readiness and operational effectiveness.
There are six general internal information goals you should always keep in mind:
1. Link Sailors, Marines and their leaders through a free flow of news and information.
2. Help Sailors and Marines understand their roles in the Navys mission.
3. Explain how policies, programs and operations affect Navy members.
4. Promote good citizenship and build pride.
5. Recognize individual and team achievements.
6. Provide avenues for feedback.
There are many ways in which you can "get the word out" to accomplish these six goals. Often the
best method is to use as many communication channels as possible for one piece of news. Once you
know all of the options, you can best select how to publicize information of importance to your
audience.
PRINT PRODUCTS
Command Newspapers
Official command or region newspapers fall under the purview of the PAO, your best one-stop adviser
for information distribution.
They reach broader audiences: active duty, families, civilian employees, reservists,
contractors, etc.
People have had lifelong training at reading and comprehending news. Its far more reader-
friendly and personal than official correspondence.
Newspapers enhance the Navys and your commands themes and messages with
photography and graphics. Visual elements such as photos, graphics and headlines have
proven to dramatically improve comprehension.
Command newspapers are produced as two typescivilian enterprise (CE) and command-funded.
The CE publication is the preferred type because it is printed at no cost to the command.
Advertising sold by the commercial printer covers the publishing costs. The contract between
the command and the commercial printer stipulates the Navy will specify design and layout of
editorial content, and advertising will not exceed 60 percent of the space. Additionally,
advertising shall not violate DoD equal opportunity directives.
Command-funded publications do not contain advertising, so they are paid for by the
command and printed on base, aboard ship or at a commercial printer. The command owns
100 percent of the layout space.
The CE publisher is typically responsible for distributing a CE publication, through official
channels may be used. Whether youre distributing a command-funded or CE paper,
newspapers should be placed in high-traffic areas, such as the Navy Exchange, commissary,
housing areas, mess decks or break rooms. Newspapers may also be mailed, via third -or
fourth-class mail, or made available online for viewing or download.
More information on CE newspapers can be found in the PA Regs and DoDINST 5120.4, Department
of Defense Newspapers, Magazines and Civilian Enterprise Publications.
Family Newsletters
Surveys have found the overwhelming majority of Sailors and family members find family newsletters
helpful in keeping families informed of Navy-wide and command information.
They can be used to:
Transmit information from the command to family members.
Inform readers of community and Navy services available.
Express the command's interest in the morale and welfare of family members.
Encourage, inspire, and uplift.
The benefits of newsletters include:
Reducing misinformation and rumors by providing firsthand, accurate information.
Reaching a large number of people at one time.
Introducing and establishing command leadership and the ombudsman as a credible source of
information.
The distribution of the family newsletter can be coordinated with your command ombudsman
or family readiness group for the most up-to-date family member mailing or e-mail list. The
newsletter can be produced as a hard copy to be mailed, distributed electronically, or both.
Typically, a newsletter should be no more than four pages, front and back. Some commands
now use social media sites in addition to or in lieu of hard-copy family newsletters. We will
discuss social media in more detail in the public information portion of this chapter.
Plan of the Day/Week/Month (POD/POW/POM)
Although this channel is primarily an administrative function, MCs should recognize this medium as a
viable avenue for command information. Characteristics of the Plan of the Day/Week/Month
(POD/POW/POM) include:
Designed for short news blurbs.
Businesslike in tone; good for policy news.
Acts as the official command voice; it carries weight.
An excellent way to move information quickly.
Most effective when combined with other channels, such as command newspapers, welcome
aboard packets, and face-to-face meetings, such as morning quarters. By combining
channels, you expound and broaden your coverage.
Electronic Media
Examples of electronic media include Internet, e-mail, radio, television (shipboard or local closed-
circuit), the 1MC, and the telephone.
Internet - The Internet offers MCs an interactive means of disseminating information to all
audiences. From the Navys official website (discussed later in the chapter) to command-
sponsored websites and social media sites, MCs can upload news, photos, videos, and
multimedia products as well as static information about their commands and the Navy. The sky
is the limit to how MCs can use the Internet. However, in doing such, you must adhere to
SECNAVINST 5720.47 (series), Policy for Content for Publicly Accessible World Wide Web
Sites.
SITE TV. Shipboard Information, Training and Entertainment Closed-Circuit Television (SITE-
CCTV) system is an excellent vehicle for delivering critical information and maintaining crew
morale.
The Direct to Sailor (DTS) program, a satellite-based source of programming, provides news
and entertainment on television and radio channels. More information can be found in
DoDINST 5120.2, American Forces Radio and Television Service, also known as Armed
Forces Radio Television Service (AFRTS).
SITE is an excellent system for real-time programming of command events, news, and
information that can directly impact the lives of Sailors and their families. Use the systems
character generator to scroll important Navy, national, and international news items during the
workday and between movies.
Face-to-Face
Morning quarters, captains calls, division or department head meetings, visits by the CO, formal
addresses to groups by ombudsmen or family readiness groups, pre-deployment/post-deployment
briefs, and command/department indoctrination are invaluable means of disseminating information to
internal audiences. MCs should ALWAYS be involved in these events.
Command Events
Family and Tiger cruises, command picnics, Navy and Marine Corps birthday celebrations, and Sailor
of the Month/Year events are among the ways in which MCs can get involved to tell the command
and the Navy story to many people at one time.
Defense Media Activity
A number of additional products produced by DMA, developed with the guidance of CHINFO, are
outstanding outlets to deliver your commands message, tell your Sailors stories, and expand your
audience. They are as follows:
Navy.mil - The Navy's official website is managed and maintained by the DMA. It is targeted to
the Navy's internal audiences and anyone seeking information about the Navy. The site
includes information on many facets of the Navy, ranging from daily news to digital images of
Sailors and Navy events fleet wide. You should use Navy.mil as an information resource and
as an outlet to release your commands media products to a wider audience. To upload stories
to Navy.mil, your command must use the Navy management console, a password-protected
site.
By updating your information in the PA directory, you can elect to receive daily updates from
Navy News. The e-mailed updates include the days stories, photo of the day and a daily
historical fact.
All Hands Radio - The flagship broadcast for the U.S. Navy, All Hands Radio is broadcast daily
online at Navy.mil and on American Forces Radio stations worldwide.
All Hands News Update - Formerly known as Daily News Update, All Hands News includes six
television news packages per daya two-minute TV package, and five one-minute TV
packages broadcast on the Pentagon Channel, American Forces Television, and online at
Navy.mil. The goal of All Hands News is to tell your story to the fleet and to keep the fleet
informed of the best, newest and greatest things going on in todays Navy and Marine Corps.
All Hands News Update is a great outlet for broadcasting your command-generated news
packages to the fleet. Contact DMA for specific submission guidelines.
Really Simple Syndication (RSS) - Many of the products listed above are also available via
podcasts and RSS feeds. These feeds deliver audio and video broadcasts to your desktop or a
portable device. Navy podcasts and RSS feeds can be found by following the Media
Resources link on Navy.mil.

PUBLIC INFORMATION/MEDIA RELATIONS
Public information, also known as media relations, refers to the collection, analysis, and
dissemination of unclassified, official, or otherwise releasable information to the public. This is the
chief underlying function of all public affairs activities and fulfills the responsibility of all federally-
funded agencies for accountability to the taxpayers. However, in order to build a strong public
information/media relations program, you must establish and maintain credibility.
Identifying Your Audience
Your ability to effectively communicate hinges on properly identifying your audience and using the
most appropriate media type to deliver the intended message. For example, if your audience is a
group of World War II veterans, the Internet may not be the best way to reach them.
Media Types
Your command should be familiar with the following media types and their requirements to properly
coordinate coverage.
Civilian Newspapers - Next to public speaking, newspapers are the oldest medium of mass
communication. Despite the growth of television and the Internet, however, many believe
newspapers remain the backbone of public information. MCs should understand the significant
differences in news coverage that may exist between metropolitan dailies, neighborhood
dailies, and weekly newspapers in the same locale. Many, if not most, newspapers are now
online.
Wire Services - A large part of the news read in newspapers or heard on the air originates from
one of several major press associations or wire services. Below are some of the major news
services covering international and national news.
o Associated Press According to the organizations website, the Associated Press was
founded in 1846 and is headquartered in New York. It is a not-for-profit news
cooperative owned by its American newspaper and broadcast members. It serves
thousands of daily newspaper, radio, television, and online customers with coverage in
text, photos, graphics, audio and video.
o United Press International UPI, as it is most widely known, reaches about 2.8 million
people a year via its website. In the business since 1907, UPI provides information to
media outlets, businesses, governments, and researchers worldwide.
o Thomson Reuters (more commonly known as Reuters, pronounced roy-ters)
Founded in 1851 and headquartered in London, Reuters is a United Kingdom-based
news service that provides news, opinion, and analysis.
o Agence France-Presse AFP traces its history back to 1835 and Agence Havas, which
claims to be the first international news agency. AFP covers the world with thousands
of stories daily.
o Xinhua News Agency (pronounced sheen hwah) Xinhua, which translates to New
China, has provided information about the Peoples Republic of China since 1931.
Today, Xinhua translates its news across the world in six languages.
o The New York Times, Los Angeles Times, and Washington Post each have their own
wire services.
o Gannett is a news service that owns USA TODAY, Navy Times, and more than 100 local
dailies and has significant holdings in broadcast media.
Television Television combines the impact of image and movement with the immediacy of
radio. This makes it the most potent of mass communication media.
Radio - The medium for immediacy, radio broadcasts are faster and less cumbersome than
television. Radio is also more accessible to the public than any other medium and offers
coverage of a news event as it happens. In some areas of the world, such as Iraq and
Afghanistan, the external media is dominated by word of mouth and radio. Listeners can stay
abreast of events with little effort. However, radio has no permanence or depth of coverage.
Each radio station has its own particular production requirements. Yet, Navy PA staffs can
assist radio station managers in producing news and features on military topics that can be
mutually beneficial.
Emerging Media - Social media has grown exponentially in the past few years, and the publics
increased use has made this avenue of communication extremely effective in reaching our
audiences quickly and personally. In many cases, social media sites have blurred the lines
between professional and personal networks. Professionalism and adherence to operational
security on social media sites must be maintained at all times, whether youre posting as an
official command representative or to friends and family in a civilian capacity. Command
updates to social media sites are not intended to replace the traditional news release or
command website but to provide accompaniment to enhance our stories and reach a different
audience. Operational security should be given the highest consideration when dealing with
social media. Social media sites are NOT private. An opinion in the social media realm is an
opinion in a public domain. Not only are the public and media there, so are our adversaries. If
you wouldnt display and sign your opinion on a placard in a public place, you shouldnt post it
in cyberspace. More guidance on social media can be found on the Defense.Gov website and
CHINFO website.
Remember, you must not favor one medium over another; however, you should take advantage of
the potential and recognize the limitations of each for circulation, selectivity of publics, influence or
prestige, appearance, and flexibility in the timing of your products. One common limitation is that
coverage does not guarantee public knowledge or understanding of an issue. You cannot expect
radio to do a job that is better suited for a newspaper or for a newspaper to do the entire job of
communicating in an era when the electronic media have access to virtually all American homes.
Establishing Good Media Relations
Similar to SAPP (security, accuracy, propriety and policy), there are four key words that govern your
relations with representatives of the mass media. They are as follows:
Security -- Make sure the information you release to the media does not contain security
violations. In addition to getting yourself in trouble, you may endanger the welfare of your
country. You should adopt the slogans when in doubt, check it out and loose lips sink ships.
Honesty Your good name (as well as the Navys) is your most valuable asset and the
foundation of credibility. Justify the medias belief and trust in the Navy by playing the news
game honestly. Never fake a story or serve a selfish interest. Do an honest, straightforward job
of reporting the news. Credit your source, never plagiarize, and dont use copyrighted material
without permission.
Accuracy Every news release or statement released to the media must be 100 percent
accurate. Make one blunder and the media could lose confidence in you. Be sure to check and
double-check all statements, names, addresses, dates, and numbers. Be sure your personal
opinions do not interfere with your media relations. Your job is to tell the facts and tell them
accurately.
Promptness A good MC aims for speed without sacrificing accuracy. Reporters want their
material quickly because competition is keen, and the public demands fresh news.
Media Relations Dos and Donts
Building relationships with the media in your area is key to a successful public information program.
As in any area of human relations, treat others as you want to be treated. Be professional.
Remembering a few simple dos and donts will help guide you, as well as help you set an example
for your MC peers.
Do:
Be available at all hours
Tell the truth
Tell reporters up front if you cannot comment on a particular subject or if the answer is
classified
Get the facts, get them right, and get them out
Be aware of time or space limitations, deadlines, or other special requirements
Know the audience of each medium
Know the people who work in the media
Dont:
Lie
Speculate
Beg for coverage
Ask a reporter to kill a story
Be partial in dealing with media representatives for any reason
Release information to other newsmen that has been given to you by a newsman
Be a publicity hound
Ask reporters to slant their copy, withhold information, or do favors
Speak off the record
Media Queries
A media query is a request for information made by a reporter, usually by telephone or e-mail, thus
indicating that the reporter is looking for a rapid response. To properly respond to media queries, your
shop should have a media query form that will walk you through the information you need to gather
for the reporter making the query. The form should include the following items:
Date and time of the media query
Name of person taking query
Reporters name and organization
Reporter's contact information (phone, fax, e-mail)
Reporters deadline
Subject of reporters focus
Background
Specific question(s) being asked by the reporter
Desired response (phone interview, written response, visit, etc.)
PAO point of contact information
Staffing information
Tracking number A media query log will help track and file media queries and responses
If you receive a query from the media, record as much information listed above as possible, and do
so legibly. As a rule, you should immediately refer the query to your chief or PAO. The PAO is most
likely the authority to release information and is more likely to know the representative calling. When
your PAO or chief is not available, you should only answer the query if you have been given the
authority to do so and the requested information is releasable and within the limits of SAPP. In most
public affairs offices, a set of established ground rules covers responses to routine queries.
However, always keep in mind that the reporter is most likely working against a rapidly approaching
deadline. Therefore, if the information is not readily available or you do not have the authority to
respond to a query, respectfully explain this to the reporter and promise to call back. Never brush off
a reporter with a vague promise, such as, I will see what I can find out. Be courteous and remember
you are representing your command and Americas Navy. If you say you are going to get back to the
reporter, then get back to that reporter. Your credibility and the credibility of the Navy could be at
stake if you do not.
If you receive more than three queries on a particular subject, you should consider sending out the
information via an external news release as soon as possible. See Chapter 5 for more information on
external news releases.
Media Visits
Members of the media may not only request information via queries; they may also request a visit to
your command or simply be invited. In any event, when media visit your ship or station, you will often
be tasked to escort them. Media representatives are considered guests of the CO, even when they
are covering an assignment. As guests, members of the media are due the utmost courtesy and
respect. When you are assigned to escort media, make sure you are prepared. The following items
must be coordinated and reviewed with your supervisor, chief, and/or PAO prior to the visit:
Tour route through command include as many points of interest as possible within security
limits
Interviewees and subject-matter experts
Times and locations of interviews
Media information kits
Once you meet the media, you should be relaxed and natural in your actions. Do not try to talk above
your level of expertise. If the reporter asks questions you do not know how to answer, make note of
the questions and get back to him or her as soon as possible just as you would with a media query.
If a reporter approaches you for an exclusive, you can work that angle only if the angle is the
reporters original idea. If not, you have to include all other media interested in the subject.
Media Information Kit
The media information kit (also known as a media kit or press kit) is one way to provide visiting
reporters with valuable background information on your ship or station. A typical media kit contains
the following materials:
Command historical timeline
Brief description of the commands mission
Welcome aboard brochure
Biographies of CO, executive officer (XO), and/or other subject-matter experts you may have
lined up for the media visit
Multimedia products (photos, videos, and graphics may be provided to the media on CDs,
DVDs, or a link to a downloadable website where media can find these products)
Any other appropriate information, such as news releases and fact files, to supplement the
subject on which they intend to write
To assemble the items for your media kit, you can use a standard-size, double-pocket folder. You can
arrange the items in a variety of ways, but one common method is to place the static items (command
history, leadership biographies, welcome aboard booklet, etc.) on the left and amplifying, event-
specific events on the right. Media kits must be reviewed regularly, because the material quickly
becomes outdated.
Media information kits serve many other useful purposes, too. For example, you may give them to
visiting dignitaries or guest observers during fleet exercises and operations. They are also used
during public visitations, commissioning ceremonies, and other special occasions. While on
deployment, media kits can be forwarded with advance news releases to local editors in ports
scheduled to be visited. American officials in foreign countries also need kits for publicity purposes
when ships visit them.
Media Lists
As part of your shops files, you should have a detailed list of all the media in your area. The list
breaks the media into specified groups, such as newspapers, television, radio, and social media.
Finding out what media are in your area is not as difficult as you may think. An Internet search for
media as well as networking with area MCs and PAOs should set you on the right path to developing
your local media list. For each media outlet, you should include the following information in your
database:
Name of the organization
Names of managing editors and/or general managers
Names of editors, news directors, and assignment editors
Names of military beat reporters
Names of public affairs directors
Mailing address, including street, city, state, and zip code, for the organization
Telephone numbers
Fax numbers -Though fax machines may seem out of date, if the media outlet has a fax
number, include it in your listing
E-mail addresses
Affiliation, e.g., CBS, NBC, or FOX, if applicable
Wire service, e.g., Gannett, Reuters, AP, if applicable
Notes about the organization to include previous articles, tone of articles, views on military and
social media involvement
By having a detailed media list, you will be prepared to contact them for media availabilities or to
distribute news releases and media advisories quickly. A news release, also known as a press
release, is written correspondence directed at the media to inform them of a newsworthy event,
service, product or person. A media advisory is an abbreviated news release that invites the media to
cover an event themselves. Newsgathering and news writing will be discussed in subsequent
chapters of this module; however, further information regarding media relations and the release of
information can be found on P-A Net.
COMMUNITY OUTREACH
Community outreach, formerly called community relations, or COMREL, is the third function of public
affairs. Community outreach is defined as a planned series of events and activities that fosters
communication and understanding between military and civilian communities. It encompasses all
official and private contact between the command and its personnel and local communities.
Fostering and furthering good relations with communities at home and abroad is in the best interest of
the Navy. A well-planned outreach program will help earn public support and understanding of the
Navys mission and capabilities by increasing public exposure to, and understanding of, military
personnel, facilities, equipment, and programs. Outreach also works to support recruiting goals and
inspires patriotism.
Military organizations should be concerned with outreach because the business of the military is the
peoples business. Military organizations have a responsibility to report to the public on the conduct of
military business. In a democratic nation, individual citizens have a right to know how efficiently, and
to what purpose, the armed forces are employing their sons and daughters and using their tax
money--plus what the returns are on their investment in personal and national security. The
effectiveness of military operations depends upon public understanding, support, and cooperation.
Elements of a Community Outreach Program
Among the main elements of an outreach program are publics, communication channels, and
outreach projects designed to accomplish an organizations goals in the community.
Identifying Publics Collectively, a Navy commands public consists of many groups, both internal
and external. As with any community, however, you will find key publics or leaders in the community.
To be successful in your outreach program, you should identify and be familiar with these publics. As
with the media relations program at your command, your shop should maintain a file of civic and
community leaders. This file should include all point of contact information, to include names, phone
numbers, addresses, and websites.
Internal publics
U.S. Naval Academy midshipmen
Navy Reserve Officers Training Corps (NROTC) midshipmen
Military auxiliary organizations
Career civilian employees
Families
External publics
The general public
Community organizations (civic, trade, industrial, veterans, fraternal, youth, women, religious,
educational)
Congress
Members of committees involved in armed forces matters
Key governmental officials
Local government officials
News media
Professional organizations
Well-known local businesses
Professional people
Elder statesmen
Community leaders can also be categorized into decision makers, opinion leaders, influentials, and
the general public. (Click on links to read Navy news stories that highlight these community
members.)
Decision makers are elected or appointed officials in the community who vote on issues that
may affect the outreach climate. Mayors and city council members are examples of community
leaders.
Opinion leaders are community leaders, though not elected or appointed, who still have the
power to shape public opinion. They gather a following based on their perspective on a single
issue or a group of related issues. Examples of opinion leaders are school board members,
civic organization leaders, and religious leaders.
Influentials are key persons in the business world. They are the CEOs and chamber of
commerce members or other business associations in local community. Click here for an
example of how influentials support Americas Navy.
Possibly the most important external audience is the publicour neighbors, fellow American
citizens, taxpayers, and voters. Relationships we build with the general population in our
communities leave lasting impressions.
Communication Channels Several communication channels are available to carry out a good
outreach program. A channel is a method used to reach out to your publics. Of course, we have
telephones and Internet, but what about getting out in the public to reach your audiences? Service
members participation in community, church, and athletic and social activities is the most important
and effective communication channel. The majority of people in your community will base their
opinion of the military on the individuals with whom they come into contact.
Projects and Activities
Projects and activities such as Navy Weeks, installation/ship tours, exhibits, bands, color guards, and
other planned activities aimed at communicating with the public are essential.
Tours Navy commands, regardless of their size or mission, generate community interest. For this
reason, tours are often an important part of any outreach program, as visitors witness firsthand the
Navy in action. The public affairs office is responsible for handling requests for tours, selecting and
training tour guides, and planning and coordinating tours.
Just as you will serve as a media escort while serving as an MC, you will also be tasked as a tour
guide for your command. As a tour guide, you become the face of the command. It is imperative you
learn as much about your command as possible, but never speak about topics you dont know about.
Saying I dont know, but I will get back to you is never a bad answer. Just make sure you find the
answer for the requestor and follow through on your promise to get back with him/her. The following
guidelines can be applied to most installation visits and shipboard tours:
All hands must be reminded they are representatives of the Navy, and their conduct and
attitude are important when conducting tours.
For foreign port visits, ship's company and embarked personnel should prepare for visitors by
receiving briefings on local customs and traditions.
Welcome Aboard packets or brochures supplement the guided tour. Similar to media kits, a
welcome aboard kit typically contains significant events in the ships history, photographs of
the ship, historical and unclassified statistical data, a discussion of the ships mission, and your
COs biography. If foreign port visits are anticipated, packets should be translated.
Explanatory signs or photo boards should be prepared directing visitors through the ship and
explaining systems and equipment. When overseas, the signs should be in both English and
the host-nation language, if possible. To translate these items as well as items such as
welcome aboard brochures, the PAO will most likely coordinate with the commands
operations department and with host-nation and embassy personnel.
Opportunities should be arranged for local citizens to meet with members of the ships
company to share interesting backgrounds.
An adequate number of selected and trained tour guides or escorts should be selected based
on appearance, enthusiasm, ability to be personable, and skill in expressing themselves. In all
cases, guides should be trained and briefed in advance. A quick inspection of your tour guides
uniforms is a must. Of note, those who speak the host countrys language should be used as
hosts whenever possible.
Particular care must be exercised when news media representatives are invited aboard in a
capacity other than their professional one. They should be treated as news media
representatives regardless of their status as invited guests.
More information regarding the coordination and approval authorities for visits and embarkations can
be found in OPNAVINST 5720.2, Embarkation in U.S. Navy Vessels. Instructions can be found at the
Navy Instruction Issuances Web page.
Participation in Community Events Military members may support community requests to participate
in local events as part of an honor guard, science fair, marching unit, etc. Generally, efforts involving
service members, such as joint cleanup ventures or blood drives, are most productive. Support must
be confined to activities of common public interest and benefit a local, state, regional, or national
interest, unless specifically authorized by public law or executive order. When in doubt, talk to your
chief or PAO.
More information regarding outreach can be found in the PA Regs, SECNAVINST 5720.44 (series).
Navy Office of Community Outreach
The DON has long realized the importance of community relations as it relates to our overall public
affairs mission. The CHINFO established the Navy Office of Community Outreach (NAVCO) as a field
activity to serve as the central point of coordination for Navy community outreach programs
throughout the continental U.S. with the exception of fleet concentration areas and the Los Angeles
and New York metropolitan areas. The goal of this coordination is to conduct and align national Navy
image, awareness, and branding efforts by coordinating existing assets for maximum outreach
impact. NAVCO is governed by OPNAVINST 5726.8, Outreach: Americas Navy. More information
about NAVCO can be found at www.navy.mil/navco/.
The primary means of outreach is through Navy Weeks, which work to bring a concentration of Navy
assets and personnel to Americas heartland. This is done through programs like the Navy Speakers
Bureau, Navy Band support, Navy Aviation support, Caps for Kids program, media outreach, and
namesake visits during Navy Weeks.
The Speakers Bureau program is a way of getting your messages to various facets of the local
community by sending speakers to talk about their jobs, the installation, and its mission. Your
installation is full of people with special skills, talents, and interests. Civic groups are always on
the lookout for speakers. The public affairs staff is responsible for maintaining a roster of
speakers, evaluating requests, and coordinating speaking engagements.
Military band performances Military bands can provide patriotic or military music in the local
community when sponsored by non-federal entities. However, Navy bands are not allowed to
provide background, dinner, dance, or other social music at programs held away from an
installation. This would compete with local private bands. They can, however, perform their
patriotic or military music and can be used to support recruiting activities. More information on
the Navy Bands program can be found on the NAVCO website.
SUMMARY
In this chapter you have learned about the three functions of public affairsinternal relations, public
information, and community relations. Equal emphasis should be placed on all three, because as a
junior MC, youll likely find yourself working with all three, sometimes simultaneously. With proper
planning, each function will work to support the other, satisfying each of your audiences and
supporting your commands overall public affairs goals.
CHAPTER 3
INTRODUCTION TO NEWSWRITING
In previous chapters, you read about the fundamentals and functions of public affairs. As you learned,
MCs serve as internal media and work with external media and communities to tell the Navy story.
For these reasons, you must possess strong writing skills and understand the "nature of news," or
what makes a situation newsworthy. This allows you to successfully promote issues and events to the
media and your audiences.
The exact definition of news varies from one person to the next; however, one common thread is that
news is information people want and need. News is written to inform, pique interest, or entertain.
News is the timely report of an event of sufficient importance that interests a number of people and
possesses a combination of elements of mass appeal.
This chapter covers the elements of mass appeal and writing essentials. To understand and employ
these skills is to understand how to efficiently and effectively prioritize your efforts as an MC.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
Upon completing this chapter, you should be able to do the following:
1. Identify newsworthiness.
2. Identify the basic elements of a news story.
3. Define the ABCs of journalism.
4. Discuss the use of attribution in a news story.
5. Explain security, accuracy, propriety, and policy (SAPP) in a news story.
6. Explain process of localizing and rewriting.
7. Explain difference in print newswriting and broadcast newswriting.
8. Discuss process of copyediting.
ELEMENTS OF MASS APPEAL
As mentioned above, the definition of news changes from person to person. However, what makes
news remains typically consistent. We will use 10 major elements of mass appeal to identify the
nature of news here. To help you remember these elements of mass appeal, use the acronym
SPICE COPPS to identify them. See Table 3-1.

Table 3-1 Elements of Mass Appeal
Suspense Consequence
Prominence Oddity
Immediacy Proximity
Conflict Progress
Emotion Sex
Suspense
You most often see the suspense element presented in a day-by-day or hour-by-hour account of a
high-visibility event. Examples are a desperate search for a lost submarine or rescue operations for
trapped miners. A news story may not build to a climax the way a mystery does, so it is important that
you cite the most important facts first. This practice helps to heighten the suspense of many stories
because the ultimate outcome is unknown and is usually revealed through progressive, periodic
installments.
Prominence
Prominence is a one-word way of saying names make news. When a person is prominent, like the
President of the United States, almost anything he does is newsworthy. Several hundred civilians
may visit your unit in the course of a month without raising a stir. Yet, if one happens to be a state
governor or celebrity, you have a news story packed with prominence. Prominence is not restricted or
reserved for VIPs. Some places, things and events have prominence. For example, the White House
(a place), the Hope Diamond (a thing), and the Fourth of July (an event) all awaken interest.
Immediacy
Immediacy is timeliness. An event that has just happened is news. One that happened a few days
ago is history. Few events of major significance can stand up as news if they fail to meet the test of
timeliness. The key here is to get your story out quickly.
Conflict
Sporting events, wars, and revolutions are the most common examples of conflict in the news. Stories
that contain this element generally draw the most interest. Man may be pitted against man, team
against team, nation against nation, or man against the natural elements. Examples are a story about
a pilot struggling to land a crippled plane, a coxswains heroic efforts to keep his crowded boat from
capsizing in heavy seas, or Navy taking on Army in the big game.
Emotion
The emotional element, sometimes called the human interest element, covers all the feelings that
human beings have, including happiness, sadness, anger, sympathy, ambition, hate, love, envy,
generosity, and humor. Emotion is comedy. Emotion is tragedy. It is the interest man has in mankind.
Stories following natural disasters often have emotional ties.
Consequence
News of change or news that affects human relations is news of consequence. The more people
affected, the greater the news value. A story on the advancement of 2,500 petty officers has
consequence within the Navy, especially to those who took the exams. A congressional act that
raises basic pay by 2.6 percent for everyone in the armed forces is of great consequence both to the
Navy and to the public.
Oddity
An unusual or strange event will help lift a story out of the ordinary. For example, 100 percent
advancement to master chief petty officer is definitely newsworthy, considering typical advancement
to E-9 is about 1 percent.
Proximity
Readers are interested in what happens close to them. Proximity is the nearness of an event to the
readers or listeners and how closely it touches their lives. People are interested in news that affects
them, their families, their ships or stations, their friends, and their hometowns. If Capt. John Smith of
Newport, R.I., relieves Capt. Bill Stone of Charlotte, N.C., as commanding officer of Naval Station
Annapolis, it is news in the Annapolis, Baltimore, and Washington areas, and in the two officers
hometowns. It is not news in Huntsville, Ala., where no one knows either captain or cares particularly
who commands a naval station in Maryland.
Progress
In our technologically advanced society, we are interested in advancements in science, technology,
medicine, etc. Progress in the Navy may not be as dramatic, but it remains significant to our
audiences. For example, an improvement in mooring lines, shoe leather, or leave chits can be
significant progress. There is a great deal of progress in Navy news stories. The Navy is constantly
making progress in seamanship, weapons systems, aeronautics, nuclear propulsion, medicine,
habitability, education, human relations, leadership, and other fields.
Sex
Sometimes sex is the biggest, single element in news, or at least it appears to be the element that
attracts the most readers. Consider all the stories in papers that involve men and women military,
sports, financial news, society, and crime. The element of sex, however, ranges from front-page
sensationalism to news involving women serving on submarines. Having all Navy Sailors of the year
being female definitely fits into this category. One word of caution is be careful not to overemphasize
the sexual element unnecessarily as it may be in poor taste for an official Navy release.
THE ABCS OF JOURNALISM
Now that you know what makes news, its time to discuss writing the news. When writing, you should
adhere to the basic principles of newswriting, otherwise known as the ABCs of journalism accuracy,
brevity and clarity. By doing so, you will build trust and credibility from your audiences.
Accuracy is a must for spelling, facts, figures, style, grammar, and policy. If the information you are
releasing is incorrect in any way, what is the point? People have to trust you to get the news right. If
you cannot, youve lost your credibility.
Brevity is all about keeping it short. Be concise, and eliminate wordiness and redundancy.
Clarity means writing in a way that is understandable to your audience. It is writing at a middle school
reading level. It is putting numbers/statistics in context. It is staying away from slang, technical terms,
or acronyms and abbreviations readers may not understand. Sometimes, it is very easy to forget that
not everyone reading your article is IN the military. You should always write with the knowledge
that John Q. Public is also a big part of your audience, even for your internal publication.
SAPP
Before you proceed further into this chapter, take a moment and review SAPP, discussed in Chapter
1 of this module. Like the ABCs of Journalism, SAPP is extremely important in your role as a Navy
MC. SAPP stands for security, accuracy, propriety, and policy. DO NOT VIOLATE SAPP.
EDITORIALIZING
The writers personal opinions should never be injected into a news story this is called editorializing.
The only persons permitted to express an opinion in a news story are those identified in the story
itself. Even then, the opinion quoted must be attributed. Attribution will be discussed later in this
chapter.
News stories should be written in the third person and facts should be reported as they are found,
without personal pronouns referring to the writer.
Consider the following examples of editorializing in straight news copy, then note the following
suggestions offered to eliminate the implied opinions:
Poor: Lt. Steven Post is exceptionally well-qualified for the position.
Improved: Lt. Steven Post, with a degree in law, has eight years of experience as a legal
officer.
Poor: An interesting program is planned for tonight at the Officers Club.
Improved: The program scheduled for the Officers Club tonight includes
Poor: The punishment was unjust.
Improved: The U.S. Court of Military Appeals ruled the punishment imposed by the court-
martial was unjust.
ANATOMY OF A NEWS STORY
An internal news story is one of the best ways to get information out to your command as has been
discussed. Taking all of the many things you have learned to this point, it is time now to start building
a news story. But where do you start?
Inverted Pyramid
Statistics have shown that the average person may only spend about 15 minutes a day reading the
news in hard-copy form or online. Therefore, basic news is written in the inverted pyramid style, which
means front-loading the most important facts then continuing
through the article in descending order of importance.
The inverted pyramid (See Figure 3-1) can be broken into three
parts the lead, bridge and the body. This structure allows
readers to get the news they want fast so they can move on to
the next news item without missing anything essential.
In addition to meeting the needs of the typical newsreader, the
inverted pyramid also benefits editors and publishers. With the
average commercial newspaper or online news source
containing about 60 percent advertising and 40 percent news,
editors and publishers look for ways to save space. So, they cut
copy. By using the inverted pyramid, they can delete copy from
the bottom up and still tell the story without adversely affecting
the readers understanding of the content.

Figure 3-1 Inverted pyramid.

Lead
The lead is at the top of the inverted pyramid. It is not only the first and most important paragraph of a
news story; it is the essence of what you know about the event. It is written crisply and tightly and
provides the important facts first.
Along with a headline, the lead brings the reader into the information. Your lead grabs the reader by
the collar and screams READ ME!
Summary (News) Lead The most common news lead is the summary lead. A summary lead gives
the reader the facts that most clearly and compellingly tell what the story is about, without
editorializing or including any unnecessary wording. If you have done your job, the summary lead will
draw the reader into the rest of the story, where other details will be provided.
Summary leads contain the five Ws and H of the news story who, what, why, when, where, and
how. Why and how are sometimes a given or left out when the information is not available. For
example, if a helicopter crashes on a flight deck, the initial news story will not have a why element.
This is because an investigation into the why must be conducted.
A summary news lead is a one-sentence paragraph, 30 words or less. Brevity is important shorter
leads can be hard-hitting but be certain not to leave out critical information. Another reason for
limiting the length of a summary lead is that 30 words equals about one column inch of copy in print.
This is long enough for the writer to provide the essential facts, but short enough to keep the reader's
interest.
News Peg A news peg is found in the lead and is the most significant or interesting fact in a story. It
is the reason you are writing the news story. Something happened or is scheduled to happen, or
there would not be any reason for you to write a story. For example, if there was a fire in housing,
then you would write a story about the fire for the newspaper. The fire is the news peg.
Lead Emphasis From the news peg comes the lead emphasis the most important of the five Ws
or the H. This item is the very first piece of information presented in the summary lead; it receives the
most "emphasized" position in the lead. The key to selecting the right lead emphasis is to remember
the reader's point of view and the elements of mass appeal.
Here are some general rules to guide you in selecting a good lead emphasis:
Who or what is most commonly used for the lead emphasis, because readers want to know
about other people or what they are doing.
If the event affects one person, a who lead emphasis works well (e.g., who is receiving an
award).
If the event affects more than one, a what lead emphasis would work well (e.g., a concert).
When and where are seldom used as lead emphases, because they are rarely as important
as the who or what. Remember these items must still be included in the lead.
Why and how are used only when extremely important or unusual. Most often, why and how
lead emphases are used in follow-up stories after incident/accident investigations are
complete.
Impersonal Who Think back once again to the elements of mass appeal and the nature of a
subjects prominence. In newswriting, if you cannot be sure your who will be easily recognized, you
will use an impersonal who to identify that subject in the lead. Full identification of your who will then
be made in the bridge, the second paragraph of your inverted pyramid news story. The impersonal
who contains two primary elements the persons job title and unit/organization. Here is an example
of an impersonal who used in a Navy story:
Georgia governor welcomes Navy week
By Mass Communication Specialist 1st Class (SW/AW) Davis Anderson, Navy Office of Community
Outreach Public Affairs
The governor of Georgia welcomed Atlanta Navy Week 2010 with a proclamation ceremony held
at the North Wing Rotunda of the Georgia State Capitol building Oct. 13, coinciding with the U.S.
Navy's 235th birthday.
During his opening remarks, Gov. Sonny Perdue expressed his appreciation for the Navy.
Dateweek
Before we move on to discuss the bridge of a news story, it is important to take a minute to discuss
the when element found in the lead. Dateweek is the tool journalists use to determine whether they
should use the day of the week (Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, etc.) or the month and date (Sept. 12,
Jan. 13, April 10, etc.) to tell readers the when of the news event. Although a common practice in
some publications, using both the day of the week and the month/date is redundant.
The first step toward understanding dateweek is to remember that it contains a total of 13 days. It
does not matter whether your publication is a daily, weekly or monthly -- it's still 13 days from one end
to the other.
The 13 days of the newspaper dateweek break down like this:
The day in the center is the day your newspaper gets published (hits the streets to be picked
up and read by your audience).
There are six days before the publication date.
There are six days after the publication date.
The six days before and the six days after the publication date are within the newspaper dateweek for
that week's publication. When an event has taken place or is scheduled to take place within that
dateweek window, the when of the event is given using the day of the week (Monday, Saturday, etc.).
If the event is scheduled for the day of publication, you should use the word "today." Your verb tense
lets the reader know the event has happened or is going to happen. Do not use tomorrow,
yesterday, next," or "last."
Example (publication day is Thursday, Oct. 21, 2010):
The annual haunted trail opens today at Carr Point and will run each evening through Halloween from
7 to 9 p.m. (Trail opens the day the publication hit the streets.)
The annual haunted trail is scheduled to open Friday at Carr Point. (Trail opens Oct. 22.)
A meeting to discuss telecommuting for Sailors stationed in the Jacksonville area was held Monday in
the base auditorium. (Event was held Oct. 18, prior to the publication day.)
The USS Crommelins Family Readiness Group will welcome new members Nov. 2 during its monthly
meeting in the Fleet and Family Service Center conference room. (Scheduled date is out of 13-day
dateweek range.)
When writing about something that is happening or happened in a different year, the year should be
included. Punctuation of a day, month, and year in a sentence is as follows (notice the year is set off
in commas):
The U.S. frigate Constitution launched on Oct. 21, 1797, in Boston.
Bridge
After you have written the lead for a story, what do you do next? In some stories, you will find the
transition from the lead to the body of the story a bit awkward. To transition smoothly and stay within
the inverted pyramid structure, use a writing device known as a bridge. A bridge is a connecting
paragraph between the lead and the body of the story.
As with the lead, the bridge is limited to 30 words or less. The bridge builds upon the information
found in the lead. You can use the acronym WAITS to determine what kind of information might be
important to include in the bridge. A bridge must contain at least one of the five elements in the
acronym WAITS but will usually include at least two.
W = Ws or H not included in the lead.
A = Attribution.
I = Identification.
T = Tieback information.
S = Secondary facts.
Five Ws and H As you learned above, the summary lead must contain at least four of the six news
elements: who, what, when and where. These elements of information are reflective of the first
questions a reader will usually ask. The why and how, if available, are routinely placed in the bridge,
because they are usually not considered so crucial that they must be part of the lead. They also tend
to be longer pieces of information, which often precludes them being included in the lead.
Example:
(Lead:) The deadline to update emergency data forms for Sailors here has been extended to
Wednesday.
(Bridge:) The personnel office staff wants to be sure all Sailors have the opportunity to update
this information.
Attribution Attribution tells readers the source (person) or authority (directives, regulations, etc.)
from which information was obtained. Because a writer cannot inject his own opinions into news,
attribution lends credibility to the information. Attribution is seldom used in the lead, but often appears
in the bridge.
Example:
(Lead:) Male Sailors stationed here will no longer be allowed to wear earrings while off duty,
beginning Monday.
(Bridge:) The jewelry has contributed to several fights at downtown clubs, according to Capt.
John G. Jones, commanding officer, who instituted the policy after consulting with the base
legal office.

Information that needs to be attributed includes:
sources of direct or indirect quotes.
statements of fact that are not readily verifiable or facts that are disputable.
NOTE
The writer identified a policy change in the lead. An MC does not have the
authority to make such changes, so he or she must identify who is setting this
policy. In this case, the bridge also contained the why element.
information that is not common knowledge.
policy changes.
Opinions professional (doctors, lawyers, governmental experts, police, etc.) or otherwise.
Opinions are views, judgments, or appraisals formed in a persons mind about a particular
matter.
Not everything must be attributed, however. Generally, you do not need to attribute:
facts that are historically true, such as the year the Battle of Gettysburg was fought (1863).
facts that are easily verifiable, clearly self-evident, commonplace or clear, such as the fact that
in our solar system, Venus is the second planet from the sun.
When in doubt, ATTRIBUTE. Attribution allows the reader to judge the value of the facts based on the
prominence/authority of the source. Guidelines for use of quote and attribution will be discussed later
in this chapter.
Identification The I in WAITS is identification. This element builds from an impersonal who found in
the lead. If an impersonal who is used in the lead, full identification is required in the bridge. Full
identification includes the following items (these requirements apply to full identification of sources
used in the story body as well):
Service if the person is not a member of the host service, identify the persons service
affiliation. For example, if you are writing for a publication on a Navy base, it is not necessary
to identify Navy individuals as being in the Navy. However, you DO have to identify by service
any non-Navy service members mentioned in your stories. Example: Army Staff Sgt. Mary
Ferguson participated in the training
Rank/paygrade List rank according to the AP Stylebook (unless the person is a civilian) for
external news releases, but follow Navy style for Navy.mil and internal publications.
Full name Include a persons middle initial unless person requests otherwise or does not
have a middle initial.
Age If the person is deceased or the age adds interest to the story, it should be included.
Releasing someone's age is not always possible due to privacy issues; ages of the dead are
releasable, but ages of the living may or may not be. In some cases, age is considered
essential to the story because it has direct bearing on the story's importance. For instance, if a
27-year-old climbs Mount Everest, it's not as big a deal as it would be if an 88-year-old did it.
In the case of the 88-year-old, it's essential.
Hometown Listing the persons hometown adds marketability to the story. However, similar to
listing ones age, ensure there are no reasons why this item should not be included.
Remember Fleet Hometown News.
Job title Unless used in the lead, include the persons job title.
Organization Same as job title above.

NOTE
Be very careful not to confuse job title, rank/paygrade, and service. Each is a com-
pletely separate type of identification. "Coast Guard" is not a job title, it is a service.
"Petty Officer 2nd Class" is not a job title, it is a rank/paygrade.
Once a person has been fully identified, use only the last name in subsequent references unless
there are two or more people with the same last name mentioned in the story.
Example:
(Lead:) A journalism instructor at the Defense Information School was named Fort Meade
Sailor of the Quarter in a ceremony Tuesday at the posts Club Meade.
(Bridge:) Navy Petty Officer 1st Class Dwight J. Evans teaches basic videography for the
Basic Mass Communication Specialist Course.
Tieback This newswriting device brings the reader up to date on past and present events. It is a
short recap frequently is used in follow-up stories.
Example:
(Lead:) The Canadian icebreaker MacDonald, with the help of U.S. icebreakers Glacier, Staten
Island and Northwind, is free from the arctic ice pack that threatened to maroon it until next
summer.
(Bridge:) MacDonald was making the trip back from the research station ice-island T-3 when it
began experiencing difficulties in the polar ice.
Secondary Facts Secondary, but significant, facts serve as a transition from lead to body. The
bridge is often used to give the reader information that is significant, but not important enough to be
placed in the lead. Since the bridge often amplifies the lead with attribution and identification,
secondary facts are often part of this paragraph.
Example:
(Lead:) Most of Naval Station Newport was without electrical power for three hours after
Tuesday's thunderstorm.
(Bridge:) In addition to downed power lines, several trees were uprooted, and considerable
damage to mobile homes was reported at the post trailer court.
If well written, you could theoretically print just the lead and the bridge without depriving readers of
any vital information; note how many newspapers use "news briefs" that are only two or three
paragraphs in length.
Body
To produce a smooth final story, the lead, bridge, and body must coincide. The body is the detailed
portion of a news story that develops and explains the facts outlined in the lead and bridge. Here
again, the importance of a neatly tailored lead cannot be overemphasized. A cumbersome lead is
most often followed by a cumbersome body. But when a lead has done its job, it provides a blueprint
for the orderly organization of facts in the body of the story.

Guided by the idea of news importance, the writer proceeds through the story by selecting the next
most important incident, fact or detail, then the next important, and so on, until reaching the least
important of all. At this point, the writer has reached the apex of the inverted pyramid with material of
least value. The writer now knows that the editor can slice one, two, or three paragraphs from the
bottom of his story without depriving the reader of the storys chief news elements. The table below
shows a diagram of a straight news story structure.
A hard news story does not have a formal conclusion. It just ends when you run out of information
that pertains to the story. Remember, after the lead and the bridge, all or part of the body should be
easy to cut without losing valuable information; that's the beauty of the inverted pyramid.
Organization is the key. Answer the questions that are most important to the readers first. And
produce in the body what you promise in the lead: If the lead says the story is about a fire, then you
must restrict the body of the story to giving information only about that fire. Always include all
available information that does not violate security, accuracy, policy, or propriety. It is not your job as
a reporter to decide what gets cut and what does not; that is the editor's job. If you have written the
story in inverted pyramid style, nothing truly important will be lost.
Tips for writing the body:
Do not bury important information in the body. Never assume readers will get that far into your
story.
After the lead and bridge, stick to "one idea per paragraph" construction, but break up
paragraphs that get too long (three sentences per paragraph is about the max).
Keep sentences short: 30 words or less works all the way through a news story.
Keep sentences simple: whenever you can, use subject-verb-object structure. That does not
mean you will never use passive voice. Considerations such as the correct lead emphasis may
force you to write a passive-voice sentence.
Use easy-to-understand words and phrases. Write to express, not impress!
Use strong, active, accurate verbs, but be careful with adjectives. Do not editorialize.
Be specific and accurate. Is he a sergeant or a technical sergeant?
Avoid repeating facts.
Smooth out your writing by eliminating words that do not add meaning. Remember brevity.
Do not use the same word to start every sentence/paragraph. A commonly repeated beginning
word is "the".
Use vivid quotes to liven up the story.
SUMMARY LEAD A Navy officer who had never before taken control of a single-engine aircraft brought an Air
Force spotter plane in for a rough, but successful landing Oct. 12 at Eglin Air Force Base.
FACT 1 (bridge) Lt. John G. Smith of Jackson, Miss., walked away from the emergency landing only slightly
shaken up, said Air Force Col. Arnold Phillips, Eglins senior medical officer.
FACT 2 The incident came about after the pilot, Capt. Fred Johnson, 28, died of a heart attack during
a routine training mission over the Gulf of Mexico in an area 60 miles southwest of the
base.
FACT 3 A former enlisted man, Smith served as an aerial photographer for several years and credits
his general familiarity with aircraft in helping him land the plane.
FACT 4 Presently assigned to Eglin as a Navy liaison officer, Smith reported to his present duty sta-
tion in July 2009.

Let the editor decide what to discard, but if a quote or phrase is speculative and/or lacks
authority, throw it out.
Using quotes Quotes should not only be used in the bridge but also in the body of the story. They
add variety, authenticity and a "voice" to the news. Unfortunately, some reporters do not attribute the
spoken word correctly. They think they can just put quotation marks around anything they like, or toss
in an opinion and not mention the source of that information.
When using quotes, remember this very basic, but important, rule: Direct quotes are verbatim spoken
words or to-the-letter published material. Anything else is paraphrased, or indirect, information.
NEVER fabricate a quote or alter a quote and leave it in quotation marks, not even to fix someone's
grammar. Doing so is the same as altering a photograph (as you will learn in Module 2); it is unethical
and dishonest because it is changing the facts. It is not a journalist's job to change the facts, but to
report them.
Use quotes sparingly and only when they are memorable. Quotes set off controversial material,
helping fortify a point, and highlight language.
Quote abuse is one of the most common problems in journalism. Beginning journalists tend to quote
material that does not say anything unique. For instance, if you quoted the commander saying, "The
duty day runs from 0730 to 1630," you would start losing your readers. This type of quote is neither
memorable nor effective. It is common, easily verifiable information.
A good rule for knowing when to use quotation marks, according to successful freelance writer Art
Spikol, is to "Use them to set off revealing, significant statements -- not to give statements
significance."
Direct Quotes A direct quote states EXACTLY what a person said, EXACTLY the way he or she
said it, and it appears inside quotation marks:
"Our graduates serve both soldiers and the American taxpayer," said Hobson. "The public's interest
must be our interest. There is no excuse for fiscal irresponsibility; the public won't accept it, and
neither should we."
Direct quotes must never be altered, for any reason whatsoever. If a quote is too "bad" to use
verbatim because of grammatical errors or for other reasons, paraphrase and run it as an indirect
quote.
Indirect Quotes When you change the words someone said while leaving the meaning intact, the
result is an indirect quote, or paraphrasing. Quotation marks are NOT used with indirect quotes:
School graduates serve both soldiers and the American taxpayer, said Hobson. "The public's interest
must be our interest. There is no excuse for fiscal irresponsibility; the public won't accept it, and
neither should we."
When paraphrasing, make absolutely sure you ARE NOT changing the meaning of what the person
said. If you do, you have not reported the facts accurately.
Partial Quotes When you use some, but not all, of a direct quote, you are using a partial quote. Only
the portion of the quote that is used verbatim should appear inside quotation marks.
Direct Quote: "For 50 years, we have tried to provide the Army with finance officers who can move
tanks, troops and mountains with their comptroller skills," Hobson said. "That's the power of the purse
string in today's Army. We need finance officers who can handle the task fairly and with fiscal
responsibility."
Combination using partial quotes (underlined for training purposes): For 50 years, the school has
worked to provide Army officers who can "move tanks, troops and mountains with their comptroller
skills," said Hobson. "That's the power of the purse string in today's Army. We need finance officers
who can handle the task fairly and with fiscal responsibility."
Partial quotes should not be used frequently. If you use them at all, try to limit them to one or two per
story, maximum. Usually it is better to use a direct or indirect quote than to resort to a partial quote,
but they can be used occasionally for variety.
Here's why:
People begin to wonder what you're omitting -- and why.
Partial quotes can be hard to read and interpret.
They interrupt the normal flow of a sentence.
Tips for using quotes (reiterating from the information above):
Don't let quotes tell the entire story. Sprinkle them throughout. Don't "slosh" them everywhere.
Provide the quote itself before the attribution most of the time, because what is said is more
important than who said it. Mix it up occasionally only for variety's sake.
Keep the person's name and the attributive verb together.
Correct example: "...," said Carlton F. Fisk, a civilian machinist.
Incorrect example: "...," Carlton F. Fisk, a civilian machinist, said.
Don't use words such as "thinks," "feels," "believes," etc., as attributive verbs; "said" is the best
attributive verb for ANY type of attribution.
Be consistent with attributive verb tense: use either past tense (said) or present tense (says)
throughout, but not both in the same story. Past tense is preferred. (This applies to other verbs
in the story, too).
Use first-person personal pronouns (I, me, we, our, us, etc.) only in direct quotes. If you
paraphrase a quote, you must change personal pronouns to words such as he, she, they,
them, etc..
When you begin to quote a new person, begin a new paragraph. Mixing quotes/information
from two or more people in the same paragraph causes reader confusion.
When mixing direct and indirect quotes in the same paragraph, place the attribution with the
direct quote. Never leave a direct quote hanging without attribution.
NEVER alter a quote and still use quotation marks not even to "fix" grammar problems.
However, punctuation is fixable as long as it does not change the meaning of the quote.
NEVER FABRICATE A QUOTE. Your job is to report the news, not make it up.
EXTERNAL PRESS RELEASES
The information above outlines the anatomy of a news story. This structure is geared toward internal
news releases, but the information is also applicable to externally released products. External
releases are sent to external news media for dissemination to the American public.
Before you send an external release to the media, be sure to carefully evaluate the informations
news value and related it to the external audience. By doing so, you stand a better chance of having
the release used by the media.
News/Media/Press releases
The primary difference between the internal news stories written for your command publication and
the external release written for the news media is the audience.
External releases are used to send stories outside your internal audience area. Most public affairs
offices have release forms and established formats. While form styles and formats may differ from
shop to shop, the information is released basically the same way.
Types of external releases
Hard news external releases fall into four general categories:
"Kudos" stories feature hometown stories or award ceremonies. (Do not release proposed
awards.)
Announcement stories feature contract awards, public safety announcements, gate closings,
exercises and their impact on communities, etc.
Public event stories feature public visitation, tours, changes of command, etc.
Accident/incident releases inform of accidents/incidents involving military assets, including
people and property.

Datelines
A dateline is a journalist tool unique to external releases. It tells the reader where the story originated
(was written). It does not necessarily tell where the news event happened, which is why we often use
words like "here" as the where element in leads.
Datelines must be used on all releases sent to external media. You should also find them on stories
received from outside sources. The reason for this is to make sure the reader understands the story
was not written at your unit but was filed or submitted from another source. Commonly, you will see
datelines from Navy News Service, Army News Service, Air Force Print News, Navy Exchange
Command, etc.
Datelines are not needed for internal stories you generate that will appear in your internal publication.
A little history: Before modern technology, when news took days to travel across the Atlantic or
across the country, the date the story was written was much more in doubt than it is today. Therefore,
the date the story was written appeared in the dateline hence the name. Today, the date is usually
within 24 hours and can be easily determined by reading the time reference in the lead (dateweek).
So while we still call them datelines, a more accurate description might be "placelines." You may still
see dates in datelines in news sites on the Internet, but they are not commonly used elsewhere.
Format Datelines are written in a specific format to ensure consistency throughout the media. The
dateline is found at the very beginning of the news story in the same paragraph as the lead. It
consists of a city and state or city and country, and is followed by a dash a dash, not a hyphen. The
city is written in capital letters, while the state or country is not.
Some cities, both nationally and internationally, are prominent enough, however, that the state or
country is not needed. These cities are identified in the datelines entry of the AP Stylebook. For
NOTE
An external release can also be a feature story. You'll learn more about features in
Chapter 7.
releases sent to Navy.mil, Great Lakes, Norfolk, San Diego, Pearl Harbor, and Arlington stand alone
as well due to their strong Navy ties.
EXAMPLES:
NEW PORT RICHEY, Fla. Navy Junior Reserve Officers Training Corps (NJROTC) units from
schools throughout Florida gathered to compete in personnel inspection, drill, color guard,
academics, and athletics at the 3rd annual Mitchell Mustang Stampede at J. W. Mitchell High School,
Oct. 16.
NEW AMSTERDAM, Guyana The Continuing Promise 2010 (CP10) Partnership of the Americas
mission aboard USS Iwo Jima (LHD 7) dropped anchor just off the coast here, Oct. 17.
The local angle
The lead for an external release differs from an internal news lead. One of the 5 Ws or the H is still
used for lead emphasis, but the information is evaluated and applied a little differently. In an external
release, you must establish two things. The first is the local angle.
The local angle lets an editor immediately recognize why the story is important to his
audience.
The local angle is the lead emphasis; it will be the first few words of the lead, immediately
following the dateline.
Say you are in Peoria, Ill., and you see a story with a lead that reads (original article edited to be used
as an example):
PEARL HARBOR The director of the Universal Picture's movie "Battleship" handpicked a Sailor
assigned to the Nimitz-class aircraft carrier USS Ronald Reagan (CVN 76) to be a part of the movie
while it was filming at Joint Base Pearl Harbor Hickam Sept.13-14.
Petty Officer 2nd Class Jane L. Sailor was playing soccer for a U.S. Navy team during a Rim of the
Pacific (RIMPAC) 2010 sports game last July when the director, Peter Berg, took notice of her and
wanted her to be part of the movie as an extra and a military technical advisor to Rihanna.
Why would the audiences in Peoria care about this news story? By reworking the release a bit, you
can target the article to the Peoria audience.
PEARL HARBOR A 1992 graduate of Peoria High School, currently serving as a gunners mate
aboard the aircraft carrier USS Ronald Reagan (CVN 76), was hand-picked by the director of the
Universal Picture's movie "Battleship" to be a part of the movie while it was filming at Joint Base Pearl
Harbor-Hickam Sept. 13-14.
Petty Officer 2nd Class Jane L. Sailor was playing soccer for a U.S. Navy team during a Rim of the
Pacific (RIMPAC) 2010 sports game in July when the director, Peter Berg, took notice of her and
hired her to be the military technical advisor to Rihanna.
Military tie
The second necessary item in an external news lead is the military tie. This is the public relations
side of PA. If you do not have a military or Navy tie to the release, you have no reason to send it from
your PA shop. The military tie explains to the editor why it is coming from your command on your
news release letterhead.
In stories about individuals, the individual's job title (or rate/rank) and unit often double as the military
tie. In these cases, the military tie is often set off by commas:
PEARL HARBOR A 1992 graduate of Peoria High School, currently serving as a gunners mate
aboard the aircraft carrier USS Ronald Reagan (CVN 76), was hand-picked by the director of the
Universal Picture's movie "Battleship" to be a part of the movie while it was filming at Joint Base Pearl
Harbor-Hickam on Sept. 13-14.
The rest of the lead
Remember, whether a lead is for internal or external publication, you must still ensure:
It contains a who, what, when, and where (at a minimum).
It is one sentence, 30 words or less.
It contains an external dateweek.
An external dateweek for external releases you send out is figured the same way as for an internal
release, but the publication date is different. The publication date for an external release is the day
the release is sent to the media. This date is also found in the header of the release (more to follow
on release headers). When you use the word "today" in an external release, it means the date on the
release.
The date on the header must be correct. If you put the wrong date on a release and use the word
"today" in the story, you have created a major error in fact.
External release header
The template used by your shop for external releases is at the discretion of the PAO. However, the
header of your choice must contain the commands name and address, point-of-contact information, a
release number and release instructions. Recipients of the release will need this information if they
have follow-up questions or concerns. One word of caution when creating your template: Using your
command logo or creative graphics is discouraged as these items are typically large and will clog
peoples inboxes.
NEWS RELEASE

COMMAND ADDRESS
COMMAND NAME
PHONE/EMAIL
DATE OF RELEASE
RELEASE NUMBER/YEAR (#1-10)

RELEASE INSTRUCTIONS

[FOR IMMEDIATE RELEASE OR

EMBARGO UNTIL(DATE HERE)]
HEADLINE

Byline

DATELINE NEWS LEAD

BRIDGE

FACT

FACT

###

Release Number News releases should be tracked for accountability and cataloging purposes.
Most shops use the number, hyphen, year format. In the example above, the release number, #01-
10, identifies that the release is the first release for 2010. Traditionally, hard copies of releases were
logged and kept in the office. Today many shops keep only electronic copies.
Release Instructions Most of the external releases you send will be FOR IMMEDIATE RELEASE,
which means you want the media to use the information right away. Another option is to use
"EMBARGO UNTIL <date>", telling the editor to hold the information until the date specified. Keep in
mind, editors and journalists are under no obligation to honor an embargo. Some shops use hold for
release vice embargo until.
External release bridge/body
Rules and guidance for writing the bridge of an external story remain the same. The bridge should be
kept to one sentence, 30 words or less.
In the body of an external release, you will again use the inverted pyramid style of newswriting. The
difference is the audience and the organization of the remaining facts. What is important to a military
audience may not necessarily be the same with an external audience. Therefore, the order of the
information should be arranged to include any local angle information up front. When organizing your
facts, ask yourself what impact each has on the reading audience. Do not leave out information; just
arrange it differently if necessary.
All releases, internal and external, should end with a code to let the reader know that there is no
additional copy. Historically, the codes XXX and -30- have been used. XXX originated during the
Civil War when copy was sent over telegraph lines. It is also the Roman numeral for 30, thus inspiring
the -30- ending. Modern press tends to use ###, while many Navy commands use USN.
MEDIA ADVISORY
A media advisory is an abbreviated form of a news release intended to encourage the media to cover
an event themselves. The news advisory is normally no more than a page in length and includes a
compact description of the event. Pertinent information, such as the date, time, location, specific
details, and the significance of the event, also should be included. You may disseminate the news
advisory in the same manner as a news release.
This is an example of an advance story. When constructing an advance story, you must develop
strong local angles, noting events or items that will be of particular interest. The inverted pyramid
structure is appropriate for the advance story. Consider the elements of mass appeal when you are
formulating your lead. Emphasize the magnitude of the story or stress the unusual, depending on the
topic. The lead will generate interest by stating the most notable parts of the event first.
As with all public affairs products, planning is key. Schedule your advance stories appropriately,
ensuring that you give the media adequate time to plan coverage. However, do not exploit the event
and always ensure the event is a legitimate one.
ACCIDENT/INCIDENT STORY
Accidents and incidents happen in the Navy, and Navy MCs play a key role in informing the public
during these times. As mentioned in earlier chapters, the principles of information guide us to release
as much information as we can with a minimum time delay. The goal for releasing an initial accident
story is one hour with coordination with all other pertinent persons at your command.
The initial release is written as a hard news story with some exceptions. The initial release will leave
many unanswered questions, because within one hour of such an event, much may not be known.
However, you should be able to gather basic information:
A dateline
Initial number of killed and/or injured.
Brief description of the accident or incident, to include the what, when, and where.
A next-of-kin statement . The names of the dead and injured are being withheld pending
notification of next of kin.
Information regarding search and rescue operations.
A statement of investigation. The cause of the accident (incident) is under investigation.
You must ensure no information is released that violates privacy rights of surviving service members
or their family members. Home addresses must never be released.
LOCALIZE AND REWRITE
In the external release portion, you learned that in a PA shop you not only send out news stories, you
also receive releases from outside sources. Before you publish this information, you must localize
and/or rewrite the release to meet the needs of your audience. The principles of localizing and
rewriting are the same as those for newswriting. The following are six reasons for localizing and/or
rewriting:
To localize general information.
To improve poor copy.
To update material.
To transform informal reports into properly written news stories.
To combine two or more stories.
To change story emphasis.
Once you identify a story that may be of interest to your readers, it is time to begin the localization
and rewriting. Localizing straight news stories means gathering facts about the local news peg,
writing a lead that emphasizes the local angle, then providing the other details (both local and
nonlocal) in descending order of importance. Localize by gathering information from local sources,
subject-matter experts at your command who can help tell how the story affects your audience.
For example, when the Navy released information about the rolling out of the new working uniforms,
MCs fleetwide contacted local uniform shops and command leadership to find out when the uniforms
would be available in their area and what local policies would be set regarding the wear of the new
uniforms.
Attributing sources Readers want to know the source of the material they are reading, so they can
trust in it. So, be sure to credit the news service material you localize. You can do this by including a
tagline at the end of your story. For example: (Information from a Navy message was used in this
story.)
Remember that just because you are crediting the news release does not mean you will always use
all of the information verbatim. The majority of the information will be rewritten and reorganized to
best serve your audience.
Quotations Direct quotations from the original news release, however, should be used verbatim, but
make sure you accurately adjust the sources identification information for use in your publication. For
example, in a news release with a Washington dateline, a source identified as Navy Capt. John J.
Smith, the director of emergency services here, should be rewritten to properly identify where Capt.
Smith is located. In your updated article for a Norfolk publication, you would list him as Capt. John J.
Smith, the director of emergency services in Washington, D.C.
FOLLOW-UP STORY
A follow-up story is one that ties back to a previous story and informs the reader of the most up-to-
date information. A follow-up story is only released when new information is available. For example,
information received that a Sailor previously listed as missing has been found calls for a follow-up
story.
When writing the follow-up story, the new information becomes the lead emphasis and a new lead is
written surrounding this information.
Original release:
NORFOLK A search is underway today off the coast of Cape Hatteras, N.C., for a USS Mitscher
(DDG 57) Sailor who was reported missing today after not showing up for a 12:15 p.m. muster.
Follow-up story:
NORFOLK A Sailor assigned to USS Mitscher (DDG 57) was rescued at 5:40 p.m. today after
spending five hours in the water off the coast of North Carolina.
The Sailor, whose identification is being held pending the notification of his next of kin, was reported
missing following a 12:15 p.m. crew muster.
If you are following up on an accident story to identify people who were killed or injured, you must
ensure that all next-of-kin notifications have been made and you meet the 24-hour requirement. The
names of the killed and injured are typically found in the bridge of the story. However, if 10 or more
people were involved you may want to consider waiting until the end of the release. No matter where
you place the information, it is important to list the individuals in alphabetical order.
SPORTSWRITING
The straight sports story is no more than a straight news story about a sports event. The same rules
for accuracy, brevity, and clarity apply. The summary although it contains seven elements
should summarize the story.
Who played whom.
What sport they played.
What was the score (who won).
Where the event took place.
When it took place.
How the contest was won (last-second field goal, etc.)
What happened.
Example:
MUNCIE, Ind. (AP) Junior Chandler Thompson poured in 32 points and hauled down 14 rebounds
to lead the Ball State Cardinals to their 14th straight victory, a 78-61 rout of Nebraska, in college
basketball here Saturday.
In the bridge, you should provide a solid transition into the body. It can introduce information about
the significance of the contest or add supporting facts.
Examples:
The victory improved the Cardinals record to 21-5 and marked the third straight year they have won
at least 20 games.
OR
Thompson, a 6-foot-4 forward with a vertical leap of 44 inches, has now scored 30 or more points six
times this season and grabbed 10 or more rebounds 11 times.
The bridge in the second game story can tie back to the earlier game by recapping how game one
was won. With the significance of the outcome, do not wait until the bridge to tell readers someone
won the championship. This must be in the lead.
Example:
(Lead) Three-hit pitching by Toby White sparked Naval Station Norfolks Sharks to a 4-1
triumph in Game 2 and a championship win over Joint Expeditionary Base Little Creeks
Gators in Hampton Roads slow-pitch softball action Wednesday night at D.B. Sailor Memorial
Stadium here.
(Bridge) In Game 1 on Tuesday night, Sharks shortstop Tom Theodonis led the lineup with
three hits, including a three-run home run, giving the Sharks a 5-4 win.
The body should provide detailed information, inverted pyramid style. However, a new writer or non-
sports fan may not be able to distinguish most important to least important, so chronological order
can be used until the writer becomes more familiar with the sport.
Common sense and that really is what sportswriting is should dictate what details are included.
In football, scoring plays usually are relatively infrequent. So, you probably should mention each one,
usually in a one-or two-sentence paragraph.
In basketball, on the other hand, individual scoring plays are numerous. To recount how every point
was scored would require a small booklet. The story, consequently, should include key scoring plays
and a listing of collective scoring contributions for both teams.
True sports fans greatly appreciate a box score. Sports fans are statistic-oriented, and the more
statistics, the better. A box score is usually added at the end of the story in bold type smaller than
regular copy type.
The sports headline, like its straight news counterpart, is a superlead condensed summary of who-
beat-whom-by-how-much. Usually there is no room to get into the How element in a headline, but if
the room is there, it makes for stronger headline content. (We will talk about headlines in a
subsequent chapter of this module.)
Sharks clip Gators 7-6
Unlike many other areas of potential coverage, there is usually a lot more sports at the average
installation than the newspaper has the staff to cover or the space to print. So some selectiveness is
necessary.
Your unit, for example, probably has six to 12 slow-pitch softball games on tap Mondays through
Thursdays during the softball season. To cover each game with a story and photos would require a
huge sports staff and many pages of copy. A better idea is to select a weekly game or two to cover in
complete story form.
Criteria for picking the games might include consequence (a meeting of two undefeated teams or
even two winless teams) or prominence (the defending unit champions against last years runners-
up).
Other games can be covered by publishing results in line score form. Included at the end of the
synopsis could be the schedule for upcoming weeks.
Some knowledge of the sport you are going to write about is necessary. No matter if you are a sports
fan or not, research of the subject should be conducted before heading for the ball diamond or gym.
Read the news, check out the sports chapter in the AP Stylebook, and watch television to learn about
sports.
The guideline for coverage is the newspaper audience. If enough people at your command participate
in an activity, they deserve space in the sports pages. If someone relevant to the readership wins a
marksmanship contest, races go-carts, runs the Boston Marathon, or once played against Lebron
James, that someone is an excellent subject for the sports page in the form of a feature.
Whatever the sport, enough research material is available to enable the writer to write a good story.
Remember, the sports story is just a straight news story about a sports event.
Sports verbs
The basic sports story is about someone losing and someone winning. To make that worth reading,
sports writers and their editors have developed synonyms without end for win and lose. Still, working
against a deadline, writers are likely to go with a handful of old favorites. Some guidelines and an
incomplete glossary of accumulated sports slang below may be helpful in preventing
embarrassments.
Avoid kill, murder, assault, and the like. These are serious criminal offenses and are not
appropriate for describing sporting events.
Take care with names that have other meanings: ORourke crucifies St. Paul.
Intransitive verbs need no object and make the shortest heads.
Be precise. When the score is 4-2, the verb is not smash, slaughter or skunk.
o Win: win, rip, nip, axe, bag, top, set, get, nail, lead, trim, beat, best, clip, down, dump,
fell, lead, lick, post, sink, slam, whip, score, upend, topple, defeat, subdue, sew up,
outrun, deliver, advance, overhaul, overcome, outclass, pull off/down, outpoint, outfight,
knock off/out/over, clinch title, turn back, polish off, advance on/over, nail down (a
championship).
o Close Win: nip, trim, clip, snip, edge, squeak, slither, hold off, eke/edge/nose out,
outlast, stagger in, squeeze by/through, come from behind.
o Surprise Win: foil, halt, stun, upset, shock, stupefy, surprise, roll/turn back, overturn,
bring to a halt (a winning streak).
o Easy Win: push/walk over, coast past, romp/waltz/breeze in, romp/waltz home.
o Big Win: zap, ruin, whip, drub, romp, rout, bury, blast, sting, whomp, crush, wallop,
riddle, smash, whack, wreck, punish, roll to/over/past, thrash, squash, sweep, shellac,
dazzle, plaster, clobber, explode, mop up, humble, burn up, overrun, trample, flatten,
cakewalk, triumph, triumph over, humiliate, trounce, clean up, annihilate, slaughter,
pulverize, wipe out, mow down, massacre, bulldoze, steam-roll, romp/bowl/trample
over, overwhelm, overpower, embarrass, exterminate, walk/climb all over, run/walk
away with, give a plastering/shellacking/trimming.
o Prevent Scoring: zip, ace, deny, sack, blank, skunk, choke (off), shut off/out/down,
hogtie, whitewash, paralyze, goose egg, short-circuit, scuttle.
o Tie: (ed verbs need two subjects) tie, draw, break even, stalemate, deadlock. Also:
even series at, break even with, deadlock with.
o Fail To Score: draw a blank, lay a goose egg, blanked, shut off/out/down. (Use suitable
verbs from PREVENT SCORING list and make passive).
BROADCAST WRITING
As an MC your first encounter with broadcast writing will be as a radio or television news writer or the
editor of an electronic newsgathering package. In each one of these assignments your job will be to
meet the deadlines and rigid standards of the electronic media with the Navys news story.
Radio news style is dictated by the need for grabbing and holding the attention of an audience. When
scripting broadcast copy, you will face many subjective choices that can only be made by using your
own common sense. For copy to serve any worthwhile purpose, it must be the kind of news story or
radio spot the individual radio stations in your geographical area desire and are able to use.
Initially, be aware that writing for broadcast media is not the same as writing for print media. While the
same rules of SAPP apply, there are a number of differences, particularly in writing style. Broadcast
copy is written and designed for the ear, so the listener becomes involved and feels as though he is a
part of the event being reported.
Each line of broadcast copy, or 10 words, equals approximately four seconds on air. Therefore, you
will need seven to eight lines, on average, to produce a 30-second piece.
THE SIX Cs
Broadcast copy must measure up to the following six Cs: Clear, Concise, Complete, Conversational,
Current, and Correct.
Clear
Clear copy is written in a simple, easy-to-understand manner. It is developed in a logical way, flows
smoothly and is easy for the listener to follow. Even the simplest story may be misunderstood on the
basis of ones hearing. The listeners attention may be divided between any number of distractions.
Therefore, a radio news story should be perfectly clear to avoid misinterpretation.
In broadcast writing, simple words say it best. Choose words that everyone will understandthe
announcer as well as the listener. Do not ignore colorful or descriptive words. However, steer clear of
flowery phrases and clichs that simply take up time and are of no value. Avoid slang and always
translate military, technical, legal and foreign terms into simple language.
Concise
Avoid jamming too many thoughts or numbers into one sentence. Generally, sentences that are more
than 25 words contain more than one thought and should be rewritten into separate sentences. The
same principle applies to dependent and independent clauses. They are often very cumbersome, so
write them as separate sentences. You have concise copy when all unnecessary words have been
trimmed away and only those words essential to convey your thoughts remain.
Complete
For the broadcast story to be complete, you must include in it at least four of print journalisms five
Ws. You will normally state what happened in your lead sentence, to whom it happened, when it
happened, and where it happened. Why and how generally are not critical, although to be complete,
some stories will require this information.
Conversational
Like good conversation, broadcast writing is informal and free-flowing. Write the way you talk. Let the
story tell itself. Conversational tone sounds right to the audience and allows the announcer to easily
decipher the idea of the story. Do not include hard-to-pronounce words or combinations of words that
are awkward to the ear. Also, rid your copy of words that might be unfamiliar to your listeners.
Current
News of a perishable nature is usually hard news. If you have a story of immediate news value, you
should expedite its completion and delivery to the media. By the same token, if there are new facts or
circumstances relevant to your initial release, a follow-up story should be provided (and marked as an
update). The new or changed elements of the story should be identified to reduce possible confusion
with information in the original release.
Correct
The hallmark of writing, whether print or broadcast, is the accurate presentation of facts. Your finished
product must correspond accurately with the facts of the story. In the field, you will follow every
possible lead to get the facts as well as report them.
BROADCAST COPY FORMAT
When writing broadcast copy, start with a general what happened lead followed by a body of
significant facts. This body of information does not have to include all the facts of the story, since
including the who, what, where, when, why and how in the lead would be too cumbersome. The lead
sentence must gain the attention of the listeners and orient them on the facts that will follow in the
body of the story.
When you begin a story with a persons name or a number, you risk the possibility of that information
escaping your listener. It is much better to say, A San Diego Sailor was cited for heroism today, than
to say, Seaman Phillip Jones was cited for heroism today. Start the story with a general what
happened lead; then mention the recipient by name.
Names and Titles In the case of names and titles being used together, titles should precede
names. It should be San Diego Mayor Jerry Sanders not Jerry Sanders, San Diego Mayor." Alert
your listener to whom you are about to name by prefixing the name with the persons title.
You should refer to federal office holders by title or as mister. For example, you would use
President Obama or Mr. Obama, Mr. Biden, or Vice President Biden, Senator Sanders, or Mr.
Sanders.
If a difficult name is unessential, use only the persons title, such as The Ambassador from Nigeria
...
Initials Generally, it is better to omit middle initials unless it is a well-known part of the persons
name, such as William F. Buckley or John F. Kennedy. In the case of former president George W.
Bush, using his middle initial is crucial so that he is not confused with his father, former president
George H.W. Bush.
Words In broadcast writing, you must be aware of certain categories of words that are potential
trouble areas. These categories are explained in the following text.
Contractions In day-to-day conversations, contractions are used liberally. Therefore, you
should use contractions whenever possible to add to the conversationality of your broadcast
copy.
Pronouns Using personal pronouns in broadcast copy can cause confusion. When you use
he, she or they, make certain there is no doubt in the listeners mind to whom you are
referring. The ear cannot go back and pick up the identification. Repeat the noun if there is any
question.
Alliterations Beware of alliterations. When you compose a sentence consisting of several
words beginning with the same vowels or consonants, you have alliteration, and the
announcer may have a problem. For example, THE WESTERLY WIND WHISTLED WILDLY.
Sibilants Beware of too many sibilants, or s and sh sounds, as they tend to create a
hissing sound when read aloud.
Phonetic Spelling If you are concerned about mispronouncing names and places, you can
limit the possibility by writing the phonetic spelling of the word in parentheses immediately
following the troublesome word. For example: CAPTAIN ANTOINE (AN-TWAN) SPOKE
TODAY ... The Associated Press online offers phonetic spellings and pronunciations of
items of news interest.
Numbers Numbers present special problems to the broadcast writer. For the sake of clarity,
broadcasters have developed their own style with numbers. Any number that begins a
sentence is always written out.
Conversational Numbers Make numbers conversational. Round out figures unless the
exact figure is essential to your story. For example, $1,527 would become 15 HUNDRED
DOLLARS. However, exact numbers must be used if your story deals with deaths or other
subjects requiring exact statistics.
Dates Write dates as OCTOBER 1ST, 2ND, 3RD, 4TH and 31ST, and use four-digit
numerals for years, such as 1979 or 1994.
BROADCAST COPY STYLE
The most successful broadcast writers write the way people talk in their daily conversations. They
write as if they were telling the story to a friend. As an experiment, start noticing the lengths of
sentences used in normal conversation. You will even find that we do not always talk in complete
sentences. Quite often we speak in fragments, especially if everyone engaged in the conversation is
familiar with the subject matter.
Uppercase vs. Lowercase Broadcast copy is written in all capital letters or uppercase and
lowercase. There are merits for each style. We are used to reading in uppercase and lowercase, and
the patterns of words are easier to distinguish. If both uppercase and lowercase are used, you can
also use caps for emphasis. However, the wire services use all caps and the all-capital style
conforms to that format. Your job is to determine the best style for your releases and use it. Sticking
to one style only, within the context of a story, also is important. Be consistent!
Present Tense Using the present tense in broadcast news gives the copy an air of immediacy and it
gives the listener a sense of participation. However, the verb tense that is most natural to a situation
will be the most effective. Every story does not have to sound as if it happened the moment before
the newscaster went on the air.
Active Voice Write your broadcast copy in the active voice. Active voice provides impact, which is
extremely important to a broadcaster. Passive voice can weaken the impact of a sentence. Look at
the following example:
Military police seized the evidence. (active).
The evidence was seized by the military police. (passive).
Do not confuse the active voice with past tense. The active voice can apply to past, present, and
future tenses. Active voice does not necessarily mean the present tense! Subject-verb-object is the
best indicator of the active voice structure.
Punctuation Punctuation in broadcast writing is used to help the announcer read the copy aloud.
The Period The period indicates the end of a sentence or thought. More periods are used in
broadcast writing because broadcast writing sentences are generally shorter and more
conversational.
The Comma Use a comma to indicate a pause shorter than that of the period. Do not use a
comma unless you want the announcer to pause.
The Hyphen Use the hyphen to help announcers in phrasing difficult words and to instruct
them on how to pronounce individual elements distinctly. Note the following examples: RE-
ADJUSTED, RE-EVALUATE, CO-OPERATE, RE-ALLOCATE, W-C-O-A, F-B-I, Y-M-C-A.
COPYEDITING
Learning how to write for publication or broadcast is only the beginning of telling your story. Before
you send copy to your editor, you have to check and recheck your work. This is called copyediting.
The ability to copyedit is the cornerstone of all public affairs products your command newspaper, a
news release for the external media, public affairs guidance, the unit website or any other product
your shop produces. Every time you produce a product, you are putting your credibility on the line
your credibility with your commander and your customers, those who use your product.
When the paper looks bad and contains a lot of errors, the trust is gone both from your commander
and all of your various audiences. Stories are harder to come by because potential sources are afraid
to talk to you. When you need subject-matter experts to brief the news media or handle a tour through
their units, they may be less inclined to support you.
You need to learn to write in a manner that conveys what you want to say quickly and clearly. To do
that, you need to be able to copyedit.
Helpful tips when copyediting:
When submitting your copy for editing:
o Put your last name on the draft at a minimum.
o Include more at the bottom center of each page; 30, USN, or similar command-specific
notification at the bottom center of the last page. This lets the editor know to expect more
or not when he reaches the end of each page.
Try reading and copyediting the text using a step-by-step method.
o Read copy once without making any changes.
o Read copy backward, focusing on the spelling and usage of each word. When you find a
synonym, you will need to read the sentence forward to ensure proper usage.
o Read the copy forward, sentence by sentence, checking for errors in grammar,
punctuation, and logical flow.
o Read one more time for missed errors.
o Send to editor.
Read out loud.
Copyediting is employing a combination of good English skills and simple common sense. Put
punctuation where it belongs, remove unnecessary punctuation, eliminate wordiness, make
sure sentences make sense, and watch for misspellings, typos and other errors. If the story
sounds good when you read it aloud, you are on the right track.
Copyediting is not easy for everyone, though. If you do not have a natural eye for errors in
grammar, spelling, punctuation, style, etc., you may want to ask someone else to copyedit
your story. However, you should copyedit the piece as well, and then compare notes. This
helps you hone your copyediting skills as well as your writing skills.
Do not copyedit immediately after you finish writing your story; put the story down for a bit and
come back to it to copyedit. Give your mind a rest.
Before you sit down to copyedit, it is imperative that you have a dictionary, the AP Stylebook, a copy
of the Navy Style Guide, your local style guide if you have one, and other supporting references with
you. This will ensure you are consistent in your copyediting.
To help you with your copyediting, here are a few grammar and style rules you will not necessarily
find in the AP Stylebook.
Editorializing
To report news accurately, you must keep yourself detached from the story. Whether you are doing
interviews, writing your story, or conducting research, you must keep your objectivity throughout. Your
job is to present unbiased facts. When you are copyediting, always check for lack of objectivity and
editorializing. Dont forget attribution!
Word Choice
Word choice (also known as syntax) in your writing goes hand-in-hand with accuracy, brevity and
clarity as well as with SAPP. Therefore, the words you choose should not leave any doubt in your
readers mind as to what you are saying, nor should they offend or confuse your readers. This is
especially true when writing an accident story or a news feature following an incident, accident, or
tragedy. Some important word choice examples:
Death may occur following an operation or during an operation, but not as a result of an
operation. The latter implies negligence.
Accidents happen and explosions occur; neither takes place, because they are not
scheduled events.
Ultimately, everyone dies of heart failure, not of a heart ailment.
A fire is not a conflagration; it is a fire. A bruise is a bruise, not a contusion, etc.
In addition, watch for wordiness and passive sentences. If you see a sentence that begins with there
is, there are, or it is, take a second to see if you can rewrite. For example:
Unnecessary There are some recent movies that have become classics already.
Better Some recent movies have become classics already.
Contradictions
Sometimes a writer may contradict himself and not even realize it. For example, what if an MC wrote
about a Sailors recent promotion to E-4, referring to the Sailor as a 16-year veteran? With todays
high-year tenure regulations, a Sailor should not be a 16-year third class petty officer. This could have
been a typographical error or misinformation. Either way, as the copy editor, you should find
inaccurate facts such as this.
Incompleteness
With experience, an MC will be able to gather all the facts necessary to tell the story. As the copy
editor, it is your job to ensure the writer answered all the pertinent questions. Remember the 5 Ws
and H, and read the story as if you are the intended audience. If the MC failed to answer questions
you have, chances are your readers will have the same questions. Return to the MC to complete the
story at this time.
Proper Names and Figures
As discussed several times throughout this manual, accuracy is the key to being a good reporter of
facts. The copy editor is counting on the writer to have proper names spelled correctly. But, how do
you know that the name IS spelled correctly? One helpful method to ensure accuracy and avoid
confusion is to have the writer draw a box around the name and make tick marks with his or her
verification of each properly placed letter. This works for statistical data as well. Better safe than
sorry!
Spelling
Mentioned above in your list of gotta-have references to have available during copyediting is a
dictionary and your style guides. These are a must, because spelling rules have many exceptions,
and spell check does not always catch misspellings. Knowing a words correct pronunciation will help
you when you are looking up the word as well.
Punctuation
Punctuation serves the same purpose in writing as voice inflection does in speaking. Proper phrasing
avoids ambiguity, ensures clarity, and often lessens the need for unnecessary punctuation. The AP
Stylebook contains a thorough section on punctuation. You should have this section bookmarked and
study it often. Mastering punctuation will go a long way in improving any writing you do for the Navy.
Capitalization
Knowing what to capitalize and what not to capitalize is also specific in newswriting. Again, the AP
Stylebook and U.S. Navy Style Guide are important tools to help with capitalization.
Acronyms and Abbreviations
One of the chief complaints of civilian editors and Navy family members who read military news is the
excessive use of abbreviations and acronyms for titles and organizations. Acronyms and
abbreviations (making a word or phrase shorter by leaving out or substituting letters) are used
throughout the military and are necessary when trying to keep your writing brief. Some titles and
terms are so long that abbreviation is a must. However, on first reference most acronyms and
abbreviations must be spelled out. The AP Stylebook and Navy Style Guide contain abbreviations
and acronyms and rules as to whether they must be spelled out on first reference. A local style guide
is important for your internal audience as well. Remember, brevity is important, but so is clarity.
Sentence Structure
Words, sentences, and paragraphs are the building blocks of writing, and to be a good writer you
need to know how to use them to build your stories. Each must be well chosen, effective, and
grammatically correct with a goal of clarity, emphasis, and interest.
Sentence Fragment
Sentence fragments are incomplete sentences. For a sentence to express a complete thought, it
must contain two necessary parts a subject and a predicate (or verb). It is possible, however, for the
subject to be understood, but you should be sure in such cases that the subject is clearly defined. An
incomplete sentence often results from the writers failure to recognize that a modifying phrase or
clause is really part of another sentence. For example, The cruiser was headed east. Steaming
through the Caribbean.
As a copy editor, however, you may not be aware that the writer, especially in feature writing, is using
a fragment purposely, for effect. In this case, the writer should leave a message for you that he or she
is doing that.
Run-on Sentences
Another common error in sentence structure is the punctuation of two or more sentences as if they
were one. This usually occurs with sentences that are closely related in thought. For example, The
ships crew had its first swim call, the water was four miles deep. These are two completely separate
thoughts. The ships crew had its first swim call. The water was four miles deep.
Dangling Modifiers
A writers misplacement of a modifier will confuse the meaning of a sentence, often with silly results.
Modifiers should be positioned close to the words they modify; otherwise, they may seem to modify
something else. This error is common when using participles with other adjectives or with adverb
modifiers.
For example, Returning to the ship, the package was found on the bunk. In this example, you are
saying the package was returning to the ship. A better way would be to say: Returning to the ship, he
found a package on his rack.
The word only is also often misplaced. By moving the word around in a sentence, you can change
the sentences meaning.
Only he could read the unfamiliar dialect (Nobody else could?).
He could only read the unfamiliar dialect (He could not write or speak it?).
He could read only the unfamiliar dialect (He could not read other dialects?)
He could read the only unfamiliar dialect (Only one dialect was unfamiliar?).
Misplaced Correlative Conjunctions
Correlative conjunctions, such as not/only, but/also and either/or, are often misplaced. The correct
position is just before the words or groups of words they are connecting.
Misplaced The Navy letter form not only omits the salutation but also the complimentary
close.
Correct The Navy letter form omits not only the salutation but also the complimentary close.
Other frequently used correlative conjunctions are both/and, neither/nor and whether/or.
Split Infinitives
Before you can understand what a split infinitive is, you need to know what an infinitive is. An infinitive
is a verb paired with the word to, e.g. to leave, to run, etc. A split infinitive, then, occurs when you
add an adverb between the word to and the verb, e.g. to quickly leave, to vigorously run, etc.
Although many editors stand true to not splitting infinitives, some believe it is necessary for emphasis.
The best rule of thumb, however, is to hold to tradition and keep the adverb out of the way.
Errors in Agreement
As you have read in this section, a sentence is a complete thought when it contains a subject and a
verb. This subject and verb must agree with one another in number. For example, if you have a
singular noun, you must pair it with a singular verb; with a plural noun, a plural verb.
A Sailor runs.
Sailors run.
In a compound subject with and as the connector, the sentence takes a plural verb. When you use
or or nor as a connector, the verb should agree in number with the last noun in the subject.
The propeller and shaft were damaged.
Neither the propellers nor the rudder was damaged.
The cat or the dog sleeps on the back porch.
Again these are simple, sentence-construction examples. Most errors in subject-verb agreement
occur with more complex sentence structures that contain more than one noun. Many writers mistake
a noun not acting as the subject for the subject, because the noun is the closest in proximity to the
verb.
Incorrect: The primary duty of the staff dental officers are very similar to that of the district
dental officer.
Correct: The primary duty of the staff dental officers is very similar to that of the district dental
officer.

In addition to errors in subject-verb agreement, many writers have trouble with noun-antecedent
agreement. A pronoun is a word we use to take the place of a noun (he, she, it, they, we, us, them,
etc.), and a pronoun functions as a noun. The replaced noun is the antecedent. The antecedent
controls what number (singular or plural) of pronoun you use.
Collective nouns and pronouns cause error in agreement as well. Collective nouns are nouns that
refer to things or people as a unit. Examples are family, class, teams, crew, etc. Collective nouns can
be used in both the singular form and the plural form. Singular collective nouns refer to one unit of
people or things; they take a singular verb. Plural collective nouns refer to two or more units of people
or things, and they take plural verbs.
If you are unsure of a sentences subject-verb or pronoun-antecedent agreement, break the complex
sentence down to its foundation and take it from there.
Gerunds
When a verb ends in -ing, it may be a gerund or a present participle. It is important to understand
that they are not the same. When we use the ing verb like a noun, it becomes a gerund: Fishing is
fun. When we use the ing verb as a verb or an adjective, it is usually a present participle:
John is fishing.
John has a boring teacher.
NOTE
The subject here is duty, therefore, the subject must be singular.
The above-mentioned items are but a few grammar and style issues you will run into when writing
and editing. Get into your stylebook, your dictionary, and other grammar and punctuation handbooks
to help hone your skills.
COPYEDITING VS. PROOFREADING
Copyediting, as mentioned above, is the tedious, but important, job of going word by word, sentence
by sentence, through text to ensure adherence to SAPP and the ABCs of journalism. This process
takes place following production of the product, before it is sent to the publisher to be set.
Proofreading, on the other hand, is the final check after the article has been set for publication.
Traditionally, proofreading was done during review of newspaper galleys (proofs not yet made into
pages). Final corrections for typos or errors get a final look here.
Today, these words are often used synonymously. Overall, they have the same purpose of ensuring
accuracy.
Copyediting/Proofreading Marks
When copyediting or proofreading your work or the work of a shipmate, corrections are made by
using copyediting or proofreading marks. Most copyediting marks are universal across newswriting
lines. On the next page, you will find one example of copyediting marks; however, the AP Stylebook
offers another example. Following the copyediting marks, the last page of the chapter contains a
chart of proofreading marks from Merriam-Webster. Whatever marks your shop decides to use, keep
them consistent. Refer to Figures 3-2 and 3-3.
Copyediting Marks

Figure 3-2 Copyediting Marks.

Figure 3-3 Proofreaders Marks.
SUMMARY
In this chapter you learned about taking the fundamentals of public affairs you read about in previous
chapters and applying them in writing for publication or broadcast. You also learned that strong
writing skills are essential to a successful career as a Navy MC or as an editor of others work. In the
next chapter, we will move from the news story to accompanying items headlines and captions.
CHAPTER 4
WRITING HEADLINES AND CAPTIONS
You have just delivered a story to your editor that is the best you have ever written, with
accompanying imagery that is some of the best you have ever taken. However, the story and imagery
might vanish into obscurity on any newspaper or Internet page if the accompanying headline or
caption does not entice or inform the reader. Headlines serve to grab the readers attention and to
provide a way to quickly find the stories of interest to them. Photographs have unique storytelling
abilities, but that story can often be lost without a caption that allows your reader a glimpse behind the
scenes.
In this chapter you will learn the elements of headlines and captions and how each enhances your
media products.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Recognize the functions, components and attributes of a headline.
2. Write a headline.
3. Identify components of a photo caption.
4. Write a photo caption.
HEADLINES
Headlines use words to sell a story and a variety of sizes and shapes to gain the readers attention
and improve publication design. Some headline writers use varying type fonts, sizes, and forms to
create a visual impact your eyes cannot miss.
Headlines are powerful tools you simply cannot neglect. They set the tone for your entire publication
(and, therefore, your entire unit or organization).
In a print publication, headlines set the look for the entire paper. Headlines are sometimes as
important for how they make the page look as for what they say; they dress up a page, catch the
readers eye and make it look and feel more accessible.
Just as the inverted pyramid helps emphasize the important information up front in news and allows
readers to decide if they want to or need to keep reading, the news headline tells readers what the
story is about quickly and in as much detail as space will allow.
Categories
Headlines have three functions and fall into three general categories: straight news, feature and
editorial.
Summarize the story: Even before the lead, the headline provides a general idea of the story to
the reader. Straight news story headlines tend to be written straight no fluffy stuff while
feature and editorial headlines can and should be more creative, catchy, and enticing.
Attract attention/advertise the story: A headline helps the reader skim a page and pick out
whats important to him or her. Swallow your ego; this is reality. People typically read only what
they find interesting. So, if you know its important for them to read, give it a headline that
highlights why its important to them. Here are some examples:
4-1
o Vague: Tuesdays open forum draws 315
o Better: Commander: Ill fix the sewer problem
Dress up the page design: Headlines add bold, dark accents to what otherwise may be dull,
gray pages. Feature headlines, in particular, may add a bit more. When creating feature
headlines, you should explore different fonts and font treatments as a departure from the
everyday.
Headline Writing Process
Read the story: The first step to writing a good headline is to read and understand the story.
Remember, youre not writing a headline based solely on the lead; youre writing a headline for the
entire story. The headline must give readers an idea of what the story is about and what kind of story
it is: breaking news, humorous feature, personality profile, or so on. Nothing misleads readers or
angers writers more than a headline that misses the point.
Summarize the story: Once you have read and edited the story completely, summarize it into one
sentence a focus sentence. The sentence must have a specific subject and an active verb, and it
must show how this particular story differs from every other.
Telegraphic English: When writing headlines, articles (a, an, the) and conjunctions (for, and, nor, but,
or, yet, so) are not used, because they take up too much space. The whole point is to say as much as
you can in the space provided. So if you have lots of space, why is it wrong to use them? Because
there is usually a better way to word the headline to include more and better information. Articles and
conjunctions take up space and add no meaning. It is a question of disciplined use of the headline
space, and it makes for much better news headlines. Contrary to Associated Press (AP) style,
headlines also call for using numbers in all cases and abbreviating days of the week and months.
This shorthand way of writing headlines is called telegraphic English.
Wrong: A fire destroys a house and a garage
Right: Fire destroys house, garage
Wrong: A gunman kills three at a school
Right: Gunman kills 3 at school
Headline style: From the focus sentence, you then eliminate unnecessary words such as forms of the
verb to be (is, are, was, and were), leaving on the action verb to tell the story. Headline verbs are
always in the present tense to show immediacy and to put the reader in that moment. This is known
as using historical present tense. If the event has not yet occurred, infinitives, the to forms of verbs,
are used to indicate future action:
Past: School cadre builds global relations
Future: School cadre to build global relations
Verb Usage
For headlines to pack a lot of punch, the writer should use accurate, dynamic verbs and avoid using
past tense and passive voice. If faced with passive voice, change the subject and focus on a different
grammatical angle. For example:
Passive: President killed by gunman
Active: Gunman kills president
Try to use SUBJECT - VERB - OBJECT construction. Historical present tense is one way to avoid
past tense.
4-2
Past tense: Fares dropped by airlines
Historical present tense: Airlines drop fares
Past tense: Airplane crashed, killed 2
Historical present tense: Airplane crash kills 2
Punctuation
Again, as mentioned above, AP style and grammar are often not followed when writing headlines.
This is also true for punctuation. Below are some basic guidelines.
Periods are not used at the end of a headline, but they may be used for abbreviations:
N.C. town welcomes Fleet Week
Commas may be substituted for and.
Sailors make history, promote to CPO
A semicolon is used instead of a comma when a headline contains two complete thoughts (two
subjects and two verbs).
Judge suspends trial; defendant goes free
A colon may be used to indicate said or to create a pause for effect.
Obama: Bin Laden must go
Chesty Puller: Not an average Marine
Quotation marks set apart direct quotes, as well as jargon quotes that are tossed around by the
experts. Always, to save space, use single quotation marks.
CVN 77 welcomes new 'fun boss'
Lincoln: The war has begun
Other types of punctuation, such as exclamation points, question marks, etc., should be used
sparingly and only when necessary.
Headline Case Style
Many of the headline guidelines above are consistent from media outlet to media outlet; however, one
thing that does vary is uppercase vs. lowercase style. The three main styles are downstyle,
uppercase/lowercase, and all capital letters.
Downstyle - the regular uppercase and lowercase letters used in standard sentences are preferred
and easier to read than capital letters, while uppercasing all major words takes a lot more space.
However, some publications, to include Navy.mil and The Washington Post, use the uppercase
method, or all caps. Regardless of the style you choose, it should be consistent with the rest of your
publication.
Downstyle: Brother and sister to reunite aboard Truman
Uppercase: Brother and Sister to Reunite Aboard Truman
All Caps: BROTHER AND SISTER TO REUNITE ABOARD TRUMAN
Abbreviations and Acronyms
Abbreviations save space in headlines; however, you should avoid acronyms whenever possible
especially unusual ones. Remember, your newspaper or online publication will have shadow
4-3
audiences who may not understand military jargon. Use only abbreviations the general public would
understand. Otherwise, the headlines indicate to your shadow audiences that the paper is an in-
house newsletter and does not apply to them. Also, do not clutter up a headline with more than one
abbreviation per line.
Bad Splits
Headlines may spread over more than one line in print publications, thus running the risk of creating a
bad split, a strange pause, or phrase. The end of the line is a place where the reader naturally
pauses; it is almost like inserting commas in a sentence. One way to keep from having a bad split is
to avoid separating an adjective from the word it modifies or a preposition from its subject. If you
would not logically put a comma at the location of the split, it is not a good place to split it.
Wrong:
Commander wants 'pot'
Right:
CO calls for change,
Types of Headlines
Although there are three categories of headlines, there are many types and variations of headlines.
Here, we will discuss some of the more common ones. All variations are viewed in terms of their
visual impact when used with basic headline styles. Some of these variants are explained in the
following text.
Standing Head A standing head (See Figure 6-1) is a label used for regular or recurring content,
such as sports and chaplains columns. It does not change from issue to issue.

Figure 6-1 Standing Head.
4-4
Jump Head A jump head (See Figure 6-2) helps the reader find a portion of a story continued from
another page. The jump head uses one or two keywords from the headline that introduced the story.
It is set flush left followed by the words Continued from Page ## and usually set in italic type. A two-
point line may be used to extend from the side of the head over the width of the article.

Figure 6-2 Jump Head.
The jump line is the line of text that appears at the point where the story has been jumped to another
page. The jump head is the headline on the remainder of that story.
Overall, jumps are best avoided. Most readers do not follow the jump and finish reading the story;
its simply too much trouble. USA Today, a paper that prides itself on ease of reading, allows only one
story per front-page section to jump into the paper.
Drop Head Also called dropout or deck, a drop head (See Figure 6-3) is another headline below the
main headline. The drop is smaller than the main headline, gives additional information and stands
alone as a secondary headline. However, the main headline MUST be able to stand on its own
without the drop headline.
Think of the main headline and the drop head like the lead and bridge of a story. The main line is
similar to the story lead as it holds the most important information. The drop is like the bridge in that it
complements the main headline without repeating the information.

Figure 6-3 Drop Head.
Crosslines A crossline runs across more than one column. A banner headline, noted below, is a
type of crossline.
4-5
Banner Banner headlines (See Figure 6-4) give major news events their required importance. They
are typically aligned left (flush left) and span across three or more columns of text. Many newspapers
overuse banner headlines, so they do not command the instant attention they once did. Too many
banner headlines lead to a boring publication, so these headlines are often combined with drop
headlines and limited to one every page or so at most.

Figure 6-4 Banner Head.
Tripod Head A tripod head (See Figure 6-5) is a single, short line of larger type set to the left of two
lines of smaller type. The tripod portion (larger wording) should be twice the size of the definition or
main headline. For example, a 36-point tripod would dictate the main head be set in 18-point type to
give the true tripod appearance. A colon is required when the tripod conveys a separate thought.

Figure 6-5 Tripod Head.
Wicket Head A wicket headline is a tripod in reverse (a short line of larger type set to the right of
two lines of smaller type). The colon is not used in the wicket. Although seldom used, a wicket should
be considered when trying to vary your newspaper design.
4-6
Kicker The kicker (See Figure 6-6) introduces a feature article with a pun line above the main head.
The information for the kicker is extracted from the bridge or the body of the story. When using a
kicker, do not repeat words in the main headline. The kicker is underlined and about half the size of
the main headline.

Figure 6-6 Kicker.
Hammer Head Often called a reverse kicker (See Figure 6-7), the hammer head is twice the size of
the main head, set flush left, and is no wider than half the width of the headline area.

Figure 6-7 Hammer Head.
Novelty Head A novelty head (See Figure 6-8) features typographical tricks, such as setting part of
the head upside down, using an ornate typeface or substituting artwork as characters. Use the
novelty headline sparingly with appropriate feature articles. Overuse of this headline may lead to your
readership questioning the credibility of the newspaper.

Figure 6-8 Novelty Head.
Caption Writing
In addition to headlines and leads, photo captions are among the most read items in any publication;
therefore, we must take the time to discuss the anatomy and the importance of these elements.
Captions are sometimes referred to as cutlines.
(NOTE: Photography will be discussed in the visual information section of the manual.)
4-7
As the old saying goes, a picture is worth a thousand words. However, most would argue that
photographs are most effective when accompanied by explanatory text. Writing good captions to
accompany a great photo makes all the difference in the world. A good caption supplements the
photograph by explaining action, naming people and giving background information.
Caption writing is a specialized form of news writing. It answers the same basic questions as the
news story.Llike news stories, captions must not violate the principles of security, accuracy, propriety,
and policy (SAPP), and they must adhere to the Navy and AP style as well as the ABCs of journalism
accuracy, brevity, and clarity.
Gathering Caption Information
Gathering information for photo captions is similar to gathering information for news. When you
gather material for captions, look for the who, what, when, where, why, and how (the 5 Ws and H) of
the event or situation you are shooting. The who information must be thorough. In other words, get
the name, rank, service, job title and hometown when identifying the who of your photograph. To
ensure accuracy, you should record the caption information immediately after each shot or series of
shots. Do not let subjects get away without obtaining the required caption information. They may be
difficult or impossible to track down later, and you may forget the specifics of the photograph.
ALWAYS CARRY A NOTEBOOK AND PEN OR PENCIL TO JOT DOWN THE
IMPORTANT/REQUIRED CAPTION INFORMATION.
A few points to consider
What element (or elements) of mass appeal is in the photograph (SPICE COPPS)?
Will the photograph be used internally, externally or both? Photographs for external
publications may require more information and full explanations.
Will the photograph be used alone or with a story?
With these basic considerations in mind, try to stick with the five Ws and the H. Find the answers to
these pertinent questions, and you will have more than enough information to write your caption.
WHO: Identify people in the photograph by rank, full name, title, hometown, and so forth. Also
note relative positions of people in the photograph when there is more than one and, if it is not
obvious, who is who by action, age, gender or rank. Sometimes it is helpful to note clothing or
physical characteristics of the people being photographed, such as a color of clothing, wearing
of glasses, or a specific hair type or hair color. There should be no doubt in your notes as to
who is whom.
WHAT: The what is the action taking place in the photograph, such as slicing a cake,
performing 3M spot checks, or re-enlisting. However, the what can also the subject of the
photos action. Examples are equipment, ships, aircraft or submarines, to name a few. In these
instances, as with a who, full identification is a must.
WHERE: The where includes the location of the action and should include ships name, port
of call, operating area, street names, building names or numbers, etc.
WHEN: When records the time of day and date the photo was taken. This is especially
important for stand-alone photographs that will not accompany a news story or feature.
WHY: Unless it is obvious, record why an action is taking place. Is it part of a command
basketball championship or a monthly awards ceremony? As with the when category, this is
important for photographs that will stand by themselves.
HOW: If there are circumstances that led to the photograph being taken and these
circumstances require explanation, make sure you make note of this.
4-8
Caption Components
Everything you have to say about the photograph should be in the caption, including the essential
facts. These facts must be tied into the scene of the photograph. The length of a caption is always
governed by what must be told about the photograph. Captions consist of four major components:
The action
The identification (persons or things in the photograph)
The background information
The credit line
The Action The first sentence of a caption is the most important. It must link with the photograph by
describing its action. Often, a captions first sentence reads like a news storys lead sentence. It
describes what is going on in the photograph without repeating the obvious. The first sentence is
written in present tense and active voice, because the photo captures an exact moment in time and
holds it in the present.
The Identification The second part of a caption is the identification of who is in the photograph. The
subject of the photo links to and is identified by the action. In most cases, tell the reader the persons
complete name, rank, unit, job title and hometown. When writing captions for sports imagery, military
titles, ranks, etc., are not needed. Instead use the players team position, nickname, or jersey
number.
One exception to fully identifying your subjects occurs when you have more than three people in a
photo. At that point, if the people have a commonality, such as a sports team or a division, identify
them as that group. For example, if you shoot a photo of your commands culinary specialists serving
lunch and there are more than three in the photo, you can write, USS Carl Vinson (CVN 70) culinary
specialists
For group shots, such as sports team or command divisions, when you are publicizing the photo
strictly as a roster photo, a complete listing of their names is okay. In this instance, identify the
persons from left to right, front to back. If not, use a generic term, such as Sailors, in the caption.
Otherwise, the caption becomes a laundry list and will bore your reader. However, if someone of
prominence is in the photo, such as the president, you should pick him out of the crowd and identify
him. The rest of the group would be identified by a generic name.
The Background Information Background is often ignored by new MCs, but it is critical to sell your
work to an editor. The background tells your readers why the photo is important. A photo of a Sailor
standing guard while a helicopter lands is interesting, but the background information will explain to
the reader why the photo is significant.
Background information comes from the same place you get background information for all other
public affairs products Rhumb Lines, public affairs guidance, maritime strategy, Navy.mil, etc. The
amount of background information required in a caption sometimes depends on where the photo will
be published. For example, if you plan to publish the photo in a print product, you may be limited to
the amount of space available in the publication. But, it is important to give more information than you
think you will need. The editor can cut, but he cannot add information if he does not have it.
The Credit Line The last component of the caption is the credit line, or the identification of the
photographer. There are several ways of crediting photographs. Some newspapers and magazines
give photographers personal credit lines, while others use a blanket statement such as all photos are
U.S. Navy photos unless otherwise credited. However, the recommended way is to put the credit line
at the end of the caption itself. Current credit line format is: U.S. Navy photo by RANK and NAME.
For example: U.S. Navy photo by Mass Communication Specialist 2nd Class Myra Mains.
Accompanying your credit line should be the word(s) Released or Not for Release. Your
4-9
commands designated photo release authority (LCPO, division officer, department head) makes this
determination after reviewing the photo for SAPP.
Another important element for crediting the photographer comes in the form of a VIRIN, or Visual
Information Record Identification Number. The VIRIN, which comes before the photos dateline,
catalogs the visual information, assists in the rapid retrieval of that information, and identifies the
photographer or videographer. More information on caption writing and creating VIRINs can be found
on the Navy Media Content Services.
Caption Writing Guidelines
Using a caption provided by the photographer, receiving agencies (such as the various services
websites) may rewrite a caption to suit their own purposes by taking information contained in the
caption and preparing a cutline. Your name is on the work, so be sure to check the accuracy of
anything that is posted or published.
To create accurate and concise captions, stick to the following guidelines:
Begin the caption with a dateline in case the editor decides to run the photograph by itself as a
stand-alone image. More information on datelines can be found in Module 1, Chapter 5
Avoid the use of military jargon and use the Associated Press Stylebook
Never write a caption for a cropped photo unless that photo is directly in front of you at the
time. (Cropping means to cut or trim unneeded portions.) Do not guess or write from memory.
You may mistakenly provide information no longer seen in the image
Captions should be simple and direct, often conversational. Make them short, but use
complete sentences with a subject, verb and object. Keep them around 50 words
Do not always begin captions with the persons name. Try to recreate conversations, colors,
smells or sounds associated with the picture and the situation described
Do not editorialize
Avoid clichs
Do not state the obvious
Examples:
100714-N-VQ827-208 ATLANTIC OCEAN (July 14, 2010) Former President George H.W. Bush
watches flight operations from the landing signal officer's platform aboard the Nimitz-class aircraft
carrier that bears his name, USS George H.W. Bush (CVN 77). Bush and his wife, Barbara, spent
their time aboard watching flight operations, touring the ship, and visiting the crew. George H.W.
Bush is conducting training in the Atlantic Ocean. (U.S. Navy photo by Mass Communication
Specialist 3rd Class Nicholas Hall/Released)
100727-N-SF508-008 SEA OF JAPAN (July 27, 2010) The Republic of Korea Navy amphibious
landing ship ROKS Dokdo (LPH 6111) and the Nimitz-class aircraft carrier USS George Washington
(CVN 73) transit the Sea of Japan. The Republic of Korea and the United States are conducting the
combined alliance maritime and air readiness exercise "Invincible Spirit" in the seas east of the
Korean peninsula from July 25-28, 2010. This is the first in a series of joint military exercises that will
occur over the coming months. (U.S. Navy photo by Mass Communication Specialist 3rd Class
Charles Oki/Released)
121115-N-XQ375-109ARABIAN SEA (Nov. 15, 2012) Sailors practice firefighting techniques during a
damage control drill aboard the guided-missile destroyer USS Jason Dunham (DDG 109). Jason
Dunham is deployed to the U.S. 5th Fleet area of responsibility conducting maritime security
4-10
operations, theater security cooperation efforts and support missions for Operation Enduring
Freedom. (U.S. Navy photo by Mass Communication Specialist 2nd Class Deven B. King/Released)
Remember, photographs, despite their unique storytelling ability, are seldom effective enough to
stand alone. No matter how exciting the picture may be, it fails unless the viewer understands what is
going on in the photograph. The place to provide information the photograph cannot give is in the
caption, or the in text that accompanies the photograph. It is your responsibility as the photographer
to gather the necessary information and write complete, concise, and factual captions.
SUMMARY
In this chapter we discussed the importance of recognizing the functions, components, and attributes
used when creating headlines and photo captions. Headlines and captions accompany other products
to fully tell the Navys story. From here, we switch gears from structured writing to feature writing,
which allows the MC a bit more creative freedom.
4-11
CHAPTER 5
FEATURE WRITING
As we learned earlier in the manual, newswriting is an important tool in telling the Navy story to our
external and internal audiences. However, newswriting is structured to report the facts in a timely
manner with little room for creativity. For this reason, we turn to feature writing to draw on the human
aspect of the news we are reporting. In no way does this diminish the need for newswriting; just the
opposite, it enhances it.
In this chapter we will discuss the purpose for writing features, types of features, the anatomy of a
feature story and tools to help you write features. (Much of the information here is courtesy of the
Defense Information School public affairs leadership and public affairs departments.)
Feature stories boost morale and often tell the human side of the story beyond the hard facts.
Research has shown that people like reading about themselves and others. In all honesty, there is
probably not enough varying hard news happening within your command. You can only write so many
stories about inspections, certifications, visits and port visits before the stories become redundant. By
the time your story is printed, it is usually old news. Features can help mitigate that loss of timeliness.
A feature story can be written about anything and should provoke an emotion. It can make us laugh; it
can make us cry; it can teach us how to do something. What you have to decide, as a feature writer,
is what kind of story works for your type of publication and for the topic at hand.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Identify the basic elements of a feature story.
TYPES OF FEATURES
News Feature
A news feature is similar to straight news stories in that it has a news peg, includes the important Ws
and H, and requires primary and secondary sources. On the other hand, a news feature is different
from straight news because it uses feature-writing styles and techniques. News features are
especially popular in afternoon dailies or military weeklies. In both, the basic facts of the story have
already been reported, so editors, through features, try to present the facts in a more interesting or
more human-interest format. News features put the reader at the scene of a news event through
narration and a more vivid description of what took place. Some news features you may write in the
fleet could include a story focused on the role of the damage controlmen in the ship's general
quarters training program; a flight deck barricade drill from the perspective of the junior airmen; or the
logistics planning side of an upcoming Seabee training evolution told from the point of view of the
storekeeper.
Human-Interest Feature
A human-interest feature requires primary and secondary source interviews and may include the use
of research and observation as information-gathering techniques. Human interest is the broadest
feature category. These features are written to inform, educate or entertain the reader. The news peg
is replaced with reader interest. Some human interest features you may write in the Fleet could
include the Command Financial Specialist program and how it helps junior Sailors plan for financial
5-1
success; the history of the Gunner's Mate rating; or a day in the life of well deck operations on an
amphibious assault ship.
Personality Feature
People are curious about other people, it is human nature. The properly written personality feature is
a vivid word picture of the subjects personality traits and physical features as well as a description of
the things that make the person unusual or interesting. The effective personality feature leaves
readers feeling they have met the subject face to face and know that individual personally.
A personality feature is similar to other features in that it appeals to peoples interest in other people.
It normally points out special achievement, success, or obstacles surmounted in life and centers on a
particular event or achievement. A personality feature should be one of the most enjoyable features
you write. After all, you can use your job to satisfy not only your readers curiosity about your subject,
but your own. You will likely write personality features on new arrivals to your command, to include
your commanding and executive officers, command master chief, and command chaplain, in an effort
to help introduce them to the crew. But don't limit personality features to people of prominence.
Chances are you serve with someone who is an accomplished artist or musician, drives race cars in
his or her spare time, or has some very unique story about what brought him or her into the Navy.
Find and tell those stories. Chances are, every shipmate you interact with has a story.
Auxiliary Feature
The auxiliary feature is a catch-all feature, short in length, which makes use of numerous
photographs, graphic artwork, or a combination of both. Because this type of feature is short, it must
be written tightly. For the same reason, accompanying captions are also critical. There are, however,
some features in this category that could fill an entire page, be used as a two-page feature (double-
truck), or even be run as a continuing series. This feature type can range from a travel story to a light-
hearted approach to a common subject. Most often, auxiliary features appear in military papers
published overseas because of the unique needs of readers in those areas. But there is no reason
why these features could not appear in stateside publications. The type of auxiliary feature used is
limited only by innovation and imagination.
Travel Feature
Travel features are used primarily overseas, where language barriers may make it difficult for readers
to learn about travel opportunities. The best way to begin work on a travel feature is to experience a
trip yourself and take thorough notes. DoD Directive 5120.4, Department of Defense Newspapers,
Magazines and Civilian Enterprise Publications, states that military publications must not imply
commercial endorsement. When writing travel features, be careful that you do not imply a travel
location is the best location or that your command favors it. You can avoid implied endorsement by
mentioning other similar travel opportunities. This can be done by listing other locations within your
article or in an information graphic next to your article.
Local Point of Interest, Historical Feature
Similar to the travel feature, this type of feature is especially appreciated in overseas publications. It is
often a vital part of the installations community relations program. It also helps to get base personnel
out of barracks rooms and family housing to partake in the host countrys culture and daily life. These
features must present the subject matter in good taste. The historical parts must be accurate or you
could create bad relations between your installation and the host country.
5-2
Unit Feature
Unit features provide in-depth coverage about one particular organization on an installation, such as
the motor pool, a branch of supply, or the people who operate the fuel farm. While the mission and
equipment are important, it is all too common for writers to concentrate on these and ignore the most
vital aspect of the operation the people. They are the story. Junior Sailors and civilians often are
overlooked. Do not allow this to happen. Unit features take a lot of time to write, and they require in-
depth research. These features, along with accompanying photos, often fill one or two pages. They
are sometimes used to boost unit morale or as a way to highlight a particular award or
accomplishment.
How-To Features
How-to features give your readers something they need and want. They can span the full gambit of
subject matter, such as how to make a simple table for a barracks room, how to read your German
telephone bill, or how to order a meal at a Japanese restaurant. Do not hesitate to seek expert help if
you need it. If your how-to feature explains construction steps or contains a recipe, do it yourself to
make sure the instructions are correct.
Brights
Brights are short, usually humorous features we use to break up and lighten a page of serious or
somber news. They serve to entertain the readers and make the paper more attractive to them. A
bright is a complete story that is short enough to be used as filler.
Seasonal/Special-Interest Feature
This type of feature may focus on days, weeks, months or seasons. Winter fun, Black History Month,
Mothers Day, and many more fit into this category. At overseas locations, it is a great way to explain
the host countrys holidays and celebrations. This also helps support your units community relations
program. Let good artwork do a share of the explaining.
Picture Stories
In defining the auxiliary feature, we spoke about how photos and artwork can play a big role in
helping to tell your story. A page in a publication filled with a hodgepodge of photos may not make a
story, but a page of photos with continuity, purpose and a short auxiliary feature does.
Selecting and displaying just the right photographs is similar to writing your story. When the material
is selected and arranged in a coherent and entertaining manner, it has impact. If poorly done, the
information is submerged in the resulting clutter. A collection of pictures can be arranged as an essay
or a story. Both feature a collection of photos; however, with a photo story, there is a beginning,
middle and end. The photo essay tells no story; it simply highlights an event. It should also be noted
that a picture story may or may not be accompanied by text other than photo captions. If the feature
contains accompanying text, the photo captions bridge the gap between the photos and the copy.
The number of photos used in the photo story depends on the importance and complexity of the
subject. The key is not how many but which ones. It is important to vary the images by ensuring you
include at a minimum an establishing wide shot, medium shots, and a close-up detail shot.
FEATURE WRITING
The challenge of feature writing is to make the article irresistible to read. You must pull the reader in
with words. In feature writing there are fewer constraints, but you still must make the story clear and
concise, and most importantly, factually correct.
5-3
Story Structure
The basic parts of a news feature (Figure 5-1) include the lead, bridge, body, and conclusion. If each
paragraph flows into the next logically and all the readers questions are answered, then the story is
successfully organized. Feature writing adheres to the same ABCs of journalism presented in
newswriting. You must ensure that all of the information is accurate, brief, and clear.

Figure 5-1 Parts of a Feature Story.
The Feature Lead
The feature lead is just like an attention step in a speech. Its purpose is to draw you into the feature,
making you want to read more. In this chapter, we will cover 10 feature leads:
Summary
o Strong winds, combined lethally with a fire in a Queens high-rise building Thursday,
created a blowtorch that roared through an apartment building and into a hallway,
killing three people and injuring 22.
This lead summarizes the events with the who, what, when, and where, while using strong
imagery to do it.
Narrative
o Louis Chacon telephoned the sheriffs office in Norfolk, Va., recently and complained
that there was a big snake in a toilet at the house he had just moved into.
o Deputies investigated and found nothing in the bowl.
o Chacon explained to them that the snake was very sneaky and only stuck its head out
of a hole in the bottom of the commode when it thought no one was looking that is,
when a person had his back to the bowl.
This narrative lead not only tells a story, but the narrative plays out in your head like a video
camera. It is chronological, suspenseful, and will certainly make the reader want to finish the
story. It also plays on a common irrational fear.
Descriptive
5-4
o Instantly, the fuel mix exploded into a tower of red, twisting flames churning wildly
upward. Soon the blaze engulfed the building; its thick, black smoke darkening the
morning sky.
A descriptive lead is colorful and uses all of your senses to describe the event. The words in
bold should bring out the images in your brain.
Teaser
o It is mid-afternoon on a Sunday in August, and the fog hugging the Golden Gate Bridge
and rocky coastline has finally lifted. Tourists escaping the cable-car routine, locals
fleeing cramped apartments, surfers who live on the edges of the city theyre all
drawn here for one thing: Ocean Beach.
o With the long expanse of fine sand and the lull of crashing waves, it looks like a
California postcard.
o And that is what makes this such a perfect place to die.
At this point if youre not feeling an overwhelming curiosity about why a beach is such a
beautiful place to die, then you must be dead already! Where is this story going? Is this a story
on suicides? Is this a story on a beachfront cemetery?
The line, And that is what makes this such a perfect place to die, is the perfect line to make
the reader turn the page.
Freak
o John Scheer has been designing womens clothes for more than half his life. He is now
10.
In your brain you should be going, Ten? You mean, he started at 5 years of age? How is that
possible?
Direct Address
o You would not think that a Hollywood-perfect small town would go gaga over garbage
cans, sparking a trend in trash that some predict will sweep the nation.
o You also would not think a 66-year-old photographer and artist who wears rainbow-
colored suspenders would be San Franciscos latest trendsetter.
o But then, youve never met Dick Horn lover of rainbows, loather of over organization
and painter of garbage cans.
The writer is addressing YOU, yes, you. The start of every direct address lead is the
subjective personal pronoun.
Quote
Imagine your story starting out this way.
o Sometimes history is written in hot, little, dusty places on the Earth, Maj. Gen. James
N. Mattis, commander of the 1st Marine Division, told his troops when the mission to
escort him into the city was done. Thats what we did today, and its good history.
Quotes should only be used sparingly as leads and must be strong enough to carry your
reader into the story.
Question
o Where are the scariest, most scream-inducing, gut-wrenching roller coasters in the
world?
5-5
If you are a lover of roller coasters, you just might like the above lead. The lead makes you ask
yourself the question, You know, I never thought about it before, but where are the scariest,
most scream-inducing, gut-wrenching roller coasters? I really would like to know!
As with the quotation beginning a lead, a question must also be effective enough to truly grab
the readers' attention and arouse curiosity. Some readers may not care what the answer is
and move on to the next story.
Likewise, avoid questions that can be answered with a simple yes or no. Regardless of the
answer, once the reader answers the question they have no reason to continue reading. For
example, if you began your story with "Do you like chocolate?", the story would be over before
it ever actually began. Make sure your questions are thought-provoking.
Combination
o Take blood from the dead and give to the living?
o In Russia they do.
o Sgt. Cynthia P. Clinger, a medical sergeant from Fort Knox, Ky., says there is not a
need for blood drives in Russia like there is here. They take living blood cells from
cadavers, and as long as that person was healthy, they can use the blood for
transfusions.
Is this a question or a narrative lead? Its each of them and it works.
Anecdotal
Anecdotes are short, entertaining stories within a story that give insight to the subject. They
give an example or capture the essence of a point. Usually, they are personal or biographical
accounts of certain happenings.
Let us say you are doing a story on the small portions that are given by upscale restaurants.
Your story might include the following anecdote:
o While attending a private dinner party one evening, Alfred Hitchcock, whose famously
portly profile portrayed a certain fondness for food, was dismayed to find that the
portions being served were far from adequate.
o "At the end of the evening, the host bid Hitchcock farewell. I do hope you will dine with
us again soon, she added.
o "By all means, Hitchcock dryly replied. Lets start now."
o Getting anecdotes during an interview can be as simple as saying, "Can you give me an
example?" or "Then what happened?
Bridge/Nutgraf
Once you have a great lead and you have grabbed your readers attention, its now time to tell your
reader just what the feature is going to be about. You do this through the bridge, which, in feature
writing, is also called the nutgraf. This part of the feature tells the reader why he should read the
feature in the first place. If you want to keep your reader long enough to read the body, then make
sure you place the bridge high enough in the story. Beyond the fourth or fifth paragraph, your reader
could get frustrated and bored and ask himself why he is still reading. The nutgraf is the whats-in-it-
for-me hook to keep the reader interested.
Descriptive Lead and Nutgraf
Victoria Marriot wakes up every morning at 5:30 with her gunnery sergeant husband, and for
the next 12 hours, she will be at home and at work.
5-6
Although her first child will not arrive until 6:45 a.m., the early morning allows her time to do
paperwork, clean the house and cook breakfast.
This has been her lifestyle for the last three years as a licensed child care provider, one of the
most demanding jobs as more and more dual-income military families try to find affordable
alternatives to institutional care.
Summary Lead and Bridge
The winner was weeping, the loser was seething, and the last-place finisher was accused of
influencing the outcome.
The fans? Well, they just went back to their reading.
Such was the scene Wednesday morning at the Indiana University Track Stadium following the
womens race-walking event in the Pan American Games.
Body
The body of a feature further reflects the focus of the story using creative writing techniques and
attribution. The body should follow on a chosen organizational pattern. Ultimately, however, if each
paragraph flows into the next logically and all the readers questions are answered, then the story is
successfully organized.
Chronologically. Organized by time or sequence. Any story that would be interesting told from
beginning to end, start to finish, such as a story about a finger-painting contest for 4 year olds at the
child care center. This feature could take advantage of suspense by doing a play-by-play of the
contest before finally revealing the winner.
Topically. Break a subject up into topics and discuss each. Example: A story about an upcoming
exercise might be divided into sections on purpose, schedule, and troop reaction. Most speeches and
papers are organized this way; you have probably produced outlines for them. Topical organization is
the most common organization pattern and is also used in inverted pyramid style.
Spatially. Explained in a logical sequence, having to do with physical arrangement. Example: Left to
right, near to far, top to bottom, front to back. You could use spatial organization to organize a story
about a base deployment exercise, moving from the gate to the various locations in camp.
General to Specific (or vice versa). Especially when introducing the reader to something new or
technical, present general (or background) information the reader can understand before coming to
specific. Example: This is a good way to introduce a new weapon system, or the base telephone
exchange; its also helpful in how-to stories of all kinds.
Functionally. Tell what something does and relate it to the larger function. Break a whole down into
its individual parts. Example: A story about a new computer system in your command could be
organized by each of the ways in which it will be used.
Descending Order of Importance. Used most often with feature stories containing strong news pegs
and interesting detail. Example: A story announcing and explaining an upcoming exercise (or giving
its results afterward), or a wrap-up of a six-month deployment. This pattern is most often used in a
story that has significant news content.
Feature Conclusions
Straight news stories have no conclusive endings. The writer simply stops writing after the last detail
is provided. Cut the last paragraph or even the last few paragraphs and the reader still gets the
complete story. A feature, however, is the skilled telling of a complete story and, like any other story,
needs a strong feature conclusion where the writer makes or reinforces a point. The type of ending
used depends entirely on the nature and angle of the story itself. The writer must choose the style
5-7
most appropriate to the story that both satisfies the reader and clearly signals the end of the story.
Remember, however, that the conclusion should complement the lead, not compete with it.
Types of Conclusions
Summary
Summarizes the points of the story
Keys in on impact, effects or outcome
Last chance for the writer to make his or her point
Usually found in news features
Tie-back
Completes a fact, idea or scene planted in the lead
Returns the reader back to the point he or she was put in at the lead
The conclusion needs the same settings, actors or ideas introduced in the lead
Key to tie-back is to make it recognizable by bringing the reader full circle
Wrap-up
Ties up loose ends, solves problems, or answers questions from the lead and makes a strong
point
Powerful quotes can be used for wrap-up endings
Quotes should be thought-provoking and provide significant insight
Climax
Brings the adventure, day, method, etc., to a close and ends the story at the same time
Naturally lends itself to chronological stories
Unending
Turns the readers attention to the future, saying that life goes on
Challenges reader to look at his or her own future or the future of the characters in the story in
a new light, based on the story focus
Stinger
Surprise conclusion designed to jolt the reader
Must be worked up to gradually
Reader should almost feel he or she knows the inevitable ending
Stingers are not common endings. Contrived stingers are very obvious
Combination Combination of two or more of any type of conclusion
Examples of Conclusions
Sample lead
The 6-foot-3-inch man wears a black belt as a result of seven years of Marine Corps Martial Arts
Program training. His home is protected by an electronic surveillance system, a no-nonsense, 52-
pound, muscular pit bull mix named Chesty, and the vigilance of his Meade Heights neighbors, most
5-8
of them military families. His children know they should never provide personal information to callers
or strangers on the street. He always keeps his 2010 Hummer in perfect running order.
Each member of his family carries a cell phone at all times to call for help in emergencies. He owns
two registered weapons a shotgun, which is in as pristine a condition as when his great-grandfather
bought it a century ago, and a custom-made pistol.
The sleek, Austrian-made handgun is placed securely by his bedside, the shotgun within short reach
in a vault in the master bedrooms small office. Today, Eddie Lancaster is in the intensive care ward
of Johns Hopkins, the victim of multiple stab wounds after being attacked while he walked from his
car to his dry cleaners in Odenton. The knife-wielding attacker surprised Lancaster from behind,
stabbing him repeatedly in the neck and back and disabling him before he could defend himself.
Summary conclusion
The attack on Eddie Lancaster is not an isolated incident, even for service members. County police
statistics show that Anne Arundel County residents, like all Americans, spent about $350 more per
family for personal and home security last year than in 2009. At the same time, the reports said,
violent crime rose nearly 6 percent in most central Maryland counties. No one is immune to this
danger.
Tie-back conclusion
A number of service members like Eddie Lancaster, who are dedicated to preserving freedom, have
been the victims of random violence in a country theyve sworn to protect. Many people are frightened
for themselves and their families and they barricade themselves in their homes instead of
confronting the problem. Rather than give in, Lancasters family said they believe society must work
as a whole to make America safe again.
Wrap-up conclusion
Poor Eddie, says Andrea Lancaster, as she holds the hand of her comatose husband. She battles to
stem the tide of tears, her lips quivering in a sad dance of despair. He really believed that he had
every possibility covered and that we were completely safe.
Climax conclusion
The world outside Johns Hopkins continues its daily schedule, and the monitors in Eddie Lancasters
room continue their steady hum. His chances for survival have improved since he was first brought in
Wednesday, but the doctors still cannot make any promises to his wife and family.
Unending conclusion
Andrea Lancaster and her children keep a silent vigil at the hospital, hoping their love is strong
enough to keep their husband and daddy alive. Whether he lives or dies, they know that none of them
will ever feel completely safe again.
Stinger conclusion
The fact that most victims of violence have met their attackers, even if only in passing, makes the
issue even more frightening. The victim in this story had also met his attacker, many times. Eddie
Lancaster was stabbed by the panhandler whom he gave a dollar to every day outside the
convenience store where he bought his morning coffee.
Useful Tools
As written above, feature stories blend the elements of news with creative writing tools. In this
section, we will discuss these tools.
5-9
Syntax
Syntax describes the way we put together words to form phrases, clauses, and sentences. Proper
syntax means sentences do not sound awkward or confusing they are easy to read and flow
together smoothly. It means choosing the right words, the appropriate words, for the piece we are
writing.
Transitions
One way to improve the copy in the body of your feature is to use transitions. Transition literally
means movement from one place to another. In a feature story, transitions carry the reader into a new
sentence or paragraph.
Here are some examples useful transitional words arranged according to functions:
Table 5-1 Transitions
Time Contrast Cause/Effect General to Specific
Then
Now
Next
First
Second
However
Nevertheless
Yet
Even through
despite
Therefore
Thus
Hence
Consequence
so
In fact
Especially
For instance
For example
Reference Summary Attitude Addition
The former
The latter
The following
In summary
To sum up
In conclusion
Fortunately
Unfortunately
naturally
Also
Too
Furthermore
Moreover
Personification
Personification means giving human characteristics to non-living objects, ideas or things. Take one of
the most familiar symbols in our country Uncle Sam. Uncle Sam is a personification, representing
our country by a tall lanky fellow, not unlike Lincoln. In the past Uncle Sam has been depicted in
cartoons as compassionate, but not unwilling to roll up his sleeves and get into a fight.
Other examples:
The moon winked at me from the clouds above.
The flowers danced in the breeze.
The wind howled.
Time marched on slowly.
Similes
A simile is a stated comparison between two or more objects using like or as. Most often, the
simile is used to make writing more interesting or more entertaining. Some examples:
His face was as ugly as old running shoes.
John Smith had a mind like a computer.
That idea went over like a lead balloon.
Your explanation was as clear as mud.
5-10
Metaphor
A metaphor is the comparison of one thing to another without the use of like or as. You should use
metaphors ONLY for the sake of beauty, necessity, polish, or emphasis. It should bring something to
your story and help to provide a way for the reader to visualize or see the story play out in more
colorful terms.
Time is a thief.
Time is money.
Life is a journey.
The teenage boy's stomach was a bottomless pit.
Hyperboles
Hyperboles emphasize something by deliberately exaggerating or understating it.
Jerry can run rings around a cheetah.
Mark Twain wrote a couple of stories about life in the South.
He is older than dirt.
Varied sentence structure
One of the most basic rules in the English language is to use simple sentence construction subject-
verb-object, or "who did what" whenever possible. This is also known as "active voice" writing.
However, using a preposition or clause to start a sentence often adds variety to your feature. In
feature writing, if you strictly follow the subject-verb-object construction, your writing will become
boring.
SUMMARY
In this chapter, we discussed features and how you can use features to tell the Navy story. We also
compared newswriting with feature writing and broke down the anatomy of features. However, this
information only skims the surface. Writing features is an art, one that must be practiced and refined.
You should seek out books, magazines, online blogs, etc., and stay up-to-date on what is being
printed in the world of newswriting and features.
5-11
CHAPTER 6
INFORMATION AND NEWSGATHERING
As you have read throughout this manual, your role in reporting the news and telling the Navy story is
an important one. Simply stated, you serve your country, the Navy, and your commander, and your
objective is to act as a conduit of command information between your commander and your
commands audiences.
In previous chapters, we have discussed the fundamentals of public affairs, the nature of news, news
and feature writing, and headlines and captions. In this chapter, well discuss the organization of
typical newspaper and broadcast staffs and methods of gathering information to use in your various
products.
The first step to gathering information is to know your community and audiences well. One journalist
philosopher said, The role of the press is to keep a community in conversation with itself. If a
community is to function, the media must keep community members talking with one another. They
must understand what interests their community, and then report on what is important. As an MC, you
are the internal media for the Navy.
The key to being an effective reporter serving your community is to know what to look for, where to
look for it, and how to use your time effectively. You should become familiar with your commands
organizational structure, key offices, and helpful points of contact. You will learn much of this
information through networking and through your fellow MCs.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Conduct research in preparation for interviews
2. Coordinate interviews
3. Conduct interviews
ORGANIZING COVERAGE
Beat System
Most command newspapers and broadcast detachments use a beat system through which reporters
make regular visits to a specific source or area to gather news.
One type is the geographical beat, whereby the reporter is assigned to cover a specific area of the
installation or, perhaps, a particular department or division.
The functional beat system is one in which a reporter is responsible for covering any event
pertaining to a functional area. Under this system, if you write about sports, you go to all the games
and related activities.
Categories of Reporters
Civilian newspapers and networks use beat systems, but they also categorize reporters. General
assignment reporters cover a variety of assignments regardless of subject. Special assignment
reporters cover stories for which they are especially adept, such as legal, consumer, science, health,
etc. If your paper or broadcast detachment uses a geographical beat system, you are a general
assignment reporter. If it uses the functional beat system, you are a special assignment reporter.
6-1
Stringers
Most military public affairs offices have a limited number of personnel who cannot be everywhere at
once, thus hindering the mission of telling the Navy story. To help fulfill the mission, you can employ
stringers fellow Sailors, civilians or family members as part-time reporters who write or provide
story information about events in their organizations or communities. Stringers should be trained to
determine news value, prepare copy for submission, and identify the importance of deadlines.
Stringers are compensated for their services through bylines and recognition from the command.
TYPES OF NEWS SOURCES
For an energetic and resourceful writer, avenues for finding news stories are limitless. In reality,
however, you will find that your job in the Navy does not give you the luxury of spending days, or
even hours, tracking down elusive leads that may eventually result in one story.
Your job as an MC is to tell the Navy story. That means you must write positive copy about your
command and its people (the exception: adverse news situations). This is especially true regarding
ship or station newspapers for which you may be writing. Their purpose is to inform, educate, and
entertain their readers and to provide a means of recognizing the achievements of the personnel in
the organizations they represent.
Written Communications
Typically you will find the primary sources of Navy news come from messages, directives, e-mail, and
official correspondence. This can include news of coming events; current fleet exercises and
operations; search, rescue and salvage operations; and countless other occurrences.
Messages Navy-specific administrative messages, or "NAVADMINs," are a great news source.
When a message arrives aboard ship or at a shore activity, they are distributed to various
departments. The PAO normally gets copies of all message traffic that might be of interest in carrying
out PAO duties.
Information contained in a message is seldom detailed enough to be used for writing a
comprehensive story. However, the basic facts are included, and they provide a good starting point
for you to develop a story.
Directives Directives provide another source of Navy news for release to the civilian news media.
You will find that much of the information they contain is intended for use by Navy personnel.
Information about pay and allowances, uniform changes, advancements and promotions, service
members and dependents benefits, training and educational programs, new regulations, morale,
leadership, charity drives, and similar subjects are put out in directive form. When analyzed and
written in news form to play up local interest or some other news peg, information of this type makes
good copy for command newspapers and other publications written primarily for a Navy-oriented
audience.

NOTE
Remember, when you receive news or items of news
value in written form as above, you must localize and
rewrite the information to meet the needs and interest of
your audiences.
6-2
NEWSGATHERING
The most common methods of gathering news are interviews, observation, and research. With each
project, you may employ all three more than once.
Interviewing
Interviews are the foundation of news reporting, and the act of interviewing is an acquired skill that
must be practiced, practiced, and practiced. About 90 percent of everything in a news story is based
on some form of interviewing, either in person, by telephone, or occasionally, by correspondence.
Whenever possible, you should always conduct interviews in person.
Interviews can be either planned or unplanned. Planned interviews are always recommended;
however, you may find yourself in the middle of a news event and you need to conduct an impromptu,
unplanned interview. With planned interviews, you have time to conduct research prior to sitting down
with your subject-matter expert. In an unplanned interview, you must think on your feet. Using the five
Ws and H should get you started with the basic questions.
As an MC in search of information, you must learn who to get information from and how to record
facts. You must learn techniques for handling different kinds of people, how to draw some out, how to
keep others on the topic, and how to evaluate the motives or honesty of others. In short, you must
learn how to get along with people and how to treat them with tact and understanding while still
accomplishing your purpose.

BALTIMORE (June 15, 2012) Royal Navy First Sea Lord Sir Adm. Mark Stanhope, center, and Chief
of Naval Operations (CNO) Adm. Jonathan Greenert are interviewed during a War of 1812 reception
aboard the Royal Fleet Auxiliary ship Argus (A135) in Baltimore's inner harbor. The event was part of
a series of activities scheduled throughout the year to commemorate the bicentennial of the War of
1812. (U.S. Navy photo by Mass Communication Specialist 1st Class Peter D. Lawlor/Released)
Basic Interviewing Techniques
The success of an interview depends on the writers preparation, professionalism and people skills.
You have to be able to ask the right questions in the right way at the right time. Much of it is
something that cannot be taught only learned through experience. But if you can remember the
fundamentals of interviewing, you will continue to develop. Interviewing enables writers to not only get
information, but to add color and dimension to stories while also establishing a network of contacts.
6-3
An interview is a form of two-way communication. Its purpose is to investigate, explore, and reconfirm
facts surrounding a news story, event, or topic. It also offers expert opinions on the facts that are the
framework of the story and adds dimension that would be hard to produce strictly from facts.
We find the experts and ask the questions interested readers would ask in order to write a thorough,
informative story. Although an MC should know a little about the interview topic, it is not necessary to
be a subject-matter expert to conduct a good interview and write a good story.
You must keep in mind that you not only represent yourself, but also your publication, your command,
and the Navy. It is vital that you act as a professional and maintain your military bearing while
interviewing any person regardless of rank or position. As discussed in Chapter 1 of this manual,
being an MC means being squared away proper haircut, shined shoes, and a neatly pressed
uniform with fresh ribbons and other insignia. It also means to be well spoken.
Before the Interview
When possible, take time to prepare for the interview. The first step in the interviewing process is
defining the purpose for the interview. Identify the information you want and who can provide it. This
will form the foundation for your interview preparation. Identifying your subject-matter expert (SME,
pronounced smee) is key. Do not be afraid to interview persons other than the leadership. Sailors
on the deckplates are closer to the information on a daily basis; just be wise and think as a
professional when choosing your SME. Also, prepare to interview more than one person. Do not limit
your news or feature to only one persons point of view.
Once you identify your SME, contact him or her and set up a time and location for the interview. Be
punctual. Picking the location is as important as picking the SME. Be aware of distractions.
Research comes next. Research is nothing more than digging out information from files and
reference works. Research prepares you for the interview, allows you to verify and amplify facts, and
gives depth to your products. Below are possible research avenues:
Military and public libraries (books, consumer magazines, trade magazines, etc.)
Newspaper morgues A morgue contains previously released editions of a publication. Within
morgue files, you can retrieve historical and background information as well as ideas that can be
refreshed for upcoming stories.
Public affairs guidance, Rhumb Lines, fact files, quick responses, messages, etc.
Maritime strategy.
Fellow MCs who have covered similar or previous events.
Biographies Command leadership typically keep their bios up-to-date. Also, these items, as you
may remember, are found in welcome aboard and media kits. Flag officer bios can be found in the
Navy leadership section on Navy.mil.
The Internet Nearly every Navy command has its own official website. These sites provide valuable
information on the makeup of the command, command history, and special events. An advantage to
using the Internet is that the information is updated regularly and remains more current than other
sources. Examples of Navy websites to help in your research:
U.S. Navy
History and Heritage Command
CHINFO
Navy Personnel Command
Naval Education and Training Command
6-4
Non-Resident Training Courses
Defense Media Activity
For a list of all official Navy websites:
Links of interest
Alphabetical listing of Navy websites
When conducting research, you may discover that the best way to gather information about your topic
is through observation. For example, you may be writing a feature story about the base gyms new
cardio room. The best way to record the sights, sounds, and smells of the gym is to go to the gym
and observe for a while. Great writers not only gather information from SMEs, but they also look for
the colorful, the dramatic, or the unusual in any situation. The difference between a good story and a
poor one is often in the skill of the observer. Skilled observers use their eyes, ears, minds, notebooks,
pens, and digital recorders.
In addition to research and observation, you should plan possible questions prior to interviewing your
SME. Start with the 5 Ws and H, and then build from there. Without good questions, getting the
information readers want is nearly impossible.
This is the best time to put together the items you will need for the interview as well. Your interview kit
should include at a minimum a notepad and writing utensils. If you plan to use a recording device,
ensure it is charged and you have spare batteries.
During the Interview
The time has come for you to conduct your interview. You have planned properly and are ready to
gather the information for your story. Well-prepared MCs know planning will be fruitless if the
interview itself falls short, however.
Immediately upon greeting your SME, introduce yourself and thank your SME for taking the time to
speak with you. This will set the tone for the interview.
Before you jump into your planned questions, break the ice with a few questions to help the SME feel
more comfortable going into the interview. Talk about the weather, a recent sporting event, an
upcoming command event, etc. Do not dwell too long on the icebreaker questions, however.
Other important interviewing techniques:
Ask for permission to use your recording device. Even if using a recorder, you still need to take
notes. With experience, you will develop your own shorthand transcription.
Listen effectively during an interview. Your body language and eye contact should convey
interest and make the interviewee feel at ease.
Remember you are in control of the interview. You are there to accomplish a purpose and get
the information you need to report the story. However, leave your interviewees plenty of
latitude to introduce additional ideas.
Ask open-ended questions, questions that keep the SME talking. Avoid questions that will only
elicit a yes-or-no answer, unless you are asking a clarifying question to clear up something.
Do not interrupt your SME. Let him or her speak. However, if your SME veers off on a tangent,
politely steer him or her back on track. If, while on that tangent, your SME brings up something
of interest or news value, make note of it. Then, ask the SME if you can schedule a separate
interview at another time to cover that topic.
Do not be afraid to get away from your prepared questions. Use the sources responses as a
springboard to additional, follow-up, or clarifying questions.
6-5
Ask for clarification. Do not be afraid to ask the interviewee to explain, elaborate, or restate
important points. Be alert for vague words and follow up by asking specific questions.
Confirm facts. Read numbers, names, and facts back to the interviewee to check your notes.
Pay attention to the time. Most people take time out of their busy schedules for interviews. Try
to stay within the allotted time, but do not be a compulsive clock-watcher. Otherwise, the SME
may think you are not interested in what he or she is saying.
After the Interview
Just as a story has a beginning, middle, and end, an interview should have a well-executed closing.
Make an effort to complete the interview on time, but carry on if the interviewee agrees and
seems eager to offer other information. To signal your intent to close, review your notes and
ask if he/she has any final thoughts or anything to add.
Thank the SME once again for taking the time for the interview.
Leave your business card or contact information and request contact information in return. Ask
for the best way to get in touch with him/her for more information or to clear up any facts.
Always leave a foot in the door.
Review and fill in your notes as soon as possible after the interview. Do not wait or youll forget
what was said and wont be able to decipher your shorthand. It also helps to outline your notes
by highlighting good quotes or important points.
You may need to follow-up to fill in holes in your story. Ask your subject to confirm, correct, or
elaborate on information missing or unclear in your notes. Remember, the success of an
interview depends on the MCs preparation, professionalism, and people skills.
As you progress in your career, you will hone your interviewing skills. The ability to ask questions and
listen effectively to the responses will make your stories more informative and interesting, which in
turn will increase your readerships interest in your publication.
Personality Interviews
Personality interviews are those conducted for personality features as discussed in Chapter 5. When
conducting personality interviews you merge the techniques and processes listed above for
interviews and observation. During the personality interview you should make a special effort to
observe the subjects appearance, mannerisms, environment, and character while asking questions
to get into the subjects personality. A good personality feature then blends the results from the
interview with your preliminary research and secondary interviews to bring the individual to life.
Telephone Interviews
As discussed, face-to-face interviews are always best. However, there may be times when that may
not be possible. In this situation, you may have to conduct a telephone interview. Telephone
conversations may range from full-scale interviews to brief queries to verify or amplify information. But
regardless of how often you use this method of newsgathering, you should keep the following points
in mind:
Know what information you want before you dial
Keep your pencil and paper handy
Be polite and businesslike
Make sure you get your facts straight. Confirm any questions you may have before you hang
up, and re-check your information by reading it back to the person who has given it to you
6-6
Ask the other person to repeat figures or spell out names
Avoid three-way conversations among yourself, the person on the telephone, and somebody
else in your office
Although a telephone is a very useful instrument, remember it is not the only, and not necessarily the
best, method of gathering news. It should supplement, but not replace, all other methods.
Prepared-Question Interview
When direct person-to-person or telephone interviews cannot be arranged, some journalists resort to
the prepared-question interview, or the sending of questions to the source via e-mail or through
assisting personnel (aides). This is typically restricted to interviews with senior leadership, such as
the commanding officer. The success of this interview depends on the quantity and quality of
information collected from the written interview and your sense of news value and writing ability. A
word of caution must be given here. DO NOT use this interview technique without permission from
your supervisor or chief. A face-to-face interview is ALWAYS the best method!

TBILISI, Georgia (Nov. 18, 2011) Secretary of the Navy (SECNAV) the Honorable Ray Mabus speaks
to reporters during a news conference in Tbilisi, Georgia. Mabus held a series of meetings with senior
government and military officials in Tbilisi to discuss global maritime partnerships and security
matters. (U.S. Navy photo by Chief Mass Communication Specialist Sam Shavers/Released)
News Conference
Since the 1960s, one of the most popular methods of gathering news is through a news conference.
By presenting news conferences live on television, President John F. Kennedy raised this
newsgathering technique into one of the most potent forces in the public exchange of opinion
between the people and the government. Today, we use news conferences whenever there is a news
event of great importance to the local public or when a visiting prominent official wants to address the
media. News conferences establish public esteem, clear up misunderstandings, erase controversy,
and show the transparency of the Navy by disseminating the same information to the media at the
same time.
If you are assigned to cover a news conference, you should treat it like any other newsgathering
process. Preliminary groundwork to include research of the person giving the news conference is still
6-7
a must. During the news conference, you may only have the opportunity to ask one question, so pay
close attention to all other questions and answers being communicated.
Man-on-the-Street Interview
Man-on-the-street interviews (See Figure 6-1) can be used for print or broadcast. During this type of
interview, you ask several subjects the same question. This method gives your audience a voice on a
particular subject, such as new uniforms, physical fitness, seasonal celebrations, etc. This interview
must be accompanied by a still or video camera to show the people being interviewed.

Figure 6-1 Man-on-the-Street Interview.
Multimedia Interviews
Building upon what you have learned in this chapter, you can take these techniques and apply them
to interviews to be used on your ships SITE system or for an All Hands News Update. These
interviews should be properly and thoroughly planned interviews. The difference in this type of
interview is that you will have a video camera through which you will record the subject and/or
yourself, depending on the setting. Location is extremely important when shooting a multimedia
interview. You may shoot on location or in a studio. However, interviewing in a confined studio space
may make your subject uncomfortable.
Remote Interview
The remote interview is conducted on location at a specific event and can be a multimedia or man-on-
the-street interview. The major disadvantages of a remote interview are the limitations in station
equipment and the lack of control over the environment. Nevertheless, this type of interview gives you
the advantage of timeliness.
Sources for Sportswriting
Writing sports is similar to writing news, and so is gathering information for your sports news, with one
exception your sources. Like news writers, a problem for many beginning sports writers is knowing
6-8
where to gather the needed information. Consider the following sources and note that officials are
omitted from the list because they are seldom, if ever, a source of information:
Morale, Welfare and Recreation (MWR) for the ins and outs of recreation, intramural and youth
programs, including rules, schedules and official scorebooks
Coaches and managers for details about team members, lineups and rosters, game plans,
quotes and information about a contest, especially a contest you did not cover yourself
Team members for accounts of what happened in the game. Be cautious. Many losing teams
tend to blame the loss on the officiating, whether they lost by one point or 30 points
Official scorers for game statistics and scorebooks. If you run a box score of the game, be sure
your stats match those of the official scorer
Fans for color and sideline information, where appropriate. Often used in sidebar stories, fan
reactions can help tell the story of a teams success or misfortune.
Officials are impartial and usually refuse to comment. If an officials call is vital to the story, do not
expect him to explain or justify it unless it is a matter of rule interpretation. Never ask an official about
judgment calls (balls and strikes, close calls on the bases, whether a receiver was in or out of bounds
when he caught a pass, whether a basketball player traveled, etc.). Officials are, however, legitimate
subjects for personality and rules clinic features.
Additional sports coverage guidelines (including help on compiling statistics) can be found in the
latest edition of the AP Stylebook.
SUMMARY
In this chapter, you learned about news staffs and about newsgathering. Newsgathering is the
foundation of reporting and should become part of your everyday life as an MC. But as with anything
else, it takes practice.

6-9
CHAPTER 7
BROADCASTING: AUDIO AND PRODUCTION
Being a Mass Communication (MC) Specialist means being a jack-of-all-trades. Not only will you
need to learn how to write for a newspaper and take photographs, but you'll also need to learn how to
write for radio and television, voice your script, conduct interviews, operate video and audio
equipment, and know how to put it all together on a monitor so your final product can be seen by your
audience. It can seem like a lot to learn, and it is. But, with time, thoughtful diligence, and a desire to
learn, you'll soon be taking advantage of all the communicating benefits broadcasting has to offer. Up
to now, you've worked with the printed word and image, working within the parameters of the "still
image," whether it's written or a photograph. With broadcasting, you now have the element of time,
along with the ability to engage another one of the five senses-- hearing. Using your broadcasting
talents, you can use sight, sound, and time to drive home your message in a highly efficient way.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Identify the basic elements of television and radio medium.
2. Identify the different types and components that make up television news.
3. Identify the techniques used in announcing in terms of preparing and delivering copy, and the
responsibilities of the announcer.
4. Recognize the elements of interviewing.
5. Identify the types of microphones.
6. Recognize the members and roles of a television studio production team.
THE BROADCAST MEDIUM
Chapter 3 of this manual discussed the HOW TO of broadcast writing, but now we will discuss the
WHY. The broadcast medium consists primarily of radio and television, although both of those
mediums can be repurposed for web products or other multi-media presentations. Regardless of the
medium, all good broadcasting begins with telling a story. Your assignment will generally determine
the medium you are producing for, but in some instances the story you are creating can be used for
both your television and radio departments. Even public affairs and combat camera assignments can
still produce broadcast television news packages to run on a variety of AFRTS programming. You
may be the only MC at a particular important event, and that story should get as much exposure as
possible.
THE BASIC ELEMENTS OF TELEVISION
If you work for an AFRTS station, DMA or a shipboard SITE TV station, you might expect to have to
produce television news packages, but in truth you might be asked to do so as part of a public affairs
office, as part of an exercise or even a shipboard platform without its own studio or news program.
Every broadcast story starts with a script, but there are different ways to approach each product.
News Packages
Produced news packages are self-contained, and consist of a beginning (Lead), a middle (Body) and
an end (Close) that can stand alone as a story whether it is introduced by an anchor at an AFRTS
news desk, or if the story is aired as its own product on an All Hands Update without an anchor lead-
in.
Television is a visual medium, so while broadcast writing style remains the same for television and
radio scripts, the intent is different. The technical aspects of collecting and using video will be
discussed later in Chapter 11, but suffice to say that your audience should see images from the story
you are talking about in the script. The video should support your story, not the other way around. Do
not tell people what they can plainly see for themselves; however, tell the story as completely and
concisely as possible using the images and audio from the video to augment your story.
The biggest difference between television and radio scripts is that you do not need to introduce your
interview subjects before the soundbite is used. Television uses lower thirds - the character
generated information that appears on the lower third portion of the screen as the interviewee is
shown to identify the interview subject. Instead, paraphrase an unused portion of your interview into
the script portion that leads into the soundbite so there is a smooth transition.
It is especially important to work on the concise portion of the 6 Cs when writing for an All Hands
Update. The one minute news spot runs on AFN in place of a commercial, and your story including
a 7-13 second soundbite has to fit inside a 42- to 52-second window to have a complete story. See
Figure 7-1 as an example of an All Hands Update script.

Figure 7-1 All Hands Update Script
VOSOT
If you find yourself assigned to an AFN station or DMA, you will have to become adept at this oft-used
news element. A voice over sound on tape, or VOSOT, is edited B-Roll (edited non-interview portions
of video that are laid over the announcers voice) that leads into a soundbite by an interview subject
on the scene. The main difference between the news package and the VOSOT is the news package
is self-contained and completely edited and produced, the VOSOT is read by the anchor during a live
broadcast or live-to-tape recording for local news or DMA products aired on AFN. Another type of
story is the VO, or Voice Over, which is video laid over the anchor reading a story with no interview
subject.
Keep in mind, the best stories have at least, if not more, interview selections to help tell the story.
THE BASIC ELEMENTS OF RADIO
To use radio effectively, you must remember one essential fact and be constantly guided by it: radio
is a medium of sound. While people might hear without trying, they generally do not listen without
being stimulated. Consequently, your job will be to stimulate themto trigger their imagination so
they can picture the event being described; a necessity for an attentive radio audience. To do this,
you must use one or a combination of the following three basic elements: Voice, Sound, and Music.
Voice
The most important element of radio is voice, because it is generally the one used specifically to
reach the listener with the desired information. Voice can either be the anchor or sound from an
interview, known as A-Roll.
For a radio script, the announcer needs to use their words to set the scene. Descriptive phrases can
be used to describe the scene for feature pieces, and since there are no lower thirds to let the
audience know whom the interview subjects are, each one needs to be introduced in the script
leading into the soundbite. Much like lower thirds, the subjects full names and how they fit into the
story (job description, Navy spouse, etc.) needs to be in the description. Example: Lieutenant
Commander John Seaworthy, Commanding Officer of USS Haze Gray, said See Figure 7-2 for a
radio script example.

Figure 7-2 Radio Script
Sound
Sound adds an element of genuineness to your story that can't be obtained from voice or music. The
sound of grinding in a ship-fitting facility, the launch of a jet from an aircraft carrier, or the typing of
keys in a personnel office, all assist in bringing the listener into the story vice simply observing from
the sidelines. Sound at intervals can also keep a listener's attention by snapping them back into the
story. Used as a tie between narration and A-Roll, or "sound bites," sound is the cement that holds a
story together.
Music
Music has a great suggestive power because it plays on human emotion and colors scenes. It
touches the heart and mind and sets a desired mood.
When properly used, these elements should accomplish the following three distinct purposes:
Attract immediate interest
Maintain interest through a particular presentation
Communicate the message effectively
DELIVERY
Of the five senses, listeners use only one with a radio storytheir hearing. Your product must appeal
to their listening sense. You must use sound to illustrate your entire story to give your listener a
mental image of what's happening.
The delivery is also important in television. In a news package, the delivery brings the audience into
the story and not only sets the tone of the story, but more importantly, the pacing to which the editor
adds the appropriate cuts and B-Roll, which is the natural sound captured on the video.
Variety
The announcer should craft a voice that conforms to the spirit and intent of the message. Regardless
of personal feelings, the announcer's job is to communicate the message in the most effective way
possible to inform and possibly call the audience to action. The human voice is able to reflect all
conceivable traces of mood and meaning. Subtle natural changes in vocal pitch, timing, quality, and
force make this possible. If the announcer is in a bad mood, the voice will indicate it. Remember to
muster the effort to voice with conviction regardless of how you feel about the project or what kind of
day you're having.
Speech without thoughtful distinction tells only a shade of the full mood and meaning and may
express monotony or give inaccurate information to the listener. The announcer should feel the mood
and understand word meaning if he is to show sincerity in his voice.
Articulation
In conversation, we naturally drop sounds and slur words. The reason for working on articulation is to
make the sounds of words clear, so that the announcer may be understood. Clean articulation is the
most difficult aspect of voice and diction. Its intent is not to eliminate accents and rationalities, but to
enable the announcer to communicate with everyone.
The following are a few drills and methods for dealing with some common articulation problems.
Mushy Sounds If your speech sounds sloppy, chances are you are not opening your mouth
enough. Have another person watch you read or use a mirror. Notice if your lower jaw moves. If it
does not, this could be the cause of the problem. Announcers who tuck their chin into their chest to
make their voice deeper are creating articulation problems. Read your copy overemphasizing the lip,
tongue, and chin movement required to make each sound, then reread the copy normally. Keep your
script at eye level and keep it at eye level while reading so you cannot tuck in your chin.
The same theory applies to the announcer who does not move his lips. Read the copy,
overemphasizing each lip movement, and then read your copy normally again.
Another solution for mushy sounds is the pencil method. Place a pencil sideways to the back of your
mouth and firmly between your teeth. Take your script and slowly read it through, articulating all the
words. Then reread your script normally again. This will help correct any mushy sounds.
Dropping Sounds The ends and the middle sounds of words are commonly eliminated in speech.
You should carefully pronounce each syllable of each word, overstating each sound. Then, say the
word normally.
Examples: stand-ing/standing (not standin)
work-ing/working (not workin)
help-d/helped (not help)
mix-ed/mixed (not mix)
spa-ed/sped (not spe-d)
tah-t/tot (not tab)
nah-t/not (not nod)
mos-t/most (not mos)
de-vel-op-ment/development (not development)
gov-ern-ment/government (not govment or govenment)
syl-a-ble/syllable (not sylble)
New England R Announcers from the northern United States area sometimes change the R
sound in car to an ah sound (cah). The ah sound is easier to say since it does not involve moving
the lips or the tongue. Read several words with Rs in them, being careful to make the AH UR
sound. Try the following example:
Example: Parker parked the car outside the card store.
Southern Vowel Distortions Announcers from the southern United States might have a southern
drawl that makes speech difficult to understand. They may hold the vowel (a, e, i, o, u) sound too long
that it slurs into the next sound. For example, Im becomes Ahhhm. To correct this, the sound
should be clipped and made shorter. Run through the following examples, carefully articulating each
sound.
Examples: just (not jist)
get (not git)
for (not fer: replace the word on your copy with the word four or the number 4)
to (not ta: replace the word on your copy with the word two)
style (not stahl)
Example: Im going to get just two styles of paper instead of getting the four styles you asked for.
The S Sound The S sound is the most difficult sound to correct. The general rule is: do not
mess with an S. Take the microphone and place it out of the S air zone, so when you talk, you are
talking across the microphone instead of directly into it.
Rate and Transitions
Changes in the tempo (rate/speed) and the use of pauses (transitions) while speaking are essential to
the listeners understanding. Normal speech rate varies from 80 to 175 words per minute.
A steady rate of speed will produce monotony. In general, changes of rate help reflect the weight of
the issue. Important information is slowed; less important topics may be increased in speed.
Oral punctuation marks written into broadcast copy provide the announcer with an opportunity to
pause.
/ (The single slash indicates the need to pause and take a short breath). This is usually a short
pause between words.
// (The double slash indicates a full stop accompanied by a deep breath). This usually occurs
at the end of a sentence.
/ / / (The triple slash means you are to pause / for emphasis, but do not breathe.) This pause is
usually used to emphasize words or for difficult names or quotes in the copy.
The oral pause also gives the announcer time to restore his breath supply naturally.
Authority
Announcers, particularly news people, require authority in their voices. It is that special something
that tells the listener, What I have to say is important. Newscasters either have it (authority) or they
do not there is no substitute. In some cases, because of a naturally higher pitch, women
newscasters may suffer from authority problems more than men, but it is not a problem unique to
women. The following techniques may help if you are lacking authority in your voice:
Take Charge You must have a thorough understanding of your copy. It is up to the newscaster to
tell the audience what it needs to know. The announcer must adopt an attitude of, This is important
listen to me!
Add Volume Intensifying vocal tone to establish a sense of authority may be effective. Try this by
standing about 10 feet from a wall. Deliver your copy loud enough so that your voice hits the wall and
is reflected back. You do not have to yell, but you should be loud enough to be heard clearly 10 feet
away. This is called vocal projection.
Monitor your Volume Have another person stand across the room from you as you read the copy.
Every time your volume drops, have that person tell you to speak louder.
Stumbling
All newscasters occasionally stumble over a word, and they should not worry about it as long as it is
only occasional. When an announcer experiences a lot of stumbles, the cause is usually the brain
getting ahead of the mouth.
Here are a few solutions:
Concentrate on what you are reading Your mind should be on your copy and nothing else. Avoid
distractions.
Use the index card technique. If you are a speed-reader or read unusually fast, place a 5- by 7-inch
index card on the line you are reading. As you come to the end of that line, move the card to the next
line. This technique will slow you down enough so you do not over read, and it will help you focus
your attention on the line you are reading.
Use parentheses to mark any phrase that gives you trouble Do not mark individual words only
mark the phrase.
Pre-read your copy out loud at least twice for familiarization If your copy surprises you while you
are reading it on the air, you are not ready to read. You should be able to tell, in rough form, what the
stories are about without looking at the copy. See Figure 7-3 for a guide of how to write numbers for
broadcast to ensure you know how to write so the announcer can avoid stumbling.

Figure 7-3 How to write numbers for broadcast.
Avoid backtracking to correct a stumble Keep going and do not call attention to the mistake. Some
people worry so much when they make a mistake that they make additional mistakes. Once a
mistake is made, FORGET IT. Concentrate on what is coming, not what is gone. Your audience does
not expect perfection. One exception to this rule is if the stumble changes a fact in a story. If this
happens, take a second or two to regroup and then correct the error. You also can correct the error
after a spot break, if time allows.
Speedy Delivery
Speaking too fast is a common problem for beginning announcers. As the announcer, you can correct
this problem by understanding that not everyone is able to think as fast as you can talk. If the listener
cannot understand you because you are speaking too fast, then you are wasting the listeners and
your own time.
The following are a few simple tricks that will help you slow your delivery:
Write the words SLOW DOWN all over the margins of your copy in a bright-colored ink.
o This will remind you throughout the newscast to keep your speed under control.
Use the three-step reading system. Read the copy through once, as fast as possible. Then
read it as slowly as possible, over-articulating and reading one word at a time. Finally, read the
copy at a pace between the two previous speeds. During the third reading, make sure you are
in the presence of someone who can tell you to slow down when you start to pick up speed.
Follow the five-minute rule. The average rate of delivery is 15 lines per minute. The actual
rate should be somewhere between 14 to16 lines per minute. Limit yourself to 60 lines of copy
for a five-minute newscast. Make sure you finish at exactly the five-minute mark. The only way
to reach the time mark and not have dead air is to slow down.
Use the eraser or bottle cork technique. Place a medium-sized art eraser or cork from a bottle
between your front teeth. Try to read the copy while holding the eraser firmly in place by biting
down. You must articulate and be able to be understood while you are reading. It is almost
impossible to talk fast and still be understood while you are holding the eraser.
Mark your copy for breathing points. Breathe wherever you see a mark.
Live Versus Recorded
Live is live, you live with what happens and move on, whether good or bad. If you are recording for a
news package that is not being read live, record the entire piece until you are satisfied with the
outcome, but challenge yourself to get it right the first time. This will help you transition to the anchor
desk or radio room. Once you think you have it down and are satisfied, do one more take just in case.
Surprisingly, without the pressure of getting it right, it usually ends up as the best take.
ANNOUNCER RESPONSIBILITIES
As you can tell, announcing is hard work. The listening audience may associate the word glamorous
with the broadcast industry, but the fact is, radio (like television) is an exacting business and
announcing emphasizes professionalism.
The qualities usually considered necessary in a professional announcer are a good voice, little or no
regional accent, clear diction and accurate pronunciation. Quite often, your voice affects the
audiences opinions about programs.
A resonant voice, the best diction, and even the best pronunciation will not help the announcer who
mechanically reads lines and fails to project a feeling of sincerity. In effect, the announcer must have
a good personality and make his voice reflect such.
Adaptability
Your personality is reflected in your voice. If you are not genuine, the listener will take note quickly.
Changes throughout the program day make it essential that an announcer be capable of changing his
delivery to fit the content and mood of the particular program.
No matter the type of program or its theme, most listeners enjoy hearing a voice that offers
friendliness, naturalness, sincerity, integrity, and vitality. Announcers, of course, usually seek to work
in an area where they perform best. Some announcers are best at news, some at country or urban
music, some at rock n roll, and so on. In short, an announcer must be like a chameleon.
You must be able to conform to the many variations of style the average broadcast day will demand
of you. You should set high standards for voice control, diction, and pronunciation; then strive
constantly to live up to those standards. This is a never-ending, ever-learning process. However, the
satisfaction you will get from being an effective announcer is well worth the effort.
INTERVIEWING TIPSRADIO AND TELEVISION
As with any skill, interviewing needs practice. The following drills have proved useful:
Practice the art of listening.
Do some practice interviews using only a notepad and pencil. After the interview is finished,
practice writing the story from only the notes you took during the interview. This drill lessens
the chance of becoming dependent on an electronic recording device and will greatly speed
your production time.
Record your interviews on video with proper microphone usage. In todays Navy, there are
more outlets and ways to use your story than just one format. Do this regardless of producing
a story for radio, television or even print. The audio can be used for radio, while the same
soundbites can be repurposed for television. Many civilian news agencies post expanded
portions of their interviews for news stories on their web pages to maximize effectiveness and
give the reader something extra that doesnt fit into their paper, or as a hook to take the print
reader to their web page.
Study the experts who make their living on network news. Observe where they cut sound bites
and how they treated the interviewee (at least before the hard-to-answer questions near the
end of the interviews).
Stay focused on remaining quiet during the interview to avoid unnecessary yups and ohs
and notice any body language that could affect the responses from the interviewee.
Body Language Watch what you do with the microphone. If you have to use a stick mic instead of
a wireless or a clip-on, do not position yourself so you look as if you are jabbing the poor interviewee
in the face. Also remember that you communicate with your face just as much as you do with your
voice. Your interview subject will often mirror your outward appearance. If you look bored or lack
energy, your subject will too. If you have positive energy and seem relaxed, that may translate to your
interviewee, but not always. If you get an interview subject that sounds bored, nervous or just plain
bad, go get another one. This is YOUR story.
Television News Interviews
The purpose of the television interview is primarily two-fold. The interviewer should be concerned with
getting better understanding of the event he is covering, and to be able to glean a seven- to 15-
second soundbite to be used in the story. Unless you are doing a long-format news piece, which is
uncommon in todays Navy, the interviewer doesnt need to be seen unless it is a man-on-the-street
interview that involves both the interviewer and the interview subject in the shot.
The technical fundamentals of composing an interview are covered in Chapter 11. How to place the
microphone and gain proper audio are covered later in this chapter, so we will focus on the content of
the interview itself.
When you are in the field documenting an event, your windows for getting an interview subject are
quite narrow indeed. Usually you will have to arrive on the scene to get some sound before the event
as people are preparing, or schedule some impromptu interviews immediately after the event. You
want to try and do your interviews on location in television as much as possible to add credibility to
your story. For example: if you are doing a story involving a ship in its port, do the interview on the
pier; if it involves weapons training, do it on the range. Always remember to keep safety in mind
dealing with ORM issues. Record your weapons training interview when no one is shooting, or if its a
flight deck story, after flight operations are completed.
Try to get a variety of interviews as well, even if you are only going to use one soundbite. If you get a
senior-level interview, like the CO, XO or CMC, you will have gained the command view. A mid-level
interview, an LPO, CPO or junior officer, will often give you a wide amount of technical knowledge on
the event or subject. A junior enlisted interview will more than likely give you the best first-
impression viewpoint and is often more plainly spoken to connect with your audience.
Unless you are doing a highly-technical story, the following three basic questions will most-likely
garner all the information you will need for background and soundbites:
Can you tell me whats going on here / at this event?
What does this mean for the Navy?
What does this mean to you?
These questions have been asked by Navy MC professionals to every rank, from the Chief of Naval
Operations to a Seaman Recruit working in Deck Department to great results. As in radio, its
important to listen to the answers, because oftentimes, the subjects response will lead to a follow-on
question, and you should always have the subject expand on the meaning of Navy acronyms (i.e.
SRB in the Navy is Selected Reenlistment Bonus, while in the Marine Corps it means Service Record
Book) if for no other purpose than the interviewer knows what the acronym means when he goes to
write the script.
Radio Interviews
Radio interviews can easily be digitally recorded and edited in the studio using a digital audio
recorder or reproduced and edited using a computer software program, depending upon what is
available. In either case, the digital sound quality will remain intact, and the completed story will be
able to be called upon in a manner of seconds.
The intimacy of radio allows you to use the telephone as a primary means of obtaining news and
getting people to talk freely about an event. As a courtesy, you should always ask the person if they
mind being recorded for possible use in your newscast before you start the interview. If they decline,
honor their request. If they agree to be recorded, take every effort to make them sound good on the
air. Edit out stumbles, pauses, and unnecessary remarks in favor of the meat needed for the story.
The better you make your news sources sound on the radio, the more eager they will be the next time
you need their input for a news story.
Radio studio programs with the base commanding officer or other VIPs are another excellent source
of local news. Topics and comments aired during the show could be used as individual news pegs in
an updated or more in-depth story on your radio newscast. These types of programs also introduce
you to the people who make things happen on the base and could give you an opportunity to use
them as radio news stringers.
Sound bites from these shows can be used in many different ways to inform your listening audience.
They can be aired during live shows as news updates, placed on your radio automation system as
command information spots, or edited down to a mini-rebroadcast of the interview show. Radio is
unique in that your creativity is its only limit.
MICROPHONE USAGE
Radio
Setting up your studio microphones before airtime is a relatively simple task. Sit down at the console
in the same position you will use when producing or working on air. Place the microphone four to six
inches from your mouth at a 45-degree angle. It is possible to set a microphone volume level by
placing the output select in the audition mode and setting the level on the volume unit (VU) meter.
Once you do this, place the output select back into the program mode. Repeat this procedure for the
newscasters microphone.
Television
There is one golden rule concerning the use of microphones in broadcasting: place the microphone
where you will get good audio from the subject you are shooting. That seems obvious, but the
experienced news director knows how often the Electronic News Gathering, or ENG, team will come
back with muffled sound. Most often the cause of this is the sound coming from a camera-mounted
microphone when a lavaliere microphone clearly should have been used. Or perhaps the lavaliere
microphone was hidden so well the speakers voice could not penetrate the layers of clothing.
Monitor The Audio
The most important aspect to assure quality audio is to actually monitor it while recording. Wearing
headphones attached to the audio source sounds like a no-brainer, but it is often overlooked. There
are many instances where wearing headphones while recording is not practical or safe, while on a
flight deck, around heavy machinery or in a combat zone for example, but that doesnt mean you
cant check your audio while setting up your camera ahead of time. The broadcast standard for audio
output in the digital age is -12db. On audio monitors, that area is shown graphically between the
green and the yellow, with your loudest audio peeking into the yellow (around -6db for an explosion or
loud sound). By using headphones, you can make sure wireless microphones or lavalieres arent
getting any interference after placing the microphone.
Placing the Microphone
The microphone should be kept from becoming too great a part of the video image in your stories. For
the vast majority of ENG shoots, a lavaliere microphone can be clipped on the reporter or the
interviewee in such a way as to not distract the viewers attention.
Usually interviewees are more than willing to slip the lavaliere up the front of their shirts and clip it on
the neckline. When this is not possible, simply bring the microphone around to the front of the subject
from their backside and clip it to a fold in the subjects clothes.
When interviewing people in dress uniforms, or for spot news on-the-go, it can be awkward or time-
consuming to have the subject run the microphone up their shirt. If the subject has a collar, simply
place the microphone on the lapel, tie, or button-up portion of the shirt, and run the wire under the
collar and down the subjects back.
You might have to make a wrinkle to create a fold, such as in the case of someone wearing a crew
neck T-shirt, but this is preferable to using the audio from a camera microphone.
Camera-mounted microphones should be used for natural sound and not for picking up voices that
will be used as sound bites. Interviewers should also be careful not to let clothing or chins slap
against the microphone during the shoot. This will sound like thunder and ruin recording efforts.
An easy way to cut out wind noise if your foam wind screen is missing, is to place it under one layer
of clothing on the buttons, or turn the subject so that his back is to the wind. You will hear the wind
noise by simply monitoring your audio while recording.
MOBILE MICROPHONES
During your tour as a television broadcaster, you will use the following four basic types of mobile
microphones:
Boom
Hand-held
Lavaliere
Wireless
Boom
The most flexible mobile microphone is one attached to a microphone boom. A boom, in its simplest
form, is a hand-held pole to which a unidirectional microphone is attached. It permits quick and
smooth movement of the microphone from spot to spot anywhere on the set. Most booms have a
telescoping feature that allows the operator to extend or retract the microphone. Some booms have
controls at the end so the operator can rotate the microphone for directional sound pickup. Another
advantage of the boom is its mobility on the set. The boom operator can move the entire boom
assembly from location to location and follow sound sources without an interruption to sound pickup.
The giraffe boom is suited perfectly for this task.
As a television boom operator, your primary responsibility is to keep the microphone as close to the
sound source as possible without getting the microphone or its shadow in the picture. This requires
coordination and anticipation. You must keep the microphone in front of the sound source; listen to
the directors signals; watch camera movements; be aware of what lenses are in use; avoid
undesirable boom shadows; and anticipate the talents movementall at the same time.
Hand-held
The hand-held microphone is used for many television productions, especially ENG shoots. A hand-
held microphone is seen on camera, and therefore, can be held very close to the sound source. It is
especially useful amidst noisy surroundings, such as the flight line or the machine shop aboard ship.
In such cases, good audio pickup is still achieved by holding a unidirectional microphone very close
to whoever is speaking. A hand-held microphone is valuable in audience participation programs, such
as Navy Relief and Combined Federal Campaign telethons.
Lavaliere
During reporter standups, newscasts, interviews, and similar production applications, the lavaliere
microphone is more appropriate than a hand-held microphone. Lavaliere microphones are small and
unobtrusive. They are normally taped or clipped to an article of clothing on the talents chest and are
ideal when microphone concealment, individual mobility, or the free use of hands is required.
Although concealment is an attractive option of the lavaliere microphone, you should not place it
entirely under clothing.
Clothing acts as a filter and any sound that penetrates the filter will be muffled when reproduced.
Clothing rubbing against the microphone also can create crackling noises. Some lavaliere
microphones are termed dual redundancy, because there are actually two lavalieres hooked to the
same clip. Only one microphone is live, but the other serves as a backup in case the primary
microphone fails. For this reason, you should not connect both microphones to the same audio slider
in the audio control room.
Wireless
The wireless microphone, as its name implies, works without cables. It is a standard lavaliere
microphone connected to a battery-powered radio transmitter. The talent may clip the transmitter to
his belt or conceal it under an article of clothing. A small antenna connected to the transmitter sends
the audio signal on an FM frequency to the receiver in the audio control room. The signal is then fed
to the audio switcher, who controls the input like any other sound source.
Care should be taken when using wireless microphones because they may deliver unwanted audio
from radio frequencies (RFs) in the area.
Anytime you use a wireless microphone, it needs to be monitored at least before use. If there is any
RF interference, most wireless microphones can have the frequency adjusted. Take special care that
most transmitter / receiver sets dont synchronize automatically, and both the transmitter and receiver
have to be adjusted to the same frequency. It is often a good idea to choose a higher frequency to
stay clear of normal RF interference.
STATIONARY MICROPHONES
In addition to the mobile microphone group, you will become familiar with the following four stationary
microphones:
Desk
Stand
Hanging
Hidden
Desk
Desk microphones are widely used at public hearings, panel discussions, and other productions
where the talent is working from behind a desk or lectern. Any microphone can be used as a desk
microphone, as long as it is attached to a suitable stand. Since the talent is heard and seen in
television, the placement of the desk microphone is influenced by the camera. If the microphone is
placed directly in front of the talent, it may obstruct the face. Further, sound pickup will be influenced
when the talent turns his head. A good starting point for placing the desk microphone is about one
and one-half feet from the talent and pointed at the collarbone. If the talents head turns to look at the
television monitor or another talent, try to locate the microphone somewhat to that side.
The actual number of desk microphones will depend on the number of individuals speaking at the
same time, microphone placement, and the acoustic pattern of the microphone. The minimal number
of microphones needed should be used, but it's always good to have extra microphone available, just
in case. Most importantly, test the audio prior to the event to ensure it meets requirements, and
monitor the audio during the event so that corrective action can be taken if needed before it's too late.
You should conceal the cables of desk microphones. If a particular desk or table is used almost
exclusively with a desk microphone, you can drill a hole into its top and drop the cable to the floor.
Stand
Stand microphones are used when the sound source is immobile and the microphone may be seen
on camera. For instance, you can use several stand microphones to pick up the sound of a vocal or
instrumental group. You may also use a stand microphone for the master of ceremonies.
The placement of stand microphones is determined by sound quality, rather than by picture factors.
However, stand microphones should be placed so they do not impede camera movement or picture
quality.
Hanging
Hanging microphones are often used when a boom microphone is impractical because of lack of
space or when a large set will not permit rapid boom movement. It is simply a microphone hung from
the ceiling or overhead by its cable, placing it out of normal camera range.
The sound source should be fairly stationary when a single hanging microphone is used. A hanging
microphone can be used for panel discussions and other types of productions where the talent
remains immobile at the time of sound pickup. Several microphones located about the set can
accommodate moving talents, but the talents must position themselves near the microphone before
speaking. Most hanging microphones do not produce good audio. If placed too close to walls or
overheads, an echo or distorted audio is likely to occur.
Hidden
The sound quality of hidden microphones is mediocre at best, and frequently the object hiding them
distorts the sound. For this reason, hidden microphones should be used sparingly. One type of
hidden microphone is called a contact microphone because it is in direct contact with the object
producing the desired sound effect. An example is a microphone attached to a quick-acting watertight
door to pick up the sound of the hand wheel and dogs.
THE TELEVISION STUDIO
A television studio in its most basic form is just the location you will use to produce your television
program. The studio amenities and setup will vary greatly between broadcast detachments and ships
but typically includes the studio floor and set, along with production control and master control rooms.

070424-N-0890S-013 PACIFIC OCEAN (April 24, 2007) Mass Communication Specialist 3rd
Class Hermes Crespo, left, and Mass Communication Specialist 3rd Class Gretchen Roth
record the ship's news program "Nimitz Presents" in the TV studio aboard the nuclear-
powered aircraft carrier USS Nimitz (CVN 68). Nimitz Carrier Strike Group (CSG) is deployed
supporting operations in the U.S. Central Command area of responsibility. (U.S. Navy photo
by Mass Communication Specialist Seaman Apprentice David L. Smart/Released)
Production Team
A television production relies on the expertise of several individuals who do myriad jobs. These jobs
are interdependent and must be coordinated to perfection.
As a member of a television studio production team, you will be called upon to function in any one of
the following positions:
Talent
Camera operator
Floor manager
Audio switcher
Technical director
Director
Talent
The television studio production centers around a performer of some sort, whether it be the
commanding officer (CO) explaining a change in base policy on captains call or a colleague
delivering the evening news. In television parlance, the performer is known as the talent. An array of
support people assist the talent, including those who handle copy, wardrobe, and makeup. The talent
receives instructions from the director through the floor manager.
Camera Operator
The camera operator is the deck plate MC of any live television production. The camera operator is
responsible for composition, focus, camera movements, and all other aspects of the video from their
camera, according to instructions from the director. The camera operator must be competent in
operating all of the controls of the camera, understanding all floor director signals and director
instructions, be aware of what camera is LIVE at any given time to avoid unintentional movement,
and smooth in all camera actions including zooming, camera movements, rack focus, etc. The
camera operator must be able to operate under pressure and be competent enough to perform the
right action at the correct time.
Floor Manager
The floor manager stays in the television studio during a production. Through a headset system, he is
in direct, two-way communication with the director in the control room. Normally, the talent is not able
to use a headset and cannot receive instructions directly from the director. It is the prime
responsibility of the floor manager to act as a liaison between the talent and the director.
Since it is not practical for the floor manager to instruct the talent orally during a production, the floor
manager stands or kneels next to the camera the talent should speak to and uses a system of hand
signals to relay the directors instructions. Although any hand signal system understood by both the
floor manager and the talent will work, we recommend using the universally accepted system shown
here:

Figure 7-4 System of Hand Signals.
The basic hand signals that both the floor manager and talent must understand are listed in the
following text.
Stand By. For the hand signal to stand by, the floor manager raises his hand and arm at the
beginning of the show or following a spot break.
Cue. For the hand signal to start talking or begin action, the floor manager raises his hand
and points to the talent.
Cut. For the hand signal to cease talking or stop action, the floor manager draws his hand
across his throat in a slashing motion.
Stretch. For the hand signal to stretch it or slow down, the floor manager pulls his hands
apart as if stretching a rubber band. Longer amounts of time are indicated when the floor
manager places his hands farther apart at the end of the stretching motion; shorter time
amounts are indicated when the floor manager places his hands closer together.
Speed Up. For the hand signal to talk faster, the floor manager rotates his arm and hand
clockwise in a circle above his head. The speed of the rotations are related to the urgency of
time.
Ok. For the hand signal that everything is fine, the floor manager makes a circle with his
thumb and forefinger.
30 Seconds To Go. For the hand signal that there are 30 seconds remaining in the
show/segment, the floor manager forms the letter T with both hands.
15 Seconds To Go/Wrap It Up. For the hand signal that there are 15 seconds remaining in the
show/segment and the talent should wrap up what he is doing, the floor manager creates a
grabbing motion with his hand that results in a fist.
Speak More Softly. For the hand signal to speak more softly, the floor manager raises the
palm of his hand to his mouth.
Speak Up. For the hand signal to speak up, the floor manager cups his ear with his hand.
Speak Or Look At This Camera. For the hand signal to speak or look at this camera, the floor
manager points to the on-air camera with his hand. A waving motion from one camera to
another alerts the talent that the director is switching the shot to another on-air camera.
Be precise and deliberate when you deliver hand signals. Do not wave your arms in the air frantically
this will only confuse and intimidate the talent.
During a television production, the studio floor is usually a maze of lighting and camera cables that
can hinder the movement of the cameras and also be a safety hazard. The floor manager must make
sure these cables are stored or positioned safely. Furthermore, the camera operator and director
should be consulted about how much camera movement is expected.
Audio Switcher
The audio switcher is responsible for the smooth operation of the television audio mixing console. He
must be able to respond quickly and correctly to the commands of the director. The television audio
mixing console is usually located in a separate booth, remote from the television control room. The
audio switcher stays in the booth from the time immediately before the production when the
necessary sound level checks are made, to the completion of the program. The console itself has all
the sound inputs fed into it, including microphones from the studio floor, cart machines, CD players,
and so forth. The audio switcher has absolute control over these inputs and must balance them so
they are at a compatible level.
Once all of the inputs are balanced, they can be fed from the console to a receiver. The output must
be at a level that is acceptable to the receiver and must fade-in or fade-out at the command of the
director. With practice, you will be able to mix and control sound smoothly and correctly.

120825-N-BX824-035 PHILIPPINE SEA (Aug. 25, 2012) Mass Communication Specialist 3rd
Class Erin Devenberg, from Tehachapi, Calif., inspects sound levels in the television network
control room during a live broadcast aboard the aircraft carrier USS George Washington (CVN
73). George Washington's mass communication specialists run the ship's television network,
as well as record training programs and live broadcasts for the ship's crew. (U.S. Navy photo
by Mass Communication Specialist Seaman Ricardo R. Guzman/Released)
Technical director
Although the camera operator frames the shot and the director calls for it, the technical director is
ultimately accountable for the picture that is recorded or broadcast. The technical director is
responsible for the smooth operation of the video-mixing console and the special effects bank and
directly controls what the audience sees. A mistake on his part cannot be covered up by the director.
The technical director sits at the video-mixing console throughout the production and is completely
responsible for its smooth operation. He must be able to operate the console efficiently and respond
quickly and correctly to the commands of the director. The technical director can only achieve such
efficiency by having a thorough knowledge of the console equipment and by constantly practicing
mixing techniques. In addition, the technical director must know how to apply the various special
effects available and operate them smoothly.
During a studio production, the director gives commands to the camera operators and the audio and
technical directors. These commands are covered in the following text.
Camera Commands
The director issues commands to the camera operators more than any other production team
member to accomplish the following tasks:
Setup shotsrefine the framing and composition of a shot.
Direct the movement of a camera while the shot is on the air.
When you serve as a director, you should remember the following guidelines:
1. Give a ready or stand by cue whenever possible Doing so tells the camera operator to
hold a particular shot and that airing is eminent. Additionally, it is good practice to give a
ready command just before a camera movement. For instance, if the talent is seated and is
scheduled to get up and move to the left, the camera operator would say, Camera 3, ready to
pan right with the talent.
2. Identify each camera by number Although each camera operator will most likely be known
by name, camera commands should be issued using the appropriate camera number.
3. Begin a command with the camera number The command should not be, Ready to pan
right with the talent, Camera 3.
4. Be specific when issuing commands For example, the command Camera 1, zoom out is
too vague for production work. Instead, the command should be, Camera 1, zoom out for a
bust shot.
Switcher Commands
The director should follow the same basic guidelines for camera commands when issuing commands
to the video and audio switchers. In some situations, the director will give switcher commands while
actually performing the switching functions. This is done primarily to alert team members of video and
audio transitions.
Try to economize your words when you issue switcher commands. For instance, instead of saying,
Ready to cut to Camera 2Cut to Camera 2, say Ready to take 2...Take 2. Using fewer words
takes less time and cuts down on the possibility of confusing team members.
In addition, you should give commands to the technical director last. This is because the technical
director is normally positioned close to the director and needs less time to respond to a command
than camera operators or floor managers. Give your commands in this order:
1. Audio switcher
2. Talent
3. Technical director
Character Generator
When there is a lot of printed information to air, such as sports scores or closing credits, a character
generator (CG) should be used. The CG is a computer graphics system widely used in closed circuit
and broadcast television. It creates letters and numbers in a variety of sizes and fonts.
The type and how to use it may vary from detachment to ship and the local standard operating
procedure or on-the-job-training (OJT) may be required.
Teleprompter
A teleprompter is a display device that prompts the person speaking with electronic visual text. Using
a teleprompter can be compared to the practice of using cue cards. The screen is in front of and
usually below the camera lens and words on the screen are reflected to the presenter via a sheet of
clear glass or a beam splitter or mirror effect.
Using a teleprompter allows the presenter to maintain eye contact and look directly into the lens
without looking down or away from the camera. Cue cards, on the other hand, are always placed
away from the lens axis, making the speaker look at a point beside the camera, which leaves an
impression of distraction.
Some teleprompters use a small video camera that shoots the script and sends that to the prompter
screen. Electronic prompters are the most versatile, as you can quickly change the copy by just
retyping with the computer keyboard or importing it from a digital file. Again, this may vary depending
on your location and OJT may also be required.
SUMMARY
As an MC, you will find yourself worldwide assignable to Defense Media Activity broadcast
detachments or find yourself doing broadcast work on an aircraft carrier. Knowing proper techniques
will ensure success in a wide variety of jobs in either radio or television.
CHAPTER 8
BROADCASTING: VIDEOGRAPHY
In todays visual society, video has become one the most important tools in the PA/VI communitys toolbox. MCs are
expected to do a lot more than shoot simple home videos. You have the important responsibility of visually telling the
story of each Soldier, Sailor, Airman and Marine in the fleet or field, and you must be able to tell that story in a way
these men and women deserve. This is not a task you should take lightly.
Much like other areas of the MC rating, technology has made it simple to capture moving images in
the form of video. Unlike still images that are trying to capture a moment in the form of an image,
video captures a series of moments in the form of moving images, usually 24 to 30 images per
second. While capturing video can be quickly learned, video techniques must be mastered before you
can become an accomplished videographer. The correct processing of video from the moment you hit
record until exporting a finished product is a very technical process to get the correct product.
Mastery of the fundamentals is the foundation upon which you will build your professional skills as an
MC. The important story you are trying to tell, and the customer you are trying to support, depends
upon this knowledge, and while the technology may change, knowing your equipment and the basics
of good shooting and editing remain the same. This chapter will familiarize you with the basics of a
video camera, the types you will use to do your job, and the practice of using them.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Demonstrate center of interest
2. Demonstrate image placement
3. Establish visual perspective (aerial and linear)
4. Demonstrate pacing and timing
5. Identify principles of the 180-degree rule (action axis)
6. Achieve overlapping action
7. Record cut-ins and cutaways
8. Achieve changes in screen direction
CAMERA OPERATIONS
In order to shoot the best video, under any conditions, you must have an understanding of how to use the equipment
you are given. Today, videography is characterized by a rapid growth in the development of technology and ideas. Each
year, millions of videos are captured, and an astonishing array of new cameras and imaging systems enter the market.
One of the great attractions of the video field is the ease with which basic skills can be learned.
Most professional cameras use an optical prism block directly behind the lens. This prism filters the image into the three
primary colorsred, green, and blueand directs each color into a solid state (silicon resin) imaging device to translate
the optical image into a video signal. These devices, either a charge-coupled device (CCD) or active pixel sensor
(complementary metal oxide silicon (CMOS) image sensor), are mounted to the face of the prism. Some high-end
consumer cameras also do this, which produces a higher-resolution image with better color fidelity than is normally
possible with just a single-video pickup.
Studio Cameras
The studio camera is the backbone of the television industry. It is mounted on a dolly pedestal so the camera operator
may wheel it to different locations with relative ease during shot changes.
Television is the process of converting reflected light rays from a subject or scene into electrical impulses and
reproducing these impulses at a distant receiver. Television technicians monitor and adjust the video levels of the studio
camera with the camera control unit (CCU), usually located in the control room. The CCU consists of a waveform
monitor (an oscilloscope that displays a video signal graphically), television monitor and shading control.
Studio cameras are expensive, ranging in price from less than $5,000 to more than $100,000. However, the more
expensive cameras deliver high-quality images in a variety of production conditions. Initial models used analog
technology, but are now obsolete, replaced by digital models. Studio cameras are light and small enough to be taken off
the pedestal and the lens changed to a smaller size to be used on a cameraman's shoulder, but they still have no
recorder of their own and are cable-bound. Cameras can be mounted on a tripod, a dolly or a crane, thus making the
cameras much more versatile than previous generations of studio cameras.

Figure 8-1 Electronic Newsgathering Camera.
ENG Cameras
Electronic newsgathering (ENG) video cameras (See Figure 8-1) were originally for use by news camera operators who
shot standard definition (SD) footage on - or 1 tape, using large cameras with large lenses to gain the best clarity for
the medium. However, with the advances in high-definition (HD) and digital technology, ENG cameras have become
smaller and are the dominant style of professional video camera in the Navy. These ENG cameras are similar to
consumer models with some noticeable differences: ENG cameras are generally larger and heavier and usually
supported by a shoulder stock on the cameraman's shoulder, taking the weight off of the hand, which frees it up to
operate the lens zoom control. The weight of the camera also helps dampen small movements.
ENG cameras are larger and heavier than their consumer counterparts. Very few are supported by a shoulder
stock and most should be used with a tripod to ensure steady video. The weight of the camera also helps
dampen small movements when the use of a tripod is impractical or not authorized.
Some ENG cameras have interchangeable lenses.
All settingswhite balance, focus and iriscan be manually adjusted, and automatics can be completely
disabled
The lens is focused manually adjusted through the use of physical controls without having to go into the menu
functions and automatics can be completely disabled.
Professional connectors BNC (Bayonet Neill-Concelman) for video and XLR for audio. There are at least two
XLR audio inputs.
A complete time-code section is available, allowing time code presets. Multiple cameras can be time code-
synchronized with a cable.
"Bars and tone" are available in camera bars. Color bars provide an industry standard reference signal that
simplifies the calibration of setting levels for cameras, monitors and recording equipment when duplicating and
transmitting the picture. The color bars are Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers (SMPTE)
standard.
Recording is to a professional medium like some variant of Digital Video Cassette Professional (Panasonic)
(DVCPRO), Mini DV (Digital Video), direct-to-disk recording or a removable flash memory card. If the media is
stored completely digitally, much higher data rates (less compression) are used than I consumer devices.
The camera is mounted on tripods and other supports with a quick-release plate.
A rotating behind-the-lens filter wheel, for selecting 85A and neutral density (ND) filters.
Controls that need quick access are on hard physical switches, not in menu selections.
Gain select, white and black balance, color bar select, and record start controls are all in the same general place
on the camera, irrespective of the camera manufacturer. Audio is adjustable manually with easily accessed
physical knobs. Changing the gain for audio and video levels can also affect picture contrast. An adjustment to
gain will also increase the level of picture contrast.
DSLR Cameras - A relatively new video imagery collector is the use of video with the digital single-lens reflex (DSLR)
camera, usually used for still imagery collection. With the ability to change lenses to alter the depth of field and shooting
styles, DSLR cameras have become embraced by professional and indie moviemakers, television and internet advertisers
and producers of digital signage. There are many ways where DSLR cameras are superior to average ENG cameras, with
as many ways where they fall short:
Pros
DSLR cameras often have larger sensors than their ENG and consumer counterparts, allowing for a narrower
depth of field to give imagery a more filmic look.
Lenses can be changed out to provide different looks, longer or shorter focal length, and wide angles when
necessary.
All DSLRs shoot in a large-format 1080p resolution with little compression on flash media to provide crisp images
with little artifacting.
Cons
Without expensive add-ons, DSLR cameras have no XLR inputs and use rudimentary on-camera microphones or
1/8 mini audio plugs with little audio manipulation available.
Vibration reduction (steady cam) is not offered internally on DSLRs like on most ENG cameras. There is vibration
reduction in some lenses, but not to the extent that many video cameras support.
DSLR footage uses a large data footprint when recording due to its low compression and therefore requires a
large storage area and takes much more compression to reduce file sizes to usable formats for Navy use.
VISUAL STORYTELLING BASICS
Whether writing a news article, a press release, taking a photo or shooting video, the primary purpose of the imagery is
to tell a story. The most important thing to know before you hit record is why are you recording in the first place? There
is a great difference between shooting video for a television spot than there is in shooting a live event for historical
purposes or shooting an event or exercise for a broadcast news story or documentary. Some of the end products you
can expect to produce as an MC are:
Broadcast news story
An edited version of a ceremony
Prime cuts (highlights of all footage shot for an event to be edited later by a third party)
Documentary
Highlight or recruiting video
Training video
The type of event or end products will determine how you will need to think about your shooting style and the video you
need to capture. Will you have complete control over the surroundings and the characters, or are you merely a voyeur
trying to capture glimpses of a much larger event? There are three types of shoots you will find yourself a part of, with
three completely different shooting styles:
Controlled Action
As the name implies, in controlled action you can control all aspects of a production. This includes actors, their actions,
the set lighting, and sound recording, if any. You usually work from a well-developed script that includes all the details. If
the actors speak, the dialogue is in the script. If the action is described by a narrator, the narration is in the script. If the
film is silent, the titles appear in the script. Examples of controlled-action films include training films, some
documentaries and historical records, and many publicity or recruiting films. Controlled action, motion-media
productions are most often produced by personnel with specialized C school or university training. As a non-
specialized MC, you will be faced with uncontrolled or semi-controlled action elements of a production or film.
Uncontrolled Action
In a controlled-action situation, everything is normally written in the form of a detailed shooting script. Predictable
filming is performed and there are few crises, except the occasional human oversights and mechanical malfunctions. The
foundation of uncontrolled-action videography is the basic shot sequence (LS, MS, and CU). The other world of motion-
video recording (uncontrolled action) is full of crises and surprises. Success primarily is due to good reflexes, accurate
guesswork, and quick thinking. Careful planning is not the most significant factor. Most of your motion-media
assignments will be uncontrolled or semi-controlled action.
Your success as a maker of uncontrolled-action video depends on your knowledge of the capabilities and operation of
video equipment. You must also possess a high level of technical skill. There is neither time nor opportunity for research
or practice while doing this kind of assignment. You must be prepared in advance. News, sports, special events, and on-
site coverage of ongoing activities make up the bulk of this type of assignment. Another class of uncontrolled action is
the documentation of events that follow a known course or pattern, such as parades and ceremonies. These are called
semi-controlled, because you know in advance approximately what is going to happen, even though you cannot
influence it for recording purposes. Both types of assignments are challenging, exciting, and usually welcomed by
confident camerapersons. However, they can be unfortunate experiences" for those not properly prepared to cope
with them.
Uncontrolled and Semi-Controlled Actions
Obviously you cannot develop a specific, detailed plan for shooting uncontrolled or semi-controlled action. You must get
as much information about the assignment as possible and as far in advance as possible. This information helps to
provide an estimate of requirements for equipment, supplies, scheduling of personnel, transportation, camera positions,
lighting, and other technical details.
Whenever you are assigned to cover distinguished visitor (DV) arrivals, award presentations, or special events, you
should immediately contact the person or agency in charge of the project. This person is usually the PAO. The PAO can
furnish you the full scope of your assignment and provide the following basic information:
Name and rank or title of the person(s) involved
Place and time of arrival
Complete schedule of activities
When possible, you should personally inspect the location and route of the proposed action (site survey). If this cannot
be done, try to get drawings, maps, plans or photographs of the area. Eyewitness descriptions or pictures of similar
events also may be helpful. Ask questions about the location of the subject, the type and direction of movement, and
the sequence of actions to be recorded.
With this information, you can draft a rough plan. By working closely with the project officer, you should be kept
reasonably well informed and can arrange the shoot in a logical order. Be careful, however, not to plan yourself into a
trap. Expect last-minute changes in your plan, and keep alternative plans in mind and ways they can be put into effect
quickly. Next, determine shooting requirements and the number of cameras and people you need. Check probable
camera locations for the long, medium, and close-up shots. Determine the amount of tape you require, and consider the
possibility of some unplanned requirements. Determine whether you will need transportation and additional
equipment.
For example, your shop has received the following assignment:
The CNO and his party are expected to arrive aboard your ship tomorrow. The flag requires complete photographic
coverage of all official activities of the CNO and his party while on the ship. The division chief has assigned you to cover
the motion media.
After you check with the officer in charge of the event, you find that the CNO and his party are expected to arrive by
aircraft at 1 p.m. local time. The party consists of the CNO and three aides. The purpose of this visit is to inspect the ship
and to present several awards. The CNO and his party plan to depart at 5 p.m. local the same day.
With this information you can now plan your shooting outline. In an event of this kind, you cannot expect to stage or
control many shots.
The shooting outline not only serves as a program for planning the sequence of coverage, but it also provides a basis
for determining camera placement, movement, and shot framing.
Videography is a visual art and follows many of the same composition basics of photography, but needs some
forethought as the subjects in video tend to move while you're shooting.
Center of Interest
Each shot should only have one principal idea, topic or center of interest to which the audiences attention is directed.
Two or more equally dominant figures, objects, or actions in a single scene compete with one another for the viewers
attention, thus weakening the pictures effectiveness. Subordinate elements within the shot must support and focus
attention on the principal feature so that it alone is emphasized.
A shot without a dominant center of interest or one with more than one dominant center of interest is puzzling to a
viewer. Subsequently, the viewer becomes confused and wonders what the shot is all about. We can prevent this
confusion from occurring through the selective placement of our subjects within the scene.
The specific topic, idea, or object to be portrayed must be set in your mind as you prepare to shoot a video. When there
is nothing in the shot to attract attention to a particular area or object, the eyes wander throughout the scene. The
center of interest may be a single object or numerous ones arranged so attention is directed to one definite area.
When the center of interest is a single object that fills most of the shot area or one that stands out boldly, such as a
white sail against a background of dark water, attention is attracted immediately to it. As may be expected, not all
subjects are as simple to arrange or as bold and impressive.
Image Placement
Although it is called the center of interest, you will rarely place subjects in the center of the frame. Doing so results in
ineffective and uninteresting images. Placing the center of interest to one side (preferably the right, dominant side)
strengthens the image and increases interest.
A simple method for placing the center of interest in a dominant position is to utilize the rule of thirds, (See Figure 8-2)
dividing the frame into three equal parts, vertically and horizontally, just as you would in photography. The four points
where these lines intersect are compositionally strong. Placing the center of interest at one of these areas is a good way
to start composing a picture. Using only this method to compose, however, will produce predictable mechanically
composed images. As a loose rule, though, this rule of thirds method helps prevent bisecting the picture.

Figure 8-2 Rule of Thirds.
Image Quality
The single greatest influence on image quality is the brightness level. When the brightness level is too low, the recorded
image looks grainy and flat. By familiarizing yourself with the brightness level of the subject, you can improve your
recordings tremendously. In situations where the light level exceeds 100,000 lux, such as snow-covered scenes or a
beach scene on a clear summer day, an ND filter is required. Under other daylight and bright, indoor conditions, the
automatic iris is capable of adjusting to provide excellent results. However, in a low-light situation, such as spaces
aboard ship, auxiliary lighting may be required to provide clear, sharp images. Another alternative, when available on
your camcorder, is to increase gain. By increasing the gain, you increase the level of amplification of the video signal.
This increases the contrast and provides a higher-quality recorded image.
In some situations, such as high-contrast scenes or backlit subjects, you must adjust the iris manually. Just like the
aperture on a still camera, when the subject is backlit, open up the iris. When the subject is too bright, you must close
down the iris.
Framing
Framing in videography is the positioning of subject matter within the frame. This definition appears to be very similar to
the purpose of composition itself. Admittedly, the difference between the two is so slight that many people use the
terms interchangeably. But, take a closer look. Framing is concerned with the positioning of the subject matter in the
frame. Composition is concerned with the arrangement of all the pictorial elements of a scene, which includes more
than just the subject itself. A scene can have the subject properly framed yet still be poorly composed. Framing is not
only for human subjects. Animals, aircraft, ships, vehicles, rifles, etc., all have a "nose", a "head" and a "body". While this
section uses human subjects to describe framing, the same rules can apply to objects as well. Generally, five factors
affect framing: field of view, headroom, nose room, close-up and background (See Figure 8-3).

Figure 8-3 Framing.
Field of View
Field of view refers to how wide or how close the subject appears relative to the camera. It is broken down into five
steps: extreme long shot, long shot, medium shot, close-up and extreme close-up. When videotaping people, there are
three additional ways of referring to these shots: bust shot, knee shot, two shot and three shot. Another shot commonly
used in production is the over-the-shoulder shot.
Headroom
Headroom refers to the location of the subjects head within the frame. It is important to leave some space above your
talents head when composing shots, regardless of shot type. Additionally, it is important to remember that most
professional video cameras lose approximately 10 percent of the image they see in their viewfinder. If a shot is
composed extremely tight in the viewfinder, chances are you will actually be cutting off part of your subject when the
video enters post-production (See Figure 8-4).

Figure 8-4 Proper (left) and improper (right) use of headroom.
Nose Room / Lead Room
Nose room and lead room (See Figure 8-5) refers to the fact that we must leave room in front of a person or object
when they are pointing, looking, or moving in a certain direction. It is especially important when showing a person
moving, because it helps indicate the direction of travel. If there is no head room as a person moves, it appears as if they
are bumping the edge of the frame.

Figure 8-5 Proper (left) and Improper (right) use of Nose Room.
Close-ups
A close-up is a normally a full-face shot that fills the screen. When framing a close-up, it is important that you take a few
steps to eliminate potential confusion. Allow for headroom and show part of the subjects shoulders. When shooting
tight close-ups, cut off the top of the subjects head still keeping part of the shoulder in the scene. This is a reference
point for your audience.
Backgrounds
Returning after a shoot only to find that an unsightly object appears as if it is growing out of your subjects head is
frustrating. Therefore, when you are shooting, always look behind your subject and main center of interest to check out
your background. Look for trees, telephone poles, streetlights, etc. Objects like these in the background can ruin an
otherwise perfect shot.
Cut-off Lines
In addition to those five factors listed above, cut-off lines, or cut-off points, must be considered when you are framing
your shot. When photographing people, there are natural cut-off points that should be avoidedthe eyes, nose, mouth,
chin, neck, breasts, elbows, waist, knees and ankles. Framing a person so that any of these points sits at the very top or
bottom of the screen makes it appear as if the subjects body stops at the edges of the screen. A shot framed in such a
manner is very distracting for the audience.
The framing techniques listed here can also be employed when shooting still photographs and working with multimedia
products.
VISUAL PERSPECTIVE/SCREEN DEPTH
Perspective is defined as the apparent sense of depth in a picture based on the relative distance and positions of
subjects in the frame. It is the relationship of the images in your shot.
Increasing Perspective Results
To increase perspective effects and the apparent sense of depth within your frame, try the following techniques:
Shoot from camera angles that provide the greatest number of planes or facets of the subject. Angle-on-angle
shots, recorded so that the front, side, top and bottom are seen, create more depth than the same subject shot
head-on. This is particularly true of large, static subjects such as machinery, buildings and signs.
Position subjects so that they partially overlap. This helps indicate spatial relationships, and the audience can
determine which objects are nearer by their known size.
Have subjects move between other subjects and objects so that they are partially covered at different times as
they travel. Also, move the camera so that it shoots through or past foreground objects as it follows its subject.
Move the subject toward or away from the camera as opposed to straight across the screen. As the image size
changes, perspective is increased.
Viewpoint and Camera Angle
The proper viewpoint or camera angle is an important factor in good composition. Repositioning your subject within the
viewfinder frame and changing the camera viewpoint or camera angle are two simple ways of controlling composition.
Photographing from a different viewpoint or camera angle can often add drama and excitement or even bring out an
unusual aspect of a subject. Most of the subjects you photograph are three-dimensional and should be photographed
from an angle (to the right or left of and/or from higher or lower than the subject) that allows the viewer to see more
than one side of the subject. The photographer should study the subject from different sides and angles. Walk around
the subject and look at it from all viewpoints. See it from elevated and low positions as well as from eye level to find the
best composition. This greatly assists in composing the subject for the best balance and helps to select a background
that complements, not distracts, from the subject.
The terms viewpoint and camera angle are often used in conjunction with one another and sometimes used
interchangeably. They can also have different meanings depending on how they are applied.
Viewpoint the camera position in relationship to the subject
Camera angle the angle in which the camera lens is tilted
A shot of Sailors marching, made from ground level with the camera held horizontal with reference to the ground, may
be referred to as a low viewpoint, (or camera position); however, when this shot is taken again from ground level, but
with the camera pointed up, it may be referred to as a low camera angle. Likewise, shooting from an elevated or high
position with the camera again held horizontal with reference to the ground, or pointed straight down, can be referred
to as a high viewpoint. If the camera is not held horizontal to the ground or pointed straight down, but pointed at some
angle between horizontal and vertical, the camera position could be referred to as a high camera angle.
Eye-Level Shots
With the camera held horizontal, eye-level shots are usually made at a height of about 5 1/2 feet, the height from which
the average adult sees, and with the camera horizontal. With the camera held at eye level but pointed up or down, the
camera position changes and you have either a low or high camera angle, respectively.
Low Viewpoint and Low Camera Angle
Low viewpoints and low camera angles can add emphasis and interest to many ordinary photographs. A low viewpoint
can be used to distort scale or add strength to a picture or to emphasize certain elements within the picture. A low
camera angle is achieved when the camera angle is located below the point of primary interest and pointed upward.
Low angles tend to lend strength and dominance to a subject and dramatize the subject. Low angle shots are used when
dramatic impact is desired. This type of shot is very useful for separating the subject from the background, for
eliminating unwanted foreground and background, and for creating the illusion of greater size and speed.
High Viewpoint and High Camera Angle
High viewpoints and high camera angles help orient the viewer because they show relationships among all elements
within the picture area and produce a psychological effect by minimizing the apparent strength or size of the subject.
Like framing, varying camera angles and viewpoints work with still photography.
BASIC SEQUENCE AND SHOT PROGRESSION
The foundation of all footage is to be used later in an edited format, either by the shooter or a third-party editor. The
foundation of editing (which will be discussed later in this chapter) is editing footage together in basic sequences. To
edit sequences, it first has to be shot.
Basic Sequence
The basic sequence is the foundation for story continuity. It is a fancy term to accurately describe your videos form and
function. Story continuity is the smooth, uninterrupted flow of visual and audio references, which, when assembled in
order, tell a story.
Long Shot (LS)
The orderly flow of visual references starts with the long shot. The long shot introduces the scene to the audience and
shows the entire area of action for a particular scenelocation, people, and objects. It is relative to the subject or the
location. The subject must be large enough to be recognized but small enough to establish the location. Compose the
long shot loosely so that people or objects can freely move about and indicate that there is action at the location.
Although vital to establishing the scene, the long shot should be used sparingly in a television production. The small size
of the TV screen makes it difficult to see everything that is included. In motion pictures, the long shot is used more
frequently since the large proportions of the movie screen allow the audience to see all the detail (See Figure 8-6).
Medium Shot (MS)
The next shot in the sequence is the medium shot. The medium shot introduces the subject or action by narrowing the
center of interest for your audience, typically answering the what question of a scene. The medium shot bridges the
long shot to the close-up. The subject is the same as in the long shot, but now the camera is positioned closer to the
subject so that it fills the frame. Like the long shot, the medium shot is composed a little looser so the subject can move
if necessary. The medium shot is a transition between the long and close-up shot. It is an essential shot. Many new
videographers believe that omitting the medium shot from the sequence achieves a stronger introduction to the main
action. The omission shocks the viewer and sometimes is useful, but consistently ignoring the medium shot only results
in confusing the audience. If the audience becomes confused, the story is lost (See Figure 8-6).
Close-Up (CU)
The final shot is the close-up shot. The close-up is an important and powerful image that draws the audience into the
story, focusing attention on the important subject or action. It is the culmination of the basic sequence and should not
be used haphazardly. It may seem to be an obvious element to a visual story, but it took early moviemakers years to
discover because it defines our subject or action. Selecting the wrong close-up will overlook the point you are trying to
make with your story. Using too many close-ups will, once again, confuse the audience as to what is going on and what
they should be paying attention to (See Figure 8-6).

Figure 8-6 Long shot, medium shot and close-up shot (left to right).
Shot Timing
With each shot, it is imperative that you record extra footagetwo to three secondsbefore and after the main action.
This gives editors editing handles before and after our edited clips to leave room for transitions. A good videographer
will commit to a shot. Any shot worth shooting is worth recording for a minimum of 10 seconds, or until the end of the
action, before moving on to another shot. This will greatly reduce the time required during post-production, making the
editing process easier.
Relativity
Relativity is the relationship between the shot you are currently recording, the shot you just recorded, and the shot you
will record next. When we discuss shot relativity, we are referring to the distance within a shot that separates the long
shot from the medium shot and the medium shot from the close-up. They are all relative to the subject matter being
documented, not the location of the shoot (See Figure 8-7).
Some believe the location of a shoot, such as indoors or outdoors, dictates the distance within each shot. This is not the
case. Simply because you have more shooting area outdoors does not always mean there will be greater distances
between shots. For example, the distances between shots while shooting a parade might be greater than the distances
between shots while shooting a picnic in a park. The picnic scene has less to establish than the parade. Also, simply
because you have less shooting area indoors does not dictate that we will have smaller distances between shots. A
mobility staging area for deploying personnel would have a greater area than that of a military member clearing a
weapon. These are relative.
Subject matter dictates the relative distances between shots. For example, a physically larger subject, such as a change
of command, will require composing the shot to incorporate all the pictorial elements into the frame. A physically
smaller subject, such as a Sailor opening an MRE, does not require as much distance within the frame. Again, it is all
relative to the subject matter. Relativity depends on how the camera operator chooses to emphasize the subject within
the frame and, maintain story continuity. When we use proper shot relativity, what we see in the close-up will
determine the emphasis of our story.

Figure 8-7 A Defense Information School (DINFOS) student reading his study guide
here dictates the distance between the three shots above.
Static Screen Direction
Static screen direction refers to the direction the subject directs his/her eyes within the shot. Screen direction must be
established and maintained even when the subject does not move about within the scene. The direction in which the
subject looks should match throughout a series of consecutive shots. The direction the subject faces can be different
from the direction that the subject looks; therefore, the static screen direction is the direction in which the subject is
looking. Subjects moving in one direction only in a series of video shots is said to be constant. To maintain static screen
direction, the camera operator must remain on one side of the action axis.
Action Axis (180-degree rule)
The easiest method to establish and maintain screen direction is the use of the action axis, an imaginary line that travels
across the scene. When there is only one subject in your shot, the line runs through this person and (roughly)
perpendicular to the camera's line of sight. When there are two subjects, the line passes through both of them. As long
as you keep your camera on the same side of this line, you can set up any shot you want and the subjects will always
maintain the correct screen direction. Move across the action axis with your camera, and the screen direction will be
wrong.
When the subject moves to a new location, a new action axis is established using the old action axis as a reference.
Some videographers think of the action axis as a left-to-right or right-to-left movement instead of an imaginary line.
While essentially correct, it complicates shooting since the travel line must be re-examined for every new camera set-up.
If the camera is always on the same side of the axis, directional continuity is maintained.
The only exception to the rule of recording on one side of the action axis is shooting a neutral shot. In this instance, the
camera is placed on the action axis with the camera pointed directly toward the subject (See Figure 8-8).

Figure 8-8 Example of moving camera along in relation to the
action axis.
Overlapping Action
While watching a television show, have you ever wondered how the action can appear to be seamless from one shot to
the next? The appearance of unbroken action from shot to shot can determine the success or failure of a production.
Successful continuity demands a smooth, uninterrupted flow of action from one shot to the next. Continuity is destroyed
when there are sudden gaps in the movement between shots. The audience should never be aware of any change in the
camera angle or image size. To achieve this smooth flow of images, you must apply the technique of overlapping action.
The overlapped shots are later matched and assembled into a story by the editor.
When using a single camera, overlap is attained by controlled action (a situation when all phases of the production can
be thoroughly managed). If you do not have complete control over all phases of the video production, overlap may be
achieved by using more than one camera. Overlapping action is the extension of activity, at the beginning and end of a
scene. By overlapping action between shots you can vary image size, composition, and camera angles and still achieve
perfect continuity.
Factors Affecting Overlapping Action
Before recording overlapping action, consider these factors: the story; control of the action; the subjects action, body
position, and facial expressions; and dialogue.
If you are shooting from a script, the story is already written down for you. You just have to translate the written words
into pictures. Sometimes, though, the story is merely an idea, and you make it up as you go. If you have a strong story
concept, however, you have what you need to overlap the action with or without a script.
Before shooting, your subject must understand the action you desire. You must exercise complete control of your
subject and the action. Rehearsing the shot is often necessary so subjects know exactly what is expected from them,
allowing the action to be repeated if required. If, however, a position is uncomfortable, or the action is unnatural, listen
to the suggestions of the subjects; they often have good ideas that will make your story better.
When shooting overlap, the subjects actions, body positions, and facial expressions must exactly mirror the last few
seconds of the previous scene. This is difficult if your subject is not completely aware of the objective of overlapping the
action. Take the time to explain this to your talent beforehand and you will find it easier for them to duplicate their
actions during the shoot.
In addition to the action, the last few seconds of dialogue must be repeated. This may seem obvious, but videographers
often forget to have the subject repeat their last few lines. When the story is edited later this omission creates a jump in
action.
Obtaining Overlapping Action
In a controlled-action situation, obtaining overlap with a single camera is relatively easy. You dictate when the recording
begins and ends. Since you have command of the situation, you tell the subject to start and stop the action. If there is a
problem, you can re-record the scene to your satisfaction.
During the recording, the subject performs the scene according to your direction. After you have finished recording, you
then compose the next shot. In this shot, the subject repeats the last few seconds of action (and dialogue) from the
previous shot. Many novice videographers make the common mistake of having the subject repeat the whole action
from the earlier shot. This is wrong. This is not overlapping the action; it is merely a rehash of action with which the
viewer is already familiar.
The correct method is to have the subject repeat a small bit from the former scene then move the story along with new
action. The action in each shot must reach its natural point of termination. This allows the subject to have a reference
for the next shot, and the overlap appears to be unforced. The keys to achieving normal overlapping action are planning
and rehearsal. Describe the desired action to your subject, and let them do it a few times without recording. Once the
subject is comfortable with the scene, then shoot it.
How long should overlap be? Some editors are comfortable with only two to three seconds of overlap, while others
want five to seven seconds. A good rule of thumb is to pick a point where there is a natural pause in movement or
conversation. Overlap four to five seconds of the previous scene. This guarantees editorial options without wasting a lot
of videotape.
Recording overlap in a situation when you have no control of the action (uncontrolled action) is far different from a
controlled-action shoot. It is more difficult, but uncontrolled action can be overlapped. In most cases, you will shoot
overlap in an uncontrolled situation by having two or more cameras shoot the scene. The videographers must
coordinate their roles and actions on the set.
By using different focal lengths and camera angles, the separate cameras record the same subject at the same time,
obtaining overlapping action. This can be difficult, even under the best circumstances, but videographers who fully
understand their individual roles should have no problem getting all the overlap they need. Care should be used when
employing two or more cameras, however. Without planning, simple continuity errors, such as crossing the action axis,
can ruin a project that you cannot do over.
When documenting an uncontrolled scene by yourself, it is still possible to obtain overlap. Look for action that is often
repeated, such as in the firing of a weapon. The squeeze of the trigger, the ejection of spent shells, etc. These are things
that you can shoot almost any time during the action. Try to anticipate what is going to happen. If you are reacting to
what is going on, you are too late. When possible, find out as much information about the event before you start
shooting. It is also important to record cut-ins and cutaways to cover major jumps in action. Changing your image size
and camera angle also helps mask minor jumps that often occur during uncontrolled action.
Cut-ins and Cutaways
A story that grabs the audiences attention goes beyond the basic sequence. It includes shots that pull the viewer into
the story in addition to shots that divert their attention from the inessential. You are still using the basic sequence, only
now you are inserting additional shots to make the story more interesting. These shots, the cut-in, and cutaway are
critical in maintaining story continuity. Cut-ins and cutaways preserve continuity in five distinct ways:
1. Bridging time and distance
2. Diverting audience attention from jumps in action
3. Building interest or drama
4. Replacing hidden action
5. Covering changes in screen direction
Bridging Time and Distance
Omit the inessential. Unfortunately, this simple rule of videography is often ignored. The audience gets bored quickly
when forced to watch scenes or shots that have no bearing on the outcome of the story. For this reason, cut-ins and
cutaways are used to bridge time.
If you documented the construction of a bunker, for example, it would be tiresome to see every sandbag being filled and
placed around the pit. Instead, adding a cut-in of a sandbag being filled and a cutaway of the leading petty officer (LPO)
supervising the working party ties the establishing shot of the initial construction to the re-establishing shot of the
completed bunker. This greatly condenses the time needed to show this entire action.
Distance is also affected by cut-ins and cutaways. The audience does not need to see every step a subject takes moving
from one location to another. By inserting a cut-in or cutaway to the sequence, you can omit shots that do not add to
the story. Inserting cut-ins of truck tires rolling and cutaways of exit signs with the names of towns into a sequence of a
convoy traveling cross-country helps the audience understand that a great distance has been covered.
You can expand time and distance by inserting additional cut-ins and cutaways. If you want to portray a long road run by
a ships crew, adding extra cut-ins of their feet moving and of the faces of the Sailors leads the audience to believe that
the journey took longer and covered a greater distance than it actually did.
Diverting Audience Attention from Jumps in Action
A jump in action could be anything that distracts the audience from your story: a chair that changes position from one
shot to the next, a clock that reads 30 minutes later from the previous shot, or a person appearing in the scene who was
not shown in the establishing shot. These jumps are not breaks in the story continuity, but breaks in the visual
continuity. If the attention is not diverted from a jump in action, the audience becomes distracted and confused.
The average person has difficulty remembering more than two scenes immediately preceding the scene currently
viewed. A jump in action is most noticeable in the next scene. Inserting a cut-in or cutaway masks the jump, creating a
smoothly flowing scene.
Building Interest or Drama
An otherwise dull story is energized by the skillful use of cut-ins and cutaways. Cut-ins of important actions or dialogue
stimulates audience interest. Cutaways of secondary subjects and bystanders reacting to what is happening helps
emphasize important actions. For example, in a story of a medical assistance visit to an isolated village, a series of cut-ins
showing syringes being filled and children receiving inoculations increases the interest of the audience. Cutaways of
villagers watching the corpsmen work emphasizes the action, helping the audience to understand the importance of the
visit.
If the story requires a sense of drama or tension, cut-ins and cutaways provide the vehicle. A cut-in to the microphone
and mouth of an air traffic controller speaking to a pilot and cutaways to firefighters waiting along the runway create a
sense of drama as an aircraft makes an emergency landing.
Replacing Hidden Action
Action, which cannot be recorded for reasons beyond the control of the videographer, can be implied by cut-ins and
cutaways. As a personnel specialist enters information into a computer, a cut-in of fingers dancing on the keyboard or of
the clerk doing the typing indicates that administrative work is in progress. A following cutaway shows a card emerging
from the printer. A few seconds of cut-ins and cutaways clearly show the process of making an identification card. This
same technique may be used on any subject that cannot be recorded because there is no image or for events too
dangerous to allow a camera to be present.
MOVEMENT
Good video needs movementin front of the camera, of the camera itself, and of the picture itself (one picture
replacing another). The movements necessary for good television are divided into the following three categories:
Primary movements
Secondary movements
Tertiary movements
Primary Movement
Movement in front of the camera, usually by the talent, is referred to as primary movement. Primary movement toward
or away from the camera is stronger than lateral movement, thus creating more emphasis. Diagonal movement is the
strongest and most dramatic type of primary movement. Exits and entrances are more impressive when they occur
toward or away from the camera. Remember: you should always lead the lateral movement of the talent with your
camera. The viewer wants to know where the subject is going, not where he has been.
Secondary Movement
Secondary movement refers solely to the movement of the camera and is normally done in production studios.
Secondary movements follow primary movements to change or adjust to picture composition. You also may use them to
emphasize or dramatize a certain portion of a production. The secondary movements you will become familiar with are
as follows:
Pan A pan is horizontal movement of the camera on a stationary pedestal. It is used to follow
the primary action. When panning, you should avoid dead space between subjects. Do this by
positioning the subjects diagonally instead of laterally. Prior to making a pan with a camera on
a tripod, you should ensure the tripod and camera are level.
Tilt Tilting is simply pointing the camera up or down. The reasons for tilting the camera are
similar to those for panning. For example, the height of an object can be shown by gradually
tilting up on it or by tilting down on something. This builds suspense.
Dolly A dolly is a piece of equipment that normally requires a small crew to operate. You can
dolly-in to increase the size of an object gradually on the screen or dolly-out to decrease the
size of the object on the screen. Likewise, dollying decreases or increases the field of view.
Zoom A zoom lens can be used for the same purpose as a dolly. During a zoom, the camera
does not move; therefore, perspective does not change as it does when using a dolly.
Truck A truck is a piece of equipment that is basically a tripod with wheels. The camera is
used to follow lateral subject movement, or you can truck the camera along the objects. In
either case, camera-to-subject distance does not change.
Pedestal A pedestal is used to raise or lower the camera. Pedestalling can provide the
audience with a view looking down on the subject or up at the subject. A pedestal may also be
used to compensate for tall or short camerapersons or subjects.
Tertiary Movement
Tertiary movement results from a sequence of shots from two or more cameras. When two or more cameras are used,
the director selects from a variety of shots to determine what shot will be telecast and at what time. When more than
one camera is used, the director can easily emphasize, de-emphasize, or show action and reaction in rapid or slow
succession.
Recording from a Moving Vehicle
Sometimes you may have to record from a moving vehicle, such as a truck or a boat. For this type of assignment, the
problem of holding the camera steady becomes even more difficult. In this situation you should handhold the camera,
because a tripod transmits vibrations and movements from the vehicle to the camera. Keep your weight on the balls of
your feet, and keep your knees flexed so you can sway and bend as the vehicle rolls, pitches, or bounces. Watch the
horizon in the viewfinder. A tilted or wobbly horizon is very detracting when being viewed. When shooting from moving
vehicles you should use a short focal-length lens and a fast shutter speed. Remember, when shooting video without a
tripod, you should deeply inhale, and then partially exhale before shooting.
Covering Changes in Screen Direction
Unexplained changes in screen direction also break the continuity of your story. Cut-ins and cutaways help cover these
movements. To do this, the shot must have no screen direction of its own. In these neutral shots the subject moves
directly toward or directly away from the camera.
Changes in Screen Direction
If a subject constantly moves in only one direction throughout a video, the audience becomes bored from the repetition,
and the movement is farcical. Your stories will often call for logical and reasonable changes in screen direction.
The first key to screen direction is that any change in screen direction must be motivated. The usual reasons for varying
direction are to show a return to the starting point, to show the subject has moved to a new location that is in another
direction, or to avoid physical obstacles in the path of the subject or videographer. Regardless of the technique you
employ, the two key shots utilized when changing screen direction are medium shots and close-ups. There are four ways
to change screen direction:
1. Show the change on screen.
2. Use neutral shots.
3. Use prominent landmarks.
4. Use cut-ins and cutaways.
Show the Change on Screen
The simplest way to change screen direction is showing the change on screen. If the established screen direction is right-
to-left, the subject moves in that direction, and then while the camera is still recording, the subject turns in the frame
and moves along a new action axis traveling left-to-right.
Use Neutral Shots
Recording a neutral shot allows you to cross the old action axis and establish a new direction of travel. If you use a tail-
away shot, follow with a head-on shot to tell the audience there is more to come, unless it is the end of the story. If you
use a head-on shot, however, you do not need an additional neutral shot. The next shot can be on the other side of the
old action axis.

Use Prominent Landmark
A more difficult and rarely used technique to change screen direction involves using a prominent landmark in the
background to orient the audience. This approach takes some planning and is limited to objects that can be immediately
recognized. The static screen direction and placement of a landmark, such as a statue or building, orients the audience
to the changes in dynamic screen direction of the subject.
Use Cut-ins and Cutaways
Cut-ins and cutaways do not show the change in screen direction, they merely mask it. The cut-in and cutaway must be a
neutral shot. Since the average person has difficulty remembering the two scenes immediately preceding the current
scene, cut-ins and cutaways should be used in pairs in order to mask the change.
Pacing and Timing
Broadcast news reporters will tell you that in any story, pace is everything. This means that the viewer will lose interest
if a story does not develop or is dull, boring, or predictable. Simply put, when you watch a program, the pace either feels
right or it does not.
When capturing a story in the field or fleet, it is content that dictates pace. Is the action fast-paced? Is the story quiet
and serene? These are questions that must be answered to understand and determine the pace of a story.
Shot length is only one element of pacing. The composition within sequences is just as important. A subject may seem to
move slower or faster simply by moving the angle of the camera in relation to the action. Focal length, lens to subject
distance, and lens perspective all play a part in determining pace. If a long shot is of a subject running from left to right
REMEMBER
Neutral shots must be absolutely centered in your frame.
and the medium shot is of the same person running toward the camera, the pace of the person seems to be at two
different speeds. So even if it is right, but looks wrong, it is wrong.
Timing while videotaping concerns compressing real-time into filmic time. In a briefing or documentary, an entire days
activities can be shown in a five minute presentation. Planning shot sequences is the keyone shot ahead, your current
shot, and one behind. In essence, a video of the President arriving at a naval air station may take 45 minutes from touch
down to the time he climbs into a vehicle. But, that story can be told in a series of shots lasting no more than 45
seconds.
Additional Shots
The basic sequence is the foundation of video storytelling. However, such storytelling is not limited to the three shots of
this basic sequence. Sometimes additional shots are used instead of, or along with shots in the basic sequence. Three
common shots are the extreme long shot, the full-figure shot, and the extreme close-up, which can enhance your story
by providing important information to the audience.
Extreme Long Shot (ELS)
The extreme long shot provides the audience with a distant view of an area. It establishes physical character or a
distinctive atmosphere and always precedes the long shot in the basic sequence. It is best recorded from a high vantage
point to provide more viewing area.
Full-Figure Shot (FFS)
The full-figure shot is a variation of the medium shot depicting the whole subject. It shows the subject from head to
foot, containing very little headroom or footroom. It is often used in place of the traditional medium shot.
Extreme Close-up (ECU)
The extreme close-up often follows the close-up in the basic sequence. It magnifies the subject for detailed examination
completely filling the screen. It is often used for dramatic emphasis or to show important details within a scene. A scene
shot to the right of an edit control unit, showing someones hands using the equipment, is an example of an extreme
close-up.
VARIATIONS OF THE BASIC SEQUENCE
You are now familiar with the shot sequencing and the various types of shots. Hopefully you understand how the visual
storyteller uses these shots and the sequence to piece a story together shot by shot. While the basic sequence of long
shot, medium shot, and close-up is the most common sequence used to tell a story, it is not by any means the only one.
There are numerous variations available, depending on the information you are trying to convey or the way you want
the audience to react.
Extended Sequence
Adding the extreme long shot, full-figure shot, and extreme close-up to your shot progression changes the basic
sequence into the extended sequence. This new shot progression enriches the visual quality of your story and enhances
audience attention. It is important to understand, however, that you do not have to insert all additional shots to be
considered an extended sequence. It can be only one, or a combination, if desired.
The extreme long shot, when added, impresses the audience with the huge scope of the scene. A large military base,
vehicle convoy, or aircraft parking ramp can be impressive opening shots to introduce a sequence. Such massive shots
set the scene for what follows by putting your audience in the proper mood and giving them the overall picture before
introducing characters and establishing the story line.
Including more medium and full-figure shots improves your storytelling ability. These additional shots provide more
information to help explain complicated ideas. For instance, in a sequence of a division officer talking to his shop, the
first medium shot shows the face of the lieutenant and the back of the head and shoulders of the Sailors. The second
medium shot then shows the face of the leading chief petty officer (LCPO) as he acknowledges the divisional officers
(DIVO) words and the back of the head/shoulders of the DIVO.
You can also emphasize or show tiny details by using the extreme close-up. When placed in the sequence, extreme
close-ups help the audience understand complex and minute details certain jobs require.
Reverse Sequence
Sometimes it is desirable to startle, confuse, or withhold information from the audience. When this is the case, a close-
up may be used as a dramatic tool for opening a sequence. Then the sequence continues backward to the long shot. This
is called reverse sequencing. Lets start with a close-up of a set of eyes, move to a medium shot of a Navy Seal in camo
paint, then out to a long shot showing this Sailor in full combat gear, camouflaging himself in the jungle. That simple
reversal of the basic sequence immediately draws our viewer into the story, making them want to see more.
A properly planned, effectively recorded reverse sequence will enhance your story, as long as you do not overuse it.
Using too many reverse sequences not only bores the audience, but the punch of your story will get lost. A good rule of
thumb is to use the reverse sequence only after you have determined the action that requires immediate attention.
Editing in Camera - A good shooter edits sequences in the actual recording by getting the long, medium and close shots
at the same time of the repetitive action. By remembering that all raw footage will have to be edited by someone later,
make sure you shoot enough footage to help the editor who is producing the final product. A good rule of thumb is 30
minutes of raw footage for every minute your end product needs to be when they begin to edit.
VIDEO EDITING
Knowing how to edit is an important tool for MCs to have in their toolbox. You might be able to shoot great video, but if
you do not know how to put it all together, your job is not complete. The orderly structuring of facts, ideas, and abstract
suggestions in any visual-editing process is continuity. This section will give you the basic fundamentals you will need to
become a skilled basic editor and help you achieve your final goalhaving a product that tells an effective memorable
story.
Editing Hardware and Software
Lets first take a tour of the hardware components that make up a non-linear editing system. Regardless of the particular
system you use, the basic components are similar.
Central processing unit the computer portion of the system that contains computer-related
hardware and software
Monitors one flat-panel or two 16:9- or 4:3-aspect ratio monitors used for viewing
DVCam Deck used to input and output video
Speakers or headphones for listening
Keyboard and mouse for controlling the editing software
Card reader with high transfer speed for flash media files.
PROJECT HIEARCHY
Project
The project is at the top of the project hierarchy. It is a non-linear editing systems method for organizing your work. The
project contains all files associated with your project. When you create a new project, navigate to the drive where you
will save your project and name your project. Everything you do in this project will be saved in this location. The project
folder contains all files of your project like the video, audio, graphics, and project settings.
Bin
A bin is the electronic equivalent of a physical bin in which film is stored for retrieval during editing. The bin is simply a
file containing clips and sequences and provides a simple way to organize a group of like elements. Bins are stored in the
project folder and organize your assets, such as video clips, audio files, still images, graphics, and sequences. Each listed
media asset is a link. The files themselves remain in their file folders, while the assts are stored in bins. Bins behave like
folders as a way to organize your assets visually within an editing program.
Clip
A clip is stored in a bin and contains information about the source of the materialtape name, start and end time codes,
and so onand the way you want the information to be captured.
Sequence
A sequence, also known as the timeline, is where video is arranged in a series of shots that include a beginning, middle,
and end (like a chapter in a book). A short movie can contain a single sequence, or several sequences can be put
together to create a longer movie.
A sequence is your edited program. You create a sequence by editing clips together. A sequence is stored in a bin and
holds references to its clips. The internal drive is the storage device on the system. The drive works like desk drawers
and contains folders and files for storing information including applications, projects, and bins. There are three steps to
converting raw footage to master tape:
Digitize or capture (also known as import).
Edit.
Output.
Creating a sequence can be as simple as stringing together as series of shots with some narration or music or more
complicated with multiple audio tracks, sound effects, dissolves, wipes, or special effects.
Now that you understand the basics of an editing system, you need to know how to get that great video you shot into
your editing system or program of choice. All systems have some way of capturing or importing your media. It is very
important to understand this tool and function because without it you cannot actually accomplish anything.
Capturing - It is important to know what type of video file works best with your particular non-linear editing system
based on the type of camera you shot the footage with. Some systems are .avi file based while others are .mov.
Although most systems will use multiple formats, knowing your systems native formats will help not only during editing,
but also ease the transition from your sequence to an exported video file. Editors can either import, or capture, all of the
raw footage at one time, or break it up into smaller clips, called sub-clips, during the capture process. Regardless of how
you choose to capture the footage, ensure you name the footage prior to injest, or else all your footage will end up in
your project folder named "Untitled".
Once capturing, or importing, is complete, it is time to become familiar with your footage and to think of an outline of
how you want your video to flow. The next phase in the editing process is to sup-clip all of your useable footage.
Sub-Clipping
The process of going through your media and making it into smaller, more manageable files is called sub-clipping.
Organization of your files is very important, but sub-clipping also benefits you. Sub-clipping gives you the chance to
become familiar with your footage. Knowing your footage inside and out is important and will help speed up the process
when you go to actually put the video together. You will know what shots you have and what shots you do not.
Once you have all your video captured, organized, and sub-clipped, it is time to produce your product. The two basic
editing techniques you will use in video are continuity editing and compilation editing.

Continuity Editing
Continuity editing is the most commonly used method of editing video for news or feature releases. It is used when the
storytelling is dependent on matching consecutive scenes. Continuity cutting consists of matched cuts in which
continuous action flows from one shot to another. The three transitional devices associated with continuity cutting are
the cutaway, cut-in, and crosscutting.
Cutaway
When the action shown is not a portion of the previous scene, a transitional device, known as a cutaway, is used to
change positions, movements, or characters or to denote a lapse of time. This eliminates a mismatch, or jump cut, that
would cause the segment to appear jerky or out of sequence.
Cutaways are often termed protection, reaction, insert, or cover shots and are thought of as secondary action shots. For
example, if the main story is about a parade, cutaways of close-up shots of the crowd would be suitable. Children may
be shown watching intently, eating candy, or applauding; adults may be wearing different expressions of emotion or
carrying children on their shoulders. These shots are of human interest and are related to the primary action but are not
actually a part of it. If you have a good selection of cutaways, you can make a great story out of an otherwise drab and
commonplace event. The cutaway can cover a multitude of camera operator errors and result in the formulation of an
exciting segment. Cutaways should last between three and five seconds.
NOTE
The editing procedures and techniques in place at your command may differ from what is
portrayed in this section.
Cut-ins
Another method used to denote a lapse of time is the cut-in. Unlike the cutaway, the cut-in is a part of the primary
action rather than the secondary action. For instance, to denote a person climbing a long flight of stairs, you establish
the individual at the start of the climb, and then cut to a close-up of feet as they take the steps. After you establish the
shot (three to five seconds), you cut back to the person at the top of the stairs. A person can appear to walk a city block
in just a few seconds by showing feet walking or a hand carrying a briefcase.
Crosscutting
Crosscutting is the old standby of editing. In crosscutting, you use shots from two different actions or events that will
finally be related. A time-honored example is the meanwhile, back at the ranch style, or the hero riding hard to save
the life of the heroine who has been chained to a buzz saw by the villain. The action would be cut back and forth
between the desperate rider and the saw as it comes dangerously close to the heroines head, showing the progress of
each and then finally relating them as the rider arrives at the last moment to save the heroine.
Compilation Cutting
The second method of editing is compilation cutting. This is used in documentary-style stories of surveys, reports,
history, or travelogues. Segments can be tied together through narration, but not always. The narrative explains the
shots, which may have little or no matching relation. These shots or scenes may be long or short shots, or they may go
from long shots to close-ups without any special transitions. Compilation cutting is used for putting together prime cuts.
Once you are done with your rough cut, trimming is used to tighten up transitions, change the length of a scene, or
adjust the timing and pacing of your story.
The technical side of the editing process is fairly easy to learn. With todays technology, the procedure is almost
foolproof. Some editing systems allow you to use time-code editing to set all of your edit in and out points ahead of time
along with including special effects, graphics, and audio and video mixes and dissolves. The capabilities of your editing
system will control the number of special effects you will be able to use with your video. The latest software programs
available allow you to produce professional-looking, quality video with minimal manpower. Nevertheless, a good editor
must have a thorough knowledge of many related skills to provide viewers with a simple, yet effective, message.
Exporting
There are a variety of ways one can export a video project, and each editing system has its own unique workflow. Nearly
all non-linear editors allow you to export your edited video. The format you use is usually determined by the customer.
However, it is your job to ask where the video will air. Will it be viewed on the Web or in a large auditorium? The
answers to those questions will determine what compression needs to be applied to the exported video. If the file size is
too large, it will not play well on a computer. If the file is too small and you attempt to project it in a large venue, the
video will look pixilated. It is important to understand the video you edit is considered to be in its rawest format, and
when you export, you are either compressing or transferring the edited files to tape. The exporting process can be
expedited if you mix down the video tracks in advance. This process is also known as compression. Compressing and/or
exporting can become very involved.
The Defense Media Activity (DMA), specifically the Defense Imagery Media Operations Center (DIMOC), has specific
guidelines of which formats to use in relation to HD and SD footage. As of this writing, HD footage is to be compressed
using the H.264 codec at a screen size of 1280x720, which is a 720p (progressive) codec. All HD footage also needs to be
compressed to SD due to current broadcasting restrictions in the Department of Defense, Armed Forces Network and
Direct to Sailor. Also, many video products are released on the internet, which DoD access requires smaller file sizes. The
SD image is to be a Windows Media Video file, or .wmv, scaled to 640 x 360 for 16x9 footage, or 480x360 for 4x3 footage
at 80% quality.
DefenseImagery.mil will have the current compression standards for file sizes, or refer to Broadcast: Videography
chapter of this manual for more information on compression.
SUMMARY
The sharing of thoughts and facts through spoken word and vivid imagery shapes our lives. As an MC, your job is to
portray events in a clear, concise and interesting way. In this chapter you were introduced to the basics of a video
camera and the most important tool there is for visual storytellingthe basic sequence. Remember, continuity is the
thread that binds your video together. Once continuity is broken, the audience becomes confused and eventually loses
interest in your video. Visual continuity preserves the essence of your story. Consistently using clean entrances and exits
provides a logical transition of the comings and goings of characters in the scene. The lack of directional continuity will
always distract the observer from the story. Use the action axis to establish and maintain screen direction. You will often
need to change the subjects screen direction, but remember this change requires a motivation and must not break the
continuity of your story.
As you become more experienced in the art of visual storytelling, you will find that maintaining continuity is not hard,
but it requires vigilance against those jumps that can disrupt your narrative. The last thing you read was basic editing
and how to get the video you captured onto your computer. Where you are assigned will determine what editing
software you use so only the basics of all professional editing systems were covered. In chapter 12 will delve further into
specialized documentation and how it applies to your job.
Now that you have thoroughly reviewed the videography chapter, take some time to visit the video gallery on Navy.mil.
As you review these videos, look for the lessons you learned here. Keeping up with industry standards and reviewing
what others are doing will keep your product fresh and up-to-date.
CHAPTER 9
INTRODUCTION TO VISUAL INFORMATION
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Define visual information
2. Identify policies outlined in and DoDINST 5040.02 and OPNAVINST 3104.1A
3. Explain the missions of Navy Visual News Service, Combat Camera, and the Defense Imagery
Management Operations Center
4. Discuss the ethics associated with visual information
WHAT IS VISUAL INFORMATION
As a Mass Communication Specialist (MC), you will be expected to be well rounded in your public
affairs and visual information (VI) knowledge, skill, and technique.
VI, as described by DoDINST 5040.02 Visual Information (VI) is information in the form of visual or
pictorial representation of person(s), place(s), or thing(s), either with or without sound. Generally, VI
includes still imagery, motion picture imagery, video or audio recording, graphic arts, visual aids,
models, displays, visual presentation services and the support processes.
VI is an essential communication tool. Imagery is a powerful weapon in the Navys communication
strategy and can help counter propaganda and misinformation that have significant effects in the
operational environment. The capability to provide information and visual media content that
contributes to accurate perceptions and favorable attitudes is critical to achieving national and military
objectives.
Navy VI is also a professional visual communication capability closely associated with public affairs.
VI products help tell the story of Americas Navy to all of our audiences. The instruction regulating
Department of Defense (DoD) VI production procedures is DoDINST 5040.07.
Primary Activities and Functions
Navy VI translates into the following primary activity missions and functions:
VI documentation (VIDOC), which includes combat camera documentation, operational
documentation (OPDOC), technical documentation (TECDOC) and sub-functions using
graphic arts, motion media, still photographic, audio, and other VI systems
VI production in support of Navy operations, training, and other functions
Support of DoD VI records centers
Ship/Shore VI activities, which include motion media production, still photographic production,
graphic arts production, and other VI services needed at ship/base level
VI Organization
All aspects of Navy VI fall under U.S. Navy Chief of Information (CHINFO). CHINFO, as the CNOs
specialist for public affairs support, is responsible for the implementation and administration of the
Navy's VI program. High-quality, timely, truthful and accurate visual communication products aid
operational planning and decision making. It can also achieve operational effects through its use with
9-1
external audiences, such as the adversary and the local populace. CHINFO also issues policies,
doctrine, guidance, direction, planning, assessment and procedures to implement the VI program,
which includes the following:
OPNAVINST 3104.1A (series) Navy Visual Information Program Policy and Responsibilities outlines
policy for the use, management, and assignment of responsibilities for VI within the Navy.
Combat camera, or COMCAM, is the operational and directed imagery component of VI and is
covered in detail in the independent guidance, OPNAVINST 3104.3A (series), which speaks
specifically of Navy COMCAM Program Policy Responsibilities and Procedures.
It is Navy policy to maintain VI and COMCAM resources to provide:
Rapid deployment of COMCAM assets for the planning and execution of operational imagery
documentation of force deployments and activities before, during, and after military
engagements, operations, and emergency actions
General purpose VI support that satisfies DON and DoD requirements for audiovisual
documentation, production, distribution, records centers, and installation-level support other
than COMCAM
Dedicated VI support of such activities as medical and intelligence functions and for research,
development, test, and evaluation (RDT&E)
Lifecycle management of VI, COMCAM, and other audiovisual records
The assistant chief of information for VI (CHINFO OI-2) reports to CHINFO on all VI matters.
Navy Media Content Services (NMCS) is a component under OI-2. Its mission is to provide imagery
to national and international media outlets, DoD agencies, and other federal agencies as required to
tell the U.S. Navy story. NMCS is the Navy's primary point of contact for requests by major media
outlets for U.S. Navy visual information products, both still and video.
As an organization, NMCS provides this material directly upon request while proactively pushing
content to our external media customers as important stories and issues develop. For more
information on NMCS, visit http://www.imagery.navy.mil.
Navy VI works in conjunction with Defense Visual Information, who operates the Defense Imagery
Management Operations Center (DIMOC). DIMOC supports worldwide DoD and other U.S.
government agency communication and operational missions with the right imagery in the right place
at the right time by providing an enabling architecture to synchronize and integrate the various DoD
imagery capabilities and centrally manage current and historical visual information.
To accomplish its mission, DIMOC manages four distinct, but interrelated programs. They are the
Visual Information Operations and Coordination Program, Imagery Management and Distribution,
Order Fulfillment, and Customer Service Programs. These functions are currently active but will have
increased capabilities as DIMOC moves toward full operating capability.
More information about DIMOC can be found at
http://www.defenseimagery.navy.mil/about/dimoc.html.

NOTE
Registration is required for this site.
9-2
Ethics of Visual Information
The VI mission of disseminating high-quality, timely, truthful, and accurate products looks similar to
the ABCs of journalism. As with public affairs, MCs are held to a high standard and must adhere to
ethics when creating VI products.
The main issues surrounding ethics in VI are still image and video post-production enhancement and
alteration. DoDINST 5040.05 Alteration of Official DoD Imagery is the governing regulation for VI
ethics. As written in the instruction, DoD imagery is used to make decisions and inform the public.
Mission success depends on official DoD imagery being complete, timely, and accurate. Anything that
casts doubt on DoD imagery will not be tolerated. (See Figure 9-1)
Image Enhancement/Alteration

Figure 9-1 While subtle, the original photo shows Seabees with bottles in their pants
pockets, which were removed in the second image.
Electronic image manipulation is a powerful tool made available with desktop computers and image-
editing software programs. These systems provide a means to effectively and ethically edit and
enhance captured media.
The photographer either shoots with an electronic camera or digitizes analog imagery into digital
media to enter the image into the system. The image is converted into a set of picture elements
(pixels) and assigned values for a position, brightness, and color. These pixels are entered into the
computer, which can rearrange them, change their values, duplicate them, or eliminate them.
This operation can alter the image in just about any way imaginableretouching, adding, or deleting
visual elements; changing positions of objects; modifying colors; and creating montages of entirely
imaginary scenes.
The adoption of electronic imaging raises important ethical questions. With the ability to create
images comes the ability to manipulate images easily, completely, and transparently. Electronic

9-3
information, unlike traditional photography, can be radically modified with no loss of resolution or
evidence the information has been altered.
According to DoDINST 5040.05, alteration of official imagery is prohibited except as follows:
Photographic techniques common to traditional darkrooms and digital imaging stations
(dodging, burning, color balancing, spotting, and contrast adjustment) used to achieve the
accurate recording of an event or object are not considered alterations.
Photographic and video enhancement, exploitation, and simulation techniques used in support
of unique cartography; topography; engineering; geodesy; intelligence; criminal investigation;
medical research, development, test, and evaluation; and scientific and training requirements
are authorized if they do not misrepresent the subject of the original image.
The obvious masking of portions of a photographic image in support of specific security,
criminal investigation, privacy, or legal requirements is authorized by DoDINST 5040.05
Use of cropping, editing, or enlargement to selectively isolate, link, or display a portion of a
photographic or video image is not considered alteration. Cropping, editing, or image
enlargement that has the effect of misrepresenting the facts or circumstances of the event or
object as originally recorded is prohibited.
Digital conversion and compression of official DoD imagery is authorized.
Photographic and video post-production enhancement, including animation, digital simulation,
graphics, and special effects, used for dramatic or narrative effect in education, recruiting,
safety and training illustrations, publications, or productions is authorized under either of the
conditions below:
The enhancement does not misrepresent the subject of the original image.
It is clearly and readily apparent from the context or from the content of the image or
accompanying text that the enhanced image is not intended to be an accurate representation
of any actual event.
Examples of the above-mentioned techniques as they relate to the ethics of VI can be found on the
NMCS training Web page.
Maintaining your credibility as well as the credibility of the DoD and the Navy is the bottom line. If we
are perceived as trying to deceive the public, whatever we have done electronically to the image will
be wrong. If we are perceived as attempting to bring the most accurate representation of reality as we
can create, we will have acted ethically on behalf of our profession.
SUMMARY
In this chapter, we introduced you to the visual information side of being an MC. Through the
information received here, you now should be able to define VI and be familiar with the instructions
and policies that regulate MCs in their everyday duties in VI. Now, its time to move on to the
fundamentals of visual information. As we progress through the manual, we will discuss theories of
light and color photography, videography, multimedia, and print production. Theories of light and
color, is discussed in the next chapter.
9-4
CHAPTER 10
LIGHTING AND COLOR
Before you can master the VI side of being an Mass Communication Specialist (MC), it is important to
understand light and color and how each plays a part in the art of visual communication. Light is the
magic ingredient that makes visual information possible. In performing your duties as an MC, you
must be aware of how light is reflected, absorbed, and refracted.
Color is all around us. Color is a sensation that adds excitement and emotion to our lives. Everything
from the clothes we wear, to the images and graphics we createrevolves around color. Without
color, the world would be a duller place. In order to understand color, however, we need to
understand light. Without light, there is no color. Without light, there can be no vision or visual
information.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Explain the theory of light.
2. Describe the different types of photographic and video lighting.
3. Explain the differences between CMYK (cyan, magenta, yellow, and key [black]) and RGB
(red, green, blue), as they pertain to the color theory.
THEORY OF LIGHT
Light is reflected from the world around us, making things visible to both our eyes and the eye of a
camera. The nature of light has a critical effect on the images you create.
Science does tell us light is produced in waves. In many respects, the waves of light can be
compared to sound waves. Sound waves vary in length and register as different pitches, while light
waves register as different colors. Light is made up of energy waves, which are grouped together in
what is called a spectrum. Light that appears white to us, such as light from the sun, is actually
composed of many colors. The wavelengths of light are not colored, but they produce the sensation
of color.
Light is produced in waves. In many respects, the waves of light can be compared to sound waves.
Sound waves vary in length and register as different pitches, while light waves register as different
colors. White light is actually composed of many colors
Visible Light The wavelengths our eyes detect are only a small portion of the electromagnetic
energy spectrum. We call this the visible light spectrum (See Figure 10-1). At one end of the visible
spectrum are the short wavelengths of light we perceive as blue. At the other end of the visible
spectrum are the longer wavelengths of light we perceive as red. All the other colors we can see in
nature are found somewhere along the spectrum between blue and red.
Incident Light Light that falls upon a subject form another source.
10-1

Figure 10-1 The Electromagnetic Energy Spectrum.
Effects of Different Mediums
Once light is produced, or emitted, it is no longer dependent on its source. When light travels from air
into a denser, but transparent medium, such as a glass, it slows down. However, when it leaves the
glass, it returns to its original speed.
Transmission Light is transmitted when it passes through a medium. Transparent mediums
transmit all light striking them; you see objects behind them quite clearly. Translucent mediums, such
as frosted glass, transmit only a portion of the light; you cannot see objects behind them clearly.
Reflection Light is reflected when it strikes an object and bounces back. There are two types of
reflectionspecular and diffused. Specular reflection occurs when light strikes a smooth, polished
surface and reflects back at the same angle that it struck the surface. Light that strikes a rough
surface is reflected back in many directions. This is diffused reflection. Diffused reflections form the
middle tone areas in a photograph; specular reflections form the highlighted areas. Three factors
affect reflected light:
Intensity
Direction
Color
10-2
Absorption Absorbed light is neither transmitted, nor reflected. An object that absorbs the light
falling upon it is opaque. Absorption (the absence of light) forms the shadow areas in a photograph.
Most objects are opaque. Both opaque and translucent objects have color because they reflect
certain wavelengths of light. Black objects appear black because they absorb nearly all of the
wavelengths of the visible spectrum (See Figure 10-2).

Figure 10-2 Effects of Different Mediums.
When speaking of light, black is the absence of ALL light, and white is the presence of all three colors
of light (red, green, and blue) in equal amounts. White items, such as snow, appear white because
they reflect nearly all of the visible spectrum. No object completely absorbs or transmits all light.
There is a certain amount of absorption or reflection in every object. If this were not true, we could not
see the object. For example, the windows in a car appear to be transparent even though they are
slightly tinted. The tint absorbs some of the energy (light) to make the interior of the car cooler. Also,
since the surface of the window is highly polished, some of the light is reflected. Transmission,
absorption, and reflection properties of objects allow us to see objects as well as photograph them.
Bending of Light
Dispersion Dispersion is the separation of white light into its individual colors, due to the bending of
each wavelength to a different degree of angle. A prism can be used to separate white light in this
manner. In nature, water droplets that produce a rainbow also cause dispersion of light. A camera
lens also disperses light if not corrected. Dispersion is usually undesirable for most photographic
purposes. Through the years, lens manufacturers have practically eliminated the occurrence of
dispersion. As a result, you do not have to be overly concerned with dispersion.
Refraction Refraction is the change of direction of light rays (conflict) as they enter a medium of a
different density. Refraction occurs when light leaves a medium, such as air, and enters a medium
such as water, glass, or even a vacuum. You probably have witnessed refraction of light in water. A
canoe paddle halfway in the water appears bent at the union between the water and the air. A lens
bends light rays in a controlled manner, allowing you to capture the scene in front of the camera,
recreating it behind the lens and recording the image.
Diffraction Light is slightly bent and scattered when light passes over the edge of an opaque object.
This change of direction of light rays is called diffraction. When an opaque object is placed so that it
partially blocks the path of the rays from a point source of light, you can see diffraction as a fuzzy-
edged shadow. An example of this can be seen during a solar eclipse. The outside edge of the
shadow is light and indistinct; it gradually fades into the deep black of the shadow. Thus, you can see
that some of the light is scattered into the shadow area. In photography, diffraction takes place as
light passes over the opaque edge of a cameras diaphragm in the lens-and-shutter system. Camera
operations and equipment will be discussed in a later chapter.
10-3
Polarization
Light rays radiate outward from the source in all directions. When light is scattered, it scatters in all
directions. For example, dust and gases in the atmosphere will scatter light and create a brownish
haze that can obscure the objects in a photograph.
When light strikes a series of parallel, microscopic slots, only light waves vibrating in one direction are
allowed to pass through. This is polarized light. In photography, polarized filters polarize light.
Specular reflected light, from a nonmetallic surface at any angle between 32 and 37 degrees, is
polarized in such a manner that the light rays vibrate in a direction parallel to the reflecting surface.
Light reflected in this manner is said to be plane polarized and is seen as glare.
Photographic Lighting
By now, you surely realize that light is the most important ingredient in photography. Light makes
photography possible by reflecting off the subject, entering the camera, and exposing the digital
sensor.
The intensity of light determines the brightness of the subject in relationship to the inverse-square law
(See Figure 10-3). It demonstrates that light decreases as the square of the distance increases.
Becoming familiar with this law will help you use light more effectively during photographic
assignments.

Figure 10-3 Inverse-square law.
Outdoor Lighting
Daylight is not a consistent light source. It's intensity and quality change throughout the day based on
time, weather, the seasons, and latitude. Sunlights color changes rapidly during dawn and twilight.
Its direction changes as the sun moves across the sky, altering the shape and density of shadows.
Direct sunlight produces dark shadows and brilliant highlights. Diffused sunlight produces weak
shadows and dull highlights.
10-4
Frontlighting
The type of lighting created when the sun light source is behind the photographer is called front
lighting (see Figure 10-4). This over-the-shoulder lighting is typically the first photographic advice
amateur photographers receive. This is a good, basic lighting to use because it produces bold colors.
Its drawback is that it can create a "flat" feel, as if the photograph has no depth.

U.S. Navy photo by Mass Communication Specialist 2nd Class Deven B. King
Figure 10-4 Frontlighting.
10-5
Sidelighting
Side lighting creates contrast and can add an emotive quality to an image. Shadows caused by side
lighting reveal details and texture.
This creates a sense of depth in an image. Used alone or in combination with front lighting, side
lighting can significantly enhance your images.

Figure 10-5 U.S. Navy photo by Mass Communication Specialist 3rd Class Joshua D.
Sheppard.
10-6
Backlighting
When the sun is in front of the photographer, coming directly at the camera, you have what is referred
to as backlighting (See Figure 10-5 ) that is, the subject is backlighted. This type of lighting is
effective for images of people outdoors in bright sunlight. In bright sunlight, subjects that are
frontlighted or even sidelighted may be uncomfortable and squint. Backlighting helps eliminate this
problem. Backlighting may require the use of a reflector or fill-in flash to brighten the dark shadows
and improve subject detail. Backlighting also is used to produce a silhouette effect. When you use
backlighting, avoid allowing sunrays to fall directly on the lens (except for artistic special effects). Use
a lens hood or some other means of shading the lens to prevent lens flare.

Figure 10-6 Backlighting (U.S. Navy photo by Mass Communication Specialist 3rd Class
Spencer W. Mickler.)
Existing Light
Existing light, sometimes called available or natural light, is light that is already on the scene. This
includes light from table, floor, and ceiling lights; neon signs; windows and skylights; candles and
fireplaces; automobile headlights; and any other type of light that provides the natural lighting of a
sceneexcept daylight outdoors. Moonlight is considered existing light. Existing light is found in
homes, offices, hangar bays, chapels, clubs, sports arenas, and so on. Outdoor scenes at twilight or
after dark are also existing light situations.
Photography by existing light produces pictures that look natural (See Figure 10-7). Existing light
allows the photographer greater freedom of movement because he is not burdened with extra lighting
equipment. Subject distance, when not using flash, has no effect on exposure, so you can easily
photograph distant subjects that could not otherwise be photographed using flash or some other
means of auxiliary lighting. With existing light you can make pictures that you could not make with
other types of lighting.
For example, flash may not be appropriate during a change-of-command ceremony or chapel service.
Not only might the flash disturb the proceedings, but it also may not carry far enough to adequately
light the subject.
10-7

Figure 10-7 Existing Light (U.S. Navy photo by Mass Communication Specialist 3rd Class
Marie Brindo-Vas.)
Fluorescent Lighting
Fluorescent light is deficient in red light and emits primarily blue and green light. Most color
photographs made without a filter under fluorescent light are deficient in red and have an overall
greenish appearance. When used correctly, fluorescent light does have some advantages over other
types of available light. A room illuminated by fluorescent lamps is usually brighter and more evenly
lighted than a room illuminated by tungsten lamps. This higher level of light makes it easier to get
enough exposure for your existing light photography and helps record detail that might have been lost
in the shadow areas with other types of existing light.
When you are photographing people, fluorescent lighting often causes dark shadows under the eyes
of the subject. This effect causes the eyes to appear dark, sunken in, and unflattering.
ELECTRONIC FLASH LIGHTING
Introduction to Flash Photography
A photo is created when light emits from an external source and reflects off different objects.
Sometimes, however, you may find yourself in a situation where you do not have enough light, such
as in a dark place or at night, or you may want to add some light for impact or mood. A flash can
provide that accent highlight or the necessary light for the scene you wish to capture.
Photography as we know it dates back to the 19th century. From the start, early photographers began
looking for solutions to their lighting issues as discussed above. The first flashes they created were
made of magnesium powders and other materials that, when ignited, created a short burst of light.
Naturally, blowing up noisy smoky compounds for a photo was quite unpleasant. In using this flash
mechanism, the photographer opened the lid of the lens (shutter), held the magnesium ribbon in his
hand, lit it, and immediately covered the lens and walked away before the people in the photo began
to complain about the smoke. Today, flashes work much more efficiently and comfortably than 150
years ago.
Flash Operation
Batteries Flash units require an energy source, most often 1.5-volt batteries better known as
AA batteries.
Capacitor Most flash units have two capacitors, a main and a secondary, to store large
amounts of electricity from the batteries. While the capacitors charge, you can hear a high-
pitched sound that anticipates the flashs fire.
10-8
Transformer This device augments the power (from 300 volts to thousands of volts) and
delivers the power to the flashs lightbulb.
Lightbulb The lightbulb is a glass cylinder filled with xenon gas, which usually does not
conduct electricity. In the flash process, electricity is conducted from the secondary capacitor
with voltage of thousands of volts in order to ionize the xenon and turn it into a conductor for
free electrons. After that, the main current is delivered from the main capacitor to the bulb and
is converted to photonsmeaning light. Naturally, this whole process happens in a flash. After
the flash is drained of power, the process repeats itself.
When the camera measures light, it accounts for the light being reflected off the subject. When using
a flash unit, however, the camera shoots a tiny pre-flash before the actual flash to measure the light
reflecting off the subject. The flash intensity for the flash is determined according to this
measurement. This is known as through-the-flash metering, or TTL. For a detailed explanation, read
about TTL in the manual that came with your flash unit. This pre-flash is so close to the actual flash
for exposure, it is usually unnoticeable.
Every flash also has a guide number (GN), which measures the intensity of the flash. The number is
listed in meters according to an ISO 100 film (ISO is the International Standards Organizations
standardized industry scale for measuring sensitivity to light). To double the GN, you increase the
energy fourfold.
When using a flash unit, the GN comes in handy when you need to determine the relevant working
distance, or the distance your subject should be from the camera. The formula for GN is as follows:
GN aperture = relevant working distance.
For example, if your flash has a GN of 42 and your aperture setting is f/4, the relevant working
distance is 42 4, or 10.5 meters. In other words, your flash should be no more than 10.5 meters
from your subject.

The following are the relevant factors that affect exposure when using a flash:
Shutter Speed The shutter on a digital camera is a mechanical device that opens for a
specific amount of time, allowing a set level of light to enter the camera through the lens. The
speed of the shutter doesnt influence a subjects exposure when flash is used, because the
flash is faster than the fastest shutter speed. This is why the shutter speed only affects the
backgrounds exposure and any ambient light falling on the subject.
Aperture The aperture is the main factor affecting the exposure with flash photography
because it determines the amount of light entering the lens. As a rule, use the widest aperture
you can (the lowest numerical f-stop number) in order to use the flash most efficiently. If we
close the aperture down too small, then the flash might not be strong enough, or it may
become too strong in compensation and blind the subjects.
Sensitivity ISO is the number indicating a digital camera sensors sensitivity to light. The
higher the sensitivity, the less light is needed to make an exposure, thus, higher ISO settings
are used when there is low light. Shooting at a lower ISO number requires more light than
shooting at a higher number, so plenty of light is available in these situations.
Working distance The distance between the camera and the subject is one of the most
influential factors on exposure in flash photography. You need to keep your subject within the
NOTE
The aperture is the opening through which light passes through the lens. The
aperture is controlled by an adjustable diaphragm or iris. Each setting of
diaphragm is known as an f/stop (f-stop) and is always read as a number.
10-9
flashs range. In a case where several subjects are being lit, its recommended to keep them
as close to the same plane as possible from the flash in order to guarantee even lighting.
Flash compensation Most advanced cameras have an option of positive or negative flash
compensation. This function gives you more control on the scenes exposure by overexposing
or underexposing the subject.
Synchronizing Speed
When the flash unit coincides with the cameras shutter, light hits the cameras electronic image
sensor and is measured in synchronization (sync) speed. In single lens reflex (SLR) cameras, when
using high sync speeds, the shutter exposes the film in several stages and not just once. Since this is
the case, the synchronizing speed of the flash is limited to the maximal single exposure speed of the
film/sensor. In most cameras, the synchronizing speed stands at 1/250. In some digital cameras, this
problem is solved by using an electronic shutter instead of a mechanical shutter. Before using a flash,
you should review its manual for information on sync speeds.
Flash Photography Modes
Flash units can be set to different modes, depending on how much light you want on your subject.
TTL The exposure is read through the lens. The flash emits a small pre-burst to determine
exposure and then emits the necessary amount of light for the given situation and metering
mode. TTL is a useful flash mode for on-the-fly flash use in an ever changing environment and
subject distance.
Automatic flash This mode works in flash-to-subject distance ranges determined by the f-
stop setting of the lens. As you adjust the lens f-stop in conjunction with the flash guide
number, the working flash range is determined by a scale on the flash or in the flash manual.
Manual flash The user presets the desired flash output. The range of power is determined by
the flash model and manufacturer, but a usual professional grade flash will allow adjustments
in the range of full power 1/1 to 1/128 in full, , or 1/3 stop increments. This mode provides the
MC with the most control and consistency in a static environment but can be challenging in an
uncontrolled action environment.
o Moving the flash away from the camera lens (off camera flash) is the most preferable
method of lighting with a flash.
o Many modern cameras precede the flash with a period of bright lightthe "anti-red-eye
system" allowing the iris to close. Professional photographers prefer the former
approaches, as this system does not always prevent red eyes.
Slow synchronization Slow synchronization is used in night photography when you want to
activate the flash and maintain a low shutter speed in order to expose the background. The
regular synchronizing speed is usually at a minimum of 1/60, and longer exposures permit
enough light from the background to enter the lens. When using this method, a tripod should
be used.
Rear curtain Rear curtain offers the ability to fire the flash at the end of the exposure to
freeze motion. When making long exposures while firing a flash, rear curtain creates the effect
of motion blur trailing the main subject.
Fill flash Fill flash is a technique used to brighten deep shadow areas, typically outdoors on a
sunny day. Fill flash is useful any time the background is significantly brighter than the subject
of the photograph, particularly in backlit subjects. To use fill flash, the aperture and shutter
speed are adjusted to correctly expose the background, and the flash is fired to lighten the
foreground.
10-10
External Flash
Most cameras used today come equipped with a built-in flash, but you may find an external flash
produces higher quality images.
Power An internal flash is weaker compared to an external flash. This is because a built-in
flash has less room for the flash apparatus we learned about earlier, such as the capacitors,
bulb, transformers, and batteries. A built-in flash uses battery power from the camera, while an
external flash relies on its own energy source, resulting in a significantly stronger flash.
Red eye An external flash solves the problem of red eye because the distance between the
external flash and the lens is great enough so the angle wont allow light to be reflected off the
retina back into the lens.
Attachment There are varieties of ways to attach a flash to a camera:
o Hot shoe The hot shoe is a metal groove with several contacts on its bottom to slide
on the flash.
o Synchronizing cable and special flash adaptor.
TTL TTL spares us the need to manually adjust the flash before every photo. There are
several variations on the method such as A-TTL, I-TTL, and TTL-BL. The differences between
the methods involve light-measuring techniques. A flash working on TTL fires without a
preliminary flash and measures the correct exposure, while the flash is shooting. It stops the
flash when the result has been achieved.
Zoom Flash Advanced flashes are equipped with zoom heads that adjust according to the
lens focal length. In a wide lens the light is dispersed in the space. In a narrow lens it is
focused on a narrow area in a more efficient way to enable it to reach a longer distance
Fast Synchronization The sync speed of the camera is limited, but sometimes the need
arises for faster shutter speeds, such as in strong daylight. This is why fast synchronization
was developed. The flash emits a series of ultra rapid fires one right after the other throughout
the exposure and, by doing that, exposes the sensor to light in each stage of the exposure.
The disadvantage of this mode is that the intensity of the flash becomes much weaker
because instead of one strong flash, there are many short weak ones. This is also the reason
why the shorter the exposure speed is in fast sync, the lower the flash intensity will be lower (it
flashes fewer times), until even from a distance of a meter at speeds of 1/4000, it will be
difficult to achieve good exposure. In electronic shutter cameras you can use higher shutter
speeds than in mechanic shutter cameras.
Strobe In this mode the flash fires several short flashes for about half a second. It is a good
mode if you want to see how shadows fall in the scene or if you want to achieve special effects
such as motion or freezing action. In todays digital world this is a less meaningful function,
because you can shoot a picture and see on the screen exactly how the shadows fall.
Slave flash A slave flash is located off camera; it is activated as a reaction to another flash.
The firing mechanism is a reaction to the light emitted from another flash or through a
wire/wireless connection in more advanced flashes. The first flashes fire in a predetermined
intensity, while the second fires according to the light measured by the camera as the data are
transferred through the wires (or air in the wireless mode). Using multiple slave flashes can
provide the MC the capabilities and control of a portable studio. The slave flash provides a lot
of creative options when photographing controlled action environments and, in some cases,
uncontrolled action environments.
Repeat Ultra-fast flashes are determined by the flash frequency per second and the length of
the flash. For example, a frequency of 20 flashes per second for half a second will cause 10
10-11
flashes. Repeat flash is used mainly for creative effects in photography, such as freeze
framing.
When purchasing a flash for your camera, you should look for one from the same manufacturer as
the camera since the communication between them is best. Remember, reading the manual before
use is strongly encouraged.
Flash Techniques
Off Camera Flash This is the preferred technique for creating the most flattering light. Just getting
the flash off the lens axis an arm length will provide a better light. This can be achieved using wireless
or wire technology.
Bounce Flash Bounce flash technique can be used with on or off camera lighting. To bounce your
flash means to reflect if off of another surface before it flashes upon your subject. When using this
technique, it is important to use surfaces light in color, preferably white, so the flash reflected will be
in the color of the surface from which it was bounced. This technique is one of the better methods to
illuminate a subject or scene with a single-flash unit. There are times when you want a very soft light
in order to lessen the tonal range between highlights and shadows and to soften harsh background
shadows:
Using a ceiling - The flash is aimed at the ceiling. An advanced flash knows that it is pointing to
the ceiling and will compensate for the long way it has to go with TTL. If lighting from above,
the result is also called butterfly lighting, and it is soft due to the diffusing qualities of the
ceiling.
Using a wall - The flash is pointed to a bulkhead or wall. Flash measurement is done the same
as bouncing off the ceiling, and the result is quality lighting from one side, also known as
window lighting or Rembrandt lighting.
Diffuser A flash typically creates strong contrasts in the lighting with sharp shadows because of the
small size of the light source. A good way to overcome this disadvantage is by using a diffuser. The
diffuser is made of plastic and is placed on the external flash. Its job is to soften the light and create
gentler shadows and soft uniform lighting. A diffuser is highly recommended in direct flash
photography. Take into consideration that you have to increase your flashs intensity to get the same
illumination with a diffuser. You can use more effective diffusing methodsumbrellas, soft boxes, etc.
to diffuse the light further and to create very soft and pleasant shadows.
Direct Flash The flash is directed straight forward toward the subject. This is the last option to
create an image but is still an important option. It is characterized with harsh shadows and a little
lighting from above. If direct flash is the only way to get a good exposure, then use it; however, try to
exhaust all other methods of lighting before resorting to this technique.
Painting with Light Flash photographs can be produced without the camera shutter and flash being
synchronized, using a technique called open flash or painting with light. To use the painting with light
method, set the camera shutter to a long duration (T, or B), open the shutter, fire the flash unit, and
close the shutter. The paint with light technique is sometimes used when the level of light over a large
scene is very low or at night. This method of flash photography allows the photographing of large
scenes that ordinarily are quite difficult to illuminate with artificial light. The photographer can walk
into a scene with the flash unit and illuminate sections of the scene or the entire scene. Any number
of flashes can be used during the exposure while the shutter remains open. A silhouette of your body
can be recorded if your body gets between the flash and the camera. To arrive at the exposure for an
open-flash image using a manual flash, determine your flash-to-subject distance and f/stop. Keep the
distance equal to the objects being illuminated when using manual flash. For example, when the
f/stop for the scene is f/5.6 based on a flash-to-subject distance of 10 feet, every flash within the
scene should be 10 feet from that section of the scene being illuminated. When an automatic flash is
10-12
used, the flash automatically shuts off when the proper amount of light is reflected from the subject,
providing the object is within its distance range. When you are using a manual flash, the exposure for
open flash is determined as previously discussed. This is true unless two or more flash units with
equal intensities are used at equal distances or two or more flashes from the same unit at the same
distance are used to illuminate the subject. Painting with light can be done with any device that emits
light, not just flash units. Check white balance if the light source is a different color temperature than a
flash unit. Trial and error is often needed to determine the best exposure when with working with
different light sources.
When using any type of external light source, it is best to determine your ambient exposure first. Set
your exposure so the ambient light is what you desire, use equivalent exposures to reach your
desired depth of field, and then start adding your additional light sources. Add one light at a time to
achieve your desired result. It is best to use this building light process to reduce the possible
confusion when working with multiple light sources and to direct your light sources where you want
them. Control (snoots, flash head zoom, etc.) and quality (hardness or softness) of light are just as
important as location and exposure.
In the paragraphs above, you learned about the importance of lighting to the photographer. The flash
is a unique and advanced device that enables us to shoot in situations where the available light is
working against us. Weve learned how it all began; how flash is built and how it works, what an
external flash is and what its advanced functions are, and how to make the most out of your flash.
The possibilities are endless. As always, the best way to learn is to put the theory into practice.
Before we move on to video lighting, however, it is important to take a step aside and talk about color.
COLOR THEORY
Think about a bright, red apple on a dark, green tree. Color is not an inherent property of these
objects. In fact, color is not even inherent to light. What you see is a visual perception stimulated by
light. The apple and the tree are only visible because they reflect light from the sun. The apple
appears red and the tree appears green because they reflect certain wavelengths of light more than
others do. In this case, the human eye sees these particular wavelengths as red and green.
When we see a color, we are simply seeing light of a particular wavelength. When a beam of light has
a relatively even mixture of light of all visible wavelengths, it appears as white light. When this beam
of white light is passed through a prism, its different wavelengths are spread apart and form a visible
spectrum. This visible spectrum is seen as a band of colors, such as violet, blue, blue-green, green,
yellow, and red.

10-13

Figure 10-8 Color Star.
The color star shown here (see Figure 10-8) is the foundation of color theory. The design of the star is
very simple. The primary additive colors are red (R), green (G), and blue (B). The secondary additive
colors are cyan (C), yellow (Y), and magenta (M). Combining the two colors on either side of the color
that is to be produced can produce any color on the color star. For example:
Y + C = G or G + B = C.
If a green filter and a cyan filter are placed in front of a white light, the resulting light will be blue. The
colors that are opposite of each other on the star are called complements (opposites). Y and B are
complements, C and R are complements, and G and M are complements. When magenta is added to
a print, at the same time and same amount, green is being subtracted. Complementary colors are
directly related to each other.
Color Temperature Scale
The color temperature of light is measured according to a temperature scale of Kelvin (K), which
indicates the proportion of red light to blue light radiated by the light source (the sun, electronic
journalism lights, fluorescent lights, etc.). Daylight is a combination of all the light rays in the visible
spectrum, but daylight contains a higher proportion of blue than some other sources. Tungsten
halogen lights commonly used in video lighting also contain all the light rays of the visible spectrum,
but with a higher proportion of red hues.
Color temperature is a way of measuring (in units derived from the kelvin temperature scale) and
describing the color quality of white light by comparing it to a theoretical black body heated to a
specified temperature on the kelvin scale (See Figure 10-9). It is important in the design and use of
computer monitors, solid-state displays, and digital cameras.

Figure 10-9 Color Temperature Scale.
As MCs, we need to understand color temperature because we use equipment that does not see true
colors like we do with our eyes. Knowing that outside light, inside lights, and camera lights have
different color temperature, you should gather that mixing these light sources will lead to poor results.
Instead, you should eliminate all but one light source when you are shooting. For example, shooting
10-14
indoors near windows is challenging. The outside light creates blue light (around 5600 K), and the
inside fluorescent lights are about 3200 K. To avoid having color issues with your product, you could:
Get away from the windows (best choice)
Match outdoor light coming in by putting blue gels on your lights, and make them match the
incoming blue light
Place an amber gel sheet over all the windows to match the 3200 K lights you are using
Video lights normally run at about 3200 K. However, you may find that some studios lights are 5600
K, similar to lighting outdoors. The 5600 K lights often are found at indoor sports arenas, such as the
Louisiana Superdome. If shooting in one of these arenas, you need to use an outdoor filter on your
camera for 5600 K.
Most professional grade video cameras have a filter wheel such as the one found in Figure 10-10.
The filter wheel is used to achieve a proper white balance.

Figure 10-10 Filter wheel found on the Ikegami 201W ENG Camera.
For the camera shown in the image above, the filters are used as such:
1. Shooting indoors 3000 K (clear filter)
2. Outdoor bright and sunny 5600 K (darker filter like sunglasses)
3. Outdoor cloudy/overcast 5600 K (not so dark but still like sunglasses)
4. Outdoor very bright and sunny with snow or water (rarely used)
White Balance
The term white balance refers to the process of balancing color when shooting images. When white
balancing, you are defining for the camera what the color white looks like in specific lighting
conditions, which also affects the hue of all other colors. Usually, the automatic white-balance
function of a video camera operates sufficiently in the automatic position for you; however, some
situations will require manual white balancing:
When the light reflecting from the subject is different from the light that is illuminating the video
camera
When shooting a monochromatic subject or a subject against a monochromatic background
10-15
When recording under a sodium lamp, mercury lamp, or white fluorescent lamp
When recording outdoors under neon lights or fireworks
When shooting scenes just before sunrise or right after sunset
To white balance a motion-video camera manually, you can follow the procedure describe in your
cameras user manual. Normally a white lens cap, made of a diffuse plastic material, is supplied with
the camera. You also can use any white object to white balance the camera, providing the white
object is illuminated under the same conditions that you will be shooting. To white balance, you
simply place the white lens cap over the lens, point the camera at the light source, and press the
white balance button. Remember, when in the manual white-balance mode, if the color temperature
of the light changes, you must reset the white balance.
To create special effects, you may want to lie to the white balance sensor; for example, you may
want to produce motion video that has a warm color balance, such as that which occurs at sunrise or
sunset. To produce video coverage with warm characteristics, you can "white balance" the video
camera on a blue object or any of the complementary colors. When you record the scene, an overall
yellow cast is produced. You can also use filters to create various effects.
VIDEO LIGHTING
Now that we have discussed light and color, it is time to move on to video lighting. Knowledge of light
and color is essential to every MC. When shooting video, we use lighting for visibility and quality. The
images you shoot for photography and video must add to the communicative qualities of the story or
spot. The light from a scene being captured with a video camera is changed to electrical impulses
when exposed to a cameras charged-couple device (CCD). Even though most modern cameras are
capable of shooting in extremely low lighting conditions, you still may not produce a quality image. If
the images are dark and grainy for no apparent reason, you distract from the message and lose your
audience.
We cannot always create light where and when we want it, but we have tools that allow us to create
lighting that does more than just provide enough light for the camera to pick up an image. Lighting
schemes also enhance the communicative qualities of video. Lighting is an art form. The three main
goals of video lighting are:
Fulfill the technical requirements of the camera
Add a three-dimensional look
Draw attention to an object
Three-Point Lighting
The three-point lighting technique (See Figure 10-11) is a proven method within the broadcast
industry and is used with film, still photography, and multimedia products. This method is also good
for conducting on-camera interviews with one subject-matter expert (SME).
With this technique you use three lightsa key light, a fill light, and a back light.
Key light (modeling light) The key light is the main light and is usually the strongest (about
500 watts). This rectangle-shaped light has the most influence on the look of your scene and is
used to light your subjects face. The key light is placed to one side of the camera/subject, so
that the side is well lit and the other side has some shadow. Its also used to control the
direction of the shadows.
Fill light The fill light fills in shadows and provides detail to you subjects face. The fill light
will not fill in all shadows, however, so you will need a slight shadow from the key light.
10-16
Backlight Opposite the key light, the backlight illuminates the subjects back to separate him
or her from the background, creating a three-dimensional look.
Important facts to know about three-point lighting:
Opt for a key-to-fill-light ratio of 2:1. In other words, the key light needs to be two times more
intense than the fill light. For example, your key light could be 500 watts and your fill light 250
watts.
Key light placement:
o 35-50 degrees to the left or right of the camera
o 35-50 degrees above the subject
o Fill light placement 35 to 50 degrees to the side of the camera opposite the key light
side and above the subject 35-50 degrees. Remember, you will have a shadow from the
key light. A shadow is fine, but make sure you lessen it with the fill light.
o Back Light 35 to 50 degrees behind and to the side of the subject. You want it the
same height as your key and fill (35-50 degrees above). The back light is best used
opposite the key light (see Figure 10-11).
Although three-point lighting is typically the standard, there are instances when you will need to adapt
your lighting technique.

Figure 10-11 Three-Point Lighting.
Sun Gun
A sun gun is the name for a light mounted on top of a camera. You also may hear it referred to as a
tota light, top light, or camera light. This type of light sometimes comes with a filter attached to it
called a dichroic filter. Its purpose is to match the sunlight when used during the day. If you turn it on
inside, you will see it has a bluish color as if shooting outdoors. For the best lighting at an outdoor
electronic newsgathering (ENG) shoot, the talent should be placed with the sun to his or her right.

FILL
LIG
HT
Back Light

Camera
Key Light
MCSN Shavers
SME
Shadow side

10-17
Light Diffusion
To give your image a softer, more natural light with undefined shadows, you can use diffusion
material over the lightsmaterial such as spun glass (tough spun), heat-resistant plastic, metal
window screen, and a metallic mesh (scrim). Diffusion materials reduce glare and harshness in your
scene. Diffused light makes people more comfortable as well.
Bounce Lighting
The bouncing of light discussed in the photography lighting section also comes in handy when
shooting video. Bouncing light produces soft, natural lighting and reduces glare and harshness. You
can bounce your lights off of walls and ceilings or use lighting umbrellas. Be careful when bouncing
light, however, because if the surface is not white, your light will be mixed with another color.
No other tool at your disposal will do what light can do for the look, feel, and mood of your
productions. When you apply these lessons and use your camera and light kit, you will increase the
effectiveness of your productions and the command information messages you craft.
FUNDAMENTAL PORTRAIT LIGHTING
The success of a portrait is equally dependent on lighting as on the pose of the subject. The manner
in how the subject is lighted can actually set the mood of a portrait. The best portrait lighting will
simulate natural sunlight. This is because we are accustomed to seeing faces illuminated from above
and to one side with shadows cast downward and on one side or the other. Light coming from below
eye level casts shadows upward and produces an unnatural, ghastly effect.
Good portrait lighting shows off the subject to the best advantage, emphasizing the form and
expressiveness of the facial features. When lighting appears pleasing and natural in a portrait, it
produces prominent highlights on the forehead, nose, cheeks, and chin with enough shadows to
round out the facial features.
Lighting for a studio portrait normally requires at least two lights. One of these is the main, modeling, or
key light; the other is the fill or fill-in light. Portrait lighting is divided into various types called lightings.
Some of these lightings are as follows: broad, short, butterfly, Rembrandt, split, and rim. These
names have been assigned because of the visual effects the lighting creates when it falls on the
subject from a given direction.
This visual effect is derived from the modeling light. Other light sources that may be added to the
modeling light to enhance the subject are as follows:
Broad lighting The main light completely illuminates the side of the face turned toward the
camera.
Short lighting The main light completely illuminates the side of the face turned away from the
camera.
Butterfly lighting The main light is placed directly in front of the face and casts a shadow
directly under the nose.
Rembrandt lighting This is a combination of short and butterfly lighting. The main light is
placed high and to the side of the face turned away from the camera and produces a triangle
of light on the side of the face in shadow.
Split lighting The modeling light is placed to light completely one side of the face while
placing the other side of the face in shadow.
Rim lighting The modeling light is placed behind the subject and places the entire face in
shadow.
10-18
Main Light
The main light, as mentioned above, is also known as the modeling light because it is used to model
the face (or subject). The main light creates a three-dimensional effect by either emphasizing or de-
emphasizing the curvature and characteristic features of the face with highlights and shadows. The
modeling light should always be the one dominant light source in a portrait because it controls the
direction of the shadows.
The direction of the main light establishes four basic portrait lightingthree-quarter lighting,
sidelighting, frontlighting and backlighting. When reading other books on portrait lighting, you will
often encounter other names depending on what the author wanted to call the lightings. You, as an
MC, will mostly be concerned with three-quarter (broad and short) and frontlighting (butterfly lighting).
As MCs, we also designate each of our lightings as high, medium, and low for vertical position. To go
further, we designate the lighting as right or left of the subject. These lighting positions change with
each subject. When setting portrait lights, you should always study the effect and view the subject
from the camera position, preferably through the viewfinder.
Three-Quarter Lighting
Broad and short lighting are two types of three-quarter lighting, and they are the types that you most
often use for official portraits. The only difference between the two is the position of the main light and
the way it illuminates the subject.
Short lighting is used for people with a normal-shaped face or people who have a wide face. When
short lighting is used, the side of the subjects face that is away from the camera is illuminated. This
puts the side of the face toward the camera in shadow. By putting the side of the face toward the
camera in shadow, you can provide a slimming effect.
Broad lighting is useful for subjects with a narrow face. When broad lighting is used, the side of the
face toward the camera is illuminated, and the side of the face away from the camera is in shadow.
This provides a widening or broadening effect of the face (see Figure 10-12).

Short lighting
Main lighting only
Short lighting with fill light
Broad lighting
Main lighting only
Broad lighting with fill light
Figure 10-12 Short and Broad Lighting.
Flexibility of Three-Quarter Lighting
Three-quarter lighting can be used with almost any type of face. It is flexible because once it is set,
the subject can move his head from full face to profile and the lighting remains good at any point you
choose to pose the sitter. The degree of flexibility is determined by the type of light used (spot or
flood) and the size and type of reflector used.
10-19
Main Light Distance
The power or intensity of the main light is not the determining factor for the distance the main light is
placed from the subject. It is the visual effect the light has on the subject that determines this
distance. When the main light is too high and close to the subject, there may be too much light falling
on the forehead and not enough light falling on the lower part of the face. This effect can be improved
by moving the main light farther away from the subject and placing it correctly. Highlights on the
forehead, the upper cheeks, the chin, and along the bridge of the nose are created by the main light.
These highlights give life, brilliance, and form to a portrait, and the quality of these highlights is
controlled by the main light distance.
To determine the main light distance, start with the light about 4 feet from the subject and about 2 feet
above the subject's eye level. The light should be about a 45-degree angle to the lens axis. Observe
the forehead highlight and move the light closer to the subject. As the light gets closer to the
forehead, highlights spread out to a large, flat area and begin to wash out.
Now, start moving the main light away from the subject. As you slowly move it back, you will find
there is a point where the forehead highlight becomes relatively small and bright. When the light is
moved back much further from this point, the highlight spreads and disappears. Between the point
where the highlight is brightest and where it starts to disappear lies the range where the highlight still
has character. This point is where you get the most pleasing effect. Once you have found the
distance where the main light gives your desired effect, the distance should remain the same
regardless of the direction you need to move the light. This main light distance should always be
considered as the starting point of portrait lighting.
Main Light Height
To determine the correct height for the main light, move the light directly in front of the subject while
maintaining the distance determined for the forehead highlight. Raise or lower the light until the
shadow cast by the nose is just long enough to touch the top edge of the upper lip. This is the height
the main light should normally be no matter at what position you place it in an arc around the subject.
When your subject is wearing a hat with a visor, the visor shadow should fall naturally across the
face. Many photographers think the shadow cast by the visor should not shade the eyes. The shadow
from the visor should shade the eyes. However, in a portrait, this shadow should not be so dark that
shadow detail is lost and the eyes are hard to see. To prevent this shadow from being too dark, raise
the main light to the desired height, and instead of aiming it down at an angle, aim it straight. This
way, the light is cast under the visor and prevents the shadow from becoming too dark.
Main Light Direction
By the time you have determined the main light distance and the height for a given subject, you
should have a fair idea of the direction of light from the main light. To establish the direction from
which this light should come, move the main light in an arc, to the right or left, around the subject.
Remember, while moving the main light, its established distance and height should be maintained.
The shadow cast by the subject's nose is your key to main light direction. The light should be moved
around until the shadow cast by the nose merges with the cheek shadow and leaves a small,
triangular highlight on the cheek. When this is done, the main light is in position. Remember, the main
light must always be the dominant, directional, shadow-pattern forming light.
Fill-In Light
Once the main light has been established, the fill or fill-in light is added. This fill light is a secondary
light and must not overpower the main light. Its purpose is to fill in and soften the shadow areas,
making them lighter, and to provide shadow detail. The fill light is placed slightly above the subject's
10-20
eye level, on the opposite side of the camera from the main light and near the camera lens axis. The
fill-in light should be less intense than the main light and of softer quality. This light is often diffused
even when the main light is not. By placing the fill light slightly above the subject's eye level, you can
cast a shadow under the chin. This shadow separates the head from the neck. The chin shadow
should be soft and unpronounced.
The intensity of the fill-in light can be controlled by either adjusting the power setting of an electronic
studio light set or adjusting the light-to-subject distance. The fill light can be moved in an arc to the
side of the subject and away from the camera. The fill light must not produce conflicting shadows
(shadows that point toward the main light).
Catch Light
A catch light provides a small, bright reflection of the main light in the eyes of the subject. It adds life
and brilliance to a portrait and gives the eyes sparkle. There should be only one catch light in each
eye, and it should be high in the iris of the eye. For broad lighting, the catch light should be
approximately in the 11 o'clock position. The main light for short lighting should create a catch light at
approximately the 1 o'clock position.
The lighting ratio for portraits should usually be about 3:1; 4:1 is maximum for good color portraits.
Background Light
The third light in studio portrait lighting is the background light (See Figure 10-13). A background light
is usually placed on a low stand midway between the background and the subject. When adjusted
correctly, the background light provides good tonal separation between subject and background. The
intensity of the light falling on the background should not normally be greater than the intensity of the
light from the main light falling on the subject's face. By increasing or decreasing the intensity of the
light on the background, you can control the tone or color reproduction of the background in the
finished print. To reproduce the background color to its true color in a color print, it must receive the
same amount of light as the subject's face.
When taking portraits for use on a roster board, you want the tone and color of the background to be
consistent. When the backgrounds vary in color, the roster board does not appear uniform, and the
attention of the viewer is distracted. When a background light is used, it is wise to position it before
setting up any other light. It is easier to determine its effect without the interference of the main and fill
light.
The background light should be positioned so the brightest area of the light illuminates the
background directly behind the head and gradually falls off into the corners of the frame. When the
background light is set in this manner, it separates the head from the body and draws the viewers
attention to the subject's face.
10-21

Figure 10-13 Effect of Backlighting. Mass Communication Specialist 2
nd
Class Jeffrey
Atherton demonstrates backlighting, (U.S Navy photo by Mass Communication Specialist
3rd Class Molly Greendeer)
10-22
Hair Light
Once the main, fill-in, and background lights are in their established locations, additional lights may
be added to the setup to further in enhance the portrait. One such light is a hair light. A hair light is
usually a small lighting unit placed on a boom so it shines down from above and behind the subject. It
is used to lighten the hair (or hat) and shoulders, add detail to the hair, and separate the subject from
the background, presenting the illusion of a third dimension (See Figure 10-14).
The intensity of the hair light varies with the subject since it is dictated not only by the color of the
person's hair (or hat) but also by the amount of sheen the hair has. The hair light is usually placed on
the side of the subject opposite the main light and behind the subject. It should be used from an angle
about 6 to 8 feet high and from a position close to the center of the subject area without the light
stand or boom showing in the picture. Light from this unit should not be allowed to spill over onto the
forehead or tip of the nose. The hair light normally has a snoot attached so light from it does not strike
the camera lens. Be sure the hair light is turned off when making any exposure readings. This light
does not affect your exposure, but it could influence your meter.

Figure 10-14 Effects of Hair Light. Mass Communication Specialist 2
nd
Class Jeffrey
Atherton demonstrates hair lighting, (U.S Navy photo by Mass Communication Specialist
3rd Class Molly Greendeer)
10-23
Sidelighting
With sidelighting, the face is lit more intensely on one side than the other (see Figure 10-15). This
type of lighting is well suited for young women who have smooth skin and regular facial features, or
for men whose rugged character lines should be emphasized. Normally, you will not use sidelighting
for official portraits.

Figure 10-15 Sidelighting. Mass Communication Specialist 2
nd
Class Jeffrey Atherton
demonstrates sidelighting, (U.S Navy photo by Mass Communication Specialist 3rd Class
Molly Greendeer)
10-24
Butterfly Lighting
Butterfly lighting is often used when making portraits of women. To start, you can place the main light
very close to the camera lens axis at about the subject's eye level. This creates a flat lighting, and
facial feature characteristics can be lost. By moving the main light higher, you can create a certain
amount of modeling that is still very flattering and almost foolproof. This lighting is flattering because it
does not emphasize lines or crows feet around the eyes, wrinkles on the forehead, or shadows
around the mouth. It does, however, emphasize eyes and eyelashes, especially in females. The main
light should be just high enough to cast a shadow of the nose about a third of the distance from the
nose to the top edge of the upper lip (see Figure 10-16).

Figure 10-16 Butterfly Lighting. F-10-16 Mass Communication Specialist 2
nd
Class Jeffrey
Atherton demonstrates butterfly lighting, (U.S Navy photo by Mass Communication
Specialist 3rd Class Molly Greendeer)
10-25
Rim Lighting
Rim lighting is often used when making profile portraits. Rim lighting is the same as backlighting,
where the subject is lighted from behind, causing the facial features of the profile to be highlighted
(see Figure 10-17).
In a profile portrait, when a person looks straight ahead, only the whites of the eyes are seen by the
camera. This causes an undesirable effect. Instead, have the eyes cheat. Turn the eyes slightly
toward the camera, without turning the head, to show enough of the iris so the eye can be seen as an
eye, not a white ball. Have the subject's head tipped back slightly. This separates the chin from the
far shoulder, gives a better neckline, and reduces the appearance of a double chin. Allow more space
on the side of the picture toward which the eyes are looking. This allows the subject to look beyond
the frame.

Figure 10-17 RIM Lighting. Mass Communication Specialist 2
nd
Class Jeffrey Atherton
demonstrates rim lighting. (U.S Navy photo by Mass Communication Specialist 3rd Class
Molly Greendeer).
10-26
Portrait Studio Equipment
Barn Doors Barn doors are made from opaque material. They are usually made of metal, painted
black, and attached and hinged to the front of a light unit. They can be positioned to block or feather a
portion of the light produced by the unit. Barn doors are made for both spotlights and floodlights. They
are good accessories for controlling spill light.
Snoots Snoots are cylinders, open at both ends, usually made of metal and painted black. They are
used at the front of a spotlight to limit the size of the circular area projected by the unit. Short, wide
snoots give a large circle of light. Long, narrow snoots give a narrow circle of light. A cardboard tube
or black-rolled paper can be used for a snoot when you need to improvise.
Umbrellas Umbrellas work much like the reflectors used on floodlights and provide an excellent
means of converting specular light into soft, diffused light. Umbrellas can be used with any light
source. The light unit points away from the subject; the umbrella is attached in front of the light and
reflects or bounces the light back and onto the subject. The reflected light falling on the subject is
softer and more diffused than the light originally emitted by the source. The reflecting surface of the
umbrella determines the quality of the light. Umbrellas are usually made with a matte, white surface
that provides a very soft, completely diffused light. Some umbrellas are constructed with a shiny,
metalized surface. Metalized umbrellas throw a somewhat specular light, but the light is softer and
spread over a larger area than the light emitted by the original light source.
Screens Screens can be used to help eliminate strong shadows on a subject.
Corrective Techniques
Because the photogenic qualities of each person's face vary, certain corrective techniques in posing,
lighting, and camera heights can be used to help depict the subject favorably and improve the quality
of the portrait. Changing the camera viewpoint, combined with proper lighting and pose, can create
amazing alterations in the pictured appearance of any face. Keep in mind that the most commonly
made mistake is placing the subject too low in the frame.
For example, when the subject has a long nose, the light should be low to shorten the shadow. When
the subject has a short nose, raise the main light to lengthen the shadow. This has a secondary effect
as well. It adds form below the eyebrow and accentuates any slight hollowness in the cheeks, giving
a more provocative look.
When shooting a portrait of a person smiling, you must shorten the nose shadow because the upper
lip draws up and the shadow goes over the lip. The nose shadow should not extend over or touch the
edge of the lip. When it does, the lip form is destroyed and it appears unnaturally small.
The main light-to-subject distance is again determined using the forehead highlight test. The fill-in
light is positioned directly below the main lightclose to the camera lens axis and slightly above the
subjects eye level. The intensity of this light should be about one f/stop less than the main light. The
lighting ratio is established by moving the fill light closer to or farther away from the subject to
increase or decrease its effect.
Balance also can be controlled by using diffusion screens over the fill-in light. Although not as flexible
as three-quarter lighting, frontlighting does have some flexibility. The subject's head can be posed
from full face to profile. However, the nose shadow must always remain under the nose. Therefore,
the main light must be moved with the head, and as the head moves to the three-quarter or profile
position, the hair light also must be moved. The fill light is not moved.
10-27
In the chart below, you will find additional techniques.
Issue Corrective Technique
Chubby, round face
Shoot three-quarter view, light side of face away from camera
Use three-quarter or sidelighting
Thin face
Shoot front, full face
Use low three-quarter or sidelighting
Wide forehead
Use low-camera viewpoint
Tilt chin upward
Narrow forehead Use high-camera viewpoint
Baldness
Little or no hair light
Blend head with background
Eyes close together Shoot three-quarter pose
Eyes far apart Shoot three-quarter pose
Small eyes
Shoot three-quarter pose
Use three-quarter lighting so the eyes are in shadow
Large or protruding eyes
Use high three-quarter lighting
Lower eyes slightly
Deep set eyes
Use frontlighting to keep eyes out of shadow
Uneven eyes Turn head toward one side so natural perspective eliminates uneven appearance
Bags under eyes
Use makeup
Use frontlighting
Cross eyed or
defective eye
Turn head so bad eye is away from camera
Light side of face toward camera to place other eye in shadow
Short nose
Use frontlighting
Use high-camera viewpoint
Dark skin
Look for backgrounds slightly darker than the subject
Keep as much light as possible off the background
Move the subject away from the bright background
Keep subject away from a wall, desk, etc., to avoid shadows
Portrait Composition and Subject Placement
As in every type of photography, in portraiture there must be one, and only one, principal point of
interest. Naturally, in a portrait, this is the subjects face. You can emphasize the point of interest in a
portrait by doing the following:
Contrasting the point of interest with the background
Giving it the strongest lighting
Posing the subject and arranging the props so all elements point to the point of interest
Identifying it at a strong point within the picture area
Where are the strong points within a portrait picture space? The principle of thirds, to be discussed in
a subsequent chapter, applies to portraiture as well. These are the areas within a portrait that attract
eye attention and are the preferred locations for the center of interest. In a portrait, when the main
point of interest is located at Point A, the secondary point of interest should be at Point D. If B is the
point of interest, C becomes the secondary interest point. Such an arrangement obviously balances
the composition. Usually in portrait composition, the eyes fall close to Points A or B.
No rule can be given for best portrait composition. Rules only give guidance to a rough approximation
of good placement. You can only arrive at the best composition for each portrait through the feeling
10-28
for balance and subject position. When the head and shoulders are placed high in the picture frame,
a sense of dignity and stability is gained. Such placement is particularly appropriate when the subject
is a person of importance, such as your commanding officer. However, when the head is too high,
viewing the picture is uncomfortable. This creates a scenario in your mind that if the subject stood up
he would bump his head. Also, when the head is too high, the proportion between head and body
areas becomes awkward.
Full-Length Photographs
Another type of portrait photography you will encounter as a Navy MC is full-length photographs used
for promotion and other selection boards. Per the Military Personnel Manual article 1070-180 (officer
photographs), Photographs are required for all officers of the Navy and the Navy Reserve,
regardless of status, within three months after acceptance of each promotion. This article also
provides information for you as the MC when you are shooting this type of portrait. For example, the
article states that the photograph must be in color with the subject at a three-quarter view, left
shoulder forward. It also spells out the required photo size and specifications for the embedded title
board.
When shooting full-length photos for boards other than officer promotions, ensure you review the
current instruction for such additional guidance.
Background Since the studio setup is unique for full-length photographs, they should be scheduled
at a time other than that of normal head-and-shoulders portraits. The background for full-length
photographs must be a contrasting color from the uniform of the subject. Normally, white seamless
paper is used because it provides the best results. When white seamless paper is used for full-length
portraits, it must drape down and provide enough coverage for the subject's head and extend to the
deck so the subject is standing on it. You should protect the background from footprints and tears by
laying down a protective material, such as paper or acetate.
Lighting When lighting a full-length portrait, you must light the entire body of the subject evenly and
not allow objectionable shadows to show on the final product. This is best achieved when the subject
is lighted with light diffused from two umbrellas. The background can be lighted evenly with two
background lights. You should always conduct tests to determine the best lighting setup for your
studio equipment and facilities.
Passport Photographs
Passport photographs are special portraits required for travel outside the United States. If you are
tasked with shooting passport photographs, you should familiarize yourself with the current U.S.
government passport photo requirements.
Passports should be provided only to U.S. military personnel, their authorized family members, and
employees of the federal government when required for executing official orders. Providing such
photography for other purposes or individuals is an infringement of the rights and commercial
enterprise and may violate U.S. Navy Regulations.
Passport photos must portray a good likeness of the applicant as well as satisfactorily identify the
applicant. Passport photographs must meet the following requirements:
Photographs must be 2x2 inches in overall size. The image size, measured from the bottom of
the chin to the top of the head (including hair), shall be not less than 1 inch or more than 1 3/8
inches (See Figure 10-18).
Passport photographs must be in color.
10-29
Photographs that depict the applicant as relaxed and smiling are encouraged. Photographs
should be portrait-type prints, meeting the size and image specifications listed above.
Photographs must be clear, front view, full face, eyes open with a light, plain background.
A passport photograph serves to identify the passport applicant. When glasses, a hearing aid,
a wig, or similar articles are normally worn, these articles should be worn when the photograph
is made. Dark glasses with tinted lenses are not acceptable, unless required for medical
reasons.
Photographs should be made in normal street attire without a hat or other headgear that
obscures the hair or hairline.
Up-to-date guidelines for taking passport photos can be found on the U.S. State Department page for
professional photographers.

Figure 10-18 Passport dimensions.
Tenting
Photographing small products can be quite difficult if they include bright reflective surfaces. You can
easily see other nearby objects reflected in them and sometimes even the whole studio. Also, light
from the lighting units may reflect off the surface very strongly at a particular point. These reflections
can create an unwanted bright highlight. There are two ways to get around these problems. First, you
can use many lights and add reflectors to make sure the lighting is even. This method may solve the
problem of light from the lighting units reflecting off the subject surface, but unfortunately there are
two great disadvantages: it requires more lights than most photo labs have, and you still have
reflections.
The other way to solve the problem is to use the tenting technique. The tent consists of a frame
covered by a translucent white material that casts a diffused illumination on the subject. The lights are
placed outside the tent and directed onto the translucent material. The color of the background, which
is placed inside the tent with the subject, depends on the subject and the effect desired (see Figure
10-19). Strips of black or colored paper taped to the inside of the tent add the necessary dark accents
or bring to life a colorless object.

Figure 10-19 Tenting.
10-30
MULTIMEDIA
Just as MCs who shoot still and video images need to understand about lighting and color, so do
those working with multimedia products. More specifically, you must understand the difference
between RGB (red, green, blue) color and CMYK (cyan, magenta, yellow, and key [black]) color in
order to ensure the products you create look as good in print as they do projected on a screen.
Color Management
Few issues in multimedia cause as much confusion as color management and the differences
between the RGB and CMYK color models. These color models are opposites.
RGB, sometimes referred to as an additive color process, is what your monitor uses to send color to
your eye. It combines red, green, and blue to create a whole range of different colors. CMYK is the
color space used in the world of ink and paper. It is also known as a subtractive color process. Cyan,
magenta, and yellow inks are combined to create thousands of other colors. Black ink is added into
the process because, in theory, black can be created by combining cyan, magenta, and yellow. In
reality, the combination has somewhat of a tint and is not pure black.

So what does all this mean to you as an MC? For starters, RGB offers a wider range of colors than
CMYK, and RGB colors tend to be more vivid than CMYK. Additionally, many RGB colors cannot be
duplicated using the CMYK process.
As long as your product remains on a computer screen (website, command presentation, etc.) the
differences between the two-color processes are purely theoretical. However, the moment your
desktop published document makes the leap from monitor to printing press, the differences between
the two color spaces become crucial. A green that looked vivid on screen can turn into a dull, khaki
color when your document is printed. That charming piece of clip art of Santas elves in bright green
outfits suddenly looks like a picture of elves in Army uniforms when converted from RGB to CMYK.
Thus, if you are using a particular color, convert it to CMYK to make sure it will print the way you want
it to. Note that some software does not allow users to work in CMYK.
In the early days of desktop publishing, the prevailing wisdom was that all documents should be
converted to CMYK before sending them to a printer or service bureau. This allowed the desktop
publisher a measure of control over color appearance. More than one desktop publisher forgot to
convert a color, thus having a print job come back with graphic elements like lines and shaded boxes
missing as a result.
Nowadays, however, some printers prefer to receive files in RGB, so they can convert to CMYK
themselves using their expertise. This helps them convert the colors to their closest CMYK
equivalents, while taking into account the calibration of their printing equipment. The key is to consult
with your printer or service bureau ahead of time to see what format they prefer for your document.
If using your shops inkjet printer or desktop color lasers, keep in mind that these devices sometimes
convert files from RGB automatically. However, the limitations of CMYK still apply to these output
devices, so design with color mode differences in mind. As with any equipment you use in your shop,
always check the users manuals and get to know your equipment.
NOTE
White establishes overall color balance of your monitor.
10-31
SUMMARY
In this chapter, you learned about light, lighting techniques, and color and how these processes and
theories affect photography, videography, and multimedia products. Lighting is critical to all visible
mediums, and, as an MC, light is one of the most important tools youll have in your toolbox. Todays
MCs produce, edit, and view products on light-sensitive devices that require a basic understanding of
what this chapter has covered. Therefore, the discussion of color, theory of light, and multimedia in
this chapter is meant to be a quick and efficient reference to the visible light portion of
the electromagnetic spectrum. Remember, having an understanding of how light and color affect your
images and multimedia products is critical to your role as an MC.
10-32
CHAPTER 11
PHOTOGRAPHY
Photography is one of the pillars of the MC rating, and every MC must possess the skills necessary to
capture images in support of our mission. As you have heard quite a few times, A picture paints a
thousand words. Statistics show most people glance through newspapers and magazines, and rely
on imagery to tell the story. Visual imagery readily tells and sells the Navy story to the media, elected
officials, and the public. Without imagery, we have no story.
In this chapter we will take what you learned about lighting and color and turn our focus to cameras,
camera operations, and basic shooting techniques.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Identify the basic parts of a camera.
2. Identify the basic process of photography.
3. Identify camera accessories.
4. Identify the methods used for controlled and uncontrolled shooting.
CAMERA OPERATIONS
The basic elements of photography include:
The Camera
Aperture
Shutter
Exposure
Depth
Angle
Lens
Accessories
Composition Techniques
Controlled/Uncontrolled Subjects
THE CAMERA
Derived from the Latin phrase camera obscura, meaning dark chamber, a camera is a light-tight box
used to capture images. A camera generally consists of an enclosed hollow chamber with an opening
(aperture) at one end for light to enter and a recording or viewing surface for capturing the light at the
other end. Though still based upon this principle, additions to the basic camera have improved
focusing the image, viewing, controlling the amount and duration of light entering the box, and range
and exposure calculations.
Todays MCs use digital single-lens reflex cameras (DSLRs) that are similar in many ways to
traditional 35mm format film cameras. Both have a mechanical mirror system and a pentaprism that
directs light from the cameras lens to its optical viewfinder (See Figure 11-1). The most significant
difference between the two, is that the image seen through the viewfinder is also is captured by the
camera's sensor and is then saved to a memory card vice being recorded on film.
Figure 11-1 Digital Reflex Camera.
Controls and Indicators
Whenever you begin working with a new camera, you should take the time to read through its manual
and familiarize yourself with the functions, controls and indicators of your equipment. The success or
failure of the imagery you produce will be a result of your skills and experience in using your camera.
The camera is simply the tool with which you gather this imagery.
APERTURE
Aperture is the variable opening, produced by the iris-diaphragm, through which light passes into the
camera. The aperture control is a ring around the lens with a scale that lists aperture numbers (2.8, 4,
5.6, 8, etc.), also known as f/stops.
Full stops are 1.0, 1.4, 2.0, 2.8, 4.0, 5.6, 8, 11, 16, 22, 32, 45, 64, 90, and so on. Notice that the
number doubles for each two-f/stop decrease in size. Slight optical corrections are made for f/11 and
f/45. This may seem confusing at first, but knowledge of the f/stop system is necessary to compute
optical formulas used by advanced photographers. It is necessary to know that each marked f/stop on
a lens, except its widest aperture, is usually a full stopthat is, it admits one-half or twice the amount
of light as the adjacent stop, and the larger the number, the smaller the aperture. At first, it is perhaps
easier to think of the f/stops in terms of fractions; 1/8 is larger than 1/11, which is, in turn, larger than
1/16.
Setting the Aperture Control
On some camera/lens systems adjust the f/stop with the aperture control ring on the lens. On most
modern cameras, adjust the f/stop with control dials on the camera to attain the correct exposure.
SHUTTER
A shutter controls both the exact instant of exposure to light and the duration of that exposure. The
shutter works in conjunction with the diaphragm to control the exposure. The shutter is a thin
mechanism that functions similarly to a curtain covering the charge-coupled device (CCD). When this
shutter opens, it exposes light from the exterior onto the CCD, allowing a photo to be taken. The
length of time that the shutter remains open is termed the shutter speed.
Shutter Release Button
The shutter release button opens the shutter and initiates the exposure.
Shutter Speed Dial
The shutter speed dial indicates optional shutter speeds and sets the length of time the shutter
remains open during an exposure. Shutter speeds are indicated in fractions of a second; for example,
60 = 1/60 of a second (also expressed as 1/60). The higher the number on the dial, the faster the
shutter speed and the shorter the exposure. Like aperture settings, shutter settings are controlled on
the camera on modern cameras. Shutter speeds control the duration of time that light is allowed to
pass through the lens aperture to the cameras sensor or CCD. Shutter speeds are usually marked on
the camera as the reciprocal of the fraction of a second that the shutter remains open (one is 1/1 or
one second; two is 1/2 or one-half second; four is 1/4 or one-quarter second; and so on).
Standard shutter speeds are B, 1", 1/2", 1/4", 1/8", 1/15", 1/30", 1/60", 1/125", 1/250", 1/500", 1/1000"
and 1/2000". B is the bulb setting. Bulb setting allows the shutter actuation button to keep the shutter
open for as long as the shutter release button is held.
Setting The Shutter Speed
You may encounter situations where you need to freeze action or blur motion. In these situations you
must manipulate both the shutter speed and the aperture control ring. For instance, you may set your
camera at 1/60" to illustrate the speed of a runnerhis legs and arms are a blur of motion on the
finished photograph.
Consequently, if you want to freeze the action, you set your camera at 1/250" or higher. Then the
runners legs, arms, and victory expression are frozen. For handheld shots, choose a shutter speed
no slower than the speed closest to the focal length of the lens. For example, you would select 1/60"
for a 50 mm lens and 1/250" for a 250 mm lens.
To stop the movement or action in a picture, you must consider the following three factors:
Relative Movement of the Subject - The faster the movement, the faster the shutter speed required.
The term relative movement is used because if the motion of the subject is followedthat is, the
action is panned with the cameraa slower shutter speed can be used than if the camera were held
stationary.
Subjects Direction of Movement - A subject traveling at a right angle to the camera/lens axis requires
a faster shutter speed than one traveling at a diagonal angle. Conversely, a subject moving toward or
away from the camera, parallel to the lens axis, can be stopped with a slower shutter speed than
movement in other directions.
Camera-to-Subject Distance - The closer the action is to the camera, the faster the shutter speed
must be. A car traveling 60 miles per hour across the lens axis at a distance of 100 feet would be
stopped by a shutter speed of 1/1000" (or perhaps 1/500"). However, if the camera-to-subject
distance were increased to 500 feet, the action could be stopped with a shutter speed of 1/250" or
1/125." If the car was a half-mile away, 1/60" should be sufficient to stop the movement.
International Standards Organization (ISO) Indicator
The ISO is a method of controlling the sensitivity of the imaging sensor to light. The lower the ISO
setting, the less sensitive the image sensor is to light. As the ISO setting is increased, so is the
magnification of digital noise in the image. Be aware of this effect, and learn what the usable ISO
range is to use for the camera you are using. As technology increases, so does the useable plateau
of the ISO setting.
EXPOSURE
Exposure is the amount of light falling on a unit area of the digital sensor. The intensity is the amount
of light falling on this unit area during the exposure time.
Thus the equation for exposure is as follows:
Exposure = Intensity x Time (E = I x T)
Exposure is controlled through the aperture setting, shutter speed, and ISO setting. A common rule
for exposure calculation is the sunny f/16 rule (also known as the f/16 rule).
The f/16 rule assumes that you are shooting outside under sunny, mid-day (or overhead lighting)
conditions. Set your camera shutter speed to the closest possible full stop shutter speed to whatever
ISO is selected. For example; your shutter speed would be 1/125 with an ISO setting of 100, or if your
ISO setting was 400, the shutter speed would be set to 1/500. With these conditions met, the proper
aperture selection would be f/16. In photography, the sunny f/16 rule is a method of estimating correct
daylight exposures without a light meter and can aid in achieving correct exposure of difficult
subjects. As the rule is based on incident light, rather than reflected light as with most camera light
meters, the photographer compensates for very bright or very dark subjects. The rule serves as a
mnemonic (or a reminder) for the camera settings obtained on a sunny day using the exposure value
(EV) system.
Equivalent Exposures
Aperture and shutter speeds each have a doubling and halving effect on exposure. This doubling and
halving relationship of aperture and shutter allows you to combine different f/stops and shutter speeds
to alter the image, while, at the same time, admitting the same amount of exposure to the light-
sensitive material.
For example, you have determined that the correct camera settings for your subject is 1/125 second
at f/16. Instead of using this combination of shutter speed and f/stop, you could double the shutter
speed (to stop action) and halve the f/stop. In this example your new camera setting could be 1/250
second at f/11, 1/500 second at f/8, or 1/1000 second at f/5.6, and so on. When you need more depth
of field, 1/60 second at f/22 or 1/30 second at f/32, and so on, can be used.
These shutter-speed and f/stop combinations are called equivalent exposures. Equivalent exposures
control depth of field and stop motion. The combination of shutter speed and f/stop is used to capture
the subject and effect you want to create.
Because many cameras are fully automatic, you may wonder why you need to know basic exposure.
There are many good reasons for knowing and understanding the basic principles of exposure. First,
you want to control the depth of field and stop action instead of the camera controlling it. Second, a
light meter cannot think for itself. A light meter only responds to the light it receives. You must know
when to override the camera, such as when the subject is sidelit or backlit. Lastly, meters are
mechanical. They can be inconsistent, consistently wrong, or fail altogether. When you can work out
in your head roughly what the camera exposures should be, you will know when the camera or light
meter is wrong. Knowing when a light meter is giving incorrect readings could make the difference
between success and failure of an important photographic assignment.
DEPTH OF FIELD
You may not always want everything in your photographs to be in sharp focus. By using selective
focus, you can emphasize the main subject and draw attention to it. Selective focus means the use of
a shallow depth of field to isolate or emphasize the subject. Selective focus is the control of the zone
of sharpness, or depth of field, in your photographs. Depth of field is the distance between the
nearest and farthest points of acceptable sharp focus of the scene photographed.
Simply stated, depth of field increases as the focal length of the lens decreases (a shorter focal-
length lens is used), as the lens aperture decreases (gets smaller in size) and as the distance
focused on (focal point) increases, or both. Inversely, depth of field is less for long-focal-length lenses
than for short-focal-length lenses, less for wider apertures, and less for shorter lens-to-subject
distances.
A peculiarity of the term depth of field is that it is typically used to define a condition of maximum
depth of field. When the depth of field is shallow or purposely restrictive, the term selective focus is
used. Selective focus is merely selecting a depth of field that will satisfy a requirement to have the
foreground, background, or both, not in sharp focus. The use of selective focus is to make the main
subject stand out in the picture by being sharp, while the rest of the image area is blurred. This is a
good technique for gaining subject emphasis.
Camera Modes
Aperture Priority User controls the aperture and ISO;, the camera chooses the appropriate shutter
speed in order to capture correct exposure.
Shutter Priority User controls the shutter and ISO; the camera chooses the appropriate aperture
setting in order to capture correct exposure.
Program Mode The camera controls both shutter and aperture settings in order to capture correct
exposure. Some camera models will also control ISO in Program mode. Please refer to your
cameras user manual for clarification.
ANGLE OF FIELD
The focal length of a lens is a determining factor in the coverage of that lens. The maximum coverage
at the focal plane of a lens is expressed in degrees as the angle of field. Angle of field is the widest
angle at which light entering a lens produces a usable portion of the circle of illumination at the focal
plane. Light around the edges of the entire circle falls off in intensity before disappearing completely.
The usable portion of this circle is called the circle of good definition.
LENSES
As noted previously, most DSLRs have interchangeable lenses. The focal length of a lens is the
distance from the optical center of the lens to the focal plane (sensor plane) when the camera is
focused upon an object at infinity. A 50 mm focal-length lens is considered the normal lens (on a
full-frame sensor), because when you look through the viewfinder, objects appear at their
approximate normal size. A smaller than normal focal length (such as 28 mm) means a wider angle of
view. A longer-than-normal focal length (such as 135 mm) is a telephoto lens.
The f/stop (aperture) ring controls the amount of light passing through the iris diaphragm of the lens
and striking the CCD. The higher the f/stop number, the smaller the amount of light allowed to enter
the camera lens. This principle works in the same manner as the iris of the human eye (See Figure
11-2).

Figure 11-2 Comparison of the Iris Diaphragm of a Camera Lens to the Iris of the Human
Eye.
The types of lenses you may use in the fleet are wide angle, ultra-wide angle, macro, normal focal
length, telephoto, and variable focal-length (zoom) lenses.
Wide-Angle Lenses Anything less than 40 mm in focal length is considered a wide-angle lens. A
wide-angle (short- focal- length) lens is designed to take in a large view and is indispensable when
working in confined spaces or when you want to cover a large area. Wide-angle lenses have their
own qualities, causing apparent distortion and foreshortening of perspective, so objects close to the
lens appear large, while background objects diminish in size dramatically.
Ultra-Wide-Angle Lenses Many ultra-wide-angle (short-focal-length) lenses are known as fisheye
lenses. The ultra-wide-angle view of these lenses results in image distortion. Straight lines appear
curved, and curved lines may appear straight. Fisheye lenses makes objects appear to diminish in
size rapidly as the distance from the camera increases and objects close to the camera appear far
apart.
Macro Lenses A macro lens is used for close-up photography and is a valuable lens for any
imaging facility to have. These lenses come in various focal lengths and are capable of producing up
to one-half or even life-size 1:1 images.
Normal Focal-Length Lenses The standard or normal focal-length lens for a DSLR camera is from
about 40 mm to 58 mm (the most common being 50 mm). This focal length gives you the same
impression as you would get if you look at the subject with one eye. A normal lens helps you shoot
photos of people when you dont want to get too close.
Telephoto Lenses A lens with a focal length greater than 58 mm is a long focal-length lens. Most
modern, long-focal-length lenses are called telephoto lenses because of their compact design. A
telephoto lens is used from farther away to obtain the same size image that would be produced by a
shorter lens at a closer distance. Any telephoto lens seems to compress the perspective of your
image. A telephoto lens does not compress perspective; it only appears that way! Remember,
perspective does not depend on the lens being used, but on the position of the camera.
Variable Focal-Length Lenses A variable focal length, or zoom, lens changes the focal length by
mechanically moving the elements within the lens. The movement of lens elements, in unison and in
precise order, gives a smooth change of image size while maintaining acceptably sharp focus
throughout the entire adjustment. The biggest advantage of a zoom lens is that you have many focal
lengths in one single lens. You do not have to change lenses to use a different focal length.

Optical Center
The optical center of a lens is a point usually (although not always) within the lens at which rays of
light from different sources are assumed to cross.
Astigmatism
Astigmatism is a lens aberration that causes an offaxis point to be imaged as a pair of lines at right
angles to each other and in different focal planes. A lens having astigmatism is unable to image
horizontal and vertical lines in the same plane with equal sharpness.
Focusing Systems
Accurate focusing and framing are essential to good images, and modern cameras have many
devices to help you get good focusing and framing results. Because of the principles of depth of field,
simple cameras are manufactured without any way of adjusting focus. The lenses of these simple
cameras are prefocused at the hyperfocal distance.
The hyperfocal distance for a lens is determined by the focal length and the aperture. That allows
point and shoot, ID, and passport cameras to produce photographs where everything from about
one half of the hyperfocal distance through infinity are acceptably sharp. Focusing is accomplished by
adjusting the distance from the lens to the image sensor. It does not matter which of the two is
actually moved, the lens or the sensor. With handheld cameras, the lens is moved in and out. No
matter what system you use to focus the camera, there must be a means for you to determine when
the image is in focus. Most cameras have automatic focusing systems. Your cameras user manual is
always your best point of reference. Refer to your cameras user manual for further information.
ACCESSORIES
There are many accessories photographers use in their day-to-day work. Some are required and
some are optional. Here is a short list to give you an idea of what they are:
Filters
Light Meter
Tripod
Monopod
Shutter Release
Flash
Lens and body caps
Lens hoods
Memory card
NOTE
Most commonly lenses with a longer-than-normal focal length are ideal for shooting
portraits. A long-focal-length lens fills the frame while keeping the camera at a far enough
distance from the subject to prevent image distortion. Normal focal-length lenses are more
frequently used for full-length portrait photography. Lenses that are of a shorter-than-
normal focal length require the camera to be closer to the subject, which can cause image
distortion and may intimidate or irritate the subject.
Filters
Filters are optical elements, such as glass, gelatin, or plastic, dyed in a specific manner to absorb
light of certain colors selectively to emphasize or subdue certain objects and to improve the
monochrome or natural reproduction of objects. The purpose of photographic filters is to alter the
characteristics of light that reaches the light-sensitive emulsion. As light is transmitted through a filter,
at least one of the following alterations occurs:
The color of light is modified.
The amount of light is reduced.
The vibration direction of the light rays is limited.
With the advent of digital photography and sophisticated computer photo-editing software, the
physical application of filters is almost non-existent. However, neutral-density (ND) and polarizing
filters continue to be of importance when creating digital images.
Neutral Density Filters Haze Filters
ND filters reduce the amount of light passing through a camera lens without changing the
reproduction of colors in the scene. These filters are nonselective in their absorption of colors of light
and therefore uniformly reduce the various colors of light in the spectrum. White light and colored light
are transmitted through an ND filter with only the intensity of the light being affected.
This type of filter is useful in any setting where you want to use larger apertures and/or slow shutter
speeds in bright conditions. When you desire to reduce the depth of field but maintain a given shutter
speed, ND filters permit the use of a larger f/stop, which, in turn, reduces the depth of field. ND filters
are used extensively in motion-picture photography where depth of field is usually quite deep. ND
filters are also used with mirror-type lenses where there is no aperture control.
Polarizing Filters
Polarizing filters change the way your camera sees and treats light. Their effect becomes apparent
when you look at the blue sky through a polarizing filter while rotating it. As you rotate the filter, the
sky appears to get darker, then lighter. Reasons for using polarizing filters:
Reducing or eliminating unwanted reflections (glare) from nonmetallic surfaces, such as glass
and water
Having exposure control, similar to ND filters
Reducing the effects of haze
Darkening the blue-sky image in both black-and-white and color photography
Increasing color saturation in a color photograph without altering the hues of image colors
The term polarize refers to a property of light that cannot be seenthe direction in which light rays
vibrate. Unpolarized light rays vibrate in all directions at right angles to the ray itself. A light ray is
polarized when vibrations are in one direction only.
Any synthetic material that polarizes light may be called a polarizer or polarizing device. A polarizing
screen is a polarizer in sheet form.
Although there are many different polarizing filters, there are only two main typesone that fits over
the camera lens and one for use over a light source. Since they do not affect color, polarizing filters
and screens may be used for both black-and-white and color photography. A polarizing device used
over the camera lens may have small posts (known as indicator handles) projecting from the rim for
aligning the axis of the polarizing grid.
Light Meters
The correct use of a light meter greatly increases the accuracy in determining your camera exposure.
You should also understand that the incorrect use of a light meter can result in consistently
unacceptable results. To assure consistently acceptable exposures, you must become thoroughly
proficient with the correct operation of a light meter.
A light meter can either be built into the camera or a separate handheld unit. Both types are sensitive
instruments and should be handled with care. There is little maintenance, but they do require
batteries. When you think a light meter is not working properly, have it checked by a qualified
technician. Always be sure to check your equipment before leaving on an assignment. Like all
camera equipment, careless handling and excessive heat and moisture limit the life of a light meter. A
light meter must not be subjected to high temperatures for prolonged periods of time. Unless the light
meter is designed for underwater photography, it should be protected in inclement weather.
Light Meter Readings There are two methods of measuring light with handheld light meters. These
two methods are the incident-light method and the reflected-light method.
Incident-light method This method requires the use of an incident-light meter. An incident-
light meter has a diffusing dome that covers the photoelectric cell. When an incident-light
meter reading is taken, the meter is held at the position of the subject with the photoelectric
cell pointed toward the camera. The meter measures the light falling upon the scene. The
incident-light method of measuring light is used extensively in motion-media photography and
gives fast, accurate results in all photography. Most light meters are designed for use as either
incident-light or reflected-light meters. By removing the diffusion dome from the photoelectric
cell, you can use the meter to measure reflected light.
Reflected-light method When you are taking this type of light-meter reading, the diffusing
dome should be removed from the photoelectric cell and the meter pointed toward the subject.
A reflected-light meter receives and measures the light reflected from a scene within the angle
of acceptance of the meter. The term angle of acceptance compares to the term angle of view
of a lens. Both are predetermined during manufacturing.
The angle of acceptance and the distance between the meter and the scene are the controlling
factors as to how much of the reflected light from the scene is measured by the meter.
When the angle of acceptance is greater than the angle of view of a lens (when using a
telephoto lens for example), the meter should be moved closer to the scene. Light meters that
are built into the camera are reflected-light meters.
When these meters are used, the angle of acceptance is not greater than the angle of view of
the lens being used. The meter measures the light from the scene as seen by the lens. Some
reflected-light meters have angles of acceptance between 1 and 4 degrees.
These meters can be used from a distance to measure the reflected light from specific objects
within a scene. Exposure meters with angles of reflectance this small are called spot meters.
Light Meter Operation You must understand the way light meters operate to determine whether the
information they provide is accurate. No matter what type of light meter you use, it is an electrical-
mechanical device that can only provide information for which it is designed. You are responsible for
translating this information into useful exposure data.
Light meters are calibrated to see one shade only middle gray. This means the information that the
meter provides, no matter how much light is falling on the subject or what the reflection characteristics
are, reads the subject the same as though it were middle or neutral gray (18-percent gray).
Theoretically, if you take a reflected-exposure meter reading from an 18-percent gray card and
expose according to the reading, the result should be a picture that matches the tone of the gray card
exactly. However, when you take a light meter reading of a white or black object, the light meter still
reads the objects as though they were 18-percent gray.
When you take a photograph that includes gray, white, and black cards, you will see how, depending
on where you take the light meter readings, they affect your photograph. For example, when you take
the light meter reading from the black card, the final picture reproduces the black as middle gray, and
the gray and white cards as white. When you take the reflected-light meter reading from the white
card, just the opposite occurs. In your final photograph, the white card reproduces as middle gray,
and the gray and black cards reproduce as black. This example demonstrates overexposure and
underexposure. When the reading was taken from the black card, the meter raised the black tone to
middle gray, and the gray card tone was also raised so it reproduced as white. Thus, both the black
and gray cards were overexposed. The opposite occurred when the exposure was based on the
reading from the white card. The white tone was lowered to middle gray and the gray card tone to
black, resulting from underexposure. Only a light meter reading taken from the gray card allows all
three cards to be imaged at their true tone.
A more practical example on the way a light meter reads 18-percent gray is illustrated in the following
example. Suppose you are going to photograph a ship alongside a pier. Bright sunlight is striking the
ship from the side, causing part of the ship to be in shadow. This creates a brightness difference
between the highlight area and the shadow area. Both highlight and shadow areas are equal in size
and importance. When you get close to the ship and take a reflected meter reading of the highlight
area alone, you expect the finished photograph, like the white card in the above example, to be
middle gray. When you stop down the aperture to the recommended exposure of the meter, you are
also reducing the amount of exposure from the shadow area. This results in a loss of detail in the
shadow area of the ship because it is underexposed. The opposite effect occurs when you take a
meter reading from the shadow area. In this case, the shadow tones are raised to middle gray and
have detail, but the highlights are overexposed and completely washed out. If, however, there was
an area in this scene whose tone was midway between the highlight and shadow areas, you could
use it to take your light meter reading (like the gray card was used in the previous example).
In this example, assume there is no tone midway between the two extremes. You can still get an
accurate light meter reading of the entire ship. Since the highlight and shadow areas are of equal
size, the average light meter reading you get will represent a tone that is midway between the two
extremes.
Reflected-Light Meter Reading
Variations There are variations of light meter readings used to provide accurate light meter
readings of different types of scenes. These methods are as follows: the integrated, or
average, method; the brightness range method; the darkest object method; the brightest object
method; the substitution method, and the bracketing method
Integrated, or average, method The technique of making reflected-light meter readings from
the camera position is called the integrated, or average, method. This method was used and
explained in the examples above. This method is accurate for the majority of photographs
taken.
The integrated, or average, method of measuring reflected light is acceptable for scenes that
consist of approximately equal portions of light and dark areas; however, when a scene is
composed of either predominately light or dark areas, the meter reading may not be accurate.
The reason for these inaccurate meter readings can be more easily understood by using an
example of photographing a checkerboard with alternating black-and-white squares.
When the meter is held at a distance to include the entire board, the reflected light from both
the black and the white squares influence the meter, so an average reading results. The light
measured from this position is the integrated sum of both the white and the black squares, as
though the checkerboard were one gray tone. The light meter reading from this point should
produce an acceptable image. If you hold the meter so close to one of the white squares that
the black squares have no effect on the meter reading, the reading is higher than the
integrated reading and the meter indicates that the scene requires less exposure. The same
principle applies when a reading is taken close to a black square. The reading indicates that
the scene requires more exposure. Each of the meter readings is a measurement of 18-
percent gray. You can apply this checkerboard example when you photograph scenes that are
predominately light or dark.
Compensation is required to expose such scenes correctly. As a general guide, you should
double the indicated exposure (increase one stop of light) when the light measurement is taken
from a predominately light scene and detail is desired in the shadows. When you take a light
meter reading from a predominately dark scene and detail is desired in the highlight areas, you
should reduce the exposure by one-half (decrease one stop of light).
Brightness Range Method This method requires you to take two readings from the sceneone
from the highlight area and another from the shadow area. You then base your exposure on a point
midway between the two readings. The brightness range method of determining exposures for most
scenes usually provides detail in both the highlight and the shadow areas.
An exception to this is when the exposure latitude is not capable of recording the brightness range of
the scene. This can occur with scenes that have extremely great brightness ranges. A scene
brightness range is the difference between the brightest and the darkest areas of a scene and is
usually expressed as a ratio. The average brightness range of a normal scene is 160:1.
When the scene exceeds a brightness range of 160:1, you must compromise the exposure. This
compromise can be as follows:
Underexpose and sacrifice shadow detail to retain highlight detail.
Overexpose and sacrifice highlight detail to retain shadow detail.
Do not compensate and expose for the midtones, and sacrifice both highlight detail and
shadow detail.
Darkest Object Method The darkest object method of determining exposures is actually a variation
of the brightness range method. When you desire detail in the shadow area or darkest object within
the scene, you take the light meter reading from this area. This method actually overexposes the
image overall, causing the highlight areas of the scene to be greatly overexposed. This overexposure
occurs because the light meter averages the light reflected from the shadow area and indicates an
exposure to produce middle gray. When a great amount of detail is not needed in the shadow area
and you want to expose the overall scene normally, you can take your light meter reading from the
darkest object or shadow area and stop down two f/stops. This method provides a good overall
exposure of the shadows, midtones, and highlights.
Brightest Object Method Another variation of the brightness range method is the brightest object
method. The brightest object method of calculating exposures is used when a highlight area within a
scene is the only area within the scene from which you can take a light meter reading. This method
works when you want to record detail in the highlight area. In both situations, you take only one light
meter reading of an important highlight area. When you do not want the highlight to record as a
middle-gray tone and desire a good overall exposure of the scene, you add up two or three f/stops of
light (using aperture, shutter, or ISO) from the indicated exposure. When you need maximum detail in
the highlight area, you can use the reading that the light meter provides. This records the highlight
area as medium gray. This method underexposes in other areas of the scene that reflect less light.
Substitution Method With the substitution method, you replace an object within the scene with an
object, such as a gray card. You then take a reflected-light meter reading from this object. You use
this method when the other methods of determining exposure are not possible. Such situations may
be caused by excessive distance between the light meter and the scene, barriers in front of the
scene, or the size of the scene makes it impossible to get an accurate light meter reading.
The substitution method is often used in studio situations where objects may be too small to obtain an
accurate light meter reading. You should select substitution objects that match the light reflectance
quality of the object in the scene. For example, a white card can be used to substitute highlight areas
of a distant scene. A dark or a black card can be used to substitute a shadow area, an 18-percent
gray card can be used to represent middle gray or the back or palm of your hand can be used to
substitute a gray tone.
When the substitution method is used, take the light meter reading from the substituted item under
similar lighting conditions that exist in the scene. When the scene is in bright sunlight, the substituted
object must also be in bright sunlight. Likewise, a scene in shade requires a substitute light meter
reading in shade. You can use each of the methods discussed previously with the substitution
method. An 18-percent gray card can be used for the integrated or averaging methods, a dark and a
light card can be used for the scene brightness range method, a dark card for the darkest object
method, and a light card for the brightest object method.
Bracketing Method There are times when unusual lighting or subject brightness prevents you from
getting an accurate light meter reading. In these cases, a good insurance policy is to bracket your
exposure. To bracket, you should take one picture at the exposure indicated by the light meter, and
then take two more exposures: one at one f/stop under the indicated exposure and another at one
f/stop over the indicated exposure. When you are in doubt about the correct exposure, it is always
better to slightly underexpose rather than overexpose. Blown-out highlights are not recoverable, while
some shadow detail may be able to be attained from postproduction.
Causes Of False Readings
Light meters can give erroneous or bad readings that produce underexposed images for a number of
reasons. You can prevent these bad readings by being aware of the conditions that cause them.
Light entering the viewfinder When taking light meter readings, you must be sure the reflected light
that influences your light meter is actually from the object you want to photograph. Stray light,
backlighting, large dark areas, and shadows can all cause erroneous light meter readings. When
using a light meter, be sure that shadows are not cast from the light meter, camera, or yourself.
When a handheld light meter is used, the distance of the light meter to the subject should not exceed
the shortest dimension of the object. For example, when taking a light meter reading of a persons
face that is approximately 9x6 inches, you should hold your light meter about 6 inches from the face
of your subject when taking the meter reading.
Light entering the viewfinder and falling on the viewing screen can cause underexposure. Most
through-the-lens (TTL) meters read the light falling on the viewing screen from the lens. When strong
lighting is coming from behind the camera, it can influence the light meter. When an occasional
underexposed frame in an otherwise successful series occurs, the cause may be light entering the
SLR viewfinder. Make a point of shielding the viewfinder if you do not have a rubber eyecup. When
you use a tripod, have the camera set on automatic and cap the viewfinder to prevent exposure
errors.
Bright subject A bright object or highlighted area can affect the sensing area of a spot or center-
weighted TTL meter. This results in an underexposed image. To prevent this from occurring, you
should ensure the sensor is pointed directly at a mid tone (something as close to 18 percent grey as
possible) within the scene, and use this as the camera exposure. When you frame and compose your
image, the light meter may indicate a different setting. Be sure to leave your camera set at the
indicated mid tone setting. Normally, light meters that take integrated or averaged readings of the
field of view cannot be fooled in this instance. But remember, even integrated systems cannot cope
with extremely bright areas that take up a significant portion of the frame.
Bright background, dark subject When you are taking photographs that are backlit or against a light
background, there is always the danger of underexposing the main subject (unless you use special
techniques to fill in shadows, such as using a reflector or a flash unit). Be careful to take a reading
from only the shadow side of the subject in these situations.
Too little light The most frequent cause of underexposure is trying to take pictures when there is not
enough light. Light meter readings are not very accurate at these low-light levels. When you want to
make photographs under these conditions, be sure to use a tripod and bracket to provide more
exposure than indicated by the light meter. You also can switch to a higher ISO.
There are several other causes that may cause your images to be exposed incorrectly. Some of the
most common causes:
Wrong camera settings are set when transferring information from a handheld light meter to
the camera. This can also occur when you attempt to override an automatic camera.
Using a camera with TTL metering and placing a color filter with a high-filter factor over the
lens.
Wrong aperture setting when flash is used.
Shutter speed is not synchronized with camera flash.
Aperture or shutter speed setting is knocked while carrying the camera. Always check the
camera setting before taking a photograph.
Weak or incorrect battery in the light meter.
Tripods
The best way to support your camera is with a sturdy, rigid tripod (See Figure 11-3).Tripods are three-
legged camera supports with flat platforms or heads in which cameras are secured. Most tripods are
equipped with a head that has an elevator center post. The camera is attached to this center post and
is raised or lowered easily by cranking the post up or down. These elevators eliminate the need for
readjusting all three tripod legs for making small, last-minute adjustments to the camera height.
Tripods come in a variety of designs, sizes and weights. The heavier models are the sturdiest and
provide the best support; however, if too heavy, they are not very portable. As a rule, the heavier your
camera, the heavier and stronger your tripod must be. For some of the light, full-size tripods, hanging
a bag of sand or another weight from the tripod head improves rigidity. This is especially useful in
high winds. Another method is to hang a strap from the tripod head, and use the strap as a foothold
on which to apply downward pressure.
Tabletop tripods are also available and can be used almost anywhere a flat surface is available.
These small tabletop tripods can be braced against the photographers chest. Because of their small
size, they fit in a camera bag. To set up a tripod, extend one leg straight ahead toward the subject.
This way the camera may be aimed by pivoting the tripod on this one leg. Extend the other two legs
and adjust them to level the tripod platform horizontally.
When setting up a tripod on level ground, you can waste a lot of time trying to get the tripod level if
the leg sections are not extended fully. An easy solution to the problem is to mark the tripod legs in
specific increments with a marking pen, pencil, or scribe. One method is to mark short lines at 1 inch
intervals and long lines at 6 inch intervals. Doing this reduces your frustration, saves time, and allows
you to level your camera on the tripod with less effort. When a tripod is set up on an uneven surface,
several adjustments of the side legs are normally necessary. Readjustment of the front leg levels the
camera vertically so the platform or head is level. Most newer tripods have platforms that can be
adjusted by eliminating the need for minor leg adjustments.
To mount the camera on the tripod head, you secure it in place by tightening the tripod screw into the
camera tripod socket. Secure the camera by tightening the camera clamp screw locknut. After the
camera is mounted on a tripod, test the camera to ensure all camera controls are accessible and
function properly. The camera should be stable and not shake when the camera controls are
operated.

Using a foot strap to make a tripod
more rigid
Using a monopod
Figure 11-3 Tripod and Monopod use.
Monopods
A monopod is a single pole on which a camera is mounted (See Figure 11-3). Monopods are useful
for keeping the camera steady for location work when a tripod is too bulky or difficult to use; however,
the use of a monopod is not advisable when using large, heavy cameras or when shutter speeds
below about 1/15 second are used. Standing or kneeling with a monopod braced against your body or
leg provides a camera the extra support and steadiness required for it to be an effective tool.
Shutter Release
A shutter release is a device consisting of stiff wire encased in an outer flexible covering or a wireless
device used to trip a camera shutter without touching the camera itself.
Flash
The electronic flash is a high-voltage light source for illuminating the scene to be photographed. It
produces a momentary flash of high-intensity light. See the chapter on "Lighting and Color" as well as
your flash unit user manual for more information on flash use.
Lens and body caps
Lens and body caps are protective covers that keep dust and moisture away from lenses and camera
openings.
Lens hoods
Lens hoods, or shades, are used to keep strong sunlight from striking the front of the lens obliquely.
Memory Card
Memory cards, also known as flash cards, are electronic data storage devices that stores digital
contents. The capacities vary as technology improves and are normally measured in write speed and
capacity. Always make sure you have extras!
PHOTOGRAPHIC COMPOSITION
Photographic composition is the pleasing arrangement of subject-matter elements within the picture
area. The camera sees and records only a small isolated part of the larger scene, reduces it to only
two dimensions, frames it, and freezes it. It does not discriminate as we do. When we look at a scene
we selectively see only the important elements and more or less ignore the rest. A camera, on the
other hand, sees all the details within the field of view. This is the reason some of our pictures are
often disappointing. Backgrounds may be cluttered with objects we do not remember, our subjects
are smaller in the frame or less striking than we recall, or the entire scene may lack significance and
life. Good photographs are seldom created by chance.
To make the most of any subject, you must understand the basic principles of composition. How are
photographic composition skills developed? You look, you study, and you practice. There are no
hard-and-fast rules to follow that ensure good composition in every photograph. However, principles
and elements provide a means of achieving pleasing composition when applied properly.

Center of Interest
Each picture should have only one principal idea, topic, or center of interest to which the viewer's
eyes are attracted. Subordinate elements within the picture must support and focus attention on the
principal feature so it alone is emphasized. The center of interest may be a single object or numerous
ones arranged so attention is directed to one definite area. A photographer usually has at his or her
disposal many factors or elements that can be used and arranged within the picture area to draw or
direct attention to the primary idea of the picture. Some of these elements are lines, shapes, human
figures, tone, and texture. Human figures attract attention more strongly than almost any other subject
matter.
Subject Placement
In photographic composition, two general rules are used to determine the best location for the center
of interest the rule of thirds (See Figure 11-4) and dynamic symmetry. In the rule of thirds, the
intersections of lines that divide the picture area into thirds are good locations for the center of
interest in most photographs. Notice its the center of interest. Remember, have only one center of
interest to an image. The principle of dynamic symmetry is a similar idea. A good location for the
center of interest is found by drawing or imagining a diagonal line from one corner to an opposite
corner. Then, draw a second line perpendicular to the first from a third corner. The intersections of the
lines are the location for the center of interest.
NOTE
After reading through the various photographic compositions, check out the
Navy.mil photo galleries and see if you can identify the many techniques used.

Figure 11-4 Rule of Thirds.
Simplicity
Simplicity is the key. The simpler and more direct a photo is, the clearer and stronger the resulting
statement. When working toward simplicity, select a subject that lends itself to a simple arrangement
or select different viewpoints or camera angles. Only after considering all possibilities should you take
the photograph. The bottom line is to tell the story, while ensuring you have just the right amount of
information to convey one single idea.
Viewpoint and Camera Angle
The proper viewpoint or camera angle is an important factor in good composition. Repositioning your
subject within the viewfinder frame and changing the camera viewpoint or camera angle are two
simple ways of controlling composition. The terms viewpoint and camera angle are often used in
conjunction with one another and sometimes used interchangeably. They can also have different
meanings depending on how they are applied. Viewpoint is the camera position in relationship to the
subject.
Low Viewpoint/ Low Camera Angle
A low camera angle is achieved when the camera angle is located below the point of primary interest
and pointed upward. Low angles tend to lend strength and dominance to a subject and dramatize the
subject. Low-angle shots are used when dramatic impact is desired. This type of shot is very useful
for separating the subject from the background, for eliminating unwanted foreground and background,
and for creating the illusion of greater size and speed.
High Viewpoint/High Camera Angle
High viewpoints and high camera angles help orient the viewer because they show relationships
among all elements within the picture area and produce a psychological effect by minimizing the
apparent strength or size of the subject.
Balance
Balance in photographic composition is a process of making pictures appear harmonious. The subject
placement within the picture area is the factor that must be carefully considered. Composition is kept
in balance by two different methods:
Symmetrical (Formal) Balance
Symmetrical (formal) balance in a photograph is achieved when elements on both sides of the picture
are of equal weight. The idea of formal balance can be related to a seesaw. When there are two
equally weighted objects on the seesaw and they are equidistant from the pivot point, or fulcrum, the
board will be in balance.
Asymmetrical (Informal) Balance
Asymmetrical (informal) balance is usually much more interesting than symmetrical balance. In
asymmetrical balance, the imaginary central pivot point is still presumed to be present. However,
instead of mirror images on each side of the picture area, the subject elements are notably different in
size, shape, weight, tone, and placement. Asymmetrical balance is introduced when the presumed
weight of two or more lighter objects is equalized by a single heavier object placed on the other side
of the imaginary pivot.
Other Aspects of Balance
An object far from the center of the picture seems to have more weight than one near the
center.
Objects in the upper part of a picture seem heavier than objects of the same size in the lower
part of a picture.
Isolation seems to increase the weight of an object.
Intensely interesting objects seem to have more compositional weight.
Regular shapes seem to have more weight than irregular shapes.
Elements on the right side of an asymmetrical picture appear to have more weight than
elements of the same size on the left side of the picture.
The directions in which figures, lines, and shapes appear to be moving within the picture area
are important to balance. For example, a man may be walking in a direction, or his eyes may
be looking in a direction, or the shape of some element creates a feeling of movement. When
the feeling of direction is present within a scene, it tends to upset the balance if judged on the
size of the subject alone.
Shapes and Lines
Shapes and lines are important elements in photographic composition. When properly used, shapes
and lines can create a desired effect.
Shape
Shape is a two-dimensional element basic to photo composition and is usually the first means by
which a viewer identifies an object within the picture. Form is the three-dimensional equivalent of
shape. The greatest emphasis of shape is achieved when the shape is silhouetted, thus eliminating
other qualities of the shape, such as texture and roundness, or the illusion of the third dimension.
Lines
Lines unify composition by directing the viewer's eyes and attention to the main point of the picture or
lead the eyes from one part of the picture to another. Lines that lead the eye or direct attention are
referred to as leading lines. Vertical, diagonal, horizontal, and curved lines create different moods.
Vertical lines communicate a sense of strength, rigidity, power, and solidarity to the viewer. Horizontal
lines represent peace, tranquility, and quietness. Diagonal lines represent movement, action, and
speed. Curved lines present a sense of grace, smoothness, and dignity to a photograph. The most
common curved line is the S curve.
Pattern
Creating images around repeating elements or patterns provides picture unity and structure. Pattern
repetition creates rhythm that the eyes enjoy following; repeated lines, tone, and color can also
provide unity to your composition, and combinations of these create interesting pictures. Triangles,
squares, and circles are the basic shapes to look for in a pattern. Triangles and squares are usually
static but can be placed to create a tension-filled, dynamic effect. Circles and curves are pleasing
pattern shapes.
Volume
When photographing most subjects, you face the problem of how to symbolize three-dimensional
objects in a two-dimensional picture. The solution becomes simple when a distinction is made
between the two different ways three-dimensional objects appear: as positive or occupied space
(volume) or as negative or unoccupied space. Positive space is where shapes and forms exist;
negative space is the empty space around shapes and forms. An area of a photo absent of shapes
and forms is negative space. It serves to balance the area. Areas of a picture that contain "nothing"
are important visual elements that provide balance in an image.
Lighting
By controlling light and directing it where you want it, you can subdue objects or distracting elements
in the scene to give more emphasis to the main point of interest. Light and shadows can be used in
composition to create mood, draw attention to an area, modify or distort shape, or bring out form and
texture in the subject.
Texture
Texture helps to emphasize the features and details in a photograph. By capturing the texture of
objects in the photograph, you create form. For example, when people observe a soft, furry object or
a smooth, shining surface, they have a strong urge to touch it. Texture gives realism and character to
a picture and may, in itself, be the subject of a photo. When texture is used as a subordinate element
within the picture, it lends strength to the main idea. Just a little different lighting or a slight change in
camera position may improve the rendering of texture in a picture.
Tone
Tone is probably the most intangible element of composition. Tone may consist of shadings from
white, to gray, to black, or it may consist of darks against lights with little or no grays. The interaction
of light against dark shades in varying degrees helps to set the mood of a composition. A picture
consisting of dark or somber shades conveys mystery, intrigue, or sadness. When the tones are
mostly light and airy, the picture portrays lightness, joy, or airiness.
Contrast
When we speak of contrast as it relates to composition, we are referring to both tonal contrast and
color contrast. Tonal contrast is simply the difference between the light and dark areas of a
photograph. Color contrast is the perceived difference in a color when surrounded by another color.
Framing
Framing is another technique photographers use to direct the viewer's attention to the primary subject
of a picture. An element used as a frame should not draw attention to itself. Ideally, the frame should
relate to the theme of the picture. For example, a line of aircraft parked on the flight line framed by the
wing and prop of another aircraft.
Foreground
A distracting or unnecessary foreground ruins a large percentage of otherwise good images. An
undesirable foreground can be eliminated by moving in closer to the subject, by making pictures with
a longer than standard focal-length lens, or by changing viewpoint or camera angle. No object in the
foreground should ever be so prominent that it distracts from the subject.
Background
The background is almost as important an element in good composition as the camera angle. Be
particularly observant of the background to see that it contains nothing distracting.
Perspective
Perspective refers to the relationship of imaged objects in a photograph. This includes their relative
positions and sizes and the space between them. In other words, perspective in the composition of a
photograph is the way real three-dimensional objects are pictured in a photograph that has a two-
dimensional plane. In photography, perspective is another illusion you use to produce photographs of
quality composition. When you are creating photos, the camera always creates perspective. When
you know the principles of perspective and skillfully apply them, the photographs you produce show a
good rendition of the subject's form and shape. The viewer is given the sensation of volume, space,
depth, and distance.
Linear Perspective
The human eye judges distance by the way elements within a scene diminish in size and the angle at
which lines and planes converge. This is called linear perspective. The use of different focal-length
lenses in combination with different lens-to-subject distances helps you alter linear perspective in
your pictures. When the focal length of the lens is changed but the lens-to-subject distance remains
unchanged, there is a change in the image size of the objects but no change in perspective. On the
other hand, when the lens-to-subject distance and lens focal length are both changed, the
relationship between objects is altered and perspective is changed.
By using the right combination of camera-to-subject distance and lens focal length, a photographer
can create a picture that looks deep or shallow. This feeling of depth or shallowness is only an
illusion, but it is an important compositional factor. Using a short-focal-length lens from a close
camera-to-subject distance, or viewpoint, produces a picture with greater depth (not to be confused
with depth of field) than would be produced with a standard lens. Conversely, using a long-focal-
length lens from a more distant viewpoint produces a picture with less apparent depth.
Rectilinear Perspective
Most lenses produce rectilinear perspective typical of what the human eye sees. This is to say that
lines that are straight in the subject are reproduced straight in the picture. Fisheye lenses and the
lenses used on panoramic cameras produce a false perspective. With a fisheye lens, straight lines in
the subject are imaged as curved lines toward the edges of the picture. A panoramic lens produces
panoramic or cylindrical perspective.
Vanishing Point Perspective
In vision, lines that are parallel to each other give the sensation of meeting at vanishing points. When
parallel lines, either horizontal or vertical, are perpendicular to the lens axis, the vanishing points are
assumed to be at infinity.
Height Perspective
The higher up in the ground area of the picture (up to the horizon) that the base of an object is
located, the further away it seems from the viewpoint and the greater its height perspective.
Overlap Perspective
When subjects within a photo are on about the same line of sight, those objects closer to the camera
viewpoint overlap more distant objects and partially hide them.
Dwindling-Size Perspective
The farther away an object is from the viewpoint, the smaller it appears; therefore, when subjects of
familiar size are included in a photograph, they help to establish the scale of the picture. Scale helps
the viewer determine or visualize the actual size or relative size of the objects in the picture.
CONTROLLED/UNCONTROLLED SUBJECTS
Shooting photos typically falls into one of two categories controlled or uncontrolled action. As the
name implies, in controlled action you control all aspects of the shoot, and most aspects, if not all, are
predictable. When you arent the manager of the action or if the shot isnt predictable, you are
shooting uncontrolled action.
Controlled Action
One of the most difficult tasks of photographing controlled subjects, such as people, is directing them.
Since you are the only person who can see what the picture will look like before it is taken, you must
take responsibility for composition.
As discussed previously, portrait photography is one form of controlled-action shooting. The
paragraphs below feature further examples and techniques when shooting controlled action.
Individual Shots
As an MC, you will shoot photos of individuals for a multitude of projects,. Therefore, you should be
familiar with the methods used to direct photographic subjects.
One way to make directing and posing easier is to give your subject an object to handle. Do not tell
him to just stand there, as though in a vacuum, with nothing to do. Men and women can hold a
book, binoculars, or a tool used in their work. Children will do fine with a doll or model airplane.
Another strategy is to give your subject something to lean against or sit upon. Use a chair, stool, post,
or tree.
If you use props in your individual photographs, make sure you do your homework. For instance, do
not photograph a gunners mate holding a three-inch shell in front of a 5-inch gun mount.
Also, pay attention to the eyes. Eyes are very important when photographing people. When the
subjects eyes look straight into the camera, a strong and immediate impact is created that attracts
the viewers interest. When the eyes are directed away from the camera, the effect is less explicit and
has more of an ambiguous quality. Decide on the best approach for your photograph and direct your
subject appropriately.
Finally, you must be in charge of the situation. This cannot be emphasized enough. It is your
responsibility as the photographer to direct the scenetell the subject what to do, how to do it, and
when to do it. This applies to an admiral as well as a seaman. Just remember your military bearing
and professionalism.
Many people are nervous and self-conscious in front of a camera. They try to look their best and, in
doing so, often present a stilted expression or pose. It is your job to give directions regarding the
pose. It is also your responsibility to make sure that coat sleeves are pulled down and wrinkles are
smoothed. Make sure the subjects hat is set at the proper angle. If you ignore these potential
problem areas, your photograph will ultimately suffer. Time will be wasted for yourself and for your
subject.
Group Shots
Occasionally you will receive an assignment to photograph a group, which adds a degree of
organizational difficulty. When shooting group shots, you should consider each person individually,
but consider each individual as he or she relates to the entire group. Every precaution should be
taken to ensure each person is shown clearly and interest is not drawn to one person by some
awkward pose or expression.
Formal Group Shot
A formal group shot is one in which several people, uniformly dressed for the occasion, are seated or
standing in as nearly the same pose as possible. Each member is placed in approximately the same
relative position so that attention is not drawn to one person.
Customarily, in a formal group, the highest-ranking person is located in the center of the first row and
other members of the group arranged alternately to the right and left, according to grade. When all
members of the group are the same grade, arrange them according to height, with tall individuals
either in the center or at the ends, or occupying the rear rank.
A formal group of about five people can be composed to fill the picture area very nicely. When six to
10 people are being photographed in a group, arrange them in two rows. For larger formal groups,
arrange the people in as many rows as necessary to fill the frame. Avoid stringing out one long,
narrow line of people across the frame.
When a large group is formed into three or more rows, you must devise some method to prevent the
rear rows from being blocked from view. Furthermore, to compose the picture properly and fill it from
top to bottom, you should have each row higher than the preceding one. One method is to arrange
the group on the steps of a building, bleachers or terrace, so each row is higher than the preceding
one. On level ground the first row can be seated, the second standing, and the third standing on
benches. Another method which you can use in combination with the first is to elevate the camera so
that it is pointing down at an angle on the group. This method is useful as an aid in composing and
filling the picture area. A higher camera angle can be useful in eliminating an undesirable
background. Remember, to get maximum depth of field, you should focus the camera one-third of the
way into the group. For example, if there are nine rows, focus the camera on the third row.
Informal Group Shot
The informal group is intended to depict some action or tell a story about the individuals. Although the
position and pose of each member is carefully planned, the results must appear casual and realistic.
Members may be seated, kneeling, or standing in a variety of positions and do not have to look in the
same direction.
One of the most important factors in group photography is arranging people to obtain the best
possible composition. Regardless of the number of people in a group, they should be situated to fill
the picture and provide the largest possible image size of each person. One exception to this general
rule is when the importance of the background is equal to or greater than the group itself. This often
occurs with an informal group when the picture is actually intended to emphasize some object or
piece of equipment, rather than the individuals. In this case, locate the camera for the best
composition of the object; then arrange the people in the picture to enhance the story being told.
As with individual pictures, you must stay in charge. If you relinquish control, you will have a hard time
getting everyone to look at the camera at the same time. Talk to the group and give them your
instructions. Make sure your equipment is ready so you do not waste time and lose the groups
attention.
Environmental Portraits
An environmental portrait is a portrait shot in someones usual environment, such as in the home or
workplace, highlighting the persons life and surroundings. When on such an assignment, place your
subject in a setting that tells part of his/her story. The background should be simple and non-
distracting to the subject but complement the essence of whom you are photographing. For example,
if you are aboard an aircraft carrier and want to shoot an environmental portrait of the air boss, shoot
the photo in the tower, by the tower or by the aircraft. The environment adds story depth to the photo.
Candid Photography
Common perception within photography is that a candid photo is one that is not set up or the subject
does not know is being taken. Photographers have learned, however, that candid techniques can be
used just as effectively to make pictures of people they know, even when the people know they are
being photographed. The key to a successful candid photograph is for the photographer to keep a low
profile (not sneaky).
A candid shot is a candid shot, whether it is of the admiral at a news conference or a genuine
candid of a Sailor you just happen to see out and about doing his/her job. The technique is the same
in both cases. All that is important is for the pictures not to appear posed. The subjects of candid
photographs are not posing or acting; they are simply being themselves and behaving as though the
photographer is not there.
The compactness of todays digital cameras make them ideal for candid photography. DSLRs with
their fast, interchangeable lenses, TTL metering, and vast storage capacities of memory cards make
candid photography one of the most rewarding areas of our profession. A long focal-length lens is
also a good choice for this type of photography. The long lens lets you maintain distance between
yourself and the subject, and, if people are aware of your presence, they will not be as self-conscious.
If you are taking real candid shots, a long lens is a necessity.
When people know you are shooting them, get them to occupy themselves so they will forget a
camera is watching them. Only then can you get a truly candid picture. When the person notices what
you are doing, ask their permission before you shoot. People usually will not object, particularly if you
are polite and work quickly. Stay casual and relaxed. People soon get used to seeing you with the
camera, and you will be on your way to some good candid pictures.
Sometimes, particularly when shooting candidly, it is necessary to take steps such as presetting your
focus and exposure so you can respond quickly and avoid attracting attention to the camera. To
preset focus, you will need to estimate the likely subject distance, set it on the lens focus scale, and
stop down for greater depth of field. Camera handling must be fast and smooth. Fumbling with
camera controls and equipment will result in missed shots.
Keep alert, keep looking and keep shooting
Do not try to control the people you are shooting. Let them assume a natural pose in an appropriate
setting. You may tell them, Please do not look at the camera. Try to capture the details of their
environment in your pictures. This adds interest to what they are doing. And finally, make your candid
pictures reflect the people and events around you.
There are situations when you do not have the time for a candid approach, or it just is not feasible.
You can still produce interesting people pictures by using the frame approach. The frame approach
simply means posing your subject in a situation or environment that is most meaningful to the subject
or assignment.
UNCONTROLLED ACTION
When you photograph people in action, such as in sports or at work, the name of the game is
anticipation, staying alert, and expecting the unexpected. Covering action events becomes an
exercise in guesstimating where the action will take place and firing the shutter at the right moment.
A good action photographer relies on his knowledge of the event taking place. Even if you cannot
learn the game, a photographer that understands the principles of shooting people in action can do a
good job by following a few simple rules:
Anticipate the action.
Watch for the unexpected moment.
Know the mechanical functions of your camera equipment.
Practice framing, focusing, and shooting until they become reflex actions.
This leaves your mind free to concentrate on the event. Learn something about the action you
plan to photograph.
The best images of people usually have action, implied or apparent. The action should be appropriate
to the subject of the picture. By understanding the importance of action in a photograph and the
abundance of action available everywhere, you will soon become proficient at recognizing and
picturing it. The blur technique has become popular for advertising and illustration use. Panning the
camera with the action of a moving subject keeps the subject fairly sharp while blurring the
background in a horizontal sweep, and this gives the feeling of action. A similar technique is to focus
on the background instead of panning. This will keep the background sharp but show movement in
the subject. A slow shutter speed is needed for both techniques.
Accident Scenes
Shooting photographs in the above-mentioned controlled- and uncontrolled-action settings focus on
telling the Navy story and promoting the everyday lives of Navy personnel. However, as an MC, you
may find yourself in a billet where your job is to shoot accident scenes.
If you are called to an accident scene, remember that current Navy policy specifies that if an accident
or incident occurs, the surviving crewmembers (if physically able to do so) or the first military
personnel arriving at the scene of accident must take charge until relieved by proper authority.
Therefore, at the scene of the accident, you will be working for the officer in charge (OIC). You report
to and receive your orders from the OIC. In many cases, it may be possible for you to accompany the
crash rescue party to the accident. The sooner an experienced and qualified photographer can get to
the scene of an accident, the better the possibilities of acquiring more valuable photographic
evidence. You should commence taking pictures immediately upon arrival. Photographs made before
extensive fire damage can reveal information that might otherwise be lost.
Safety of personnel involved is of primary concern in every accident. Rescue operations and removal
of occupants from the aircraft, per se, should be among your first photographs. When medical
treatment is being given to survivors of the accident, photograph it not only for documenting the
treatment but for the purpose of isolating factual information on human failure. Casualties should also
be photographed in the positions they occupy when you arrive on the scene. Photographs of the dead
should be made to show the location of the wreckage and the position of each body in relation to it.
You should be advised of any classified material involved, and it should be either covered or removed
before photographs are made unless it is important to the accident investigation. This is a situation
where close liaising with the OIC is necessary. News reporters may gather at the scene and because
you, as a photographer, have something in common with them, they will naturally seek you out. Do
not attempt to tell a reporter what to write. Do not make a statement, express an opinion, or provide
information about the accident. You are there to document the situation only. Other MCs and PAOs
will be dispatched to the scene if necessary to liaise with the media.
Equipment
After learning the nature of your photographic assignmentcontrolled or uncontrolledand making a
complete analysis of the assignment, you must ensure you have the proper equipment to complete
the job. The variety of photographic equipment available and suited for location assignments is
extremely broad; for example, the assignment may require the use of a DSLR or video camera
(videography will be discussed in a subsequent chapter). The lighting equipment you choose may
range from a small, compact electronic flash unit to a complex array of lighting equipment and
reflectors. Exposure meters, tripods, and interchangeable lenses are just a few of the other
accessories you may need on a location assignment.
Be prepared. At one time or another we have all heard this familiar quotation. But have you ever
thought what this could mean to your assignment? For want of a gizmo, a photograph was lost; for
want of a photograph, an assignment was ruined; and for want of an assignment, your reputation as a
photographer was destroyed. No, we are not really concerned with gizmos here. What we are
concerned with is your equipment. Do you have everything you need when you get to your
assignment and does it work? Nearly all photographic equipment has one or more critical
components. The failure or loss of which may put a vital piece of gear out of operation. With cameras,
one of these items is the battery, because it may power both the meter and the shutter. Check the
battery before you leave the shop, and ALWAYS carry a spare. You have a super deluxe all-powerful
electronic flash unit that can light up the entire hangar deck in the wink of an eye. Or can it? Did you
check it out, and was it working before you left the work center? Did you remember the power cord
and an extra sync cord? In terms of synchronization, did you make sure the flash was in sync with the
camera shutter? Or was the shutter even working? What about the camera lensis it clean? Does it
focus correctly? Is the diaphragm working?
In the studio, a minor failure usually only causes embarrassment and gives the impression of
unprofessionalism. You can usually get a spare camera, lights, and tripod into service. But when you
are out on location, you are limited in what you can take with you; therefore, it is important that ALL
your equipment be thoroughly tested and operating correctly BEFORE you leave the work center.
PHOTOJOURNALISM
Photojournalism is a merger of still photography and written language into a coherent communication
medium. The Navy photojournalist is a reporter who uses a camera and written text to convey a
message to the intended audience through print and electronic media. Photographs and words used
together can provide a complete and accurate report of an event or story. Some events that occur in
the Navy are planned far in advance so you have plenty of time to prepare for the assignment. Other
events unfold quickly and dramatically and afford little or no preparation. Stories range from the
obvious to those that are created with a considerable amount of imaginative work by a
photojournalist.
A mass communication specialist must use imagination to accomplish an assignment. Not all
assignments have a great inherent human-interest value, and the less spectacular the subject matter,
the more important the MCs imagination becomes. Often, a novice MC misses good photographs
because of a lack of preparation. Frequently, MCs are tasked to photograph notable personalities of
diversified backgrounds. Always respect your subjects, regardless of who they are, but never feel
inferior.
Newsworthiness and/or Human Interest Value
When a photograph does not have news or human-interest value, the chance of the photograph
being published is slim. Human-interest value is almost impossible to measure. The best indicator to
determine whether a photograph has human interest is your own emotions. When the photograph
affects your emotions or arouses your curiosity, it most probably will do the same for other people.
IMPACT
The emotional stopping power of a photograph is impact. Impact in a photograph should produce
some kind of emotional reaction to the viewer. There are no rules for consistently producing
photographs that have impact. To create impact, a photographer should be sensitive toward the
subject matter and be able to feel the emotion that you intend to convey to a viewer. The difference
between photographs with and without impact is usually determined by whether the photographer
reacted emotionally to the subject matter or was indifferent and took the picture as just another
assignment. Most subject matter does not have inherent impact. Therefore, you, as the MC, must
often create it. Impact can be created through cropping, recording peak action, composition,
contrasting subject matter, and other photographic techniques.

U.S. Navy photo by Journalist Seaman Ryan C. McGinley

U.S. Navy photo by Mass Communication Specialist 1st Class Todd Macdonald
ACCURATE INFORMATION
A vital part of photojournalism is the written information that accompanies the photographs. Excellent
photographs with tremendous impact could go unused if you do not provide accurate and adequate
identifying information. Take a notebook with you on each assignment and write down information to
answer the five Ws and H:
Who was involved in the event?
What was the event that took place?
When did the event take place?
Where did the event take place?
Why did the event take place?
How did the event take place?
SPOT NEWS
Spot-news photography denotes coverage of current news events and has a strong requirement of
immediacy. What happens today of importance should be recorded and reported as soon as possible.
It is usually an event that happens without warning and, in many ways, is the most difficult event to
photographan accident, a plane crash, a fire, or tornadoeven the unexpected arrival of the Chief
of Naval Operations (CNO) aboard your ship. Regardless of the situation, you will be working at top
speed and under the pressure of a deadline.
Success of your photography is dependent upon how well you handle your equipment, arrange your
time, and do your research. Most experienced photographers agree that spot-news photography is
one of the most difficult and nerve-shattering assignments. Why is that? It is perhaps the very nature
of what the photographer is faced with: rapidly occurring events, little time, and the need to "get the
news out."
A spot-news photograph is used to relate a story about a significant event to the public in a direct,
straightforward, factual, and realistic manner while the event is still newsworthy. The spot-news
photograph often shows conflict, tragedy, or emotion. It is not possible to do the research before you
begin shooting; you will already be involved in getting the photos, more often than not in real time.
Once the situation has been photographed, ask questions while at the scene. See the situation
official; obtain names and other pertinent information. Remember to get contact information of anyone
connected with the situation. It may become necessary to obtain additional information at a later time.

U.S. Navy photo
Your control over the subject is generally limited to the camera angle and the instant of exposure. A
selection of lenses and your technical skills should make the job easier. You are expected to move
around your subject shooting from all sides to get complete coverage, including long, medium, and
close-up views. You are obligated to relate to the reader those events of a spot-news nature. Your
readers want to know what happened, so show them.
In covering a spot-news assignment, your responsibility is to provide photographs complete with
captions as rapidly as possible. This helps to ensure that a release is made while the event is still
news. Plan ahead; keep your deadline in mind. Work rapidly but accurately. Your enemy is time.
Manage your time so you do not overshoot the deadline.
Feature Photographs
A feature picture is a single picture that tells a story. It could be color or black and white. It is quite
possible that the end product will be used in print media, electronic media, advertisement (recruiting,
for example), as a news feature, or for photographic exhibition.
A feature picture serves a single purposeto tell a story quickly and clearly. A feature picture is
defined as any picture, other than instantaneous news, that informs, entertains, or provokes a reaction
or response. The goal of a feature picture is to communicate. Typically, feature photos that inform are
the most common. These are usually the photos you see on the front page of a newspaper that have
lost some of the hurry-up, rush-rush of a hard (straight) news photo. Also, when a feature picture is
used to entertain, it usually depicts the lighter side of life and does not require the full attention of the
reader to get the message across.

U.S. Navy Photo by Journalist 1st Class Preston Keres

U.S. Navy photo by Mass Communication Specialist 2nd Class Jonathen E. Davis
Research
Defining a feature picture is fundamental; the process you will find complicated is researching the
subject. Once the originator of an assignment provides the photographer with an idea of the kind of
pictures desired, it is up to you, as the photographer, to perform the necessary research.
The photographer should ask the following questions:
What are the requirements of the assignments?
Who is our customer?
What is the end product going to be, and how will it be marketed?
Making Feature Pictures
Making feature pictures may require elaborate technical effort and unusual compositions, yet it may
be simple. When you produce feature pictures, you must work carefully and take time to consider and
evaluate your approach. Unlike a news assignment, a feature picture assignment permits you to
exercise more control over the situation. You are better able to control the subject, lighting, and
composition.
Use correct composition to make the message clear that your picture is meant to get across. The
position of the subject, waiting for subject expression, the highlight and shadow areas, the use of
leading lines, depth of field, and the foreground and background must be used in conjunction to best
tell the story. When the picture elements are arranged, you must think of what is included, what is
missing, and what is suggested.
To dramatize an idea for a feature picture, you have many tools to work with. Knowing your subject
and subject selection are significant. Imaginative lighting can be used to create a mood. For a feature
picture to have more impact, you may find it necessary to accentuate the perspective with various
focal-length lenses. The camera position is also important. Shooting from a low camera angle adds
stature to the subject. A high camera angle creates a sense of separation; it shows more of what is
happening.
The control you exercise over the scene can add interest and variety to feature pictures. Electronic
flash and fast shutter speeds can "freeze" action and "stop" what is too fast for the eye to see. By
using the right application of slow shutter speeds, you can blur moving objects, giving an illusion of
movement to your pictures. Time exposures of moving lights create motion patterns, as does panning
the camera with the subject.
Picture Sequence
A picture sequence is a series of photographs dealing with one subject. It may present an event,
describe a scene, reveal a person, or show how to do something. The most successful picture
sequences create several visual images that contain emphasis and action. Finally, a picture
sequence requires continuity that may be created by subject action, photographic technique, or an
event.
Picture Story
The production of a picture story is one of the most exciting and challenging assignments in
photography. It is an effective method of telling a story about events that are happening in the Navy.
However, a picture story does not just happen; it starts with an idea. This idea forms the foundation
upon which a story is built.
A picture sequence is not to be confused with a picture story. The picture story is a complete unit that
has been planned, researched, and supported by written text and captions. It is the account of an
interesting and significant event, personality, idea, or other aspect of contemporary life. In a picture
story, the photographs and text support each other.
Planning is essential in the production of a picture story. You should plan your photographic coverage
so the finished story is complete and has a professional appearance. When you want this quality in
your picture story, coverage techniques should include the following: researching the subject and
establishing a good relationship; selecting equipment (camera, lens(es), lighting, other equipment)
that is best suited for the job; anticipating the improbable and having an alternate plan available;
moving in on the subject and making your pictures show the desired action; using a shooting script;
having self-confidence; ensuring complete coverage by shooting both left- and right-facing
photographs, long shots, medium shots, and close-ups, as well as both vertical and horizontal views.
The development of a picture story is carried out in five well-defined steps as follows:
1. Developing the Idea. You can get ideas for picture stories by subjecting yourself to stimulating
experiences, talking to other people, and observing situations both your own and those
related to you by others.
2. Researching the Subject. After developing an idea for a picture story, you are ready to
research the subject. Research is one of the most important parts of doing a picture story.
Before you start shooting, you need to learn as much as possible about the place, situation,
object, and people involved.
3. Planning the Treatment. The "treatment" is an arrangement of facts you have collected; this
includes the type of pictures you require to convey the theme or purpose you have in mind
adequately. Plan your pictorial coverage with a shooting script or storyboard. Decide what
elements of the story should be presented verbally and what elements should be presented
visually. Because each picture story is somewhat different, you cannot follow the same pattern
for each assignment. There are, however, certain planning criteria upon which all picture
stories are based. The planning criteria are as follows:
a. Interest. The readers must gain something from the story or they are not going to read
it.
b. Picture Impact. It must appeal to the eye, create curiosity, and hold the viewers
attention.
c. Scope. The picture story of a ship is possible but difficult; a department within the ship is
a little less difficult; a division within the department is even less difficult; one person
within the division is comparatively simple. By narrowing the scope and focusing on one
person, you can still tell the story of the ship, the department, and the division.
d. Focusing on People. Whatever the story, chances are it can be made better and more
interesting when it is told in terms of people doing something. It is possible to focus on
an inanimate object, but readership tests indicate that people are interested in people.
e. Universal Appeal. Picture stories can require a significant amount of time; to gain the
most value, it should appeal to a large number of people.
4. Preparing the Shooting Script. To begin shooting a picture story without an idea of what you
are trying to accomplish is a real gamble. The shooting script is a record of your ideasa
blueprint from which you build the story. But remember, your shooting script is a guide only,
and it should be flexible to some degree. A shooting script should always follow the basic rule
regarding the five Ws and H. The shooting script is intended to keep you on the right track.
The time spent in preparing a shooting script is compensated for by the time and confusion
you save at the scene when the pictures are made.
5. Shooting Photographs. Emotions and moods are captured only through skill, patience,
preparation, perseverance, and cooperation between the subject and the photographer.
Sometimes the emotion or mood may linger for only a fraction of a second. Camera
preparation (proper exposure and white balance),and proper choice of focal length for the
scene will help the photographer be ready to capture the fleeting moments.
A picture story must have a beginning, middle (body), and an ending. The lead photograph is the
most important picture in the story, should identify the subject matter, relate the subject matter to the
slant or desired approach of the story, and create an impact. The attention-getting lead photograph
should create the desire to know more about the subject.
The picture story should proceed in logical order without any repetitive information or too great a step
in photograph progression. Each successive photograph should contribute something significant to
the development of the story and provide smooth continuity. The photographs that comprise the body
of the story should have long shots, medium shots, close-ups, and be made from various points of
view and focal lengths.
The second most important photograph is the ending photograph. This photograph should present
the feeling of finality. Although it has the ability to sway the readers mind, a picture story should be
presented objectively.
The number of photographs in a picture story is a matter of judgment on your part. Too few
photographs are as distracting as too many photographs. The factor that should govern the number
of photographs is the scope of the story.
Layout Composition
Photographs for a picture story or picture essay should be edited until only the photographs required
to tell the story remain. You must decide what number of photographs to use for the story as well as
what form of composition to use. The editing process must be cold and objective. If the shot does not
fit or is not essential, then it has no place in the story. During the editing process, you should select
only those pictures that are valuable communication symbols when arranged in a logical and story-
telling manner. Often, the content of the photographs and end result product (Web site, online
magazine, HTML slideshow) will assist you in making decisions about the compositional form.
Picture Layout. The picture layout is an arrangement of photographs, text, white space, illustrations,
and other elements that make up the content the visual presentation. The message that you extend to
your readers should be easy to understand and flow visually. This layout of elements should be such
that the reader can follow them in a logical progression. The success or failure of a layout depends on
its emotional and visual impact. A good layout is transparent to the reader.
Primary Optical Area. Since we read text from the left and downward, we have a tendency to
first focus our eyes on the upper-left comer of a display. This area should contain an element
that attracts your eyes at first glance.
Diagonal. Our eyes scan in smooth flowing, back-and-forth loops. Attracted by appealing
elements, our eyes move downward diagonally from the primary optical area toward the
bottom-right area of the page. Typically, this bottom-right area is the ultimate goals of our eye
scan movement. Once our eyes have reached this area, our mind knows automatically that the
page has ended.
Directional Lines Of Force. The two weakest points on the page are known as fallow corners
(upper right and lower left). An element placed in the fallow corners must be strong enough to
attract and hold the reader but do not place your strongest photos in the fallow corners.
Directional lines of force, whether real or implied, are what cause the eye to move from the
primary optical area through both fallow corners and finally end up at the terminal area.
Unity
When the story requires more than one page you must position and align the page elements
(pictures, headlines, and captions) to establish unity. As a guide, the space between photos, text, and
headlines could be one-half of the space of the gutter. All elements, titles, subtitles, pictures, copy,
and white space should be aligned with one or more of the other elements on the page or pages.
Margins must be established and maintained throughout the layout. From the very beginning, you
must establish a definite set of margins to provide consistency from element to element and from
page to page. Remember, no matter how the various elements and pages are unified, they must
present a total package that is easy and convenient to read. This is the whole purpose of layout.
Contrast
Contrast is achieved in a layout by using different picture sizes and shapes. Additionally, every layout
should have one large dominant photograph to grasp the attention of the viewer. Other photographs
used in your layout should not exceed 50 percent of the size of the dominant photograph. This helps
add interest and drama to the layout. It also aids the reader's flow through each element to improve
communication.
Layout is second in importance only to the story content; like the frame on a picture, it can make or
break your work. For it to be effective, it requires skill, imagination and painstaking care.
SUMMARY
In this chapter, you built upon the theories of light and color found in a previous chapter and the
theories and practices you learned in the public affairs module. You have now added photography to
your MC toolbox. From here, we move into videography and discuss your role in electronic
newsgathering. Putting together all the pieces to the MC puzzle will go a long way in ensuring you
have a successful career in the field.
CHAPTER 12
SPECIALIZED DOCUMENTATION
Specialized documentation is an advanced skill set of the Mass Communication Specialist (MC)
rating. By using the knowledge and skills gained through enhanced photo/video training, every MC in
a role requiring these skills should understand what is necessary and be able to fulfill mission
requirements. In this chapter we will take our focus to a more specialized use of camera operation
and advanced shooting techniques.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Identify the different types of aerial documentation techniques and their use
2. Understand the multiple reconnaissance rigs in maritime aerial documentation
3. Understand the requirements for underwater and low-light/night vision documentation
AERIAL DOCUMENTATION
You may be called upon from time to time to make handheld vertical documentation and oblique
documentation from airplanes and helicopters. This aerial documentation could include such
assignments as gunnery exercises, intelligence gathering, refueling at sea, publicity photography,
construction progress, accident investigation, ship identification and aerial motion-media work. Aerial
documentation is taken from a variety of altitudes. The altitude ranges are defined as follows:
Low altitude: 0 to 1,500 feet
Medium altitude: 1,500 to 10,000 feet
High altitude: 10,000 feet and above
As an MC, your aerial documentation assignments are normally accomplished from low to medium
altitudes. High-altitude documentation is now performed by the use of camera-equipped aircraft and
satellites.
Categories of Aerial Documentation
Three basic categories of aerial documentation are in use today: vertical, oblique and air-to-air. The
vertical and oblique categories are broken down further into types of aerial photography.
Vertical Documentation
Vertical aerial documentation is accomplished with the camera held or suspended in the aircraft, so it
points directly downward with the optical axis of the lens perpendicular to the ground. At the moment of
exposure, when the camera is level and parallel to the ground, the result is an image, for all practical
purposes, with a uniform scale. However, if the aircraft is climbing, diving, or banking or the camera is
tilted for any other reason at the moment of exposure, the resulting imagery does not have a uniform
scale. It is always important in vertical aerial documentation to hold the camera in a true vertical position
unless the MC is trying to capture an unrealistic angle. The angle between the camera axis (or optical
axis) and the true vertical position is called the tilt angle: straight down, perpendicular to the ground is 0
degrees, and straight out, parallel to the ground is 90 degrees. The purpose of vertical aerial
documentation is to show details clearly of ground objects at a uniformly accurate scale. In
peacetime, these aerial images are valuable for mapping and for planning locations of buildings,
streets, runways, docks, and other similar projects. During wartime, vertical aerial photography is
valuable for a variety of military purposes, such as determining enemy location, strength and capability.
The entire view of a vertical image is not perfectly vertical because only the very center of the image
area is taken straight down. A building in the center of a vertical image shows only the roof, but a
building near the edge shows part of the sides in addition to the roof. Although this slight change in
the viewing angle from center to edge of the image is undesirable when you try to match prints for
laying strips or mosaics, it does provide the necessary differences in photos for stereo viewing.
Most vertical aerial documentation is performed with photo/video-configured aircraft. Additionally,
cameras can be mounted to aircraft for this purpose. It is possible, however, to make handheld vertical
photographs from planes and helicopters.
Oblique Documentation
An oblique aerial documentation is made with the camera directed out and down at an angle from the
aircraft (not straight out and not straight down). For accuracy, the amount of the oblique angle is
stated in degrees. The angle between the camera axis (or optical axis) and the horizontal is called the
camera depression angle (See Figure 12-1): straight out, parallel to the ground is 0 degrees, and
straight down, perpendicular to the ground is 90 degrees. Oblique images may be anywhere between
0 and 90 degrees, do not have a uniform scale, and are divided into two subcategorieshigh oblique
and low oblique. The horizon is visible in high obliques but not in low obliques. This can be
remembered easily by thinking high sky, low no.

Figure 12-1 Camera Depression Angle.
Here again, as with vertical imagery, oblique imagery can be made with photo-configured aircraft or
with a handheld camera.
High-Oblique Documentation
High-oblique documentation is accomplished at a camera angle that shows the horizon at about a 30-
degree camera depression angle. It resembles the view a pilot sees when approaching the target.
High-oblique images are useful in guiding pilots toward a photographic target, a bombing target, or a
helicopter landing site. High-oblique images are also used for orientation purposes because large
areas are covered. High-oblique documentation is particularly suitable for pictorial and illustrative
purposes because it provides a true perspective view of land surfaces. It is easier for a person on the
ground to locate and identify objects in high-oblique imagery than in a low-oblique or vertical imagery.

U.S. Navy Photo by Photographers Mate 1st Class John Lill

U.S. Navy Photo by Photographers Mate 1st Class John Lill
For high obliques, divide the camera viewfinder into four sections: the bottom section of the viewfinder
is filled with foreground, the next section above it is target area, the third section is background and
the last quarter is sky.
Low-Oblique Documentation
Low-oblique imagery does not show the horizon. It is made with a camera depression angle of about
60 degrees. Low-oblique documentation covers a relatively small area. The subjects in a low-oblique
documentation look more familiar than in a vertical documentationas if you were viewing them from
the top of a tall building. Low-oblique imagery is normally used for identification purposes, and for that
reason, a large image of the target is necessary.
You may at first come to the wrong conclusion, because of their names, that high- and low-oblique
imagery is made from high and low altitudes, respectively. This is not the case. The aircraft altitude is
not a determining factor in whether an oblique is classified as high or low. Remember, the horizon is
the determining factor: high sky, low no. As a matter of fact, most high-oblique imagery is made from
a relatively low altitude and low-oblique imagery from a relatively high altitude.
A good rule for composing low obliques is to divide the camera viewfinder into three sections: the first
section at the bottom of the viewfinder is foreground, the center third of the picture is target area, and
the top third is background.

U.S. Navy Photo by Mass Communication Specialist 3rd Class Dylan McCord

U.S. Navy Photo by Mass Communication Specialist 3rd Class Alexander Tidd
Air-to-Air Documentation
Air-to-air documentation, as the name suggests, is imagery taken from the air of a subject in the air,
usually another aircraft.

U.S. Navy Photo by Mass Communication Specialist 3rd Class Andrew Johnson

U.S. Navy Photo by Mass Communication Specialist 2nd Class Aaron Burden
Reconnaissance Documentation
Another aspect of aerial documentation that you should be concerned with is reconnaissance
documentation. The Navy performs aerial reconnaissance documentation of enemy territory to
observe enemy defenses, troop concentrations, troop movements, enemy strength, and so on. Aerial
reconnaissance documentation may also include taking images over friendly territory, both ours and
of our allies.
Shooting Handheld Aerial Documentation

U.S. Navy Photo by Chief Photographer's Mate Edward G. Martens
An aerial documentation mission involves careful planning, preparation, and pilot and photographer
coordination. Planning starts with determining the type and number of images and/or video
requirement, type of camera, camera accessories, flight time, and flight path. To be successful, both
pilot and MC must know and understand the objective(s) of the mission. Questions to be answered
during mission planning are as follows:
For what purpose will the imagery be used?
What should be shown in the imagery?
What types of imagery are required (vertical, oblique, air-to-air, or others)?
When is the imagery required? Where is the target located?
What size is the target (subject)?
At what time of day is the lighting best?
From what direction should the imagery be taken?
From approximately what altitude should the imagery be taken?
What hazards are present in the target area?
When the MC and the pilot have the answers to these questions and understand the objectives of the
mission, both are in a position to produce quality imagery that meets the needs of the requester.
To enable the MC to capture imagery, the pilot must know specific details about the mission. When
capturing images on the ground, you can choose to move either the object or yourself to get proper
composition. However, in the air, you must rely on the pilot for the desired camera angle and the
correct camera-to-subject distance. The pilot cannot read your mind, so it is important to discuss your
plans in detail before the flight. Remember, there is not time to accomplish this while you are both in
flight.
On the ground, the MC has sole control over the camera. In the air, the camera is, so to speak, in the
hands of both the MC and the pilot. Both must coordinate their efforts and work together as a team.
Weather
Good weather conditions for aerial documentation are generally considered to be clear with 5 to 10
knots of wind (to help blow off smoke and smog) and visibility of 7 miles or more. Minimum conditions
are generally considered to be scattered clouds with visibility of 6 miles. When weather conditions are
poor, shoot low-oblique documentation from relatively low altitudes to minimize the effects of smoke
and haze.
Aircraft
Handheld aerial documentation can be made from almost any aircraft. However, there are some
generally accepted preferences, such as high-wing aircraft or relatively slow-flying aircraft. Most slow-
flying aircraft have a window, door, or hatch that can be removed or opened to simplify unobstructed
photography. A high-mounted wing aircraft is preferable to a low- or mid-mounted wing aircraft
because the wing is out of the field of view of the camera (See Figure 12-2).

Figure 12-2 Wing Positions.
Helicopters provide MCs more freedom to work at lower altitudes, but there are certain misconceptions
about them. One of these misconceptions is that the platform can be suspended anywhere in a
motionless state. Most helicopter pilots prefer to maintain some forward speedat least enough to
make a safe landing in the event of engine failure. An added advantage of maintaining some forward
speed is that it reduces vibration. While the helicopter is hovering, it vibrates excessively and the engine
exhaust oftentimes washes in front of you and the camera. Both of these factors contribute to degraded
imagery. There are two distinct advantages of using helicopters for handheld aerial documentation.
First, they have the ability to maneuver in and out of places that are inaccessible to fixed-wing aircraft.
Second, they have the ability to fly at low altitudes more safely than fixed-wing aircraft.
If you have a choice of aerial documentation platforms, consider an aircraft that can fly with a window or
door removed or open. By removing or opening a window or door, you eliminate the need to shoot
through a glass or plastic window. This prevents reflection problems, such as glare, that can result in
obscured image detail. Of course, you are unable to open a "window" in a high-performance jet aircraft.
Navy helicopters have doors that can be completely removed or opened while in flight. With the door
opened or removed from a helicopter, you have fewer obstructions to obscure the view of the camera
than in a fixed-wing aircraft.

U.S. Navy Photo by Mass Communication Specialist Seaman John Grandin

U.S. Navy Photo by Mass Communication Specialist 2nd Class Kilho Park
Shutter Speed and Lens Aperture
Because depth of field is insignificant in air-to-ground documentation, you can concentrate on the
problem of objectionable image motion. Set the focus at infinity, and set the aperture wide open.
There is no need to stop down for depth of field because the entire scene is effectively at infinity. (You
may prefer to stop down one or two f/stops to obtain the critical aperture of the lens for the sharpest
image.) Make necessary exposure adjustments by varying the shutter speed. With your lens wide open,
you can use the fastest shutter speed that conditions will allow. Thus, you are better able to reduce
image motion.
For air-to-air documentation, depth of field may be a factor you have to contend with, especially when
you are making close-ups. You may have to stop down and use a slower shutter speed to get the
required depth of field. This setting is not much of a problem because the photo "bird" (aircraft in
which you are present) and the target, usually another plane, are flying at about the same speed and
very little movement of the subject is apparent. You should use the fastest shutter speed possible to
compensate for vibration of the aircraft in which you are flying.
Safety
Whether you capture imagery from the rear seat of a jet or from the open door of a helicopter, you
must be checked out and become thoroughly familiar with the necessary safety equipment and
applicable safety procedures. Before the flight, you should arrive at the aircraft or briefing area in
sufficient time for the preflight brief. The main responsibility of the pilot is to fly you and your
documentation equipment to the target, put the aircraft in position for image capture, and return to the
base safely. The pilot knows the limitations of the aircraft and what procedures to follow in an
emergency. Ask the pilot about emergency plans and follow this advice.
NATOPS General Flight and Operating Instructions, OPNAVINST 3710.7T (series), specifies
minimum requirements for equipment and is supplemented by the Naval Air Training and Operating
Procedures Standardization (NATOPS) Program for each specific model of aircraft.
Warning
During takeoffs and landings, your gear must be made secure within the aircraft so it does not
become a hazard. Once airborne and before you approach an open door, you must have a properly
adjusted, securely anchored crewmembers safety harness around your waist. The crewmembers
safety harness should be adjusted before takeoff. Attach the snap hook of the harness to a tie-down
ring on the deck of the aircraft. The tie-down ring should be about 3 to 4 feet from the open door.
Never attach the snap hook to pipes, tubes, cables, or similar items. Place the harness around your
waist and fasten the latch and link assembly. Pull the adjustment straps of the waist portion of the
harness so it fits snugly around your waist. Now adjust the length of the safety strap so you can sit in
the open doorway and still lean forward about 1 foot.
Preflight and Postflight Inspections
As an aerial documenter shooting handheld imagery, your preflight inspection is concentrated
primarily on your photo/video equipment and your personal protective equipment.
You know what camera and equipment checks to make before every documentation assignment.
These equipment checks are particularly important in aerial work. In aerial work, more people are
directly involved with the mission. With the great expense and time involved in flying Navy aircraft, it
is essential that you have your equipment functioning correctly. Equipment breakdowns may occur
during a flight; however, it is your responsibility to be sure that the necessary equipment and
materials for the mission are present and working properly. Take at least two camera bodies, one with
a wide-angle and one with a normal-to-long lens, to avoid changing out lenses in flight.
Communications
Establishing a few hand signals with the pilot beforehand may prove very helpful during the mission
hand signals that indicate "there is the target," "move right," "move left," "move up," "move down,"
"turn right," "turn left," and "steady, I am shooting." In the air, a pilot has a better understanding of your
needs with prearranged signals as compared to makeshift signals, which may fail to be communicated
correctly.

Figure 12-3 Hand Signals.
Composition
Your two primary tools in aerial composition are camera viewpoint and timing. You may have some
control over what time of day to fly the mission. If so, use the sun to your best advantage for the most
desirable lighting. When the sun is at an angle that causes shadows to fall across the subject and
obscure some important detail, you may ask to fly the mission at a different time of day or even on an
overcast day. Whenever possible, shoot obliques with the sun falling on the scene from about a 45-
degree angle. Shooting at this angle provides proper shadows and creates a feeling of depth. With
the sun directly in back of the camera, the picture appears flat. With the sun directly in front of the
camera, the shadows may obscure detail and lens flare can result. Shadows play an important role in
picture balance by creating an illusion of depth; they also aid in determining the physical characteristics
of ground areas. The size of objects in a photograph can be determined by the length and width of their
shadows. You can obtain the desired shadow effect by ensuring the pilot places the aircraft properly
in relation to the target. A minimum image size may be required to locate or identify large objects in a
photograph. Small objects and great detail require a large image size. You can obtain the proper image
size in your imagery by selecting the proper altitude of the aircraft and the lens focal length of the
camera.
Subject balance should also be considered while keeping in mind the three or four primary divisions
or areas of low and high obliques, respectively. Study the view during your approach to the target.
The horizon is another factor for consideration in oblique work. The horizon or, in the case of a low
oblique, the imaginary horizon should be straight in your pictures. A real horizon that is crooked, even in
a high-oblique picture, does not appear natural; it is distracting and does not reflect the work expected
of a professional aerial photographer. When making obliques, you should hold the camera so the
horizon is straight. This is easy to do in a high oblique because the horizon is included in the picture and
can be seen while the picture is taken. When making a low oblique, hold the camera as though a high
oblique was being made, straighten the horizon and then lower the camera carefully to the correct angle
for the low oblique. A horizon that is crooked is often the result when a photographer concentrates on the
subject alone and does not compose the image in the viewfinder.
The camera may be tilted in some instances; for example, when two points of interest must be included
in one exposure. If you cannot do this by holding the camera level, then turn the camera slightly at an
angle; the two points can sometimes be included in the diagonal of the picture area.
Shooting Techniques
Do not capture imagery when the aircraft is turning. The position of the aircraft during a turn causes
your images to be reasonably sharp in the center, but decreasingly sharp toward the edges. High-
shutter speeds may not correct this fault.
One of the principal problems in handheld aerial documentation is camera movement during
exposure. This basic problem is magnified significantly where aircraft vibration and relative target
movement are also present. Best picture results can be achieved when the pilot reduces the throttle,
which reduces aircraft vibration and minimizes image movement. Image blurring, caused by camera
movement, can be reduced by using a faster shutter speed. You may also be able to minimize image
motion by panning the subject with the camera. When you are flying low, the target may "shoot" past
you so fast that the shutter speed cannot "stop" it. The result is imagery that is not sharp. To prevent
this, "follow the target" (pan) with your camera. The pan must be continuous and smooth. Move the
camera in the direction opposite to the direction of flight, keeping the lens fixed at some point on the
target. With this technique, the image on the camera sensor does not move as much as it would if the
camera were held still.
With a handheld camera, you have freedom of movement; however, the view of the camera is limited
by the structure of the aircraft. In some aircraft, you must take photographs through a canopy or
closed window, which can cause a slight shift in image focus. This shift in focus may be reduced by
stopping down the lens; however, this is not always possible because you may need fast shutter
speeds. The best method of shooting photographs through a window is to capture imagery with the
optical axis of the lens perpendicular to the surface of the window. The lens should be as close as
possible to the surface of the window without touching it. Although this method allows you to take only
one or two photos during each pass of the target, the quality and definition of the image is better.
Generally speaking, the best air-to-air documentation is made from slightly above, to the side, and
from slightly forward of the plane being photographed; however, you should try other views, such as
from below or slightly aft of the subject aircraft. A focal-length lens of 80mm or greater should be used
when you are documenting only one or two aircraft at a time. Longer focal-length lenses prevent
distortion that results from using a normal or short lens. With a normal or short lens, the wings that
stick out from the fuselage of the target plane and the long nose or tail section appear distorted when
you document them from close range. When shooting formations of three or more aircraft, you should
use a normal focal-length lens because you are farther from the subjects and distortion is not a
problem. For a head-on view, use a long focal-length lens and have the pilot fly the aircraft you are in
across and above or below the projected flight path of the plane being documented. Of course, each
of the pilots needs plenty of room to avoid a mid-air collision. A better and safer way to get a head-on
shot is to fly in front of the plane being documented, in the same direction, and at the same speed.
The aircraft you are documenting does not always have to fly straight and level. Good, interesting
pictures can be taken while aircraft are maneuvering, such as in a long, slow turn or in a bank. When
the underside of the fuselage must be shown, request the pilot of the target aircraft to roll the plane so
the sun shines on the underside of the aircraft. For this shot, the plane containing the MC should fly in
a bank above the subject plane. This maneuver provides you with a camera angle looking down on
the plane to be documented. When shadows are not a problem and enough light is reflected on the
fuselage of the aircraft being documented, the plane with the MC can fly under the other aircraft and
capture imagery while it is in straight and level flight.
Remember, what the camera "sees" is the way the imagery will look.
Aerial Maritime Surveillance Documentation
Maritime surveillance data gathering for intelligence purposes is assisted by image documentation
methods; that is, high-quality imagery that provides permanent records so that detailed interpretation
of the collected data can be made. A camera can record full details of the target instantly. Imagery
should be made of all maritime targets worthy of observation, including surface ships (war and cargo)
and submarines. Air reconnaissance documentation of surface and subsurface targets made from
fixed-wing aircraft and helicopters add greatly to the complete intelligence data on enemy or potential
enemy shipping. It is often the duty of the MC to obtain this type of documentation by using a hand-
held camera.
The value of maritime surveillance documentation can be enhanced if you use correct photographic
composition, appropriate field of view, and proper rigging patterns. The best photographic
composition of a ship cannot always be obtained by shooting horizontal views. In maritime
surveillance documentation, it is important for you to ensure the target is recorded as large as
possible.
Four basic rigging patterns for maritime surveillance documentation are in use today. They are the
Special Interest Rig, the Quick Rig, the Normal Standard Rig, and the Full Rig. Proper rigging of the
target provides maximum intelligence data from the photographs. To better understand the purpose
of each rig, you must know what each view (or point) of the rig is designed to achieve. The Bow
Quarter view is useful in determining forward deck cargo-handling equipment, electronic arrays, and
vessel identification. The Beam view provides the length of the target plus the stack and antenna
height. The Stern Quarter and the Stern views are used to determine cargo and electronic arrays on
the aft section of the vessel. The Vertical view is valuable in locating electronic arrays, determining
full-deck cargo, and for measurement purposes.

Figure 12-4 Maritime Surveillance Photography Rigging Patterns.
The Special Interest Rig is required when a particular vessel is documented for the first time or if
there are specific areas of interest on a particular vessel. Before this type of mission, a special
briefing must be conducted to determine what specific rigs should be flown to satisfy mission
requirements. The Quick Rig is used for routine documentation of a contact (vessel) observed while on
patrol. The Quick Rig consists of the bow quarter, beam, and stem quarter views of a vessel. The
Normal Standard Rig, commonly referred to as the Five-Point Rig, consists of the bow quarter, beam,
stem quarter, stem, and vertical views of a vessel. This rig is used to provide a more detailed
representation of a vessel. The Full Rig, or Nine-Point Rig, is required when enemy or potential enemy
vessels are being photographed. This rig provides complete coverage for all the areas of interest. The
best approach for rigging most of the aircraft used in maritime surveillance documentation is from the
bow of the target.
Although the previous discussion concerns obtaining intelligence documentation, the very same
procedures are useful in shooting pictures of ships and submarines for public affairs office release
and for display prints.
Motion-Media Documentation from the Air
In most cases, the techniques and exposure recommendations for still aerial photography apply to
shooting motion-media photography from the air. However, there are a few differences. As a general
rule, frames per second (fps) rates that are above normal should be used for motion pictures, unless
you have a specific requirement to film at the "real time" rate. Just as in still photography, the image
quality of aerial motion media suffers from image motion on the recording. A general rule of thumb is
to use about one and one-half or twice the normal frame rate: 30 to 60 fps for digital video. When
adjusting your shutter, set the shutter speed to 1/500 second or higher.
You need a zoom lens or a camera with a turret and different focal-length lenses to change your view
of the subject. However, avoid the temptation to overuse the zooming technique while shooting.
Instead, change the focal length between scenes to obtain variety and interest in your images.
The problem of maintaining a steady image is greatly magnified when you must shoot with a long
focal-length lens. In these circumstances, you should use a gyrostabilizer, if it is available. A
gyrostabilizer is an aerial camera mount that uses a gyroscope to maintain camera stability.
Captioning Aerial Imagery
Captioning and slating handheld aerial imagery is as important as captioning and slating still and
motion-picture imagery that is taken on the ground. In captioning aerial photography, however, the
caption information should be expanded to include the camera lens focal length, the altitude, and the
direction of the aircraft from which the picture was made and the time of day the imagery was taken.
Advanced Training
It is highly recommended for all personnel who may find themselves in a potential flying status to
attend Naval Aircrew Candidate School (NACCS) or at a minimum the Aviation Flight Physiology
training program before attempting aerial photography. Upon successful completion of training from
NACCS, graduates will earn Navy Enlisted Classification (NEC) 8201 to qualify for flight status and if
billeted in a flying status, the graduate will earn NEC 8288 as an aerial photographer.
UNDERWATER DOCUMENTATION
Qualified candidates can attend SCUBA school at Naval Diving and Salvage Training Center
(NDSTC) in Panama City, Fla. Upon successful completion of this course of training, graduates earn
NEC 5345 for SCUBA diver and are authorized to wear the Navy SCUBA diver insignia. For more
information, please contact the MC Detailer (PERS 402) and refer to MILPERSMAN 1220-130 for
entry requirements.
The Navy has always had a need for underwater (UW) photography. Aside from its usefulness in
military and salvage operations, UW photography is a valuable tool to the marine biologist and to
many other types of scientists and engineers. For example, when the hull of a ship is damaged below
the waterline and the only way engineers and damage control personnel may be able to assess the
damage is through photographs. A photograph permits an unhurried examination or a precise, critical
analysis by the specialist.

U.S. Navy Photo by Mass Communication Specialist 3rd Class Scott Raegen
NIGHT VISION/LOW LIGHT DOCUMENTATION
It is possible to photograph at an ISO in excess of 12,800 without the need for a flash or a strobe, and
without loss of image quality due to graininess or noise. For this application, some basic rules apply.
Your lens selection should be a fast, wide, aspherically correct lens to allow as much light as possible
to the sensor of the camera. Your lens should be set at the widest aperture allowable, and exposure
control should be accomplished with the shutter speed. Stability is also a key factor, as slower shutter
speeds are sometimes required for proper image exposure. Stability is accomplished by the use of a
mono-pod or tri-pod when available or by assuming a wider stance, bracing the arms against the
body, or leaning against something that is stable. Using this technique will help prevent image blur
and allow the MC to acquire useable imagery.

U.S. Navy Photo by Mass Communication Specialist 3rd Class Will Tyndall
Night vision is another method of gathering imagery in very low light situations. It is employed where
conditions are too dark for practical low light photography. Although the Navy does not employ any
single type of equipment for this photography, most intensifier units are relatively the same. Once one
is learned, the others are easily learned.
One thing to understand about night vision documentation with an intensifier is that there must be
some form of ambient light to capture an image. Usually this ambient light comes in the form of
moonlight. As its name implies, the night vision unit intensifies the ambient light available and allows
one to photograph under extremely low light conditions. The imagery will have a green or amber cast
to it, and vignetting may occur. If there is no ambient light, however, the intensifier will have no light to
intensify, and no image will be acquired. As with low light documentation, stability is vital to good
useable imagery.

U.S. Navy Photo by Mass Communication Specialist 3
rd
Class Sebastian McCormack
Thermal camera (THERMAL CAM) and infrared (IR) are both operational variations on night vision
and are additional tools for the lowlight repertoire. Unlike night vision, these two methods do NOT rely
on the need of ambient light. Thermal cameras record the heat signature of objects, machines, and
mammals. Infrared recording is made possible by infra-red emitters on the camera or from a separate
attachment. When shooting at night, in an operational environment, make sure all camera infrared
emitters are turned off. Thermal and infrared recording units may have a reduced range when
compared to night vision.
SHIPBOARD INTELLIGENCE IMAGERY
The purpose of intelligence or reconnaissance documentation is to gain information about an enemy
or potential enemy contact. Shore and sea-based teams are routinely assigned duties to photograph
passing ships, aircraft, and land based items of interest. The information will be used to build
databases of activities and threat awareness for combatant commanders. When you are shooting
imagery for intelligence purposes, high quality and sharp image definition is of utmost importance.
Items that must be documented are numbers, names, flags, deck configurations, personnel activities,
and communication or unique features. Examples of additional information that should accompany
the imagery are time of day, location, actions of vessel or aircraft, or any pertinent notes.
MCs may belong to the Ship's Nautical or Otherwise Photographic Interpretation and Examination
(SNOOPIE) or other intelligence-gathering teams. SNOOPIE teams are charged with reporting any
visual changes that go on outside the ship, such as the presence of an unidentified ship or aircraft, or
any other type of abnormal activity. MCs belonging to SNOOPIE teams are required to be qualified by
completing a Personnel Qualification Standards (PQS).

A Mass Communication Specialist assigned to USS Dwight D. Eisenhower (CVN 69) takes
video of a surface contact as a Ship's Nautical or Otherwise Photographic Interpretation and
Examination (SNOOPIE) Team member. U.S. Navy Photo

A Mass Communication Specialist assigned to USS Dwight D. Eisenhower (CVN 69) takes
photos of a surface contact as a Ship's Nautical or Otherwise Photographic Interpretation and
Examination (SNOOPIE) Team member. U.S. Navy Photo
GEO-TAGGING OF IMAGERY
Geo-tagging is the process of adding geographical identification metadata to imagery and other web-
based applications. The data consists of latitude and longitude and can also include altitude, bearing,
distance, and place names. Force Protection guidelines must be followed when Geo-tagging in an
operational environment because geographical positions may inadvertently be released.
SUMMARY
In this chapter, you learned about the various types of specialized documentation and their
applications, to include aerial, underwater, low light, and night vision documentation. You should now
have a firm understanding of the different rigs used in reconnaissance documentation. Although
advanced training is recommended, there may be some instances where you find yourself working in
these fields without additional training. A more experienced MC should perform these types of
specialized documentation. Novice MCs should seek supervisory help before attempting.
CHAPTER 13
MULTIMEDIA
As taken from the pages of the Defense Information Schools (DINFOS') handbook on multimedia authoring,
multimedia simply defines product created by incorporating different elements of media, such as text, audio, still
and motion images, animation, etc. It is taking the many forms of storytelling you have learned in this module and
the previous manual and putting them together as a package to better convey your message.
In this chapter, we will speak of specific multimedia products and touch on the basics of each:
Digital graphics
Multiple-page layouts
Electronic presentations
Movie authoring and animation
Websites
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Define multimedia.
2. Explain the difference between raster and vector graphics.
3. Define principles of design for various multimedia projects.
4. Understand the principles of animation.
5. List the stages of authoring a movie.
6. Explain Section 508 compliance in relation to website management.
DIGITAL GRAPHICS
In addition to the written word, photographs, and video, all of which have been discussed in previous chapters,
digital graphics play a key role in the creation of multimedia products. For our purposes, digital graphics fall into
two categories raster and vector (See Figure 13-1).
In this chapter, we will focus on vector graphics, because we more often equate raster images to photography than
digital graphics. However, photos are as important to multimedia products as vector graphics.
Raster graphics use pixels to create an overall image and are often referred to as bitmap files. Raster graphics are
resolution dependent, which means you cannot increase their size without losing quality (see Figure 13-1). Vector
graphics are considered object-oriented graphics and are created from points, lines, shapes and curves that are
based on mathematical formulas. These elements are filled with color, blends, tints or gradients, while lines have a
stroke attribute, such as a solid or dashed line with different thicknesses and colors. Separate parts of a vector
graphic are individual objects that can be changed independently of each other.
Vector graphics are resolution-independent, meaning when you reduce or enlarge the image you are only changing
the mathematical formula that defines the object. This attribute makes vector-drawing programs ideal for artwork,
such as logos, that need to be displayed or printed at different sizes. Vector software should not be used to edit
photographs, because photographs are raster images made up of pixels and cannot be separated into individual
objects.
Raster-Based Software
Raster graphics create an image using a point, or hundreds of points, of light in a matrix. These images are slower
to manipulate and create than vector graphics, but more spontaneous and easier to learn. A multi-layering, raster-
based matrix with distinct grid-mapped forms is called raster-based imagery. Raster-based images create painterly
(like a painting) effects and encourage creativity. They also require an enormous amount of processor power and
memory, which can slow program execution. To modify or create in the raster mode is to work at the pixel level,
which can be time consuming and tedious. Examples of programs that are raster-based are Adobe Photoshop,
Microsoft Paint, and Corel Photo Editor.
Vector-Based Software
Vector-based software is ideal for drawings, charts, graphs and diagrams. It creates an image by
defining line, position, shape and fill pattern. You plot, or vector, a series of points to define a
shape. This shape is calculated into a mathematical formula called an algorithm. The computer
automatically calculates image manipulation and editing when you change parameters, making
modifications easy and fast. Examples of vector-based programs include Adobe Illustrator and
Corel Draw.
Vector Terms
Now that you understand the basics behind vector graphics and how they are different from raster graphics, let us
talk about some terms you need to know before you start using vector-based software.
Bezier Curve (pronounced Bez-ee-ay) Developed by the French engineer Pierre Bzier, these curves are the basis
for all images formed in a vector-based drawing. Originally created to put designs of aircraft on a computer, they
were later used for designing cars. A Bezier curve is a series of points on a path, with anchor points at the ends of

Figure 13-1 A Vector Image Enlarged vs. a Raster Image Enlarged Proportionally.
the path and two points coming out of the anchor points to control the amount and direction of curve. These points
are called direction points. The purpose of these points and lines is to control the shape of the curve by moving the
direction points.
Paths Vector-based programs use paths to create objects that make up the drawing of the image. A path is a shape
formed by lines connected at anchor points. Paths can be changed and are easy to manipulate. Paths can be moved,
resized and colored. The three basic types of paths are open, closed and compound.
An open path is a path that has two distinct end points with any number of anchor points in
between. Straight lines, arcs or curved lines are all examples of open paths.
A closed path is a path that forms an enclosed area with no starting or stopping point within
that closed path. However, there can be any number of anchor points along the path.
Examples of closed paths would be a circle, rectangle or star.
A compound path is a combination of open and closed paths. A compound path can be any
shape or size. It can be easily identified because the open areas of the shape allow you to see
through it. A doughnut drawing would be an example of a compound path.
Fill To fill means to add color or pattern to an open area inside a path. A gradient can be created and used to fill
an object. A closed path, a circle for example, will be filled in the inside of the path area. An open path, an arc for
example, will be filled inside the path, but will stop at the invisible straight line connecting the end points.
Stroke To apply a stroke means to take a path defined by the shape and trace it. A stroke can be applied to any
path. A stroke color or pattern can be changed using the color or swatches palette. A stroke weight or thickness can
be changed using the stroke palette. The Miter Limit option determines how far the stroke sticks out on a sharp
corner.
Anchor Points These join two segments of a path and can be edited. They can be placed where needed manually
or using the tools provided. It is important that you use as few anchor points as needed to create a path, because
using more anchor points makes the path more difficult to edit. That being said, the more anchor points you use,
the more precise and detailed are the edits you are able to make. The four types of anchor points are as follows:
Smooth Points have a curved path and no noticeable abrupt change of directions, like in an S
Straight Corner Points occur where two straight lines meet, typically at a corner or anywhere
there is an abrupt, distinct angle formed at the juncture of two paths, like in a V
Curved Corner Points are found at the junction of two curved lines that abruptly change
directions when they meet, like the center point of the number 3
Combination Corner Points are found where a straight line meets a curved line, like in the
number 5.
Viewing Modes Most vector-drawing programs provide three viewing modes to view your designs outline,
preview and preview-selected.
Outline Mode displays the paths for the objects you have drawn; it shows no color, shading or
other graphical effects
Preview Mode shows what you will get when you print the illustration
Preview Selected Mode shows the stroke, fill and color of the independent selection only.

Digitizing Tablets A digitizing tablet (see Figure 13-2) is an input device to help you enter drawings and sketches
into a computer. It is most needed when converting an analog drawing or image, or re-drawing a low-resolution
graphic. Operation consists of an electronic tablet, wireless mouse, and/or pen. A pen (also called a stylus) looks
like a simple ballpoint pen but uses an electronic head instead of ink. The tablet contains electronics that enable it
to detect movement of the cursor or pen and translate the movements into digital signals that it sends to the
computer. Each point on the tablet represents a fixed point on the display screen. This differs from mice, in which
all movement is relative to the current cursor position. The static nature of digitizing tablets makes them
particularly effective for tracing drawings.
Using Software Programs
In order to become proficient with graphics and graphics software, you must practice, practice, practice. However,
remember that computer equipment and software can never replace your own creativity and ingenuity. You must
gain the knowledge to master the program or programs and use these tools wisely. Sit down, read the owner/user
manual, and experiment with the computer.
Drafting, drawing and painting are distinctly different functions and not all programs will be equally adept at
processing all three. Base your choice of program on command requirements. Also, let your software drive your
hardware. Select a software program that fulfills the needs of the command and allows for some growth. Purchase
hardware based upon software requirements. Invest in the very best monitor possible. All of this affects the
graphics resolution, the ease of processing, and the final product.
Filing Graphics
According to SECNAVINST 3104.1A, Navy Visual Information Program Policy and Responsibilities, the marking and
filing of all graphics must be made in the same manner as photographic images, to include security classification,
VIRIN, and name of creator.
MULTIPLE-PAGE LAYOUTS
Brochures, newspapers, newsletters, event programs, etc., are a few examples of multiple-page layouts you may be
assigned to create during your time as an MC. Each brings together digital graphics with the other types of media
we have discussed throughout this manual. Strategically placing these items together to create such a product is
referred to as layout and design.
Layout and design affects the placement of different items as well as the relationships among them. It is like
identifying your favorite ingredients and making your favorite dish. You need to know which ones and how much

Figure 13-2 Example of Digitizing Tablet.
of each you need to use. The principles of design determine what you do with these items and how you do it. These
principles also affect where you place items within a layout and why.
Principles of Design
The four principles of design are balance, rhythm, emphasis and unity. When creating a layout, think about how
each of these principles will enhance your layout, make it visually appealing, or better communicate your message
to your audience.
Balance
Balance is the perceived equal distribution of weight in a design. Balance refers to how items are arranged
horizontally or vertically. It creates a feeling of steadiness and of things looking as if they belong where they are.
Balanced layouts seem complete to the eye. The two approaches to balance are symmetrical and asymmetrical.
Symmetrical balance is also known as formal balance. It is the arrangement of elements so they are evenly
distributed to the left and the right of the center. In other words, one side mirrors the other, and all items on the
page are centered and balanced. Symmetrical balance communicates strength and stability. It is mostly used for
traditional or conservative layouts.
The opposite approach is asymmetrical balance, or informal balance. It is the uneven arrangement of an object or
objects of different weight on the page. Asymmetry relies greatly upon the optical weight of elements. Optical
weight is a system of visual measure based upon the following ideas:
Darker elements weigh more than lighter ones
Color weighs more than black and white
Bigger elements are heavier than smaller ones
Bright hues are more weighty than muted hues
Irregularly shaped elements have more weight than regular shapes
Balancing an asymmetrical design requires the use of such elements as color, value, size, shape and texture.
Asymmetry brings contrast, variety, excitement, movement, surprise and informality to your layout. It is most
appropriate for pieces that entertain and inform.
Rhythm
Rhythm is used to achieve movement and is the visual progression of repeating elements in a varied pattern.
Rhythm is often associated with music; for example, a waltz with a smooth, flowing rhythm or a polka with a lively
rhythm.
The two key elements to using rhythm in your layout are repetition and variation. Repetition is the repeating of
similar visual items in a consistent manner, and variation is a change in the size, placement, or form of visual
elements.
Repetition unifies a layout. For example, to make text easy to read, use even columns. However, too much
repetition without variation can make for a boring layout. To vary your layout, you can add headlines, sub-
headlines, and images. Headlines are discussed in Module 1, Chapter 6.
Rhythm communicates feeling or mood. To establish a calm and relaxing mood, you should place your elements at
regular intervals, creating a smooth, even rhythm. To establish a more dynamic mood, vary the size and spacing of
the elements. The latter is used often in advertisements to keep an audiences attention.
Emphasis
In design, emphasis means that one element stands out amongst the others, capturing more of a readers attention.
As the layout and design editor, you emphasize the element you want people to notice first and foremost. Color is a
great way to emphasize an element.
Remember back to the previous chapters on photography and videography. Do you recall that within both types of
media, having a focal point within the images was vital to good storytelling? The same is true with layout and
design. In any product, you must have a focal point or a spot in your layout that captures your readers attention
and keeps him there to check out the rest of the piece. Having too many focal points, however, confuses your
reader. Emphasizing everything means emphasizing nothing.
After you choose the element you want to emphasize, you can select from several methods to call attention to it.
Generally, a focal point is created when one element differs from the others. For example, if you are working with a
vertical layout, you can use a horizontal item, such as a horizontal photo, as your emphasized element.
Unity
Unity helps the elements of your layout look like they belong together by providing visual cues to your reader that
tells them which parts of the layout go with other parts of the layout. For example, in a newspaper, unity provided
by the column arrangement holds together a headline, story, and the associated image.
Three ways to unify your elements are by grouping, repeating, or using grids. Grouping means that the elements
are close together on the page. Repeating elements through color, shape and texture also create unity. If you are
using an image of the American flag, you could pull out the color blue from the flag and use it for other elements on
the page. A grid system, also referred to as modular design, is a division of page space into columns, margins, or
space. A grid establishes a framework for text, graphics, and images.
Variety keeps unified layouts from being boring. For example, you can create a theme with circles in your layout.
Circles and the variations of circles in different sizes and shapes create unity, but variety, at the same time. The
elements remain related within the circular design, yet varied enough for interest.
Elements of Design
The process of layout and design is neither an exact science nor magic. Layouts are tried and discarded many times
before the right one is found. However, knowing the basic principles and elements of design and how to use them
will help you make good choices. In this section, we will discuss seven elements of design often used in the industry
line, shape, texture, space, size, value and color.
In any given layout, it is important to know which of these elements are necessary and which are not in order to
create a successful, clutter-free layout.
Lines
Lines are everywhere. There are straight lines, curved lines, and squiggly lines; fat lines, skinny lines, and dotted
lines. Lines are used to organize, direct your readers attention, or create mood, rhythm or movement.
Horizontal lines can represent rest or relaxation in one instance or stability in another
Vertical lines often show strength, and can suggest movement
Curved lines suggest many things depending on how they are used. They can show
weakness, or they can show elegance, beauty or gracefulness.
Shape
Shape is any element with a given form that has height and width. Shapes communicate ideas. For example, a logo
used for an international company could use a circle to represent the earth. Unusual shapes attract attention.
Arranging text into a shape can also be used to draw attention.
Shape enhances a layout in three ways it gives your reader a place to begin by acting as a focal point, sustains the
readers interest by breaking up pages with an overabundance of text, and organizes and separates to add variety.
In layout and design there are three common types of shapes. Geometric shapes, like circles, triangles, squares and
rectangles, are regular and structured. These shapes make excellent building blocks for design. Natural shapes,
including animal, plant and human figures, are irregular and fluid. For example, instead of using a rectangular
shape on your page to imply stability, you could use ivy (if appropriate) to give the page a light, airy feeling.
Abstract shapes are simplified versions of natural shapes. An example of an abstracted shape is the symbol for
handicap accessibility, which includes a figure in a wheelchair.
Texture
Texture gives a design the look or feel of a surface. Think about the many textures you encounter every day the
bark of a tree, the roughness of the sidewalk, the smoothness of a sink basin, grooves on a steering wheel, the short
or long fur on your pet, etc. In design, texture communicates through an imagined sense of touch.
Texture creates a particular mood, while adding dimension and richness. To demonstrate this, try printing your
layout on different textures of paper using embossed type (embossing means to create a raised surface).
Two types of texture are used in layout and design tactile and visual. Tactile texture can be felt, while visual
texture creates the illusion of texture on a two-dimensional printed piece. Wallpaper is an example of visual
texture. Patterns often create visual texture. When an image or line is repeated many times, the patterns of lights
and darks add dimension to the surface. Patterns make excellent backgrounds and borders in layouts; they add
rhythm and movement.
Space
Space is defined as the distance or area between two items. Effective use of space in design leads to attractive,
organized, and functional layouts. When designing a layout, you must think about where you are going to place the
text and imagery. How much space must you place around and between each item? You must also consider your
total amount of work space on the page, how each element works together, and the overall appearance of your
layout.
The space between and around the items is referred to as white space or negative space. It creates a rest for the
eye and visually organizes the layout. White space between columns of text, for example, provides boundaries to
allow the reader to move through the text easily.
Placement and value of shapes on a page create spatial relationships and focal points among the items on the page.
Size
The fifth element is size, which is how big or small something is. Size plays an important role in ensuring the layout
is functional, attractive and organized. You can contrast small and large items to attract attention, reinforce
importance, or create relationships.
Value
Value is the darkness or lightness of an item, giving it shape or texture. In design, every item has a value. When
laying out pages, an items value is affected by its background and the other items around it. For example, a lot of
text in a small area on the page will cause the paper to look gray.
Value can express a theme or mood. Using black, white and gray in your design adds power or changes the mood.
Value establishes contrast by subtly blending shades of color or black and white. Low contrast creates a calm, quiet
mood; high contrast conveys a feeling of drama or excitement. Using only light values gives a piece an unstable,
subtle feeling.
Movement and direction can be affected by value as well. If you place a single black dot on a white background, you
get great contrast between the foreground (the dot) and the white background. If you add a second dot below the
first, the dots will appear to have equal importance. If you give the second dot a 50-percent shade, the value of the
second dot creates movement and direction (see Figure 13-3).
Color
The final element of a good design is color, which is the ultimate tool for symbolic communication. Decisions about
color should be made with much thought to ensure the success of your layout.
Color conveys mood, identifies objects, and relays messages. Like value, color can also evoke moods and emotions.
How you use color, however, makes a difference in the final product. You can pick a color from a photo for a
background color in the layout to achieve a specific look. Repeating colors from a photo of a sunset gives you a
gentle, soft feeling throughout. Using contrasting colors with the same photo will give you a different feeling
altogether. If you surround the same photo with lots of black, you create action and drama.
Page Layouts
Now that you have looked at principles and elements of good design, it is time to talk a little about the actually
laying out the pages of that brochure, newspaper or retirement program. Page layout is the actual arrangement of
type, photos, graphics, illustrations, etc. It involves the position of headings, the number of columns of text, the
design of borders, and the placement of graphics.
A good design makes it easy for your audience to receive the intended information. It requires elements to be
arranged so they are aesthetically pleasing. There is no single correct formula for producing layouts, or shortcuts
to learning effective techniques. To be successful, the layout must stop readers and redirect their attention to the
information you want them to read.
A good layout must be well organized and attractive to the reader to effectively communicate your message. A good
layout succeeds when it gets the message across quickly.
The most important decisions you will make in creating your layout is deciding who is your target audience. You
must also decide if the product is going to be printed or Web-based. How will it be distributed? If the product is

Figure 13-3 Example of Changing the Value of an Item within a Layout.
going to be displayed on the Web only, you should use the RGB (red, green, blue) color mode rather than CMYK
(cyan, magenta, yellow and key/black) print color mode.
An Organized Layout
A good layout is organized when it provides a visual path for readers to follow. It shows the reader where to start
and where to go second, third, fourth, etc. The better the organization, the faster the reader will get the message.
Organization allows the reader to move smoothly and easily across the layout. If the viewer has to work at it, he
will get bored or frustrated and lay the product aside.
Organization takes time and is perfected through trial and error. The process is similar to that of putting together a
jigsaw puzzle. The best practice is to keep putting the pieces together in different ways until they fit together
comfortably, emphasizing the proper items to the proper degrees.
An Attractive Layout
A good layout attracts your reader, grabbing his attention and pulling him into the information. A poorly designed
layout fails to communicate. When designing and laying out your product, ask yourself these three questions:
Does it work?
Is it properly organized?
Is it attractive?
If you can answer yes to all of these questions, you can say that you have a good layout. You should always get a
second and third opinion, however.
Page Elements
Page elements, not to be confused with the elements of design, are the main ingredients that make up your layout.
These include text, graphics, photos and illustrations, bleed, borders, rule lines, guidelines and grids, gutters, and
margins.
Measurements
The system of measurement in graphic design includes the pica and the point. A point is defined
as exactly 1/72 of an inch; there are 12 points in a pica and, therefore, six picas to the inch. Type
is always specified in points, and page elements are measured in points and picas.
Text, Type and Copy
Text, type and copy refer to the written information on your page. In the following paragraphs, we will discuss the
factors to consider when working with text, type and copy.
Leading
Leading (pronounced led-ding) refers to the spacing between lines of text. It is measured in points vertically from
the baseline of a line of type to the baseline of the line of type below it. Leading is proportional to line length. Long
lines of text require more spacing between lines. The default in most desktop publishing programs is usually 20
percent greater than the type size (e.g. for 10-point type, add two points for leading).
Closer text fits more text on a page, but decreases legibility. Looser leading spreads text out to fill a page and makes
the document easier to read. Leading can also be a problem, as when the lines of text are so close that they overlap
or touch. Leading that is too tight makes it difficult for the reader to separate the words and phrases and to find the
beginning of a line.
Line Length
Line length is the width of the line of type, column, or page in picas or points as set by the typographic commands.
The length of a line depends upon the size of the type. Excessively long lines make it harder for the reader to find
the beginning of the text. Long lines make scanning difficult as well. Lines that are too short break up phrases. A
good line length for optimal readability is 55 to 60 characters or nine to 10 words.
Kerning
Kerning refers to the horizontal space between letters. It can also mean improving the appearance of type by
adjusting the spacing between specific pairs of letters, such as AV, AY, FA, AW, PA, and AT. Comfortable spacing
between letters leads to visual balance, allowing the reader to move smoothly along the text. Kerning becomes
more important as type size increases, as in large displays and headlines.
Type Size
As mentioned above, text is measured in points with 72 points in an inch. Most documents use 10-point or 12-point
type, although another type size within the common range of 8 to 24 points is also possible. Small text is more
difficult to read than larger text, but text that is too large becomes cumbersome to make sense of and wastes paper
and space.
Casing
Uppercase characters are capital letters; lowercase characters are small letters. The term casing traces its heritage
to the days when typesetters kept capital letters in a tray above the lowercase letters.
Lowercase letters are easier to read than capital letters. Readers read quickly when they recognize the shapes of
letters, and capital letters often appear to be in the same, square shape, vice lowercase letters. Writing with all caps
adds emphasis, however.
Typeface
Typeface is the letters, numbers or symbols that make up a type, which share common characteristics, such as
stroke width and the presence or absence of serifs. Although sometimes used interchangeably with font, they are
not the same. Typeface is a set of one or more fonts, in one or more sizes. A font describes the style of typeface,
such as bold or italic. For example, Times New Roman, Arial, and Courier are the most common typefaces. Arial
bold or Arial italic is a font.
Using a variety of typefaces will not lead to better design or layout. It is best to stick to one or two typeface families
throughout your layout. Choose a typeface that is simple and legible.
Typefaces can be divided into two categories serif and sans serif. Serif letters are composed of thick and thin lines
terminated with small cross strokes. One example of a serif typeface is Times New Roman. Serif is easier to read
than sans serif, and serif improves readability by leading the eye along the line of type (see Figure 13-4).

Figure 13-4 Example of Serif Letter (left) and Sans Serif Letter (right).
San-serif letters are constructed of strokes that are relatively even in weight. Arial is a sans-serif typeface. Sans-
serif type is clean and simple in appearance. Sans-serif type is not recommended for large areas of solid text, but
can be used in headlines and/or sub-headlines. For more information on headlines and captions, see Chapter 4.
Body Text
Body text is the main text used in your layout. It is the most important information the reader needs to know. Body
text is generally 14 points or smaller and remains consistent throughout your publication. Italic or bold fonts
should not be used for body text.
Pulled Quotes
A pulled quote is a short quotation that is pulled out of the story to attract attention and possibly entice people to
read the story. It also helps break up long columns of text. Pulled quotes are larger than body text, but smaller than
the headline text, usually 18 to 24 points.
Indentations
Indentations are the positioning of text, so a margin of the line or lines appears a fixed distance from the left or
right. Indentations affect visual configuration. The three basic types of indentations are regular, flush, and hanging.
A first-line indent is an example of regular indentation and is often used to begin a new paragraph. Indents can be
made from the left margin only or on the left and right, known as flush indentation. The latter is used often to
highlight a long quote or to bring attention to a particular passage. Hanging indents are frequently used for
bibliographic entries, glossary terms, resumes, and outlines or bulleted lists.
Graphics and Photos
Every publication needs imagery to communicate concepts differently than words and to help sell the information.
Graphics can be line drawings, art, digitized photographs or video images, or a combination of these. A photo adds
visual interest to the layout. These are among the most important elements in the layout because of their ability to
capture a readers attention without saying a word.
Bleed
A bleed is a photo or illustration that runs off a page or extends past the margin of the page. A full bleed means the
printed elements extend beyond the four edges of a page.
Borders
A border is a decorative line or box used with text, graphics or tables. Borders keep it all organized and give the
appearance that everything on the page goes together. Almost anything can form a border to a picture or a graphic.
It may be as simple as a line around the edge of the page or a gold band to form a frame around another graphic.
Rules
Rule is another name for a line in graphic design. Rules are the horizontal or vertical lines used as decorative
elements and as functional parts of the overall layout to separate, offset, or anchor areas of the page. They are used
for forms, graphs, and other graphic material. Lines divide and create organization.
Rule is a line of unvarying thickness, normally expressed in points, although some programs use inches by default.
A hairline rule is the smallest. Rules can be solid or created from round, square, or diamond-shaped dots. Rules can
be made of dots and dashes in a pattern.
Guidelines and Grids
Guidelines and grids are used to align page elements. Gridlines help maintain consistency, determine orderly
placement of text and graphics, and keep balance on the page. A grid is an invisible structure used to provide visual
organization for text and graphics. A grids influence may be evident in the width of columns, the uniformity of
space around photographs, or the consistent placement of repeating elements from page to page.
Margins
As you read earlier, white space on a page is important to the layouts design, as it gives your layout breathing
room. The most obvious white space on any page is found in the margins top, bottom, left and right or the
empty space between the trim (where the page is cut) and the live printing area (primary text and graphics) of the
page.
Traditional layout and design theory tells us that the more space devoted to margins in comparison with text and
graphics, the more formal the design and the better the readability. Generous margins add elegance and simplicity.
On the other hand, limited margins that leave little space can make your document look cheap or mass produced.
However, in todays cost-cutting, do-more-with-less business practices, skimpy margins are used more frequently
and have become the norm.
Gutters
The inside margins or blank space between two facing pages in a multiple-page document is known as the gutter. It
is that extra space used to accommodate the binding in books and magazines. The amount of gutter needed varies
depending on the binding method. The term gutter is sometimes used to describe the alley, or space between
columns of text in a page layout, as well.
ELECTRONIC PRESENTATIONS
Another form of communicating the Navys message is via projected media or electronic presentations, sometimes
referred to as slide shows or command briefs. No matter the term, a presentation is a presentation anytime
someone stands in front of several people and gives them information with support from projected information. An
electronic presentation can also be viewed directly on a computer monitor in a personal setting.
In this section we will discuss how this multimedia product, like multiple-page layouts, pulls together more than
one form of media text, images, video, graphics, etc. to best communicate your information. We will also speak
about the other forms of projected media which are not as widely used in todays digital environment.
The most important consideration when creating an electronic presentation is your audience. The presentation
must convey information or educate your audience in some way. But each presentation is not created equally. For
example, a briefing intended for your skipper will not necessarily be the same as one created for the crew.
Nonetheless, the presentation must be professional.
The key to a successful presentation is organization. If the information you are presenting is not organized
properly, the presentation will be ineffective. Successful organization can be achieved by following a simple five-
step process.
Five-Step Process
Planning is the first step in developing a presentation. Planning begins when you sit down with your customer (or
leadership) to discuss the target audience, desired outcome, content, specific multimedia requirements, and
deadline. Always clarify any misunderstandings you have or the customer has before wrapping up the planning
stage.
Design is the next phase of this process. After properly planning the job order, begin designing the look of the
presentation. Work out the general layout and look at the presentation on paper first. From this roughest of drafts,
develop thumbnails, roughs and comprehensive drawings to serve as blueprints for the final product. These
blueprints should be shown to the customer prior to continuing on with the process. This will ensure that you are
on the same page with your customer before you invest more time in the process.
Once the presentation is designed on paper and approved by the customer, the third step, production, begins. It is
at this time that you establish a files management directory for the presentation. A well-organized folder structure
can reduce time spent searching the computer for necessary files. It also makes archiving the presentation easier
for future recall. Within the folders, you should organize photos, graphics, videos, audio, and text to be used in the
presentation. You may want to keep an originals folder as well for back-up purposes.
Once the directory is established and the source images digitized, it is time to create the presentation. Select the
appropriate page setup for the presentation. Select a preformatted design template, or format the color scheme
and masters manually. Once the slide master is formatted, create the slides. First, place all the content, and then
add supporting images. Add presentation effects such as transitions, animation and hyperlinks last.
After the presentation is complete, the next step is testing. Testing requires a quality-control check. To do this,
proofread for accuracy and evaluate for effective design and legibility. It is also important to test the performance
of the presentation by rehearsing on the system and in the exact location of the final presentation.
Delivery is the final step in the process. Once the quality-control check is complete, print viewgraphs, shoot slides,
or save the electronic presentation in its final output format.
Information Arrangement
A good presentation includes an introduction, body, major points, summary and a closure. However, a
presentation, depending on its purpose, can be structured in many ways. You could follow a pre-formatted
template or you could design one unique to the presentation itself. When a pre-formatted template is selected, all
slides within the presentation can be generated with placeholders that often include step-by-step instructions of
what information to place when and where.
Navy presentations may not always be created using a pre-formatted template, but they do typically follow a
general format. The first slide is the introduction or title slide, which is used as an opening for the speaker to
introduce himself and the overall topic. The second slide contains the purpose or objective. This slide allows the
speaker to discuss the reason or reasons for the presentation and to state the goals to be achieved. Next is the
overview slide, listing the main topics of discussion in the order each will be discussed. Slides specific to each topic
follow. This is where you will most likely find graphics, audio, video and images to support the information being
presented. This is where you can get the most creative.
After the topic slides comes the summary slide. The summary slide reiterates the topics discussed and allows the
speaker to review the material covered. The final slide in the presentation is the closing slide. During this time, the
speaker can review the objectives and open the floor to questions.
Layout and Design
Two of the most important factors when preparing a presentation are simplicity and legibility. Slides should not be
a verbatim copy of what is being stated by the presenter. They should be used like headlines or signposts to point
the direction of the presentation. Slides may also be used to illustrate and explain ideas the audience may find
complex; for instance, the important elements of a table of figures may be better demonstrated if plotted as a
graph. Research shows that each slide will only be looked at for approximately seven seconds, so remember to
keep it simple.
Legibility is the bottom line and depends on a combination of factors. Font choice, text, colors, graphics and
layout all have an effect on the legibility of a slide.
Using Text Effectively
At any given point in time, the audience will have two senses with which to absorb a presentation sight and
sound. Do not overemphasize the importance of the spoken word; give equal importance to the slides. A good
criterion for measuring the quality of slides is to go through them in sequence and ask whether the major themes
are readily apparent with no spoken words. Similarly, a good criterion for measuring the quality of spoken words
is to talk without any slides. These are harsh tests because neither the spoken word nor slides are adequate alone.
If the spoken words and slides are both strong individually, all that remains is to be sure they are properly
arranged.
Type
Type is the basic building block of a presentation. Often it is irresistibly compelling and sometimes absolutely
imperative to design a presentation with more than one typeface in it. You may find more than one element on a
slide, such as a title, body text, labels, and image captions. Within these dynamics on the slide, a relationship is
established that may be concordant, conflicting, or contrasting.
Concordant A concordant relationship occurs when only one type family is used. This keeps the slide
harmonious, and the arrangement tends to appear quiet and rather sedate or formal. It is a good technique. To add
more interest, however, you can use the regular style for one block of text and a bold italic for another.
Conflicting A conflicting relationship occurs when separate typefaces that are similar in style, size and weight are
used, such as Times New Roman and Garamond. The similarities are disturbing because the visual attractions are
neither the same nor different enough so as not to conflict with each other. Most often, conflicting text gives the
appearance of a mistake rather than an effective difference between two elements.
Contrasting A contrasting relationship occurs when you use separate typefaces that are clearly distinct, such as
Impact and Helvetica. The visually appealing and exciting designs that attract your attention typically have a lot of
contrast built in, and the contrasts are emphasized. Using two contrasting typefaces in a presentation can add
visual excitement. However, it is important that both of the contrasting typefaces are legible when projected onto
the screen.
The choice of typeface used in a presentation has major impact on its legibility. The legibility of projected text
differs from that of printed text because the resolution of printed text is much higher. What looks good on paper
may not project as nicely on the big screen.
Most experts recommend using sans-serif typefaces for electronic presentation. They believe that sans-serif
typefaces hold up very well when projected and are easy to read, even from the back of a room. However, others
argue that slab-serif fonts are also a good choice for electronic presentations, because they are more consistent in
their thickness than other serif typefaces. Slab serifs can be identified by their thick, block-like serifs. Clarendon
and Rockwell are examples of slab-serif typefaces. Whatever your choice, always check the readability when
projected before the final presentation.
Text Size
Aside from using the right typeface, size also plays an important role in the legibility of text. Again, opinions vary
on the perfect size for text on slides, but the consensus is to use text no smaller than 24-point for electronic
presentations and 35mm slides. For overhead viewgraphs, the consensus is 18-point.
What matters most is that the text must be easily read when projected on the screen. Before the final presentation,
try one of the following methods to ensure you have chosen the right text size. The first method is to display the
slide full screen on the computer monitor, stand about nine feet away, and read the text. If it is easily read, the text
is a good size. Or, with a printed viewgraph, place the slide on the floor at your feet. If you can read the text without
bending over, more than likely the text size is good.
General Text Guidelines
For consistency and simplicity, limit the amount of fonts used in a presentation to no more than two. In most cases,
using a variation of the same font works very well, for example, Arial bold italic for the title and Arial bold for the
body text. A second font can be introduced to highlight key points and phrases.
Remember the one thought, one paragraph idea introduced in newswriting? The same applies here one topic, one
slide. Focus on one point with each slide, and break up complex topics into smaller, more digestible segments. If
there is too much information to fit on one slide, spread the information across multiple slides. This will give the
audience time to absorb the information. Another good practice is to use bullet statements, with each bullet
representing a new thought about the main topic, and use key phrases where possible. The concept of accuracy,
brevity, and clarity works well here; eliminate non-essential words, such as articles and other words not essential
to your message.
A good rule of thumb to follow for placing text on a slide is the 6 x 6 rule, which means to use no more than six
lines per slide, not including the title, and no more than six words per line. This does not mean there cannot be
more than six lines of text on a slide, because it is not always possible to condense the information that much.
However, this rule serves as a reminder to focus on the important words and eliminate any unnecessary words.
Use Initial Capitals when typing text rather than all capital letters. Initial Capitals is also known as sentence
case or upper-lower case. Writing with ALL CAPITAL LETTERS makes the text hard to read and is the written
equivalent of shouting. When learning to read, we learn by reading uppercase and lowercase letters. Studies
demonstrate we also read using shape recognition. Each letter has a distinct shape that is based on the
construction of the letter. Likewise, so do words. We become very adept at quickly recognizing words without
actually reading every letter.
Another tip is to keep all information within a safe area on the slides. The safe area, about inch from the edge,
compensates for any overlap or edge loss when projecting the slides.
Using Color Effectively
The primary purpose of color in a presentation is to create an attractive environment for the message. Studies
show that a color presentation is more memorable and effective. The use of color can contribute to a presentation
in several ways. Color choices can influence the mood and receptiveness of your audience. In a darkened room,
audience attention can wander. Color provides the visual variety necessary to maintain audience interest. It can
focus audience attention on a particular point in an individual slide. Finally, color can be used to enhance meaning
and clarify information.
A presentation color palette establishes a consistent environment throughout. The color choices in a color palette
can be broken down into three main areas format, highlight and text.
Format Colors Colors used in the basic design of a presentation are the format colors. These include the
background colors and any colors used for recurring items, such as graphics and logos.
Highlight Colors Highlight colors are those added to a palette for illustrations, chart and graph elements, text
bullets, and other graphic objects that have meaning and content. These colors should fall in the midrange of
brightness, bright enough to stand out from the background, but dark enough to support white or lightly colored
text.
Text Colors Text colors include the basic text color, title and subtitle colors, and special colors for highlighting
body text. In presentations, these colors should be the lightest in the palette so they will stand out against the
format and highlight colors. On overhead transparencies with medium-light or light backgrounds, these will be the
darkest colors.
Color Contrast
Color contrast is the relative difference between two adjacent colors. The difference may be in hue, as in red and
green; it may be in saturation, as in light pink and primary red; or it may be in brightness, as in brick red and
primary red. The difference may also be a combination of both, as in yellow and dark blue.
Contrast is defined in terms of foreground and background objects. In presentation design, text and graphics are
the foreground objects that rest on the slide background color. High contrast is essential to readability and clarity
in slide design, so it is important to select highlight colors for text and graphics that contrast strongly with the
background. The best way to provide contrast is through a combination of brightness and hue.
When two objects with high color contrast, such as red and cyan, touch each other on a slide, a thin, white line may
be seen where they touch. This effect is known as haloing. When two complementary colors touch, the slight
overlap of the beam causes the colors to mix, creating a white edge. Most haloing can be eliminated by placing a
thin, black border around the complementary-colored objects, or giving the text a black drop shadow. The black
line will interrupt the overlap.
Warm, Cool, and Neutral Colors
Color can be divided into three main categories: warm, cool and neutral. Warm colors are the colors of fire: reds,
oranges and yellows. Cool colors are those of water and air: greens, blues and violets. The only truly neutral colors
are white, black and grays. However, subdued versions of warm and cool colors such as browns, tans and slate
blues also serve as neutral colors since they usually have a lot of gray in them.
Warm colors draw attention in the presentation. Slides with a preponderance of warm colors stimulate the
audience and cause feelings of heat and energy. However, warm, bright backgrounds are much too flashy for slides.
The intensity of the colors will tire the audience. Dark reds and oranges can be used in backgrounds, but carefully,
since it is difficult to find cool, contrasting colors that work well with them for foreground objects.
Cool colors have a more relaxing effect on an audience than warm colors. In general, slides with mostly cool colors
make an audience more receptive and passive. Dark, cool colors are ideal for backgrounds because they contrast
well with warm color highlights, forcing the audience to pay attention to the content rather than the background.
Brighter cool colors, which would otherwise be overwhelmed by a warm background, can be used as highlights.
True neutral colors act as a blank slate for the highlight colors used with them. Without an addition of some color
(either with a logo or format graphics), neutral backgrounds can be very boring. Warm neutral colors, such as
brown and tan, or cool neutral colors, such as blue-gray, can be used to avoid the bland gray look. Neutral tones are
the perfect background for a full range of highlight colors, both warm and cool. In a presentation, various
combinations of warm, cool and neutral colors can be used to influence the audience.
The background, because of its large area, will have a more profound effect on the general mood of an audience
than the highlight colors used with it. Warm backgrounds are generally suitable for presentations that are intended
to excite and stimulate the audience, such as sales and marketing meetings. Cool backgrounds are best suited to
presentations that require the audience to be relaxed and receptive to information, such as business and scientific
presentations. Neutral backgrounds (especially gray) serve as a backdrop for the other colors, so the highlight
colors will have more effect on the audience.
Enhancing the Message with Color
In a presentation, anything that helps the audience concentrate on the speaker and the slides is a plus. Color is one
of the strongest tools for guiding an audience. The following are some techniques for using color to enhance the
message.
Using color to increase legibility Strong contrast will increase readability. Unless deliberately trying to create a
watermark effect, use enough contrast to create a visible edge where any object touches the background. Without
proper color contrast, objects will appear weak and out of focus.
Use occasional splashes of color to keep the audience awake. Color visually stimulates the audience, keeping them
alert and interested. Color also adds variety. Use colorful charts and graphs as well as colorful graphics and
photographs to illustrate the point.
Using color to emphasize or de-emphasize points Color can be used to call attention to a line of text or part of a
graph, or it can be used to draw attention away from certain information. Large, low-contrast elements will seem
less important than smaller, brighter ones. Instead of underlining important words within a text block, put them in
a bright, contrasting color. Put the most important element in a bright color to direct the audiences attention to it.
Use darker colors for data that is not as important to diminish its impact.
Using color to link related presentation elements If, for example, a briefing contains several references to
different departments within your command, you can select a signature color for each department. The audience
will identify each color with the information it signifies, and it will be easier to read and understand the slides.
Using gradient fills for depth and realism Using gradient fills for backgrounds adds drama and depth to slides. It
also enhances contrast between background and foreground elements.
Other Guidelines for Using Color
Limit the variety of colors used. Five colors are the maximum for graphs and charts. For word charts, limit yourself
to two main colors with a third for highlighting.
Use color to show relationships between elements
Keep colors consistent
Use bright colors to emphasize information
Understand that cool colors recede to the background, while warm colors advance to the
foreground
Use colors like blue and green for less important elements or large areas
Establish a color palette and stick with it
Avoid red-green combinations.
Electronic Presentation Principles of Design
The four principles of design for electronic presentations are proximity, alignment, repetition and contrast.
The principle of proximity states that related items in a layout should be grouped closer together and unrelated
items farther apart. When several items are in close proximity, they become one visual unit rather than several
separate units. This helps with organization by reducing clutter.
Although elements are separated to indicate their relationships with other elements, alignment shows all elements
in the layout belong to the same piece. Lack of alignment is probably the biggest cause of unpleasant-looking
layouts. The principle of alignment states that nothing should be placed in the layout arbitrarily. Every element
should have a visual connection with another element whether they are in close proximity or not. The purpose of
alignment is to unify the layout.
Repetition strengthens unity. Color, shape, texture, spatial relationships, line thickness, fonts, text sizes and text
placement can all be repeated.
Often the most important visual attraction is contrast. The principle of contrast states that if two items are not the
same, they should be REALLY different.
Tables, Charts, and Graphs
Most military presentations are based upon statistical data. So, you must be able to provide this statistical
information through well-prepared graphics that communicate visually and can stand alone or be supplemented
with written or spoken words. Therefore, you must be proficient in the basic techniques of producing tables, charts
and graphs.
Tables
The two basic types of tables are general purpose and special purpose. Although their construction is the same,
there are basic differences.
General purpose tables present a broad range of data on a specific subject, while special purpose tables highlight a
particular aspect of a study.
General purpose tables are quite long and cumbersome; special purpose tables are usually brief and to the point.
A table should contain a title, body, captions, footnotes, and source and preparation data.
Title This tells the viewer what is being compared and where and when the data applies. Never sacrifice clarity
for brevity when deciding upon your title.
Body The information should be presented simply and clearly, so it must be arranged systematically to
emphasize the important points. Columns are vertical listings, and rows are horizontal. Column headings are called
boxheads, and row headings are stubs.
Captions Captions are related to the title of the table. Detailed captions eliminate the possibility of
misunderstanding. Captions give units of measurement being used. These captions, although different from photo
captions, explain what is in a table.
Boxheads Contain Caption Information for Vertical Columns.
Stubs contain information in horizontal rows. They are usually listed in some logical order numerical,
alphabetical or geographical. Stubs should be clear and complete to prevent misunderstanding.
Footnotes These clarify items that are not completely self-explanatory. To draw attention to a footnote, use an
asterisk or some other graphic symbol, but do not use the same symbol for different footnotes. Footnotes should be
placed to the left, directly below the body of the table.
Source and Preparation Data To be complete and effective, you must include the source of the data, the preparers
identifying information, and the date the table was prepared. It is standard to display this information in the lower
left and right corners of the table, aligned vertically.
Tables do not have standard graphic elements, like you may find in charts and graphics. Therefore, an effective
table relies on good information and line-width hierarchy. Text hierarchy means that separate groups of text have
different characteristics. For example, the title should be the largest and boldest text in the table. This draws
attention to the important elements and assists in visually organizing the information. Line-width hierarchy means
using different line widths or styles to separate components.
Charts and Graphs
Well-constructed charts and graphs make for effective statistical data presentation. The possible variations in
design are endless, limited only by your imagination. The value of a good chart or graph is shown by the statistic
that we take in 75 percent of all information through sight.
Overcrowding, however, in charts and graphs obscures information and defeats the ability of your graphic to
display information quickly and simply. Information contained in a graph or chart must be accurate, timely, and
clear. These graphics help audiences reach conclusions.
Major components of charts and graphs include a title, scale (range of values), items being charted, legend, and
source and preparation data.
Title Same rules apply as in tables. It gives the audience the what, where, and when.
Scale The scale, or range of values, is usually listed on the left side of the chart or graph and shows the unit of
measurement and numbers. The scale caption is derived from the title and must be shown. It is usually centered
above or to the left of the scale.
Most scales start at zero and extend to the highest needed value.
If a scale does not start at zero, it gives a false impression, misleading the viewer.
The interval of value is also important. You should select an interval that makes the information appear clear and
uncluttered. Usually the smallest value determines the interval.
Items being charted These items are usually listed along the bottom of the chart or graph. The name of each is
centered immediately below the line or space where its value is plotted.
Legend The legend identifies the data plotted. The more types or trends of data, the more essential the legend. In
the legend block, each type or trend of data is associated with a distinguishing mark line or color. Generally, the
legend is placed in the lower right corner
Source Data The source of the information is placed in the lower left corner of the chart as in a table. The source
is essential, because without it, the chart loses validity.
Preparation Information The preparation data shows the data and the agency that requested the chart in the
lower right-hand corner of the chart.
Charts and graphs may be designed in several different ways; however, there are some basic charts from which all
other charts are derived. These are the bar graph, pie graph, line graph, flow chart, and organizational chart.
MULTIMEDIA AUTHORING AND ANIMATION
Some presentations created today take multimedia to a new dimension by providing a means of interaction
between the viewer and the production. This process is known as authoring a movie and involves many stages.
Movie is the authoring term for a multimedia project and will be used often in this section.
The authoring process takes a development team through multiple stages and builds a working prototype to
demonstrate how a movie will work.
Stages of Authoring a Movie
Movies are created in many stages. Most often these development stages are very specific. At times it may be hard
to see any separation of the stages, but you should never leave any stage out. There are six general stages for
authoring a movie, starting with the concept and finishing with the distribution and delivery. As you go through the
stages, you may find yourself going back to certain stages to reevaluate certain aspects or to make decisions based
on other stages.
Concept
The concept stage is sometimes referred to as the question-and-answer stage. When creating a movie, the three
most important aspects to keep in mind are the target audience, the purpose of the product, and the product itself.
Before you create a movie, you need an idea and an audience.
You must also ask yourself about the comprehension level of your target audience, the purpose of the presentation
(to inform, entertain or educate), the format of the end product, and the desired delivery method.
Planning
Before you begin working on the movie, you have to know what you have to work with and when your customer
wants the project completed. You must also consider your budget, your manpower, and your equipment
(hardware, software, etc.). The next step in planning is to gather your content.
Organization and development are important elements of the planning stage and are keys to the success of the
movie. During planning, you should also identify your topic, develop a story line, write a script, and create a
storyboard, most likely in that order.
A script is the written organization that details the scenes of your production. It should contain the who, what,
when, and where aspects of your planning. Script writing is similar to writing the story of your production and
leads you right into the design stage.
Design
This stage begins with brainstorming; put everything you can think of for the design of your production on paper
first. A detailed design plan needs to show what text, still images, sounds, animations, and video clips will be used
and where they will be placed. A house or high-tech fighter plane would not be built without blueprints. The same
goes for multimedia. The design work is not just for your benefit but also for your customers. You can avoid issues
later by working with the customer on the blueprint because the customer can see ahead of time what his or her
product will look like.
One of the best things you can do for your multimedia program is provide yourself with a script before you begin. A
script for multimedia is typically set up to provide not only the dialogue or narration, but also the action, sound and
music that is to take place at the same time. The scripting processing continues as the design team creates
thumbnails, comprehensives (scamps), and storyboards for every scene, and prepares flowcharts of all the
interactive connections in the movie.
Thumbnails are small, quick sketches used to work out general layout and structure within each scene. You can use
a template or sketch thumbnails alongside the script. Both practices are common.
Scamps, or comprehensives, are pencil layouts of every scene that show how the text and images will be
positioned. People are going to be working from these plans, so they need to be descriptive and accurate.
Flowcharts organize the content. An informational flowchart is presented as a box diagram with lines that show
the access routes among its parts, a navigational blueprint. It shows how you plan to take the user through the
movie. The flowchart shows links between scenes. The ideal flowchart is a clear, easy-to-follow specification of a
programs topic categories, levels, and links.
Storyboards look like comic strips and are similar to scamps, only with a lot more information to show how the
elements appear in each scene. Storyboards list all actions and options of each scene, such as animation, moveable
objects, audio, video, proposed interface, and navigational tools. Storyboards do not have to be elaborate, but they
must show progression. Storyboards give everyone associated with the project a chance to share and understand
the visual concept the director and writer are after. If a scene works on paper, chances are it will work in the
program.
The best multimedia designs are transparent to the user. They create an environment where the user forgets he is
relating to a machine and feels motivated to explore. Good design calls attention to the content of the production,
rather than calling attention to itself. Screens and graphics will appear to have a texture that can be revealed by
dramatic lighting effects. Colors should be harmonious. The movement through the program will feel comfortable,
and users will easily learn how to work their way through the program.
Production
The production stage combines the planning and design efforts into an electronic media. Production includes
recording, obtaining and creating images, sounds, and video, then saving these as source files to be used by all
members of the team. Decisions are made on file names, formats and file structure for these source files. Good
organization maximizes production time.
During production, you should also be visualizing final product, so most likely you will have to refer back to the
concept stage. This will help you determine screen size, image sizes and possibly the frames per second (fps) rate
of videos. Most movies will be made for show on a video or computer screen. Videos run at 15 to 30fps. While the
movie is being brought together, testing must be done to make sure it matches the designs and functions properly.
Testing
Testing is a never-ending, continuous process done throughout the development of the movie. All decisions should
be tested and checked whether they are on paper or in the program. Proofreading the script, scamps, and
storyboards will help prevent embarrassing moments later. In the concept stage, you should have identified the
target audience and system to be used for the movie. It is imperative that during the testing phase that you test
your product with members from the target audience and on the target system to ensure you are reaching your
mark.
A popular testing method is to use an independent, third-party tester. You give the tester a finished prototype and
basic instructions. From this, the user should be able to understand and navigate through the movie. Third-party
testers are usually used to find bugs missed during production. If testing is successful, it is time to move to the final
stage distribution and delivery.
Distribution/Delivery
Distribution, and/or delivery of the product should be done only after the movie has been tested and all glitches
fixed. Once the movie is generated, it will be distributed onto some type of media compact disc or DVD, server or
website.
CD-ROM (compact disc, read-only memory) A small optical disc made of plastic that stores up to 700 megabytes
(MBs) of information.
DVD-ROM (digital versatile disk, read-only memory) A disc with a capacity up to 25 times greater than that of a
CD and offering digital-quality images for superior multimedia processing. DVDs store more than four gigabytes
(GBs) of information.
Using the appropriate formats will help you save time and money. Its important to ensure the product you created
is compatible for distribution.
Interactive Multimedia
Multimedia is typically divided into two categories, linear and nonlinear. Linear productions progress without any
navigational control by the viewer, as in a cinema presentation. Linear production follows a narrative sequence,
starting at a beginning and running through to an end without jumping around. Nonlinear productions and
presentations give the viewer or user navigational control, as in a computer game or computer-based training. In
other words, nonlinear multimedia is interactive.
Interactive media, like other forms of multimedia, integrates electronic text, graphics, video, sound, etc., into a
structured digital environment that allows its audience to interact with the data. Authoring software is capable of
providing the links that join these elements and make a multimedia movie interactive. The digital environment
includes, but is not limited to, the Internet, telecommunication and interactive digital television.
There are four categories of interactive programs presentations, catalogs, games and computer-based training.
Your information, audience and project goals help determine the most appropriate design model.
Presentations An interactive presentation is like show and tell, through which you tell a story or convey a
message. These presentations can be learning experiences for the viewer. To ensure the material is absorbed and
the viewer is motivated to retain the information, the presentation must be memorable, entertaining and most
importantly easy to navigate.
Catalogs Catalogs are used for direct access to information. Without leaving the home screen, the viewer can
typically navigate through the presentation. Interactive catalogs employ a search engine and a transaction
component. The search engine enables the user to access information from a text field or hypertext-linked index.
The transaction component provides the user with the tool to actually select (and purchase) items.
Computer-Based Training Computer-based training (CBT) includes any application that provides the user with a
specific learning agenda. Information is absorbed by the user at his own pace, which allows the user to advance
through the presentation as he retrieves the information and qualifies it at each level. The two distinguishing
characteristics of CBTs are simulation of real-life events and scoring. The ability to simulate real-life events is one
thing that makes computer-based training so valuable. True CBT programs will include the ability to record user
responses and measure user progress.
Computer Games Computer games are the foundation for most, if not all, of todays multimedia industry. The
objective for computer games is to make the game more challenging as you progress through it and become more
proficient.
Hypermedia is an example of nonlinear multimedia. It provides a structure of linked elements through which the
user can navigate. The World Wide Web is an example of hypermedia, where hyperlinks help the user move from
one website to another.
To navigate through a production means to move through the piece using interactive connections, comparable to a
road map or blueprints. The user has selection options, usually buttons to click, such as a next button or an
arrow.
Understanding the terms we associate with authoring will lend a better understanding to the principles of
animation.
Principles of Animation
Animation is a series of graphic images that are displayed fast enough to trick our eyes into believing there is
movement. If done well, animation can add a great deal to the movie. If it is improperly done or if there is too much
animation on a single page, it can be distracting and annoying.
Animation is often a better choice than video in education and training, because animation can be used to simplify
complex concepts. Animation is good for showing changes over time, transitions and transformations of elements,
and relationships among objects. The movies we see in theaters and on television are just sequences of still
pictures seen in rapid succession. Because the changes are relatively small going from one picture to the next, we
perceive motion. Essentially, animations are created by changing an arrangement ever so slightly from one frame
to the next.
Cell Animation
The very first filmed animations were drawn and filmed frame by frame. This meant that an artist had to draw
thousands of pictures even for a short film. Consequently, drawings in the earliest cartoons are generally not very
sophisticated. Cell animation, also known as frame animation, was an improved process created in the early 20th
century, making it possible to create feature-length animations.
With cell animation, a scene is divided into layers. Characters and props are painted onto clear acetate cells, which
are laid over background paintings on an animation stand. A single background painting may appear for several
seconds in a scene. Then, only the characters need to be redrawn from one frame to the next.
Time and money can be saved, however, by having multiple cells for the characters and props, separating the parts
that change rapidly from those that do not. Also, cells can be reused as backgrounds and sequences (e.g., a walk
sequence). Although cell animation reduces the amount of drawing needed, it also complicates the filming process
each frame is now an arrangement of pictures. To minimize the confusion that might arise, timing sheets keep
track of the animation stand, the camera movements, and the corresponding audio.
Key Frames and Tweening
Some animators draw a sequence of pictures and have the resulting motion look the way they want on the first try.
More often, an animator will first draw the frames showing key points in the action (key frames) and then draw the
frames that make the transition from one key frame to the next (in-betweens). In large productions, the more
senior animators draw the key frames, and then have others draw the in-betweens. Tweening is the process of
filling in the frames between the key frames to make the animation appear fluid. Software available today can do
some of this tweening for you. If your key frames show an object in different positions, or at different sizes, the
software allows you to fill in all of the in-between stages.
Morphing
Morphing is a technique used with frames to create the illusion of one object changing into another. Morphing is
generally created using a process referred to as shape tweening. Key frames are set and the computer generates
the between frames. By displaying a series of frames that create a smooth transition, it appears that one shape
actually becomes another. Although tweening and morphing are time consuming when done manually, creating
frame-based animation is actually simple with a computer and animation software.
Other Types of Animation
Path-based animation is also known as vector animation. This type of animation creates animated objects by
following an objects transition over a line or vector path. It tracks the beginning, direction, and distance that an
object travels. The path the line takes can be straight or curved.
Script-based animation uses programming languages to create animation. By using a set of program commands,
frames can be substituted for other frames, thereby creating a sequence of movement or animation.
Constraints of Animation
Despite the great flexibility computer animation gives us, the medium does impose some constraints. Being aware
of these constraints will help you to plan better animations.
A raster image is a fine grid that stores exactly one pure color for each grid square (or pixel) in the image. The
computer displays a raster image by mapping image pixels to display pixels; that is, the color of a pixel on the
screen corresponds to the color of one of the pixels in the image. A raster image contains no information about the
object(s) that the picture represents.
When you zoom in on a raster image, each pixel in the image is mapped to several pixels on the screen. Because of
this, the image will start to look like it is made up of little boxes. When you zoom out, only some of the image pixels
get mapped to the display. Details can and do get lost.
Knowing the terminology and principles and becoming familiar with the authoring software in your shop are the
first steps in becoming an effective multimedia illustrator. From there you will be well equipped to develop and
create movies and training videos, and incorporate animation to your projects.
WEBSITES
The Internet and more specifically the World Wide Web have become so intertwined into our everyday lives that
many cannot remember what life was like without it. However, to fully appreciate the power and complexity of the
Internet, one has to look at its humble beginnings.
During the Cold War in the mid-1960s, the need for a decentralized communications system was apparent. A
method to connect computers together throughout the country that did not rely on a single route between two
points was devised. This system was known as a packet switching network, where data would be broken into
packets and routed through the network on whichever path was available at the time of transmission. A packet is
a unit of data which has been formatted for transmission over a packet switching network. With such a system in
place, communication could take place in spite of parts of the network being unavailable.
Originally implemented for the government and a few universities, the Internet was an emergency military
communications system operated by the Department of Defenses Advanced Research Project Agency (ARPA) and
used for research in education and defense. This operation was referred to as ARPANET.
Over time, every U.S. university that received defense-related funding possessed ARPANET computers. Gradually,
the Internet transformed from a government system to a communications tool for scientists. As more scholars
came online, the administration of the system transferred from ARPA to the National Science Foundation.
In the late 1980s, businesses began using the Internet, and the administrative responsibilities were once again
transferred. During this time, the foundation of the Internet was being expanded as the military and the corporate
world upgraded their computers and networks to grow with the demands of new users. This infrastructure has
grown from a few computers into literally millions of computers connected together using cables, phone lines, and
even satellites to cover almost the entire Earth.
To communicate between locations through this large network, computers use a communication protocol known
as Internet protocol (IP). This protocol, running on each computer connected to the Internet, ensures that
communication breakdowns do not occur and the networked computers can communicate with each other and
exchange data properly.
Every computer connected to the Internet has a unique IP address. If a duplicate IP address exists, an error is given
to the computer using the same IP. To exchange computer information over the Internet, a computer protocol
known as Transmission Control Protocol/lnternet Protocol (TCP/IP) prepares the data to be sent and received.
TCP/IP ensures that a Windows network can exchange data with a Unix or Macintosh network and vice versa.
Unlike telephones that exchange analog signals with a direct electrical connection, computers communicate by
breaking the data into separate data packets. These packets are passed off to different computers and network
routers across the Internet until the data arrives at the destination. Some of these data packets arrive to the
browser at different times. The TCP/IP protocol reassembles the packets into data that Web browsers display as a
complete Web page.
It is important to understand the difference between Internet and the World Wide Web. The Internet is the
physical network made of smaller networks made by the connecting of computers on those networks. The World
Wide Web (WWW) is a system for organizing data over a network. The WWW is the system that we use to
communicate, publish content, and share digital media on the Internet.
Unlike the Internet, no one entity is in control of the World Wide Web. Because the World Wide Web is considered
open to the public, many developers can develop for the web, and utilize the web to publish content. What we
usually pay for is the physical connection to the World Wide Web, any services we might subscribe to that reside
on the WWW, or storage space we require online.
All laws pertaining to the World Wide Web and how content is governed are handled by local governments and
authority over content for the web is handled geographically. For example, in Arabic countries, content is more
strictly controlled and many western websites are not available to their citizens.
Web 2.0
Web 2.0 changed the way users and designers use the Web. Web 2.0 sites let users to interact and collaborate with
one another socially and professionally through user-generated content. This differs from static websites in that
the viewer can do more than just browse through the content, which is created and controlled by the sites
webmaster. Examples of Web 2.0 include social networking sites, blogs, wikis, and video-sharing sites.
Website Essentials and Terms
For Navy public affairs and visual information professionals, the Internet has become a vital part of our
communication strategy. The Internet now ranks up there with television, print productions, and radio for telling
the Navys story through static websites, interactive websites, and social media. Although MCs use commercial
social media sites on the Web, static websites are typically designed, created, and maintained in-house.
Before you can design or administer a website, however, it is important to learn the concepts, terms, and
procedures used to create and maintain websites.
Governing Instruction
The governing instruction for website maintenance and development is SECNAVINST 5720.47B (series),
Department of the Navy Policy for Content of Publicly Accessible World Wide Web Sites. According to this
instruction, the management, including oversight, of all content on official, publically facing Navy websites is a
public affairs function.
So, before jumping in to create your commands website, it is imperative that you familiarize yourself with this
instruction as well as all others pertaining to military webmasters. Policies for Web and other Internet-based
capabilities (ibC) can be found on the DoD webmaster page.
Web Browsers
A web browser is a client software program that resides on the computer you use to view pages and navigate
through the World Wide Web. When you request a page on a website, your browser connects with a web server.
The browser processes Web pages from the server and displays the pages for you. Depending on your browsers
features, you might be able to view or interact with multimedia files, read e-mail, shop online, or use other
advanced features.
Browsers used today, such as Internet Explorer, Mozilla Firefox, and Safari, display Web pages differently. As a
designer, you must be aware of how different browsers behave by testing different sites and your own site on
them.
Internet Service Provider
An Internet service provider (ISP) maintains the server where your computer sends requests as well as the space
required to store your Web pages.
Web Server
Content available on the Internet is stored on Web servers. When you make a request from a Web server, an IP
connection is made across the Internet between the client making the request and the host running the Web-server
software. As soon as the Web server satisfies a request, the Internet connection between the client and the host
breaks. A page containing images or links to other pages all require separate connections. Often, it takes many
requests to retrieve all the information on one Web page.
Uniform Resource Locator (URL)
Every piece of information on the Web has a unique address. This address is called a Uniform Resource Locator, or
URL. A URL is an address that reflects the location of a file on Internet. This information might include a Web
document, a file on a file-transfer site, or an e-mail address. A URL is made up of several parts (See Figure 13-5):
The protocol tells you how you are going to get to the information, such as with HTTP, HTTPS,
or FTP (file transfer protocol)
The domain is the Internet host name, or the textual identifier, of the site
The directory path is the place, or folder, within the site to locate the requested information
The page name is the file name of the page you are requesting
http:// www.navy.mil/ navydata/ our_ships.asp

Protocol Domain Path Page Name

Figure 13-5 Example of Uniform Resource Locator (URL).
Domain Name Server (DNS)
The DNS system forms one of the largest and most active distributed databases on the planet.
When you use the Web or send an e-mail message, you use a domain name to do it. For example, the URL
http://www.navy.mil contains the domain name navy.mil, as does the e-mail address user@navy.mil.
Names like navy.mil are easy for people to remember. This is not true for machines. For all computers connected
to the Internet, an IP address is assigned to refer to that unique machine. For example, the machine that people
refer to as www.navy.mil has the IP address 207.114.197.94. Every time you use the domain name, you use the
DNS to translate the domain name into the machine-readable IP address.
New processes are being developed to keep up with the demand for new URLs, as current methods of assignment
cannot handle the number of required URLs.
Elements of a Website
The Web is based on a set of rules for exchanging text, images, sound, video and other multimedia files. The set of
rules is known as the hypertext transfer protocol, or HTTP. Web pages are exchanged over the Internet because
browsers and Web servers both understand HTTP.
A Web page is any page you see when you open the Internet. Every new screen you click on is a Web page. A
website is a collection of Web pages. It can be made up of one page or millions.
A homepage is the starting point for your website. It is similar to a title page or a table of contents for a written
document, and it is the most common access point for the website. It also contains hyperlinks to subsequent pages
within the site.
Within your website, you can also include a site map as a guide to the different pages through which your viewers
can surf to find information. To view an example, check out the site map for the Navy Personnel Commands
website. Typically, site maps display items hierarchically, breaking down the websites information into
increasingly specific subject areas.
A website may also contain downloadable documents, images, video, text, and more; you are limited only by your
imagination (and regulations as to what can and cannot be posted).
HTML
Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) is a special language used by Web designers to format Web pages. HTML
consists of a series of simple-to-learn tags that indicate page elements, structure, formatting, links, and more. Web
browsers read these HTML tags and format the text and styles that appear on the viewers computer screen. Tags
are enclosed by the lesser than (<) and greater than (>) brackets and may be written in capital or lower case
letters.

NOTE
An emerging alternative use of the term tag is to describe the classification of
content by readers used with photos, blogs, etc.

A Web page is made up of three main sections of HTML, each defined by a tag (See Figure 13-6). The first is the
html section. This area is defined by <html></html> tags. Everything between these tags is considered part of the
Web page. The second section is the head section, found between <head></head>. In addition to the title of your
page, you will also find keywords, page description information, special elements like cascading style sheets (CSS),
and other information required to make the page display correctly. The last section is the body. This is where you
will place items, or content, that will be seen by the viewer.
DINFOS training as well as online tutorials are available to help you grow your Web design skills, such as HTML
coding. It is imperative that you stay up to date on current trends in Web design.
Plug-ins are software modules that add specific features or services to a larger system. HTML, although it does
what it does well, does not have the innate ability to display a movie file or run a video game. Plug-ins increase
HTMLs functionality. They are invisible to the user and are called upon whenever an element needs one. On the
down side, plug-ins require you to work outside standard HTML, and not everyone has access to the same plug-ins.
Some of the most popular plug-ins are Adobes Flash and Shockwave, Apples Quick-Time player, and
ActiveX.
Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) is a style language used to describe how content appears on a screen. Content is the
information you want to communicate to your user. Content comes in many forms text, images, videos and sound.
CSS separates your content from the structure rules for how it will be displayed. Structure elements, for example,
can dictate what color the text appears, where on the page an image is placed, or whether or not a border is
displayed.
Creating Web Pages
Your options for creating Web pages differ greatly from those for the printed page. If you design pages using HTML,
you do not have complete control over how the reader receives the page, the size of the page, the width of the text
column, the fonts, or size of text.
For this reason, you can use WYSIWYG Web-authoring tools vice HTML coding. WYSIWYG stands for what you see
is what you get. WYSIWYG editors have graphical interfaces that make writing HTML more like using a word
processing or page layout program.
In the beginning, the goal of WYSIWYG authoring tools was to spare authors from ever having to touch an HTML
tag. Today, their role has shifted toward making document production more efficient and automated while still
providing access to the HTML source. An editor can help keep track of page links, images, files, and folders and
make sure all required files make it to the Web server when it is time to upload.
Having a WYSIWYG editor does not eliminate the need to understand how HTML or CSS works, but it does remove
some of the pressure of memorizing large amounts of tags or rules. A good WYSIWYG editor should be able to write
<html>
<head>
<title>Your Page Title</title>
</head>
<body>
This area will contain everything that will be visible through a web browser, such as
text and graphics. All of the information will be HTML coded.
</body>
</html>
Figure 13-6 Three Main Sections of HTML.
World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) standards-compliant code and include software tools to assist in writing
handicap-accessible sites.
Even though you do not have to enter the HTML tags to create your Web page with a WYSIWYG editor, you still
need to know a few things about the capabilities of HTML and how they control what you can present on your
page.
Stages of Web Creation
The process of developing a website is no different than developing any type of media project. Many different
elements and resources need to be determined throughout the project. Each stage of authoring helps the authoring
team to properly accomplish long term goals. Let us take a look at the different stages of authoring concept,
planning, design, production, testing and distribution/ delivery.
Concept
Like other multimedia projects, you have to have an idea or concept in mind before you begin developing a
website. You must also consider your customer, your audience, and the purpose of the site. Will the site be for
informational purposes only, or will it be used to educate or entertain?
Planning
After you have an idea, a purpose, and you know your target audience, you must then plan, schedule and account
for any resources before you can begin the design phase. You must also know when your customer wants the
project completed.
Design
You have probably heard the phrase, Its not finished until the paperwork is done. In website production, You
havent begun until the paperwork is done, is more true. Before you begin full production and start putting things
together in your website, it all needs to be on paper first. Most websites start with drawings, similar to the
storyboards in multimedia authoring and videography.
Web designers also use flowcharts when putting together sites. A flowchart is the navigational control to your
website, and it is the plan of how you will take the customer through the website. Most flowcharts start by placing
the scamps (small images that represent the content) into an organizational chart-like pattern. The flowchart is
then used to organize content and show the links between screens in your title. When creating the interface and
navigational controls, you must again look at the concept and keep the user in mind.
The interface design and controls should be intuitive, or feel natural, simple and consistent. Another consideration
in the design phase is style. Consider how colors, photos, illustrations and backgrounds will be used. Color and
shape have a lasting effect on the end user and are often overlooked. The design work you do now not only benefits
you, but also benefits your customers as well. Remember, your customer is the final decision maker. At this point, if
the design is not right, you have only exchanged paper.
Production
With the design work accepted and the concept in full view, it is time to begin production. The production stage is
where the pieces of the site begin to come together. Each person on the production team begins to gather raw files
and prepare them for production. The source files are brought together and placed where they can be used by all
members of the team. Obtaining and creating images, sounds, or even video will continue throughout the
production phase. It is in this stage, as you recall, where you also build your file structure to best organize your
items.
Testing
As with all multimedia products, testing is vital to a website. Testing can happen at any point along the stages of
authoring. Testing websites can be a challenge, since you have to test on a wide variety of machines and browsers.
Always test your site in more than one browser, and on more than one computer newer computers and older
models, as well as computers that run on different operating systems. It is also important to have someone
unrelated to your project team test your site. One bad link can ruin a users experience with your site and reduce
the effectiveness of your site.
Other items to consider when testing your website:
Logical appearance Does the site communicate its purpose well? Can you tell what this site is about at first
glance?
Ease of navigation Does the site navigate logically? Is the content on the site broken up logically? Are the
subpages (links) retrieved with ease?
Broken links When you click does it go where you thought it should? Do documents, images and/or videos load
properly?
Too much or too little information on a single page Is the page too crowded? Is there too much dead space?
Usability issues Any and all usability issues should be looked at and corrected as early as possible. Test, test, test
your site.
Distribution/Delivery
When you have completed all other processes and your customer has reviewed and approved the site, you go live
with the site and begin advertising it. Remember, you must ensure you have read all required policies and
instructions to ensure you are compliant. It is most likely that your client (leadership) will be unaware of these
regulations, so it is in your best interest to have such knowledge.
Layout and Design
An HTML page is one column of continuous text with graphics that flow along with the text, as if they were text
characters themselves. This text-stream model limits control over page layout; for example, it controls how you can
set up layouts that use multiple columns, layered text and graphics, or rotated text. The text model means page
proportions and line breaks will vary depending on size of the monitor or window in which the page is viewed, and
the preferences set in a Web browser. As a rough guideline, you might design for the line length produced by a Web
browser using a default font on a 640-480 pixel screen.
Using HTML, you cannot specify a precise horizontal and vertical position for a graphic. For example, if you
position a graphic at the bottom right of a page as it appears on your monitor and a reader decides to make the
window narrower, the graphic probably will move to the next line down and may end up on the left side of the
page. The only way to constrain a layout is to place everything into tables. You can also use WYSIWYG-authoring
software.
As for deciding where to put the information, it is best to follow the same principles you would use when creating
multiple page layouts (see above). However, there are some elements that are specific to Web design.
Text
When placing text on your website, you should refer back to the dos and donts for page layouts and electronic
presentations previously mentioned in this chapter. These rules have been refined for years, and they work well. It
is also important to consider placement of text. Centered text is hard to read. Left-justified text, where text is lined
up on the left side of a page, is the best practice. Titles and similar elements can be centered, however, to show
emphasis.
Other tips for using text include
Use uppercase and lowercase letters, vice ALL CAPS, except with titles or items you are trying
to emphasize
Italics should only be used to draw attention to text. Overuse makes text hard to read
Overuse of bold text minimizes its effect, and like italics, decreases legibility
Keep terminology simple and easy to understand. Remember your audience.
Graphics
When you are considering what images to include, keep in mind that images take longer to download than text.
Some browsers do not display graphics at all, and some readers turn off graphics to speed up their browsing. You
should also keep image file sizes as small as possible by reducing the image size and the number of colors (the
color palette) of the images.
You want your homepage to load very quickly, so no graphic should be so large it takes a long time to download. In
Web design, always be aware of your download speeds. Be sure to resample or reduce the image resolution in an
image-editing application. Scaling an image in a WYSIWYG editor does not change its file size and will not speed
downloading. You can use an image-editing application to resize or resample high-resolution images. You should
just create the image size (in pixels) that is the size that you want to see. Ensure you use a compression method
and save the graphic in the correct file format.
Data compression is storing information in a format that requires less space than usual. Data compression is
particularly useful in communication because it enables devices to transmit the same amount of data in fewer bits.
It is important to consider what images to include in a Web page. It is imperative to learn how to correctly
compress files to effectively transmit data via the Internet.
There are basically two types of compression methods for images, lossy and lossless. Lossy compression creates
smaller files by discarding some information about the original image. It removes details and color changes it
deems too small for the human eye to differentiate. Lossless compression, on the other hand, never discards any
information.
The graphic file formats most browsers support are Graphic Interchange Format (GIF) and Joint Photographer
Experts Group (JPEG). GIF is a lossless compression method, while JPEG is a lossy compression method.
GIF is best used with illustrations with areas of solid color, such as line art and logos. GIF formats compress files by
reducing repetitive areas, such as large areas of solid color. The more repetition in an image, the more the image
can be compressed. This format uses a palette of up to 256 colors to represent the image, and supports background
transparency.
JPEG is designed to preserve broad color range and subtle brightness variations of continuous-tone images, such as
photographs and images with gradients. This format represents images using millions of colors, thus yielding the
best results for compressing full color photographs.
Portable Network Graphic (PNG) was designed specifically to outperform and replace GIF. PNG can match 99
percent of GIF functions. PNG files are typically larger than JPEG or GIF images because a PNG file does not include
JPEGs lossy compression, and it can contain more colors than a GIF. So PNG is best suited for small images,
navigation buttons, and thumbnails with fine details you do not want mangled by JPEG compression.
Web Links
The most significant difference between a printed page and a Web page is a link, which lets you arrange pages in a
website. When you click a link, the Web browser jumps you to the page set as the links destination.
Links appear as specially marked text or images on a page. Each page can have several links, with each link leading
directly to another page within your site or to pages on any other Web server in the world. There are three
different types of links a link within the same Web page, a link to another Web page within the same website, and
a link to another website.
Section 508 Law
Accessibility of your content is not only good practice, it is the law. As federal employees we are obligated to make
our website content accessible to people with disabilities. In 1998, Congress amended the Rehabilitation Act with
Section 508, with the intent to breaking barriers for people with disabilities so that they have the exact same
access to information as other citizens. Under Section 508 (29 U.S.C. 794d), agencies must give disabled employees
and members of the public access to information that is comparable to the access available to others.
Accessibility is not a hurdle that you must overcome. In fact, by designing and keeping accessibility in mind you are
more likely to do a better job of communicating, period. If you are already designing with W3C standards,
accessibility is almost automatic.
Find out more about accessibility, Section 508 standards, and incorporating 508 compliance into your design by
exploring the Web-based course Designing Accessible Websites on the Section 508 website. This site provides
full online training courses and contact information to 508 coordinators for your organization.
SUMMARY
In this chapter we discussed multimedia and how bringing together graphics, images, text and video can be
incorporated into your public affairs and visual information plan. More specifically, you learned about digital
graphics, multiple page layouts, movie authoring, electronic presentations, and websites.
As an MC, it is important to keep your audience in mind when creating your project. All of your creativity and
originality will be wasted if your message does not reach your audience. Simplicity and legibility are the keys to an
effective presentation.
CHAPTER 14
PRINT PRODUCTION
In 1440, Johannes Gutenberg developed what is arguably one of the most important inventions in
modern times, a mechanical movable-type printing press (See Figure 14-1). Today, print production
continues to be as an important an industry as ever before in disseminating information. In the Navy,
operation of todays print production belongs in the hands of mass communication specialists.
In this chapter, we will discuss the various methods you will use to produce posters, programs,
newsletters and training manuals. These valuable communication products add yet another tool for
delivering the Navys message.

Figure 14-1 Illustration of First Printing Press, Invented by Johannes Gutenberg around
1440.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Upon completing this chapter you should be able to do the following:
1. Describe desktop publishing.
2. Identify different types of desktop printers.
3. Explain the processes of mat cutting and print mounting.
4. Explain binding and finishing.
5. Describe characteristics paper.
6. Describe job control and job order logs.
DESKTOP PUBLISHING PROGRAMS
The term desktop publishing (DTP) came to light in the 1980s upon development of a specific type of
software for creating materials for print; however, desktop publishing today encompasses more than
just print communication and uses many different types of software. As technology improves, so does
the capabilities of the software programs we use.
One thing to keep in mind when learning about DTP is that it is easy to confuse DTP with graphic
design. MCs use programs to develop concepts, ideas, and arrangements for visually communicating
a specific message. The mechanical process you will use to turn those ideas of newsletters, posters,
and other projects into digital files for printing is DTP.
DTP software is used to create materials for visual communication. Most of the DTP software
capabilities can be broken into three basic categoriescomposition, layout, and graphics. These
categories combine to make a comprehensive package for designing and publishing multimedia
material.
Composition
Composition defines the sizes and styles of type, the amount of space between horizontal letters and
vertical lines, and the coding of the text copy to meet standards. You can edit text directly or input text
from documents created in a word processing program and imported into the DTP software.
Layout
Layout, as has been discussed in previous chapters, involves the arrangement of text and graphics
on a page. Electronic pasting moves text from one portion to another and incorporates illustrations
into the text. Some features include multiple columns, column widths, and gutter space manipulation;
printing vertically or horizontally on a page; automatic copy fitting; automatic page numbering; and
adding headers and footers.
Graphics
Desktop publishing software can scan or import illustrations/graphics from hard copy or digital data
via scanners or other programs as well as add images, borders, lines, arrows and more. You can also
alter or edit images by shrinking or expanding them to create a layered four-plate color separation for
color reproduction.
DESKTOP PRINTERS
Printers provide a hard copy printout of data stored electronically inside the computer or from a disk.
Many printers are primarily used as local peripherals and are attached by a printer cable or, in newer
printers, a USB or Firewire cable to a computer that serves as a document source. Some printers,
commonly known as network printers, have built-in network interfaces, typically wireless and/or
Ethernet-based, and can serve as a hard copy device for any user on the network. Individual printers
are often designed to support both local and network-connected users at the same time. In addition,
liquid ink-jet, laser, and toner-based printers can directly interface to electronic media such as
memory cards, or to image capture devices such as digital cameras, scanners; some printers are
combined with a scanners and/or fax machines in a single unit, and can function as copiers.
Digital Printing
Digital printing is printing using digital techniques developed for inkjet and laser printers. The process
differs from lithography, flexography, gravure and letterpress printing in several ways:
Digital printing is used for personalized printing or variable data printing (VDP or VI), for example
personalized children's books, which are customized with the specific child's name and images. Print-
on-demand (POD) systems also use digital printing for short-run books of varying page quantities and
binding techniques.
Digital prints can also be done on photographic paper, exposed with RGB laser lights from files, and
processed in photographic developers and fixers. These prints are continuous tone images and have
the dyes imbedded in emulsion layers within plastic coatings.
Photographic papers are available in a variety of paper surfaces, such as matte, semi-matte, luster,
high luster, pearl and glossy. The use of different paper surfaces depends on the final application of
the print. There are two paper surfaces used frequently in Navy imaging facilities: glossy and matte.
Paper that has a smooth, glossy surface provides a print with higher contrast and higher densities or
color saturations, resulting in an apparently sharper image. This is due to the direct reflection quality
of the paper surface. Glossy photographic paper shows fine detail, such as equipment damage or
intelligence photographs.
Light reflected from matte paper is diffused and provides a softer, lower contrast image. Because of
the lower contrast, subject detail does not appear as sharp as an image on glossy paper. Matte
papers are used commonly for portraiture and scenic photographs.
Printer Types
The ink-jet, Noritsu, laser, thermal transfer, continuous tone die sublimation and color phase
change are nonimpact printers that you may find in your shop.
Ink-jet Printers
Ink-jet printers spray electrically charged ink through tiny nozzles in the printing element. The ink
passes through an electrically charged field that forms the image in matrix form. These printers offer
very high-quality resolution.
Noritsu Ink Jet Printers
The Noritsu ink jet printer is the high-quality, digital-imaging equipment ideal for compact space and
does not use photographic chemical and solution to develop prints. Noritsu is unique among
companies that produce one-hour photofinishing equipment in that they do not produce consumer
photographic products, such as film, photographic paper and chemistry.
Laser Printer
A laser printer directs a beam of light that electrically charges an image on a photosensitive drum.
Toner attracts and adheres to the dots on the drum and a heating element fixes the image on the
paper. These printers can print in excess of 20,000 lines per minute.
Thermal-Dye Transfer Printers
Thermal-dye transfer printers are often called dye sublimation or dye-diffusion thermal-transfer
printers.
This system provides high-quality and an environmentally safe method of transferring images to print
and transparency materials without using chemicals.
The thermal-dye transfer printing process uses thousands of tiny heating elements that come in
contact with "donor ribbons." Each donor ribbon releases a gaseous color dye when heated. Three-
color printers have cyan, magenta and yellow ribbons (CMY); four-color printers also include a
separate black ribbon (CMYK). The amount of heat from each element controls the amount of dye
being transferred to the print material. The blend of the gaseous colors creates a continuous-tone
image.
The quality of a thermal-dye transfer print resembles a print made from conventional silver-halide
paper. The resolution of thermal-dye transfer printers ranges from 160 to 300 dpi. Resolution is
limited by the thermal printing head. Thermal-dye transfer printers can produce prints from 3.5 by 5
inches up to 14 by 17 inches.
Color Phase Change
A color phase change uses Pantone certified colors in a wax medium. Like continuous tone dye
sublimation, this is a thermal transfer, but it does not require specially coated paper.
REPRODUCTION EQUIPMENT
A Navy graphics shop contains a wide variety of equipment necessary to produce a variety of high-
quality products, from books, posters, brochures and invitations. To use the equipment effectively and
safely, you must have a working knowledge of its characteristics, limitations, and operating and
maintenance procedures. However, before using any such equipment it is imperative for safety and
efficiency to ALWAYS review users manuals. Know the equipment before you begin production!
Digital Duplication
A digital duplicator is a high-speed digital printing system designed mainly for high-volume
photocopying and printing. When printing or copying multiple quantities (generally more than 20) of
the same original, it is typically far less expensive per page than a conventional photocopier, laser
printer, or inkjet printer.
In 1986, the RISO Kagaku Corporation introduced the Risograph digital duplicator. It uses
duplicator technology but improves on it; it improves upon the traditional mimeograph machine in that
the operator does not have to create a stencil. The stencil, called a master, is made by use of a
scanner and thermal print head. Also the master is automatically removed as a new one is created
and placed in a disposal box. This way the operator should not have to touch the used master
material that is coated in ink.
A digital duplicator like the RISO is often more cost-efficient than a copier, especially when
duplicating high volumes. For smaller print runs the main cost is in the master material. A master is
capable of making 4,000 to 5,000 prints.
Paper Recommendations
Print production is more than just reproducing words, images, and graphics on a piece of paper. Its
about conveying a message and delivering information to an audience. The paper you choose to print
your product, therefore, becomes as important as the message, because people can hold the paper
in their hands and become familiar with it. The paper is an important part of the overall product.
As you read above, with todays cost-effective, high-volume printers, paper often becomes the most
costly portion of print production. So, understanding paper and picking the right paper is of the utmost
importance.
Paper is typically defined by its finish, grade and basis weight.
Finish refers to the texture of the sheet. Is it coated or uncoated? Is it smooth, woven, ribbed,
glossy, or matte?
Grade describes the papers classification based upon the type of pulp used, paper treatments,
and the end use of the paper. Common paper grades include bond, book, Bristol, cover, and
newsprint.
o Bond paper is lightweight, high-quality, durable writing paper used for letterhead and
stationary.
o Book paper is used when publishing books, as the name implies.
o Bristol paper, named for the town of Bristol, England, is used for brochures, tickets,
tags, paperback book covers, file folders, and more.
o Cover paper is thick and durable. Also referred to as card stock, cover paper is used for
business cards, postcards, playing cards, catalog covers, and scrapbooks to name a
few products.
o Newsprint is low-cost paper used to print newspapers and other advertising material.
Basis Weight of paper is measured in pounds. The weight of 500 sheets, which equals a ream
of paper cut to a standard size, is its basis weight. The basis weight is not the same for all
paper grades. For example, a ream of letter-size, all-purpose paper you use with your desktop
printer may have a basis weight of 20 pounds. This doesnt mean that the ream weighs 20
pounds. It means that with 500 17 x 22-inch sheets of that particular paper weighs 20 pounds.
Paper Density is also an important factor to consider when choosing paper for your product.
Paper density is a measure of area density. For example, paper that lets in little or no light
(poster board) is said to be dense or heavy. Paper that lets in a little bit of light is lightweight.

SCANNERS
A scanner allows you to copy a photograph, a drawing, or a text page into the memory of the
computer. It does this by measuring tonal or color values and converting them into a binary code that
the computer can understand. You may then clean-up the image using the appropriate software
program before printing a final copy for reproduction. A scanner is particularly useful for copying large
amounts of text or images not previously saved on disk that now require revision. When using a
scanner, be careful not to violate an existing copyright. To review copyright restrictions, review the
SECNAVINST 5870.4A for copyright and visual information responsibilities.
The four types of scanners are the hand scanner, the flatbed scanner, the copy stand scanner, and
the slide scanner.
Hand Scanners are useful for small-quantity scanning. They read portions or excerpts from a
document page into the memory of the computer.
Flatbed Scanners scan pages out of a book. They scan an entire one- or two-page spread in
one view.
Copy Stand Scanners are capable of scanning three-dimensional objects.
Slide Scanners scan slides and transparencies into memory. Scanners used to scan slides and
transparencies require a mirrored or reflective attachment.
BINDING AND FINISHING
Binding and finishing is the final stage in creating a printed product. The work required for turning
printed sheets into books, magazines, catalogs, and booklets is classified as binding. The specialized
production of displays, labels, tags, packaging, and a variety of other advertising materials is
classified as finishing. Embossing, stamping, and other decorative touches used to enhance a books
design also fall into the finishing category. Binding and finishing may be completed at a single facility
or by separate suppliers of specific services. Some printers have in-line binding or finishing units
attached to their presses. Some purchase and use dedicated binding and finishing machinery, and
others rely on the services of outside firms.
NOTE
If the print density levels do not provide the desired result, adjust the scanning
contrast and create another master.
Paper Cutter
The most abused tool in the shop is the paper cutter. Because of this abuse, do not trust the scale at
the top of the cutter for accuracy. When you use the cutter, do not force it to cut more material than it
can easily handle. Cut only paper or light cardstock. Paper cutters come in a variety of sizes with the
most common measuring 36 inches in blade length.
Guillotine Cutters
Guillotine cutters are used to square blank sheets before printing and separate printed sheets before
binding. These machines are available in a number of models and sizes, but all have several similar
components: a knife, cutting stick, table, side and back gauges, and a clamp (See Figure 14-2).
The cutters long, heavy knife, which is bolted to a bar mounted near the front of the machine,
descends to the bed, slicing through a stack of paper. When properly set and adjusted, the knife will
cut through one sheet of paper the full length of the blade and barely rest upon the cutting stick
evenly. The knife bar snubber holds the knife in its up position, while the cutter is idling or if the
cylinder becomes worn. If the knife drifts down from its up position, an adjustment is necessary. The
knife angle, also called the bevel, is determined by the characteristics of the material to be cut.
Hesitation during cutting is an indication of an incorrect beveling of your blade. Consult your
operators manual for sharpening specifications. Different knives are manufactured for materials of
varying hardness.

Figure 14-2 Guillotine Cutter
Another important cutter component, the cutting stick, is inserted into a groove on the cutter table
immediately beneath the cutting knife. The cutting stick keeps the knife from hitting the metal cutting
table every time it slices through a pile of sheets, causing the knife to become dull easily or even
break. Regularly rotate your cutting stick (up to eight times per stick) to ensure a clean cut and long-
lasting knife edge.
Side and back gauges position sheets accurately under the knife, squaring them before cutting. The
side gauges are stationary, while the back gauge can be moved to accommodate various cut-off
lengths. A back gauge that is divided into two or more segments is called a split gauge and allows for
the trimming of booklets on more than one side at a time.
Positioning the Back Gauge
To position the back gauge, turn the hand wheel located in the center of the table and move the back
gauge back and forth. Then, read the distance on the tape and move the back gauge past the size
needed. You should stop and return the back gauge forward to the mark. By going past the mark and
coming back to it, you take the slack out of the back gauge screw and have an accurate cut each
time.
To lock the back gauge in place to prevent it from moving while you are positioning paper, tighten the
locking thumbscrew. Avoid continuous heavy jogging against the back gauge of the cutter as this can
knock your back gauge out of square. To make stock slide as easily as possible on the cutter table as
well as maintain and preserve the cutting bed, wax the table with paste wax.
The cutter clamp is a metal bar that runs parallel to the knife and, like the knife, is placed at a 90-
degree angle to the table. It has two functions. First, it expels air from the pile of sheets prior to
cutting. Secondly, it holds the pile firmly in place during the process.
Folding
Some products you will create in your shop will require folding. This includes, but is not limited to,
pamphlets, maps, brochures, and programs. After printing these products, the sheets are folded into
signatures that may consist of four pages, eight pages, 16 pages, or some other multiple of two.
These jobs are said to be folded to print. Press sheets with printing on only one side of the form are
folded to paper because backup register is not a consideration (see Figure 14-3).
Machine folding employs one of two basic folds: a right angle or a parallel fold. The right-angle fold is
made by first folding the sheet in half and then rotating it and folding it in half again. Additional right-
angle folds follow this sequence. A basic parallel fold is made by folding a sheet of paper twice so
that the two folds are made in the same direction. A variety of configuration can be made from right-
angle and parallel folds, including accordion folds, signature folds, gate or panel folds, over and over
folds, French folds, and letter folds. Folding is completed on a variety of folders. A combination or
table top folder is what is most often found in the Navy, which incorporates features of both buckle
and knife folders in one machine.

Figure 14-3 Common Folds (Left to Right, Top to Bottom): Accordion, Eight-Page Signature,
Gate, Over-and-Over, French with Heads in and Letter.
Combination Folders
The combination buckle plate/knife folder (combi) integrates buckle and knife folding. Parallel folds
are executed with buckle plates in the first folding station and subsequent right-angle folds are
produced in the knife folder section. To create folds parallel to the first right-angle fold, buckle plates
are also used. Conveyor tapes forward the sheets through the folder.
Combination machines are ideal for folding medium-size sheets, which often require a variety of
different folds. They work well with heavier stock because the thick bulk does not have to pass
through as many rollers, and paper grain direction is less of a problem.
Paper Drills
Paper drilling is basically drilling large quantities of paper, or other materials, with round holes. Paper
drills can be manual, motorized, or fully automated. During the paper drilling process, hollow paper
drill bits are clamped into a driven spindle which drills into the pile of paper. Paper drill bits are
available in different sizes and with different coating qualities.
Depending on the type of paper drill, either the paper drill bits are lowered into the pile or the table is
lifted. Paper drilling machines can be equipped with a different number of spindles which are each
built into one paper drill head. The range starts with one- and two-spindle paper drills for small
volumes and office purposes and reaches up to paper drilling platforms with more than 20 spindles
and paper drill heads.
Applications for paper drilling are file holes for different ring binders, loose-leaf collections, and rows
of holes for wire comb binding and tags. Many products processed on a paper drilling machine are
stationary. Additionally catalogs, manuals, and brochures are drilled on a paper drilling system to be
able to file them in a binder.
Binding Methods
There are several different binding methods; however, in this manual we will discuss the four
contemporary binding specialtiesmechanical; adhesive or perfect; saddle- and side-wire stitching;
and thread sewing, which involves case binding. Of the four specialties, mechanical and saddle- and
side-stitching is most commonly encountered in the Navy.
Mechanical Binding
In mechanical binding, wire or plastic coils, plastic combs, or metal rings are used to permanently join
individual sheets of paper together as books or booklets, with the independent binding device often
forming the backbone of the publication. Mechanical binding can be costly, but it allows the product to
open flatly. A notebook is an example of mechanical binding.
Adhesive Binding
Adhesive, or perfect, binding done in the small Navy print shop is not the same as that done in large
commercial print shop binderies, which specialize in that kind of work. Bookbinding is an art in itself.
Therefore, it has no place in the small-job shop. However, almost all print shops do the simpler forms
of adhesive binding, called padding, which is a standard operation in any small print shop. Padding is
the process of making pads or tablets by cementing the edge of the stack of sheets. A pad generally
consists of 50 to 100 sheets of paper and a chipboard back.
Saddle-and Side-Wire Stitching
Brochures, pamphlets, and thin magazines bound with staples driven through the centerfold along the
backbone are some examples of items saddle-stitched with wire. This type of stitching is typically the
most economical, and like mechanical binding, it allows products to open flatly.
Products side-stitched with wire are fastened together by inserting preformed staples through the side
of the booklet or brochure parallel to the backbone. It is important to distinguish between stitching, in
which wire is used, and sewing, which relies on thread to secure the signatures (pages) of a
publication.
Saddle- and side-stitchers range from small hand or foot-powered models to large automated
machines. Signatures to be side-stitched are stacked (gathered) one on top of the other, much as
signatures are stacked for perfect binding. Saddle-stitched signatures, on the other hand, are
inserted; meaning that outer signatures are dropped over inner ones. Saddle stitching remains the
best method of joining publications that are up to in. (6mm) thick.
Thread Sewing
Thread or cord is used during the thread-sewing bindery process to stitch a book together. Adhesives
are also used. After the thread sewing is complete, the book covers are attached using the case-
binding technique. This process is the most expensive of the binding processes, and it is usually
reserved for hardback books, fine literature, and reference books.
MAT CUTTING AND FOAM BOARD MOUNTING
A mat is a border made of paper or illustration board that compliments as it surrounds an image.
Matting a picture is done for protection, ease of handling, framing, and appearance. Before displaying
or presenting a certificate, a photograph, or a piece of artwork to an individual, you should mount,
mat, and if possible, frame it.
Mats
A mat focuses your attention on the image within the mat. When used in a frame, mats protect image
surfaces from direct contact with the glass that may trap moisture and cause mildew. When used
alone, mats protect image areas from fingerprints and smudges.
Tools
To cut a mat requires skill and patience. You need a pencil, a rule, a steel straightedge, a crafts knife
with a sharp blade, sandpaper or an emery board, tape, a mat board, and a backing board. You may
be fortunate enough to have a hand-held mat cutter or a carriage-type mat cutter.
Mat Cutter
The two basic types of mat cutters are hand-held mat cutters and carriage units. Hand-cut mats
require great skill and a steady hand. Carriage units ensure uniformity, speed, and accuracy.
Carriage units cut oval, round, rectangular, square and fancy-cut mats. They may be large and
mounted on a wall or they may be small tabletop units. Both types of mat cutters require a plentiful
supply of fresh blades.
Mat Proportions
The width of the top and the sides of a mat are equal. The width of the bottom of the mat is slightly
larger in dimension than the top and sides. A good ratio to work with is 3 to 4. When deciding upon
inner proportions, ensure you leave 1/8 inch to inch to allow for overlap. This will keep your
photograph or document from slipping.
Cutting a mat by hand
The first step when cutting a mat by hand is to prepare the blade for your knife. The key to successful
mat cutting is using a sharp blade in your knife and having a stable table. When cutting, you should
place the steel straightedge on the mat and cut along the inside edge. That way, if your knife should
slip, the cut would be on the portion of the mat you intended to discard. It is also important to begin
your cuts at the corners. Hold the knife at a right angle to the mat to make a square cut and at a
lesser angle to make a bevel cut. Once you begin cutting, you must maintain the same angle of cut
for all sides of the mat (See Figure 14-4).

STEP ACTION
1 Determine overall dimension and measure the opening of the frame.
2 Measure the image area you want exposed through the mat.
3
Cut the mat board and a backing board the same size as the opening in the frame or
the overall desired dimension.
4 On the surface of the mat, lightly mark the dimensions of the mat opening.
5 Place the steel straightedge on the mat surface to guide your blade.
6 Beginning at the corners, cut through the mat board.
7 Remove the unwanted portion of the mat.
8 Using a piece of sandpaper or an emery board, remove jagged or rough edges.
9 Carefully remove pencil lines with a non-abrasive eraser.
10
Place a piece of tape along the top edge of the image with the sticky side half on the
back of the image and half exposed.
11 Carefully position the mat over the image area and press down over the tape
12
Put the backing board behind the matted image and place in the frame. If you are not
framing the matted image, secure the backing board to the back of the mat board
with double-sided tape.
Figure 14-4 Instructions for Cutting a Mat by Hand.
Cutting a Mat with a Carriage-Type Cutter
Cutting a beveled mat with a carriage-type cutter is easier than cutting one by hand. Some carriage
devices cut straight-edged mats, while other cutters cut oval or round mats. You can use a
combination of both types for creative or decorative cuts. The devices maintain a precise angle of cut
while you draw the cutting blade across a fixed beam. The blade remains the key to cutting a
successful mat (See Figure 14-5).

STEP ACTION
1 Determine overall dimension and measure the opening of the frame.
2 Measure the image area that you want exposed through the mat.
3 On the back side of the mat, mark the dimensions of the desired opening.
4
Adjust the cutter stops on the carriage to correspond with the measurements of the
inside diameter of the mat, or the major and minor axis of a round or oval mat.
5
Position the mat board face down and align with the left edge of the mat cutter. Apply
pressure to the carriage to secure the mat board in place.
6
Insert the blade approx. 1/16th inch above the corner and draw the blade down the
carriage beam to just beyond the bottom corner. The stops on the carriage will stop
your stroke.
7
Reposition the mat board for each side. The carriage for a round or oval mat will cut
the mat in one continuous circular movement.
8 Remove the unwanted portion of the mat.
9 Smooth out jagged or rough edges with sandpaper or emery board.
10 Place and attach the image into the mat and the mat onto the backboard.
Figure 14-5 Instructions for Cutting a Mat with Carriage-Type Cutter.
PRINT MOUNTING
Like matting, print mounting is a technique used for the displaying or exhibiting of a print, such as a
painting, illustration, or photograph. The difference between mounting and matting, however, is the
way the print is attached to the board. When a print is matted, it is attached to the back of the board
and the image is placed behind a cut opening. When matted, a print is often taped into place; thus,
the matting can be temporary. Generally, prints that are framed are matted. When a print is mounted,
it is attached to the face of a mounting board. In both cases, the board enhances the picture by
providing a broad border as well as protecting the edges against damage.
When preparing a print for display, your goal should always be to show off the print in the best
possible manner. And, simplicity is most often the best strategy. Stay away from elaborate artwork or
fancy lettering as these elements will distract the viewer away from the image.
For exhibition and display, prints are often mounted or matted on a stiff (cardboard-like) board, often
called card stock. Card stock used for mounting photographic prints should be free of acid or sulfur
that can deteriorate the print quality. Card stock is available in various sizes, colors, textures and
weights. There are no hard-and-fast rules for mounting prints, but the card stock should complement
the print. The mount should be large enough to balance and support the picture, and the texture and
color should complement the overall tone.
The way the print is placed on the mounting board is important. Prints mounted at odd angles or in a
corner of the mount will unbalance the photograph. The bottom border on most mounts is the widest
border of all. Normally, prints are mounted so the top and side borders of the mount are equal. To
provide balance, you should ensure the bottom border is 25 to 35 percent wider than the top and side
borders.
Mounting the print onto the card stock is done usually using either the wet or dry method.
Wet Method
Liquid adhesives, such as rubber cement and spray-on adhesives, can be used to mount prints.
These adhesives are easy and clean to use. After they dry, the excess adhesive can be removed
easily by rubbing it lightly. The drawback to using rubber cement and spray-on adhesives is that they
are not permanent. In time the print may loosen and peel off the mount. This makes rubber cement
the ideal adhesive for temporary mounts used in displays or for copying. Gum arabic (natural gum
made of hardened sap), glue, or paste should be avoided whenever possible. These adhesives are
known to stain the print or smear out from around the edges of the print. This causes smudges on the
mounting board.
Dry Method
A dry print-mounting method that uses a pressure sensitive adhesive is often used with Navy
graphics. Pressure-sensitive adhesives come in a variety of sizes in both rolls and sheets. These
adhesives form a permanent bond and are easy to use for resin-coated papers.
To use these materials, you simply apply the print to the sticky surface of the mounting material, then
peel off the protective backing and apply it to a mounting board. If the print is not aligned correctly,
you can remove the print and reapply it. Once the print is correctly in place, you must apply pressure
to the print and mounting board. Normally, this is done by running the print and mounting board
through a specially designed roller assembly. This assembly applies pressure to the materials being
mounted.
Pressure-sensitive adhesive material contains tiny beads of adhesive. The pressure breaks these
beads and releases the adhesive. Once pressure is applied to the materials being mounted, a
permanent bond is formed.
A dry-mount press can also be used to mount photographic prints. With a dry-mounting press, heat is
used to fuse a mounting tissue between the print and the mounting surface.
A dry-mount press is designed to provide uniform pressure and heat. Even pressure is an important
aspect of good, dry mounting. Adequate pressure helps squeeze out air from between the adhesive,
print and mounting board. You should operate a dry-mount press at the temperature recommended
by the manufacturer of the mounting tissue. It is better to use a slightly lower temperature to mount
prints than a temperature that is too high. Excessive temperatures may cause damage to the print.
When temperatures are too high for resin-coated (RC) papers, the resin coating may blister or
bubble.
Porous materials, such as mounting board and rag-stock paper, absorb moisture from the air. This
moisture becomes trapped between the layers and causes blisters and bubbles in the finished work.
For best results, you should pre-dry the materials before beginning the dry-mounting process. This
can be done by heating the mounting board or paper in the mounting press to remove the moisture.
The time required to form a good bond varies when you are using a dry-mounting press. You should
mount the prints for a minimum amount of timethe time required to squeeze out air and moisture
from the materials and to activate the adhesive. Because different materials have different
thicknesses and heat conducting characteristics, you must experiment to determine what amount of
time is required to form a good mount. Whenever possible, you should use scraps of materials that
are the same as your finished work to determine the best time and temperature for dry-mounting
prints. Make notes of the process to reduce time during the next job.
The final stage of finishing for some photographs is to frame them. There are an infinite number of
colors and materials available for framing photographs. The same principles apply for framing
photographs that apply to mounting or matting prints. Remember to keep it simple and choose a
frame that complements the photograph, rather than distracts from the picture.
Mounting Display Prints
Many photographers categorize their work as both art and science, and they want their photographs,
or images, to be viewed, appreciated, and most importantly, to communicate a message. This is the
reason that the salon mount came into use. In photography, to salon mount your image means to
mount for exhibition. To mount display prints, you should begin by selecting a mounting board two to
four inches larger than the print size. Your selection of color should complement the photograph.
Thickness of the board is optional.
The preferred placement of prints for salon mounting is near the optical center. This allows for
pleasant placement of the photograph while leaving room for the photographers name and print title
below the print. The steps for mounting prints are as follows (See Figure 14-6).

STEP ACTION
1
Place the print in the upper left-hand corner of the mount with right and lower-left
corners at falling points A and B, respectively.
2
Divide the remaining space (point A to C) in half to locate D, and then draw a light
pencil line (point D to E) parallel to the edge of the mount. Do the same with the
bottom (G to I).
3 Draw line B to I. The intersection of this line with line DE gives you point J.
4 Mount the print with its right edge on line DE and the lower right corner on point J.
5 The print is now at the optical center of the mount.
6 Place title and photographers signature or name below the photograph.
7 Erase all pencil lines.
Figure 14-6 Instructions for Salon Mount.
Laminator
The primary purpose of laminating is to embellish or protect printed documents or images for such
things as paperback books, report covers, magazine covers, posters, cards and postcards, in-shop
displays, etc. Lamination is most often done with heated roll laminators. Heated roll laminators can
vary in size from office-based pouch laminators to industrial-sized machines. Such industrial
machines are primarily used for high-quantity/quality output by printers or print finishers. Some
machines can double as a laminator for the front and provide adhesive to the back of the prints to
ease the process of mounting onto the foam board. As with all equipment, refer to users manual
before using your shops laminator.
Engraver
An engraver routes letters and images below the surface of metals and plastics. Personnel nametags,
doorplates, desk plates, and shipboard signage are all examples of engraved products. Engraving is
also done on plaques, trophies, and shadow boxes.
REPRODUCTION OF MONEY
Before reproducing money in any and all print products that come through your shop, make sure you
have reviewed the law that guide the use of money as illustrations, Section 411 of Title 31 of the
Code of Federal Regulations. This law provides guidelines for the use of money in illustrations as
dictated by the law in accordance with the Counterfeit Detection Act of 1992, Public Law 102-550.
U.S. Currency
The Counterfeit Detection Act of 1992, Public Law 102-550, in Section 411 of Title 31 of the Code of
Federal Regulations, permits color illustrations (See Figure 14-7) of U.S. currency provided:
The illustration is of a size less than three-fourths or more than one and one-half, in linear
dimension, of each part of the item illustrated
The illustration is one-sided
All negatives, plates, positives, digitized storage medium, graphic files, magnetic medium,
optical storage devices, and any other thing used in the making of the illustration that contain
an image of the illustration or any part thereof are destroyed and/or deleted or erased after
their final use.

Figure 14-7 Proper Use of Currency in Illustrations.
Other Obligations and Securities
Photographic or likenesses of other United States obligations and securities and foreign currencies
are permissible for any non-fraudulent purpose, provided the items are reproduced in black and white
and are less than three-quarters or 1.5 times the size, in linear dimension, of any part of the original
item being reproduced. Negatives and plates used in making the likenesses must be destroyed after
their use for the purpose for which they were made. This policy permits the use of currency
reproductions in commercial advertisements, provided they conform to the size and color restrictions.
Motion picture films, microfilms, videotapes, and slides of paper currency, securities, and other
obligations may be made in color or black and white for projection or telecasting. No prints may be
made from these unless they conform to the size and color restrictions.
EXTERNAL COMMITMENTS
In addition to and external to the command, Navy shops have obligations and responsibilities defined
by instruction and practice. Know the commitments of the shop to provide support to units external to
your command. These commitments should exist in the form of written agreements. Agreements
between units typically define reoccurring services and the basis for financial reimbursement.
Although you need not know the intricacies involved in establishing agreements between units, you
must know if your shop has such commitments, the extent of the obligation, and the format for finding.
These factors can determine how your shop orders supplies and schedules workloads.
Interservice Support Agreement (ISA) A formal agreement that defines reoccurring services
and the basis for reimbursement.
Joint Interservice Regional Support Group (JIRSG) Use on DoD installations.
Memorandum of Agreement (MOA) An agreement supplements an ISA, defines a general
area of responsibility, and establishes responsibility for reoccurring services.
Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) This type of agreement also supplements an ISA. It
also identifies expectations of reoccurring support.
Job Control
The Navy Visual Information (VI) Management and Operations Manual, enclosure (1) of OPNAVINST
3104.1, Navy Visual Information Program Policy and Responsibilities, governs the administration and
operation of Navy VI activities and functions.
The ability to track photographic jobs within your facility quickly and accurately depends on your
shops job-control system. When a system is not used correctly, photographic requests, prints, and
other requirements may be lost or misplaced. This causes an inordinate delay in customer service
that has a negative impact on your relationship with other entities.
Job-Order Form
ALL work performed by Navy VI activities should be documented on a job-order form. These forms
are used to maintain close control of phases of services. The job-order form serves several purposes.
They are as follows: as an official request for VI services, as the authority to perform the work, as a
record of the time and materials used to complete the job, and as a receipt for the finished work. Navy
imaging facilities may use the Request for Audiovisual Services, OPNAV 5290/1, or a locally created
in-house form.
As a minimum, an in-house form should contain the following information:
Job order number
Customer signature block with a disclaimer that the service requested is official work and
essential to mission accomplishment
Product security classification
Other information required by your facility to accomplish the request officially
Job Order Log
All VI activities should assign job order numbers to job orders and should contain data sufficient to
avoid duplication of numbers, identify the requesting activity, identify the product, and account for the
final disposition of the job, be it a photographic print, multimedia product, or print product. Job order
numbers should be set to #1 at the beginning of each fiscal year, which runs from Oct. 1 to Sept. 30
each year. Job order logs must only contain unclassified information. A separate job-order log is
maintained for classified work requests.
SUMMARY
In this chapter we discussed print production and how this form of VI supports our missions, both
internally and externally. Whether youre stationed at sea or at a shore command, the production
shop will be one of the busiest work centers at your command. Almost every organization within the
DoD has a need for the type of services offered by MCs, and its imperative that you have a basic
understanding of desktop publishers, desktop printers, and finishing equipment.
To further your knowledge in print production, check out your equipment user manuals, and the Navy
VI Management and Operators Manual.
CHAPTER 15
FILE MANAGEMENT AND TRANSMISSION
Mass Communication Specialists who produce or manage Department of Defense imagery should
take care in properly submitting visual information with captions that are accurate, clear, concise and
in accordance with DoD standards. A properly indentified piece of visual information will allow the
viewer to know the who, what, when, and where about the still image, motion imagery, graphic or
multimedia production. This chapter will discuss how to properly identify, embed and transmit visual
information in accordance with DoD Visual Information (VI) requirements.
Before continuing on with this chapter, however, it is a good idea to familiarize yourself (download
and read) OPNAVINST 3104.1A, Navy Visual Information Program Policy and Responsibilities.
Within this instruction, you will find the Navy VI Management and Operations Manual. Like the AP
Stylebook used in your writing, this instruction should be within reach at all times.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Describe the elements of Visual Information Record Identification Number (VIRIN)
2. Describe the process of embedding information into an image file
3. Describe various file formats
4. List various forms of file transmission
VISUAL INFORMATION RECORD IDENTIFICATION NUMBER (VIRIN)
In accordance with DoD VI requirements, each non-production unit of media that satisfies the
definition of official DoD VI record material shall be assigned a visual information record identification
number, or VIRIN (pronounced veer-in). Thus, unless discarded, each original digital still image and
each piece of motion-media imagery or other storage media that is recorded or produced by persons
acting for or on behalf of DoD activities, function or missions shall be assigned a VIRIN.
The VIRIN is assigned at the acquisition level by the originator (i.e., photographer, videographer,
producer, graphic artist). Any photograph, digital image, or individual item of media containing motion
imagery that is forwarded to the Defense Imagery Management Operations Center (DIMOC), Navy
Media Content Services (NMCS), and the Defense Visual Information Center (DVIC) shall have a
VIRIN.
Still Images
VIRINs uniquely identify every image shot by military photographers by using four fields of information
the date the image was shot, the military service affiliation of the photographer, a Vision
Identification (VISION ID) issued by the Defense Imagery Management Operations Center and
unique to each service member, and a sequence number. The VIRIN consists of 15 digits in the
following format: YYMMDD-S-VISIONID-NNN. The following is a description of the data fields for the
VIRIN fields (with a hyphen between each field):
Field 1 (YYMMDD): The year, month and day of acquisition or origination.
Field 2 (S): The Service affiliation or status of the camera operator or originator. The code
abbreviations are:
o A = Uniformed member, civilian employee or contract employee of the Army
15-1
o N = Uniformed member, civilian employee or contract employee of the Navy
o F = Uniformed member, civilian employee or contract employee of the Air Force
o M = Uniformed member, civilian employee or contract employee of the Marine Corps
o G = Uniformed member, civilian employee or contract employee of the Coast Guard
o D = Other civilian or contract employee of the Department of Defense
o O= Person not falling into one of categories above
Field 3 (VISION ID): Historically, the last four digits of the originators social security number
were used in this Field 3. However, as of Feb. 1, 2011, this process has changed in an effort to
protect personally identifiable information. Field 3 must now consist of the originators VISION
ID code. The VISION ID reverses the arrangement of letters and numbers, and uses 2 letters
instead of one, with three numbers instead of four.
o To receive a VISION ID code, you must register with DIMOC. Regular contributors
should register at https://vipro.defenseimagery.mil. People who have never contributed
VI content to either DoD or Navy.mil must go to
https://vipro.defenseimagery.mil/newvipro. If your connectivity is limited or you have
issues registering, e-mail DIMOC at dimocops@dma.mil.
Field 4 (NNN): Image or unit of media number in sequential order (beginning with 001 for that
same day). Numbering should follow the approximate order in which each unit of media was
acquired or originated by the person identified in Fields 2 and 3 on the day identified in Field 1,
starting with 001 and continuing consecutively as necessary up to 999. Field 4 of the VIRIN
shall reflect the approximate order of a given persons acquisition or origination activities on a
given day, without regard to variables such as media, so that no two units of media are
assigned identical VIRINs.
o Here is an example: 110131-N-AANNN-004
Additional Notes
Fields 2 and 3 for an image created by more than one individual shall reflect the individual who
was the lead creator or head of the team responsible for creating the image
Copies shall bear the VIRIN of the original, even if conversions or changes in medium, format,
compression, or size occur during the copying process
Imagery or other units of media, which are derived from existing, VIRIN-bearing materials, but
which differ significantly in appearance relative to that from which derived, shall, upon creation
and unless discarded, be assigned their own VIRIN
A good rule of thumb is to use the VIRIN as the images file name
When the Vision ID of the photographer is unavailable, use ZZ999 in this field.
All DoD imagery, even unreleased imagery, is to be transmitted to DIMOC.
DIMOC expects imagery to be the original aspect ratio, changing the quality to fit between 1.2 -
2 mb. If the original images are larger than that canvas, then the photo size needs to be
reduced to get it between 1.2 and 2 mb.
Motion Imagery
All submitted motion imagery (such as a digital file or disc) must be assigned a means of easy
identification. Much like still images, VIRINs uniquely identify every piece of video shot by military
videographers. Motion media can also be identified by the use of slates and caption sheets by using
15-2
four fields of information in the VIRIN the date the imagery was shot, the service affiliation of the
videographer, a VISION ID of the videographer, and a sequence number. This information is
particularly useful to an editor when dealing with a large project that may have multiple files. Follow
the still image guidelines to derive a VIRIN for motion imagery. A VIRIN slate, if possible, should be
recorded at the beginning of each scene.

The consolidation of motion imagery to a single storage device must include all applicable VIRINs.
Like a still image, the VIRIN of a video sequence should be used as the filename of the electronic
version(s) of the sequence and as the filename of the corresponding run sheet. Naming each file with
the VIRIN ensures run sheets and sequences are properly kept together when received.
Video Captions
When writing captions for motion imagery, all the rules in the preceding chapters on style and content
apply. The descriptive information provided will necessarily be broader since the caption must
describe more than a single image. Provide captions for the sequence and each shot.
Caption information should appear on the slate and, when applicable, on DD Form 2537, Visual
Information Caption Sheet, or in a similar format.
Slates
All video sequences should include a slate at the front of the sequence that contains the following:
VIRIN
Videographer name and rank
Videographer contact information (e-mail and phone number). This information will be deleted
during the editing process before the imagery is released to the public.
The release status of the video:
Classification
Released
Not released
FOUO (for official use only)
Not reviewed
The name, rank, and contact information of the releasing authority
A brief description of the sequence. An example follows:
o U.S. Sailors conduct flight operations aboard the Nimitz-class aircraft carrier USS
Ronald Reagan (CVN 76) July 21, 2007, while underway in the Indian Ocean.
The placement of a slate on the video sequence does not replace the requirement to send a caption
sheet with the video, either using DD Form 2537 or a text document.
NOTE
Video sizes for transmission to DIMOC and DMA are as follows. HD -
1280x720 QuickTime H.264 and an SD Windows Media, original aspect
ratio, at 80 percent quality during compression.
15-3
Caption Sheets
The two types of captions for video are sequence captions and shot captions.
A Sequence Caption describes the contents of the entire video sequence. It clearly identifies the
documented activity to include the date and location the video was shot. It should also include the
following information:
Full name, rank and title of the person or persons featured in the video, only if included in the
entire video sequence. If not featured in the entire sequence, place this information in the shot
caption
Full name and model number of all featured equipment, vehicles, aircraft, or ships, if included
in the entire video sequence. If not featured in the entire sequence, place this information in
the shot caption
A brief explanation of the purpose of the event, exercise, or operationwhy the documented
action is happening and/or why it is significant
Public release status and instructions at the end of the sequence caption (see above). An
example:
o U.S. Navy Air Traffic Controller 2nd Class Esther R. Hines plots ship coordinates in the
amphibious air traffic control center aboard USS Iwo Jima (LHD 7) May 2, 2007. Iwo
Jima is conducting an expeditionary strike group exercise in preparation for an
upcoming deployment. (U.S. Navy video by Mass Communication Specialist 1st Class
April Myers/Not Released)
o Not cleared for public release by Lt. John Doe, USS Navy Ship PAO,
john.doe@navy.mil, DSN 456-7890.
Shot Captions
Shot captions are shot-by-shot breakdowns of the video sequence that include information pertinent
only to that section of time code. If the information is applicable to the entire sequence, place it in the
sequence caption (see above).
Place the time code in hour/minute/second/frame format
Include changes of camera field of view. Use the following abbreviations to indicate camera
field of view:
o ES establishing shot
o LS long shot
o MS medium shot
o CU close up
o ECU extreme close up
Place release status at the end of each shot caption
Examples of properly constructed shot captions:
o 00:02:01:14MS U.S. Navy Capt. John Smith presents a diploma to Seaman Joe
Dean. (Released)
o 00:02:08:05MS U.S. Navy Capt. John Smith presents a diploma to Seaman Larry
Owens. (Released)
o 00:02:15:22LS Graduates march in review. (Not Released)
15-4
Digital File Naming
Keeping track of and organizing image files are of essential importance when working with still and
video images. As mentioned above, a good organization method is to use the products VIRIN as the
file name, unless the software you are using does not support the VIRINs format. If system software
does not support long file names, use the standard 8.3 file name convention. The first six characters
are the date in VIRIN format with the last two characters of the VIRIN added (the sequence number).
Make sure the file extension reflects the file format used. An example of a digital still image file in 8.3
format would be 980430-N-AANNN-005 becoming 98043005.jpg. (See file formats below for
amplifying information.)
FILE FORMATS
File formats are machine languages that save each binary digit or bit in a file according to special
codes that tell the program how to arrange and present the information. Special codes for one
program are not necessarily the same special codes for other software. In this section, we will discuss
several terms associated with image files as well as the most common types of file formats you will
see in your work as an MC. These formats are listed in alphabetical order vice order of common
usage.
Advanced Audio Coding (AAC)
AAC was developed to improve upon the MP3 audio format and uses a more advanced form of
compression. According to some listening tests, AAC files encoded at lower bitrates (like 96 kilobits
per second, or Kbps) sound as good as or better than MP3s encoded at higher bitrates (like 128
Kbps) despite their smaller size. The current version of the AAC codec was developed as part of the
MPEG4 standard. Files may appear with the ".m4a" or ".mp4" filename extension. Songs with DRM
(digital rights management) usually have an ".m4p" extension (with the "p" at the end to denote
"protected").
Audio Interchange File Format (AIFF)
AIFF is an audio format commonly used for storing uncompressed, CD-quality sound. AIFF is
considered a lossless container format.
Apple Lossless
Apple Lossless (also known as Apple Lossless Encoder, ALE, or Apple Lossless Audio Codec,
ALAC) is a lossless audio codec developed to provide full, CD-quality audio in about half the space of
the original file.
Advanced Video Coding High Definition (AVCHD)
AVCHD is a high-definition digital video format that can record in 1080i and 720p and still maintain a
reasonably small file size. AVCHD files are based on the MPEG4 codec. The advent of high-definition
(HD) televisions and displays spurred the development of this format, which uses the same resolution
as HDTV signals. AVCHD video files can also be burned to Blu-ray discs.
Audio/Video Interleaved (AVI)
AVI is a file format for storing and playing back movie clips with sound. An AVI file is organized into
alternating ("interleaved") chunks of audio and video data. AVI is a container format, meaning that it
specifies how the data will be organized, but is not itself a form of audio or video compression. AVI is
the type of file created when digital video (DV) clips are imported from a digital camcorder to a PC.
These clips are often referred to as DV-AVIs, because they contain full-quality digital video content.
15-5
Bitrate
Bitrate is the average amount of data required to store one second of music, expressed in Kbps, with
audio compression. Some codecs like MP3, WMA, and AAC allow files to be encoded at different
bitrates. Generally, as bitrate decreases, so does the sound quality of the resulting file, as well as the
amount of memory required to store it.
Bitmap Image (BMP)
BMP is a standard format used for storing images on Windows-based PCs. BMP images can either
be compressed or uncompressed. This type of file also sometimes appears with the ".DIB" extension.
Coder-Decoder (CODEC)
Codec is software that takes a raw data file and turns it into a compressed file. Because compressed
files only contain some of the data found in the original file, the codec is the necessary translator
that decides what data makes it in to the compressed version and what data gets discarded. Different
codecs translate in different ways, so a file compressed using the one codec will be different from a
file compressed using another codec. Sometimes the difference is noticeable, sometimes not, but it is
good to be aware of what codecs are best for what you are trying to do in order to maintain the best
ratio of file size to quality.
Compression
Because it takes up so much space, video must be compressed before it is put on the web. To
compress means to pack the information into a smaller space. As discussed in previous chapters, the
two types of compression are lossless compression and lossy compression.
Digital Video (DV)
DV is the format used by most digital video cameras. Although the DV format employs a form of lossy
video compression (applied in real-time as you record with your camera), this format is still memory-
intensive. When transferred to a computer, a DV clip requires roughly 1 gigabyte (GB) of storage per
five minutes of video. Clips are usually stored on the computer as QuickTime or .avi files. Despite
its use of compression, DV can provide a clean image with up to 520 lines of resolution. DV uses a
type of compression known as "intraframe" that is, it encodes video at the full standard frame rate
of 30 frames per second. This allows frame-by-frame editing. In contrast, video codecs like MPEG1 or
MPEG2 tend to handle video sequence by reducing the number of full frames per second and
encoding the differences between frames, making precise editing more difficult. These are known as
"interframe" forms of compression.
Graphics Interchange Format (GIF)
GIF creates a table of up to 256 colors from a pool of 16 million. If the image has fewer than 256
colors, GIF can render the image exactly. When the image contains more colors, the software that
creates the GIF will use any of several algorithms to approximate the colors in the image with the
limited palette of 256 colors available. Better algorithms search the image to find an optimum set of
256 colors. Sometimes GIF uses the nearest color to represent each pixel, and sometimes it uses
error diffusion to adjust the color of nearby pixels to correct for the error in each pixel.
GIF achieves compression in two ways. First, it reduces the number of colors of color-rich images,
thereby reducing the number of bits needed per pixel, as just described. Secondly, it replaces
commonly occurring patterns (especially large areas of uniform color) with a short abbreviation.
Instead of storing "white, white, white, white, white," it stores "five white."
15-6
Thus, GIF is lossless only for images with 256 colors or less. For a rich, true color image, GIF may
"lose" 99.998 percent of the colors.
Joint Photographic Experts Group (JPEG)
JPEG is optimized for photographs and similar continuous tone images that contain many, many
colors. It can achieve astounding compression ratios even while maintaining very high image quality,
while GIF compressions are unkind to such images. JPEG works by analyzing images and discarding
kinds of information that the eye is least likely to notice. It stores information as 24-bit color.
It is important to remember that the degree of compression of JPEG is adjustable. At moderate
compression levels of photographic images, it is very difficult for the eye to discern any difference
from the original, even at extreme magnification. Compression factors of more than 20 are often quite
acceptable. Good graphics programs allow you to view the image quality and file size as a function of
compression level, so that you can conveniently choose the balance between quality and file size. A
form of this codec known as Motion JPEG is used by some digital cameras and camcorders for
storing video clips of relatively small file size. With Motion JPEG, each frame of video is captured
separately and reduced in size using JPEG compression.
Lossless Data Compression
Lossless data compression retains all of the data of the original file as it is converted to a smaller file
size. When a lossless file such as a TIFF is opened, algorithms restore all compressed information,
creating a duplicate of the source file. Lossless compression is generally preferred for creating high-
quality or professional-grade audio and video files where retaining fine detail is important.
Lossy Data Compression
In lossy data compression, some source file information is discarded to conserve space. When the
file is decompressed, this information is reconstructed through algorithms, usually resulting in some
loss of sound quality or image detail when compared to the original. Generally, the higher the
resolution of a compressed file, the slighter the degradation. An MP3 file with a resolution of 256
Kbps, for example, tends to sound more like the source file than one made at 64 Kbps.
Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI)
A MIDI file does not contain actual audio data; it contains commands that let MIDI-capable
synthesizers recreate a specific musical passage. MIDI protocol has been used for years as a way for
electronic musical instruments, like digital keyboards and sequencers, to communicate with each
other. Computer sound cards typically feature the ability to interpret MIDI files into music. Since they
do not actually contain the music itself, but rather the commands used to recreate music, MIDI files
are a lot smaller than audio files like MP3s, WMAs, or WAVs. MIDI files are small and manageable
enough that it is not uncommon to find them embedded in web pages, adding a sonic element to the
surfing experience. They usually appear with the ".MID" filename extension.
Moving Picture Experts Group (MPEG)
The Motion Picture Experts Group is a committee that sets international standards for the digital
encoding of movies and sound. There are several audio/video formats that bear this group's name. In
addition to their popularity on the Internet, several MPEG formats are used with different kinds of A/V
gear:
MPEG1
MPEG1 is a format often used in digital cameras and camcorders to capture small, easily transferable
video clips. It is also the compression format used to create video CDs, and commonly used for
15-7
posting clips on the Internet. The well-known MP3 audio format (see definition below) is part of the
MPEG1 codec.
MPEG2
Commercially produced DVD movies, home-recorded DVD discs, and most digital satellite TV
broadcasts employ MPEG2 video compression to deliver their high-quality picture. MPEG2 is a form
of lossy compression that rivals the DV format when it comes to picture quality. Because MPEG2 is a
"heavier" form of compression that removes a larger portion of the original video signal than DV, it is
more difficult to edit with precision. The MPEG2 codec allows for selectable amounts of compression
to be applied, which is how home DVD recorders and hard disk video recorders can offer a range of
recording speeds. MPEG2 is considered a container format.
MPEG4
MPEG4 is a flexible MPEG container format used for both streaming and downloadable Web content.
It is the video format employed by a growing number of camcorders and cameras.
MP3 (MPEG1, Audio Layer 3)
MP3 is the most popular codec for storing and transferring music. Though it employs a lossy
compression system that removes frequencies judged to be essentially inaudible, MP3 still manages
to deliver near-CD sound quality in a file that it is only about 1/10 or 1/12 the size of a corresponding
uncompressed WAV file. When creating an MP3 file, you can select varying amounts of compression
depending on the desired file size and sound quality.
MP3PRO
MP3PRO is an updated version of the original MP3 codec. These small, low-bitrate files contain much
more high-frequency detail than standard MP3 files encoded at similar low bitrates. The high-
frequency portion of the audio signal is handled by an advanced and extremely efficient coding
process known as spectral band replication (SBR), while the rest of the signal is encoded as a regular
MP3. That means that when you play an MP3Pro file on non-MP3Pro-compatible software, you will
only hear the non-SBR-encoded portions (so you will lose the highs altogether). However, when
encoded and played back using a fully compatible audio program, mp3Pro files deliver very good
sound quality using low bitrates.
Quicktime Movie (MOV)
An MOV is a file format for storing and playing back movies with sound. This type of file contains
composition information, but no movie data, which takes up minimal disk space.
There are more than 200 formats for the Quicktime movie. The one currently most used for editing is
called Apple ProRes 422, which is a 4x2x2 color palette, and the DoD Quicktime guidelines for export
is the H.264 Quicktime progression.
The H.264 compression isn't necessarily the most high-quality form of compression, but it is the most
malleable, making it easy to convert for television, internet streaming and DVDs (Digital Versatile
Discs, formerly Digital Video Discs)."
Raw
RAW is an image file of minimally processed data received from a digital camera. Most camera
manufacturers have their own proprietary version of the RAW image format, and their own file
suffixes. Professionals prefer shooting in RAW because the additional information these large files
contain allows greater flexibility in post-production editing. Because the image is basically
unprocessed, as compared to a JPEG image, RAW files can retain very subtle color variations and
15-8
fine detail. Color changes, contrast adjustments, and other manipulations of a RAW image yield
significantly fewer digital artifacts than the same changes made to a comparable JPEG file.
Realmedia
RealMedia is one of the most popular formats for streaming content on the Internet. RealMedia
includes the RealAudio codec for sound clips and RealVideo codec for movies. RealAudio and
RealVideo files are often given the common RealMedia ".rm" file extension. RealMedia is a container
format that is often heavily compressed for streaming over dial-up Internet connections. RealMedia
variable bitrate (RMVB) has been developed for variable bitrate (VBR) streaming files.
Sound Designer II (SDII)
SDII is an audio format that is often employed by pro-quality sound editing software applications. SDII
files, like AIFF and WAV files, are capable of storing uncompressed CD-quality audio.
Secure Digital Music Initiative (SDMI)
The Secure Digital Music Initiative was established to standardize digital music file specifications
throughout the industry. The primary purpose was to create a uniform copyright protection protocol
that would work with a variety of digital players, software programs, and download sites. SDMI-
compliant devices and files have special coding to recognize and comply with the requirements
imposed on copyright-protected materials.
Portable Network Document (PNG)
PNG is a lossless storage format; however, in contrast with common TIFF usage, it looks for patterns
in the image that it can use to compress file size. The compression is exactly reversible, so the image
is recovered exactly.
Photoshop/Paintshop (PSD/PSP)
PSD and PSP are proprietary formats used by graphics programs. These are the preferred working
formats as you edit images in the software, because only the proprietary formats retain all the editing
power of the programs. These packages use layers, for example, to build complex images, and layer
information may be lost in the non-proprietary formats such as TIFF and JPEG. However, be sure to
save your end result as a standard TIFF or JPEG, or you may not be able to view it in a few years
when your software has changed.
Tag Image File Format (TIFF)
TIFF is a flexible container format for digital still images, commonly used in desktop publishing. TIFF
images can incorporate various forms of compression (like JPEG) or can be uncompressed. Some
digital cameras offer a special TIFF mode for capturing uncompressed photos; however, these files
require many times more storage space than JPEGs and can quickly fill up your camera's available
memory.
Waveform Audio File Format (WAV)
WAV is a standard audio format, often used for storing high-quality, uncompressed sound. WAV files
can contain CD-quality (44.1 KHz/16-bit) audio signals. However, CD-quality WAV files require
relatively large amounts of memory roughly 10 megabytes (MB) per minute of music. WAV is a
container format.
15-9
Windows Media Audio (WMA)
WMA is one of today's most pervasive Internet audio formats. Though not as popular as MP3,
proponents of lossy WMA claim that it can outperform MP3 in the area of sound quality, particularly
with files encoded at lower bitrates such as 64 or 96 Kbps. This performance advantage makes it
handy for applications like portable digital audio players, where total play time is limited by a finite
amount of internal memory.
Windows Media Video (WMV)
WMV is Microsoft's proprietary lossy compression format for motion video. It is used for both
streaming and downloading content via the Internet.
EMBEDDING INFORMATION
When submitting visual information, you must embed pertinent information about the image into the
images file information. This information is called information interchange model caption (IPTC), or
metadata. The metadata contains identification, contact information, the caption, and keywords about
the photograph. Embedded information makes the file searchable on the computer and/or the
Internet. While some metadata is written by the camera, most is input by the photographer after
downloading. Different commands use various software programs to embed information. For detailed
guidance on embedding caption and metadata information, consult your commands specific editing
software manual. A DOD caption cross reference sheet is available at the following websites:
http://www.defenseimagery.mil/learning/vipolicy/misc.html
http://www.imagery.navy.mil/training.html
TRANSMISSIONS
So, you have your image or video file with all required information attached or embedded, to include
VIRIN info and metadata. Now what? In todays world of up-to-the-minute news coverage, there is a
constant demand for current images of activities throughout the Department of Defense showing the
departments activities, exercises, and operations.
Your next step is to move your product from your command to the rest of the world. There are several
options for moving these files. As a general rule, however, you should use either file transfer protocol
(FTP) or fast file transfer (FFT).
File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
A simple network protocol based on Internet Protocol (IP) (the method or protocol by which data is
sent from one computer to another on the Internet) as well as a term used when referring to the
process of copying files when using FTP technology. To transfer files with FTP, you use a program
often called the "client." The FTP client program initiates a connection to a remote computer running
FTP "server" software. After the connection is established, the client can choose to send and/or
receive copies of files, singly or in groups. To connect to an FTP server, a client requires a username
and password as set by the administrator of the server.
Fast File Transfer (FFT)
FFT is a client-server based transmission application that allows users to transmit computer files of
any type and size (files larger than 1 GB are routinely moved) using computers over IP-based
networks much faster and more reliably than file transfer protocol (FTP) methods. Using multiple data
threads, the application speeds transmission of files by flooding the available bandwidth, throttling
itself to ensure that the network is available for other network activity. Such error handling ensures
15-10
that, upon successful transmission completion, there is no corruption in the files transmitted. The
client application itself is easy to install and use. The installer is a standard application installer. There
is no licensing information needed as all licensing is done at receiving servers. When the client is
launched, enter the username, password and host address of the FFT server.
For more information, check out Navy Media Content Services guidance on sending files.
Safeguarding Classified Material
Modern methods of conducting war and safeguarding our nation require a tremendous amount of
information. This information is stored in books and files, aggregated into reports, gathered by
intelligence activities, and transferred in the form of letters, messages, photographs, and audio and
video recordings. This information is sifted and organized in the minds of the people directing the war
effort and those keeping the peace. Much of this information is extremely valuable to our enemies,
and, therefore, must be kept classified and safeguarded in the interest of national security.
In performing your job as a Navy MC, you may have access to classified information. Therefore, you
MUST become aware of the importance of safeguarding all classified information to which you have
access.
Classification categories, procedures, and related security information pertaining to the Navy are
contained in the Department of the Navy Information and Security Program Regulation, OPNAVINST
5510.1 (series).
15-11

AI-1

APPENDIX I
MC BASIC ACRONYMS

AAC Advanced Audio Coding
AFRTS Armed Forces Radio and Television
AIFF Audio Interchange File Format
ARPA Advanced Researched Project Agency
ASD(PA) Assistant Secretary of Defense for Public Affairs
AU Encoded Audio Format
AVCHD Advanced Video Coding High Definition
AVI Audio/Video Interleaved
BMP Bitmap Image
BNC Bayonet NeillConcelman
CBT Computer Based Training
CCD Charged Coupled Device
CCU Camera Control Unit
CD-ROM Compact Disc Read Only Memory
CE Civilian Enterprise
CHINFO Chief of Information
CMY Cyan, Magenta and Yellow
CMYK Cyan, Magenta, Yellow & Key (black)
CODEC Coder-Decoder
COMCAM Combat Camera
CP10 Continuing Promise 2010
CSS Cascading Style Sheets
CU Close-Up
DIMOC Defense Imagery Management Operations Center
DINFOS Defense Information School
DMA Defense Media Activity
DNS Domain Name Server
DoD Department of Defense
DoN Department of the Navy
DPI Dots Per Inch

AI-2

DSLR Digital Single Lens Reflex
DTP Desktop Publishing
DTS Direct to Sailor
DV Distinguished Visitor
DV Digital Video
DVD-ROM Digital Versatile Disk-Read Only Memory
ECU Extreme Close-Up
EEFI Essential Elements of Friendly Information
ELS Extreme Long Shot
ENG Electronic Newsgathering
EOD Explosive Ordnance Disposal
EV Exposure Valve
FFS Full-Figure Shot
FFT Fast File Transfer
FHTNC Fleet Hometown News Center
FOIA Freedom of Information Act
FPS Frames Per Second
FTP File Transfer Protocol
GBS Gigabytes
GIF Graphic Interchange Format
GN Guide Number
HTML Hypertext Markup Language
IBC Internet-based capabilities
IP Internet Protocol
IPC Intermediate Photojournalism Course
IPTC Information Interchange Model Caption
ISA Interservice Support Agreement
ISO International Standards Organization
ISP Internet Service Provider
JFC Joint Force Commander
JIRSG Joint Interservice Regional Support Group
JPEG Joint Photographer Experts Group
K Kelvin
LaDR Learning and Development Roadmap

AI-3

LS Long Shot
MBs Megabytes
MC Mass Communication Specialist
MIDI Musical Instrument Digital Interface
MILPERSMAN Military Personnel Manual
MOA Memorandum of Agreement
MOU Memorandum of Understanding
MOV Quick Time Movie
MPEG Moving Picture Experts Group
MS Medium Shot
MWR Morale, Welfare and Recreation
NAVCO Navy Office of Community Outreach
NAVINFO Navy Offices of Information
ND Neutral-Density
NJROTC Navy Junior Reserve Officers Training Corps
NECs Navy Enlisted Classifications
NEOCS Navy Enlisted Manpower and Enlisted Classification and Occupational
Standards
NKO Navy Knowledge Online
NPASE Navy Public Affairs Support Elements
NRTC Nonresident Training Course
NVNS Navy Visual News Service
OIC Officer in Charge
OPDOC Operational Documentation
OPREPS Operational Reports
OPSEC Operational Security
PAG Public Affairs Guidance
PA Regs Public Affairs Policy and Regulations
PA/VI Public Affairs and Visual Information Team
Pixels Picture Elements
PNG Portable Network Document
POD Plan of the Day
POM Plan of the Month
POW Plan of the Week

AI-4

PPI Pixels Per Inch
PSD/PSP Photoshop/Paint Shop
RC Resin Coated
RDT&E Research, Development, Test and Evaluation
RGB Red, Green, Blue
RIMPAC Rim of the Pacific
RMVB RealMedia Variable Bitrate
RSS Really Simple Syndication
SAPP Security, Accuracy, Propriety and Policy
SDII Sound Designer II
SDV SEAL delivery team
SECDEF Secretary of Defense
SECNAV Secretary of the Navy
SDMI Secure Digital Music Initiative
SITE Shipboard Information, Training and Entertainment
SITREPS Situational Reports
SLR Single Lens Reflex
SME SubjectMatter Expert
SMPTE Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers
TCP/IP Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
TECDOC Technical Documentation
TIFF Tag Image File Format
TTL Through The Lens
URL Uniform Resource Locator
VI Visual Information
VIDOC VI Documentation
W3C World Wide Web Consortium
WAV Waveform Audio Format
WMA Windows Media Audio
WMV Windows Media Video
WWW World Wide Web

AII-1

APPENDIX II
REFERENCES USED TO DEVELOP THE RTM

Associated Press Stylebook and Briefings on Media Law
Blair, Raymond N. (Graphic Arts Technical Foundation). The Lithographers Manual (9th edition).
ISBN 088362169X
CHINFOINST 5720.8 Public Affairs Tactics Manual
DOD Directive 5230.16 Nuclear Accident and Incident Public Affairs Guidance
DODINST 5040.02 Visual Information
DODINST 5040.05 Alteration of Official DOD Imagery
DODINST 5040.07 Visual Information Production Procedures
DODINST 5120.2 Armed Forces Radio and Television Service
DODINST 5120.4 Department of Defense Newspapers, Magazines and Civilian Enterprise
Publications
DODINST 5400.13 Public Affairs Operations
DOD Principles of Information
DOD Webmasters Guidance (http://www.defense.gov/webmasters/)
JOINT PUB 3-61 Joint Public Affairs Doctrine
Naval Enlisted Manpower and Personnel Classifications and Occupational Standards
NAVEDTRA 14208 Photographers Mate Advanced NRTC
NAVEDTRA 14209 Photographers Mate Basic NRTC
NAVEDTRA 14321 Journalism Basic NRTC
NAVEDTRA 14332 Illustrator Draftsman (Equipment)
NAVEDTRA 14333 Illustrator Draftsman (Executionable Practices)
NAVEDTRA 14334 Illustrator Draftsman (Presentations Graphics)
NAVEDTRA 14335 Journalism Advanced Nonresident Training Course
NAVPERS 15560D Military Personnel Manual
Navy Visual News Training (https://www.chinfo.navy.mil/visualnews/training.html)
OPNAVINST 3104.1 (series) Navy Visual Information Program Policy and Responsibilities
OPNAVINST 3104.3 (series) Navy Combat Camera Program Policy, Responsibilities and Procedures
OPNAVINST 3432.1 (series) Operations Security
OPNAVINST 5510.1 (series) Department of the Navy Information and Personnel Security Program
Regulation

AII-2

OPNAVINST 5720.2 (series) Embarkation in U.S. Naval Ships
OPNAVINST 5726.8 (series) Outreach: Americas Navy
Sabin, William A. The Gregg Reference Manual: A Manual of Style, Grammar, Usage, and
Formatting (10
th
Edition) ISBN 0073545430
SECNAVINST 5211.5 (series) Privacy Act Program
SECNAVINST 5720.42 (series) Freedom of Information Act
SECNAVINST 5720.44 (series) Public Affairs Policy and Regulations
SECNAVINST 5724.3 (series) Fleet Hometown News Program Policy and Regulations
SECNAVINST 5420.47 (series) Navy Policy for Content of Publicly Accessible World Wide Web Sites
SECNAVINST 5870.4 (series) Copyright
U.S. Counterfeit Detection Act of 1992 (http://www.secretservice.gov/money_illustrations.shtml)
U.S. Navy Regulations
U.S. Navy Style Guide (http://www.navy.mil/submit/view_styleguide.asp)
U.S. Navy Website (http://www.navy.mil )
U.S. Rehabilitation Act (Section 508) (http://www.section508.gov)
U.S. State Department Guidelines for Producing High Quality Photographs for U.S. Travel
Documents

AS1-1

ASSIGNMENT 1

Textbook Assignment: Chapter 1, The Navy Mass Communication Specialist (MC): Roles
and Responsibilities
1-1. Which of the following is the main function of a Navy MC?

A. Ensure bylines are published in command publication
B. Publish internal products on Navy.mil
C. Tell the story of Americas Navy
D. Volunteer for community-service projects to get the good assignments

1-2. Which of the following is NOT one of the Navys key audiences?

A. International allies
B. U.S. public
C. Command personnel
D. Navy personnel around the fleet

1-3. Which of the following personal traits are essential to becoming a successful MC?

A. Appearance, intuition, and voice
B. Appearance, military bearing, and voice
C. Appearance, investigative skills, and military bearing
D. Appearance, intuition, and writing skills

1-4. Where do you find a listing of Navy Enlisted Classification (NEC) codes for MCs?

A. Public Affairs Regulations
B. Uniform Regulations
C. Navy Enlisted Manpower and Enlisted Classification and Occupational Standards
Manual
D. Navy Rates and Ratings Manual

1-5. What NEC is earned through completion of the Digital Multimedia Course at DINFOS?

A. 8147 Photojournalism Specialist
B. 3251 Broadcast Manager
C. 8151 Graphic Illustrator
D. 8193 Electronic Imaging System Specialist

1-6. Where can you find a rating-specific guide to help you navigate your career from E1 to
E9?

A. Navy College Office
B. MCs Talk Shop
C. Learning and Development Roadmap
D. Navy Advancement Center Hotline

AS1-2

1-7. Which of the following principles does NOT drive Navy public affairs and visual
information?

A. Accountability to the public
B. Expeditious release of information
C. Message alignment
D. Protection from release of damaging information

1-8. Navy public affairs is founded upon which of the following governmental standards?

A. Navy Public Affairs Regulations
B. DoD Principles of Information
C. Federal Release Guidelines
D. Privacy Act of 1974

1-9. Which of the following answers best outlines the cyclical process that serves as the
foundation of public affairs?

A. Research, planning, implementation, and evaluation
B. Research, planning, interviewing, and examination
C. Planning, research, guidance, and evaluation
D. Planning, implementation, lessons learned, and survey feedback

1-10. Who is overall responsible for establishing Navy public affairs policy and directing its
implementation?

A. Chief of Information
B. Secretary of the Navy
C. Secretary of Defense for Public Affairs
D. Chief of Naval Operations

1-11. Who is responsible for coordinating, planning, and implementing the Navys public affairs
policies and programs?

B. Secretary of the Navy
C. Defense Media Activity
D. Chief of Naval Operations

1-12. At any given command, who typically serves as the command spokesman and media
liaison?

A. Executive Officer
B. Public Affairs Officer
C. Senior MC
D. MC on assignment
AS1-3

1-13. Which of the following public affairs principles is based upon the fundamental of an
empowered public?

A. Accountability to the public
B. Expeditious release of information
C. Full disclosure of information
D. Protection from release of damaging information

1-14. Which of the following CHINFO divisions is responsible for providing access to P-A Net?

A. Social Media
B. Community Relations
C. News Desk
D. Policy, Doctrine, and Technology

1-15. What document has been described as the gold standard of news writing?

A. Greggs Reference Manual
B. U.S. Navy Style Guide
C. Associated Press Stylebook
D. Public Affairs Tactics Manual

IN ANSWERING QUESTIONS 1-16 THROUGH 1-18, SELECT THE POLICY, INSTRUCTION,
OR GUIDANCE THAT MATCHES THE DESCRIPTION GIVEN.

1-16. The how-to partner to the PA Regs.

A. Public Affairs Tactics Manual
B. Rhumb Lines
C. Joint Public Affairs Doctrine
D. Public Affairs Guidance

1-17. Brief summary of a specific issue/incident and responses for media queries.

A. Public Affairs Tactics Manual
B. Fact File
C. Quick Responses
D. DoD Principles of Information

1-18. Tailored to specific events or issues to ensure message alignment.

A. Public Affairs Guidance
B. Navy Visual Insider
C. Public Affairs daily report
D. Fact File
AS1-4

1-19. In which of the following situations would certain information NOT be releasable to the
media?

A. All facts are not available.
B. Information available could cause embarrassment.
C. Information could threaten national security.
D. Information available is inappropriate

1-20. In what publication would you find specific statements for release during a nuclear
accident or incident?

A. DoD Principles of Information
B. Nuclear Accident and Incident Public Affairs Guidance
C. Rhumb Lines
D. Freedom of Information Act Guidance

1-21. What number is the maximum amount of days allowable for the Navy to respond to a
Freedom of Information Act request?

A. 5
B. 10
C. 12
D. 30

1-22. Which of the following instances DOES NOT fall under the Fair Use Doctrine as an
acceptable reason for not obtaining copyright use approval?

A. When reviewing a book, movie, or television program
B. When using a copyrighted work in a commentary to refute a point
C. When using portions of a copyrighted work to support a news article
D. When contact information of the copyright information is not known by the potential
user

1-23. Which of the following best describes the term defamation?

A. Legal argument to protect freedom of the press
B. Violation of the Fair Use Doctrine
C. Spoken or written words that harm ones reputation
D. Failure to comply with a Freedom of Information Act request

IN ANSWERING QUESTIONS 1-24 THROUGH 1-27, SELECT THE RELEASE OF
INFORMATION VIOLATION THAT MATCHES THE DESCRIPTION GIVEN.

1-24. Information released violates operational security.

A. Accuracy
B. Policy
C. Propriety
D. Security
AS1-5

1-25. Photographs released are NOT in good taste.

A. Accuracy
B. Policy
C. Propriety
D. Security

1-26. Information released is NOT factual.

A. Accuracy
B. Policy
C. Propriety
D. Security

1-27. Name of injured personnel released before next of kin notified.

A. Accuracy
B. Policy
C. Propriety
D. Security
AS2-1

ASSIGNMENT 2

Textbook Assignment: Chapter 2, Public Affairs Functions
2-1. What are the three functions of public affairs?

A. Community relations, newsgathering, and photography
B. Internal information, public information, and community relations
C. Newswriting, photography, and multimedia production
D. Community relations, internal information, and social media

2-2. What public affairs approach requires you to plan ahead and be prepared for command events
and day-to-day activities?

A. Reactive
B. Crisis
C. Semi-reactive
D. Proactive

2-3. What is the foundation of successful public affairs?

A. Planning
B. Research
C. Crisis management
D. Research and evaluation

2-4. Which of the following print publications are printed at no cost to the Navy and contain a
maximum of 60 percent advertising?

A. Family newsletters
B. Media information kits
C. Civilian enterprise newspapers
D. Cruise books

2-5. Which of the following is NOT a goal for the dissemination of internal information?

A. Reaching a shadow audience
B. Recognizing achievements
C. Helping Sailors/Marines understand their roles in Navy mission
D. Linking Sailors/Marines with leadership through free flow of information

2-6. Aboard ship, which of the following is the least effective means of disseminating internal
information?

A. Command newspapers
B. E-mail
C. Morning quarters
D. SITE-TV

AS2-2

2-7. Which of the following traits must be established and maintained in order to build a strong
public affairs program?

A. Credibility
B. Personality
C. Hospitality
D. Respectability

2-8. Which of the following documents best describes a reporters request for information?

A. Impact request
B. Quick response
C. Media query
D. Call-out memo

2-9. Which of the following items is NOT required in a media information kit?

A. Brief description of commands mission
B. CO, XO, and subject-matter expert biographies
C. Copy of welcome aboard brochure
D. Complete listing of command personnels e-mail addresses

2-10. Which of the following activities are NOT aimed at communicating with the general public?

A. Tours
B. Speakers bureau
C. Band performances
D. SITE TV

2-11. Which of the following community outreach programs takes Navy assets and personnel to
Americas heartland?

A. Navy Weeks
B. Habitat for Humanity
C. Project Handclasp
D. Distinguished visitor embarks

2-12. Which of the following groups are considered internal publics?

A. Midshipmen, Navy families, and local government officials
B. Navy families, ROTC members, and media
C. Midshipmen, Navy families, and Navy civilians
D. ROTC members, media, and local government leaders

AS2-3

2-13. During a media visit to your command, a reporter asks you for an exclusive. When, if ever,
would you be permitted to grant this request?

A. When the request is based upon a reporters original idea
B. When you can keep it secret from the other visiting media
C. When the requesting reporter covers events at your command more often than the
others
D. Never

2-14. Which of the following personnel make the best tour guides when giving tours in an
international port of call?

A. Duty section Sailors not scheduled to stand a watch during tour hours
B. Sailors who speak the host countrys language
C. Junior officers working on their warfare qualifications
D. Flight deck personnel

2-15. CHINFO established what field activity to serve as the central point of coordination for Navy
community outreach programs throughout the continental U.S. with few exceptions?

A. DINFOS
B. OI-8
C. NAVCO
D. The Center for Service Support

AS3-1

ASSIGNMENT 3

Textbook Assignment: Chapter 3, Introduction to Newswriting
3-1. Which of the following is not an element of mass appeal?

A. Timeliness
B. Progress
C. Brevity
D. Conflict

IN ANSWERING QUESTIONS 3-2 THROUGH 3-6 SELECT THE ELEMENT OF MASS APPEAL
THAT BEST MATCHES THE DESCRIPTION GIVEN.

3-2. First female Sailors report to USS Submarine (SSBN 123).

A. Suspense
B. Oddity
C. Consequence
D. Sex

3-3. 100-percent advancement to MC1.

A. Prominence
B. Oddity
C. Consequence
D. Sex

3-4. Hour-by-hour account of missing Sailor from USS Destroyer (DDG 456).

A. Prominence
B. Oddity
C. Sex
D. Suspense

3-5. Breaking news.

A. Immediacy
B. Oddity
C. Sex
D. Progress

3-6. Annual Army-Navy football game.

A. Oddity
B. Conflict
C. Progress
D. Proximity

AS3-2

3-7. What is the importance of adhering to the ABCs of journalism?

A. Eases copyediting
B. Adheres to SAPP requirements
C. Builds trust and credibility
D. All of the above

3-8. What are the three elements of an inverted pyramid-style news story?

A. Lead, bridge, and body
B. Lead, body, and summary
C. News peg, bridge, and summary
D. Headline, lead, and body

3-9. What, if any, is the maximum length of a summary news lead?

A. 15 words
B. 30 words
C. 50 words
D. None

3-10. What is the most common type of news lead?

A. Feature
B. Background
C. Summary
D. Direct address

3-11. Which of the following definitions best describes a storys news peg?

A. Story filename
B. Proposed headline
C. Most significant fact
D. Primary source

3-12. What are the primary parts of an impersonal who?

A. Rank and last name
B. Job title and unit
C. Full name and job title
D. Rank and unit

3-13. What number of days is included in a publication dateweek?

A. 5
B. 7
C. 10
D. 13

AS3-3

3-14. What term is used to describe the insertion of a writers opinion in a hard news story?

A. Attribution
B. Commentary
C. Editorializing
D. Sidebar

3-15. Where in a hard news story do you find the storys lead emphasis?

A. Final paragraph
B. Headline
C. First few words of lead sentence
D. Slug

3-16. What part of a lead sentence identifies the past, present, or future of the when element?

A. Dateline
B. Object
C. Subject
D. Verb tense

3-17. A news storys bridge serves which of the following purposes?

A. Updates the reader on events related to the current story
B. Elaborates, explains, or provides authority to facts in the lead
C. Provides smooth transition to the body of the story
D. All of the above

3-18. When writing a follow-up story about a news event, you need to remind the reader of the
previously reported facts. You do this with which of the following devices?

A. Attribution
B. Full identification
C. Tie-back
D. The how element

3-19. What portion(s) of a news story are typically used to adapt the news story to a news brief?

A. Lead
B. Lead and bridge
C. Lead and headline
D. First and last paragraphs

3-20. When following the inverted pyramid style of writing, in what sequence should you present the
storys facts?

A. In chronological order
B. From greater to lesser importance
C. With most interesting details presented last
D. With the story built to a climax

AS3-4

3-21. Which of the following answers best describes the proper use of direct quotes?

A. Direct quotes can be reworded to correct grammar errors
B. Direct quotes are paraphrased bullets sent by a subject-matter expert
C. Direct quotes do NOT always require quotation marks
D. Direct quotes must always be written verbatim

3-22. What is the primary difference between internal news stories and external news releases?

A. Audience
B. Author
C. Format
D. Length

3-23. What is the purpose of a dateline?

A. Identifies intended audience
B. Includes VIRIN information
C. Tells where the story was written
D. Tells where the news happened

3-24. Which of the following locations stands alone in a dateline?

A. Jacksonville
B. Pearl Harbor
C. Pensacola
D. Whidbey Island

3-25. Which of the following elements of an external release must be established prior to release in
order to properly target a storys intended audience?

A. Dateline and military tie
B. Local angle and military tie
C. Supporting photograph and dateline
D. Supporting photograph and local angle

3-26. What is the primary purpose of a media advisory?

A. To request media contact information
B. To send follow-up releases to media who covered previous event
C. To encourage media to cover event
D. To solicit feedback following media visit

3-27. What is the goal for the timely release of information following an accident or incident?

A. One hour
B. Six hours
C. Within 24 hours
D. When all facts are available

AS3-5

3-28. Which of the following items of information must be included in an initial accident or incident
story?

A. The cause of the accident/incident
B. A statement from leadership
C. Names of all persons involved
D. An investigation status statement

3-29. Where in a sports story should the final outcome of the sporting event be placed?

A. Lead
B. Bridge
C. Final paragraph
D. Photo caption

3-30. On average, how many lines of broadcast copy are needed to produce a 30-second piece?

A. 2-3 lines
B. 5-6 lines
C. 7-8 lines
D. 9-10 lines

3-31. Which of the following is NOT one of the six Cs of broadcast writing?

A. Clear
B. Current
C. Consistent
D. Conversational

AS4-1

ASSIGNMENT 4

Textbook Assignment: Chapter 4, Writing Headlines and Captions
4-1. Which of the following reasons does NOT describe the importance of headlines?

A. Dresses up an editorial page
B. Reduces cost of printing
C. Catches a readers eye
D. Gives publication more appealing look

4-2. What are the three general categories of headlines?

A. Editorial, feature, and straight news
B. Editorial, novelty, and direct address
C. Feature, question, and straight news
D. Feature, question, and direct address

4-3. Which of the following terms best describes the journalistic writing style used when writing
headlines?

A. Editorial
B. Abbreviated
C. Inverted pyramid
D. Telegraphic English

4-4. Which of the following punctuation marks replaces the word and in headlines?

A. Period
B. Comma
C. Semicolon
D. Ampersand

4-5. Which of the following punctuation marks is used to indicate said or to create a pause for
effect in a headline?

A. Colon
B. Period
C. Semicolon
D. Quotation marks

AS4-2

4-6. Which of the following errors occurs when a headline that runs over more than one line is
broken in such a way that it creates a strange pause or phrase and/or potentially changes the
meaning of a headline?

A. Bad split
B. Split infinitive
C. Dangling modifier
D. Error in agreement

IN ANSWERING QUESTIONS 4-7 THROUGH 4-11 SELECT THE TYPE OF HEADLINE THAT
BEST MATCHES THE DESCRIPTION GIVEN.

4-7. Used to direct a reader to a story continued from a previous page.

A. Jump
B. Standing
C. Banner
D. Masthead

4-8. Provides complementary information when placed below a main headline.

A. Drop
B. Wicket
C. Kicker
D. Standing

4-9. Runs across more than one column and gives prominence to a major news event.

A. Kicker
B. Wicket
C. Banner
D. Tripod

4-10. Identifies regular or recurring content.

A. Drop
B. Standing
C. Crossline
D. Masthead

4-11. Features typographical tricks and ornate characters.

A. Kicker
B. Hammer
C. Novelty
D. Standing

AS4-3

4-12. Which of the following terms is often used synonymously with the word caption?

A. Cutline
B. Sidebar
C. Dateline
D. Drop headline

4-13. What are the four major components of a photo caption?

A. Action, identification, background information, and credit line
B. Lead, identification, secondary facts, and classification code
C. Date, VIRIN, credit line, and background information
D. Who, what, when, and where

4-14. During which of the following circumstances is full identification of the subject(s) being
photographed NOT required?

A. When the MC does not gather the subjects identifying information
B. When subject(s) name is too long to fit into allotted space
C. When the MC only has one hour to submit photograph
D. When more than three subjects are doing the action in the photograph

4-15. What is the purpose of adding background information to a photo caption?

A. Fills editorial space
B. Aids in cataloging and filing
C. Identifies the when and where
D. Tells reader why photograph was taken
AS5-1

ASSIGNMENT 5

Textbook Assignment: Chapter 5, Feature Writing
5-1. In weekly publications, how do feature stories assist in telling the Navy story?

A. Draws upon human aspect of news
B. Goes beyond the hard facts
C. Mitigates the loss of timeliness
D. All of the above

IN ANSWERING QUESTIONS 5-2 THROUGH 5-5 SELECT AS THE ANSWER THE TYPE OF
FEATURE THAT BEST MATCHES THE DESCRIPTION GIVEN.

5-2. Hard news idea enhanced by feature-writing techniques and styles.

A. Unit
B. News
C. Historical
D. Point of interest

5-3. A vivid word picture that highlights a subjects personality, physical traits, and an aspect
that makes the subject unusual or unique.

A. Bright
B. Auxiliary
C. Personality
D. Historical

5-4. Short, humorous story that breaks up or lightens serious or somber news.

A. Unit
B. News
C. Bright
D. Special interest

5-5. Story focusing on special events, holidays, celebrations, or seasons.

A. Auxiliary
B. Historic
C. Point of interest
D. Special interest

AS5-2

5-6. Which of the following lists best describes the basic structure of a feature story, in order?

A. Lead, bridge, quotations, and literary description
B. Lead, bridge, body, and conclusion
C. Headline, lead, body, and conclusion
D. Headline, lead, bridge, and literary description

5-7. In which of the following parts of a feature does the writer tell the audience what the
feature is about?

A. Lead
B. Bridge
C. Headline
D. Literary description

IN ANSWERING QUESTIONS 5-8 THROUGH 5-10 SELECT AS THE ANSWER THE TYPE OF
FEATURE LEAD THAT BEST MATCHES THE DESCRIPTION GIVEN.

5-8. Chronological, suspenseful opening that tells a story.

A. Summary
B. Narrative
C. Descriptive
D. Direct address

5-9. Creates an overwhelming curiosity that entices the reader to keep reading.

A. Freak
B. Teaser
C. Summary
D. Narrative

5-10. Speaks to the reader.

A. Teaser
B. Summary
C. Descriptive
D. Direct address

5-11. Which, if any, of the following terms serves as another term for the bridge of a feature?

A. Nutgraf
B. Quicklink
C. Narrative
D. None of the above

AS5-3

5-12. Which of the following organizational patterns presents a feature in a logical sequence in
relationship to the subjects physical surroundings?

A. Spatially
B. Topically
C. Specifically
D. Functionally

5-13. Which of the following patterns organizes a feature by time and sequence?

A. Spatially
B. Topically
C. Functionally
D. Chronologically

5-14. Through which of the following conclusions does a feature writer complete an idea,
bringing the audience full circle in the story?

A. Climax
B. Stinger
C. Tie-back
D. Wrap-up

5-15. Which of the following feature conclusions solves a problem presented and answers
questions?

A. Stinger
B. Wrap-up
C. Tie-back
D. Summary

5-16. Which of the following conclusions fools a reader into expecting an ending then jolts the
reader with a surprise, unexpected ending?

A. Climax
B. Stinger
C. Narrative
D. Unending

IN ANSWERING QUESTIONS 5-17 THROUGH 5-20 SELECT AS THE ANSWER THE
CREATIVE WRITING TOOL THAT BEST MATCHES THE DESCRIPTION GIVEN.

5-17. Gives human qualities to non-living objects, ideas or things?

A. Syntax
B. Anecdote
C. Metaphor
D. Personification
AS5-4

5-18. Compares one thing to another for the sake of beauty, necessity, or emphasis without
using the words like or as?

A. Simile
B. Metaphor
C. Hyperbole
D. Personification

5-19. Exaggerates or overemphasizes a point.

A. Syntax
B. Simile
C. Metaphor
D. Hyperbole

5-20. Short, entertaining story that gives insight into a subject?

A. Syntax
B. Anecdote
C. Hyperbole
D. Personification

AS6-1

ASSIGNMENT 6

Textbook Assignment: Chapter 6, Information and Newsgathering
6-1. What is the first step in gathering information for a public affairs or visual information
product?

A. Draft a storyboard
B. Identify your audience
C. Schedule SME interviews
D. Format your product template

6-2. Under which of the following beat systems do reporters cover specific areas or locations?

A. Spatial
B. Functional
C. Geographical
D. Hierarchical

6-3. In which of the following beat systems would you find special assignment reporters?

A. Spatial
B. Functional
C. Geographical
D. Hierarchical

6-4. After receiving a news release from the Navy Exchange Command about the rollout of
new uniforms Navywide, what must you do prior to publishing the information in your
command publication?

A. Draft a quick response
B. Send out a media advisory
C. Localize and rewrite the information
D. Place information in command template

6-5. Which of the following reasons DOES NOT describe a purpose for conducting SME
interviews?

A. Reconfirm facts
B. Investigate information
C. Replace need for reference research
D. Add color and dimension to news story

6-6. What are the three most common methods of gathering news?

A. Internet, research, and interviews
B. Internet, morgues, and interviews
C. Interviews, observation, and research
D. Interviews, morgues, and observation

AS6-2

6-7. What percentage of information for a news story should be gathered via some sort of
interview?

A. 50
B. 60
C. 75
D. 90

6-8. Upon arriving at your chosen SME interview location, which of the following actions should
be completed first?

A. Thank the SME for doing interview
B. Ask permission to use recorder
C. Begin asking icebreaker question
D. Confirm spelling of the SMEs name

6-9. If, during the middle of an interview, your SME goes off subject and begins speaking of
another newsworthy issue, which of the following courses of action should you take?

A. Interrupt SME and immediately ask another question on topic
B. Redirect the interview to the new topic
C. Steer SME back to the original topic and ask if you can return to cover other topic
at different time
D. Do nothing; let the SME keep talking

6-10. While conducting a personality interview, which of the following techniques should you
apply in order to capture the subjects personality?

A. Shoot photographs during the interview
B. Observe the subjects surroundings, appearance, and mannerisms
C. Bring along a second MC to assist in the interview
D. Interview only the subject to ensure you capture his or her perspective only

6-11. Which of the following interview types is the best method of gathering information?

A. Telephone
B. Face-to-face
C. News conference
D. Man-on-the-street

6-12. What former U.S. President is credited with making live news conferences the potent
force of information dissemination it is today?

A. Franklin D. Roosevelt
B. Dwight D. Eisenhower
C. John F. Kennedy
D. Ronald Reagan

AS6-3

6-13. During a news conference, how many questions do reporters usually have the opportunity
to ask?

A. None
B. 1
C. 2
D. 3

6-14. Which of the following answers serve as the best reason for conducting man-on-the-street
interviews?

A. Lessens workload for MCs
B. Gives audience a voice
C. Other methods make Sailors uncomfortable
D. Increases control of subject matter

6-15. When gathering information for sports story, which of the following sources is NOT a good
source of data?

A. AP Stylebook sports section
B. Officials
C. Coaches
D. Scorebooks

AS7-1

ASSIGNMENT 7

Textbook Assignment: Chapter 7, Broadcasting: Audio and Production
7-1. What are the basic elements of radio?

A. Voice, music, and sound
B. Music, CDs, and microphones
C. Sound, music, and copy

7-2. Which of the following is not a radio writing technique?

A. Pacing and timing
B. Rapid getaway
C. Compassion
D. Aural sense of appeal

7-3. What are the six Cs of broadcast copy?

A. Conversational, clear, concise, coy, complete, current, and correct
B. Clear, concise, complete, conversational, current, and correct
C. Current, crazy, condescending, correct, complete, and clear
D. Clear, concise, complete, clairvoyant, conversational, and current

7-4. True or false. When names and titles are used together, the titles should precede the names.

A. True
B. False

7-5. What is the importance of oral punctuation in broadcast copy?

A. Adds accent to the copy
B. Tells the announcer to breathe
C. Ensures proper phrasing of thoughts
D. All of the above

7-6. Barriers to an announcer communicating effectively does not include:

A. Poor articulation
B. Southern vowel distortions
C. Clicking teeth
D. Rate and transitions

7-7. True or false. When you stumble in broadcast copy, always backtrack to correct what was
said.

A. True
B. False

AS7-2

7-8. Which one of the following is not one of the ways to perfect your interviewing techniques?

A. Practice the art of listening.
B. Avoid eye contact.
C. Practice with only a pen and pad.
D. Remain quiet during the interview.

7-9. What are the four different types of mobile microphones?

A. Boom, hand, lavaliere, and wireless.
B. Wireless, lavaliere, string, and boom
C. Hand, lavaliere, overhead, and wireless
D. Overhead, lapel, hand, and wireless

7-10. Which of the following is not one of the four different types of stationary microphones?

A. Desk
B. Flexible
C. Stand
D. Hidden

7-11. True or false. A hidden microphone produces the best sound quality because it is closest to
the source of sound.

A. True
B. False

7-12. Which position listed below is not a part of the television production team?

A. Floor manager
B. Director
C. Stage hand
D. Talent

7-13. When floor managers draw their hand across their throats in a slashing motion, what are they
trying to tell the on-camera talent?

A. Cut
B. Stand by
C. Cue
D. Speed up

7-14. True or false. When there is 30 seconds to go in a production, the floor manager will form a T
with his hands.

A. True
B. False

AS7-3

7-15. What is the verbal cue or command the director will issue to let the production team know they
are about to begin recording or going live on air?

A. Ready to cue
B. Standby
C. Hush up
D. All of the above

7-16. When it comes to switcher commands, in what order should a director be giving commands?

A. Talent, audio switcher, video switcher
B. Video switcher, talent, audio switcher
C. Audio switcher, talent, video switcher

7-17. What piece of equipment is used to allow the on-air talent to maintain eye contact with the
camera?

A. Teleprompter
B. Character generator
C. Visual aids
D. Cue cards

7-18. What does the acronym SITE stand for?

A. Shipboard information, training, and education
B. Shipboard information, training, and entertainment
C. Shipboard indoctrination, training, and entertainment
AS8-1

ASSIGNMENT 8

Textbook Assignment: Chapter 8, Broadcasting: Videography
8-1. Which of the following terms best describes the conversion of reflected light rays from a
subject or scene into electrical impulses?

A. Television
B. Waveform
C. Oscilloscope
D. Studio camera

8-2. How many charge-coupled devices (CCDs) are found inside an electronic newsgathering
(ENG) camera?

A. None
B. 1
C. 2
D. 3

8-3. Which of the following adjustments made to a video camera increases image contrast?

A. Gain
B. Tripod
C. Color bars
D. Neutral density filter

8-4. Which of the following situations occurs when a shot has more than one topic or center of
interest?

A. Distributes focus
B. Increases interest
C. Weakens effectiveness
D. Focuses viewers attention

8-5. Which, if any, of the following methods places a shots center of interest in a dominant
position?

A. Rule of thirds
B. Dominant factor
C. Dynamic symmetry
AS8-2

8-6. Which of the following adjustments has the most influence on image quality?

A. AV
B. Brightness
C. Depth of field
D. Center of interest

8-7. Which of the following is NOT a factor that affects framing?

A. Noseroom
B. Headroom
C. Field of view
D. White balance

8-8. Which of the following reasons explains why it is necessary to leave lead room for your
subject when he or she is moving?

A. Reduces shadows
B. Improves audio quality
C. Ensures proper depth of field
D. Keeps subject from appearing to bump the edge of the frame

8-9. In addition to clearing your frame of unsightly objects, what other object must you pay
close attention to visually in the background?

A. Cut-off points
B. Passing ships
C. A level horizon
D. Sunset lighting

IN ANSWERING QUESTIONS 8-10 THROUGH 8-13, SELECT THE VISUAL INFORMATION
TERM THAT MATCHES THE DESCRIPTION GIVEN AS THE ANSWER.

8-10. Framing issues that may make a subject appear as if her body stops at the edge of the
screen.

A. Close up
B. Headroom
C. Perspective
D. Cut-off point

8-11. Apparent sense of depth based upon the relative distance and position of the subject in
the frame.

A. Unity
B. Balance
C. Viewpoint
D. Perspective
AS8-3

8-12. Full face shot with headroom and room for the subjects shoulders.

A. Close-up
B. Full length
C. Lead room
D. Headroom

8-13. The camera position in relationship to the subject.

A. Unity
B. Balance
C. Viewpoint
D. Perspective

8-14. Which of the following shooting techniques adds drama and excitement to the frame?

A. Shooting in adequate natural light
B. Shooting from different viewpoints
C. Shooting from different angles
D. All of the above

8-15. Which of the following terms best describes a video storys foundation of continuity?

A. Viewpoint
B. Basic sequence
C. Establishing shot
D. Camera angle variation

IN ANSWERING QUESTIONS 8-16 THROUGH 8-18, SELECT THE VIDEO SHOOTING TERM
THAT MATCHES THE DESCRIPTION GIVEN AS THE ANSWER.

8-16. In a shooting sequence, it introduces the scene and shows the entire area of action.

A. Close-up
B. Long shot
C. Medium shot
D. Camera angle

8-17. Focuses attention on an important subject or action.

A. Close-up
B. Long shot
C. Medium shot
D. Camera angle
AS8-4

8-18. Narrows the center of interest, answering the what of a scene.

A. Close-up
B. Long shot
C. Medium shot
D. Camera angle

8-19. When shooting a basic sequence, how much extra footage at a minimum should be
included before and after the shots main action to leave room for transitions and to ease
the editing process?

A. None, time and b-roll too costly
B. 2-3 seconds
C. 5-6 seconds
D. 10 seconds

8-20. Which of the following items dictates the relative distance between shots?

A. Location
B. Transitions
C. Time of day
D. Subject matter

8-21. Which of the following reasons is the basis for always shooting on the same side of the
action axis?

A. Avoids cut-off points
B. Emphasizes center of interest
C. Maintains directional continuity
D. Allows shooter to stay within basic sequence

8-22. Which of the following shooting techniques works to achieve a smooth, uninterrupted flow
from one shot to another?

A. Overlapping
B. 180-degree rule
C. Basic sequencing
D. Static screen directional shooting

8-23. When shooting to achieve a smooth, uninterrupted flow of action, which of the following is
NOT a factor to be considered?

A. Story
B. Dialogue
C. Control of the action
D. Indoors vs. outdoors shooting
AS8-5

8-24. Which of the following ways do cut-ins and cutaways preserve continuity?

A. Builds interest
B. Bridges time and distance
C. Covers changes in screen direction
D. All of the above

8-25. Which, if any, of the following events is considered semi-controlled action shooting?

A. Sports
B. Ceremonies
C. Hard-news situations

IN ANSWERING QUESTIONS 8-26 THROUGH 8-31, SELECT THE MOVEMENT THAT
MATCHES THE DESCRIPTION GIVEN AS THE ANSWER.

8-26. Movement in front of the camera, usually by the talent.

A. Panning
B. Primary
C. Dollying
D. Secondary

8-27. Sequence of shots from two or more cameras.

A. Tilting
B. Tertiary
C. Panning
D. Primary

8-28. Horizontal movement on a stationary pedestal following the primary action.

A. Dollying
B. Tertiary
C. Panning
D. Primary

8-29. What type of video shot is absolutely centered and allows the shooter to cross the action
axis and establish a new direction of travel?

A. Cutaway
B. Long shot
C. Neutral shot
D. Extreme long shot
AS8-6

8-30. Which of the following variations to the basic sequence always precedes a long shot and
establishes physical character?

A. Cut-in
B. Full figure
C. Neutral
D. Extreme long shot

8-31. Which, if any, of the following variations to the basic sequence could startle, confuse, or
withhold information from the viewer?

A. Reverse sequencing
B. Cut-ins and cutaways
C. Extended sequencing

8-32. Which of the following terms best describes the organizing of footage into smaller, more
manageable files?

A. Continuity
B. Digitizing
C. Sequencing
D. Sub-clipping

8-33. Which of the following terms best describes the orderly structuring of facts, ideas, and
abstract suggestions during the editing process?

A. Continuity
B. Digitizing
C. Sequencing
D. Sub-clipping

8-34. Which of the following devices is NOT associated with the most commonly used method
of video editing?

A. Cut-in
B. Cutaway
C. Crosscutting
D. Compilation
AS9-1

ASSIGNMENT 9

Textbook Assignment: Chapter 9, Introduction to Visual Information
9-1. Which of the following products is NOT an example of visual information?

A. Illustrations
B. Command Brief
C. All Hands Update
D. Public Affairs Guidance

9-2. Which of the following military leaders is responsible for the implementation and administration
of the Navys visual information program?

B. Director, Combat Camera
C. Chief of Naval Operations
D. Director, Defense Media Activity

9-3. Which of the following Navy policies governs the use, management, and assignment of Navy
visual information?

A. OPNAVINST 3104.1A
B. OPNAVINST 3104.3A
C. DOD Directive 5040.1
D. SECNAVINST 5720.44

9-4. Which of the following Navy policies governs combat camera responsibilities and procedures?

A. OPNAVINST 3104.1A
B. OPNAVINST 3104.3A
C. DOD Directive 5040.1

9-5. Which of the following government entities supports worldwide DoD and other government
agencies with the right imagery at the right place and time?

A. Defense Media Activity
B. Defense Visual News Service
C. Defense Imagery Management Operations Center
D. Defense Video & Imagery Distribution System

9-6. DoDINST 5040.05 outlines which of the following aspects of visual information?

A. Copyright
B. Visual Information Tactics
C. Alteration of Official Imagery
D. Joint PA Support Element Operations

AS9-2

9-7. Which of the following techniques often goes against DoD and Navy VI ethics when enhancing
imagery?

A. Dodging and burning
B. Cropping and scaling
C. Masking an area of the image in support of criminal investigations
D. Cloning area for placement in a separate image
AS10-1

ASSIGNMENT 10

Textbook Assignment: Chapter 10, Lighting and Color
10-1. What happens to light when it travels through a transparent medium, such as glass?

A. It stops.
B. It speeds up.
C. It slows down.
D. It bounces back.

10-2. What happens to light when it strikes a rough surface?

A. It stops.
B. It is absorbed.
C. It reflects back in many directions.
D. It reflects back at the same angle.

10-3. Which of the following types of reflection occurs when light strikes a smooth surface?

A. Diffused
B. Specular
C. Conflicted
D. Translucent

10-4. Which of the following is NOT a factor that affects reflected light?

A. Color
B. Intensity
C. Direction
D. Sharpness

10-5. Which of the following terms describes the type of medium that transmits a portion of light so
objects behind the medium are NOT clearly seen?

A. Diffused
B. Opaque
C. Transparent
D. Translucent

10-6. Which, if any, of the following colors theoretically represents the absence of light?

A. Gray
B. Black
C. White

AS10-2

10-7. Which of the following colors is NOT one of the three colors of light as seen in the visible
spectrum?

A. Red
B. Blue
C. Green
D. Yellow

10-8. What happens to light when it passes through a prism?

A. It intensifies.
B. It changes direction.
C. It lessens in intensity.
D. It separates light into the visible spectrum.

10-9. Which of the following terms describes what happens to light during a solar eclipse?

A. Dispersion
B. Diffraction
C. Refraction
D. Versification

10-10. Which of the following types of light is seen as a glare?

A. Diffused
B. Fluorescent
C. Plane polarized
D. Tungsten halogen

10-11. Which of the following items is the most important ingredient in photography?

A. Light
B. Color
C. Subject
D. Placement

10-12. Which of the following factors determine the quality of sunlight?

A. Direction and strength
B. Direction and time of day
C. Strength and cloud coverage
D. Time of day and cloud coverage
AS11-1

ASSIGNMENT 11

Textbook Assignment: Chapter 11, Photography
11-1. Which of the following steps is the first you should take upon being assigned a new DSLR
camera?

A. Talk to your LPO.
B. Clean the cameras lens.
C. Go out and shoot test shots.
D. Read the cameras user manual.

IN ANSWERING QUESTIONS 11-2 THROUGH 11-9, SELECT THE PHOTOGRAPHIC TERM THAT

11-2. Widest angle at which light entering a lens produces a usable portion of the circle of
illumination at the focal plane.

A. Angle of field
B. Depth of field
C. Shutter angle
D. Asymmetrical junction

11-3. The usable portion of the circle of illumination.

A. Exposure
B. Angle of field
C. Depth of field
D. Circle of good definition

11-4. Variable opening through which light passes into a camera.

A. Iris
B. f/stop
C. Shutter
D. Aperture

11-5. Range of acceptably sharp focus in front of and behind the center of interest.

A. Exposure
B. Perspective
C. Depth of field
D. Circle of good definition

AS11-2

11-6. Thin sheet that covers the cameras charge-coupled device (CCD).

A. Iris
B. Shutter
C. Aperture
D. Diaphragm

11-7. Derived from the a Latin phrase meaning dark chamber, it is a light box used to capture
images.

A. Iris
B. Camera
C. Diaphragm
D. Digital imaging

11-8. Amount of light falling on a unit area of a digital sensor.

A. f/stop
B. Exposure
C. Light index
D. Shutter speed

11-9. Controls the amount of light passing through the lens and striking the charge coupled-device
(CCD).

A. f/stop
B. Exposure
C. Depth of field
D. Shutter speed

11-10. What happens to the depth of field when you numerically lower your f/stop?

A. It expands.
B. It disappears.
C. It is shallower.
D. It is shallower. Nothing changes

11-11. Which of the following terms best describes the length of time the shutter stays open?

A. CCD release
B. Shutter speed
C. Light duration
D. Aperture control
AS11-3

11-12. Which of the following situations occurs when you use a higher shutter speed?

A. Faster shutter speed, shorter exposure
B. Faster shutter speed, longer exposure
C. Slower shutter speed, shorter exposure
D. Slower shutter speed, longer exposure

11-13. Which, if any, of the following actions best describes what happens when you put your camera
on the bulb setting?

A. Slows the shutter speed
B. Speeds up the shutter
C. Keeps shutter open when shutter release button is held

11-14. Which of the following shutter speeds lets you a) blur action and b) freeze action?

A. a) 1/60 b) 1/250
B. a) 1/250 b) 1/60
C. a) 1/2000 b) 1/500
D. a) 1/500 b) B

11-15. Which of the following actions is controlled by the ISO setting?

A. Stops release of shutter
B. Changes focus from auto to manual
C. Determines depth of field
D. Sets image sensor light sensitivity

11-16. Which of the following terms best describes the common rule for estimating correct daylight
exposure?

A. Obscura
B. Mnemonic
C. Sunny f/16
D. Equivalent exposure

11-17. Which of the following terms describes the doubling and halving relationship between the
aperture and the shutter?

A. Obscura
B. Mnemonic
C. Sunny f/16
D. Equivalent exposure
AS11-4

11-18. Which of the following is NOT a reason for knowing and understanding basic exposure
settings?

A. Light meters are mechanical; they may be inconsistent, wrong, or even fail.
B. Light meters cannot think for themselves; you may want to override reading if special
lighting situations.
C. You may want to control depth of field and stop action vice the camera doing it.
D. All of the above.

IN ANSWERING QUESTIONS 11-19 THROUGH 11-22 SELECT THE TYPE OF LENS THAT

11-19. Less than 40 mm focal length and used in confined spaces or when photographer wants to
cover a large area.

A. Macro
B. Fisheye
C. Telephoto
D. Wide-angle

11-20. Used for close-up photography and is capable of producing life-size images?

A. Macro
B. Fisheye
C. Telephoto
D. Wide-angle

11-21. Greater than 58 mm focal length and appears to compress the perspective of an image.

A. Macro
B. Fisheye
C. Telephoto
D. Wide-angle

11-22. Makes objects appear to diminish in size rapidly as the distance from the camera increases
and objects close to the camera appear far apart.

A. Macro
B. Fisheye
C. Telephoto
D. Wide-angle

11-23. In photographic terms, which of the following best describes astigmatism?

A. Optical center of the lens
B. Hyperfocal distance from the lens
C. Lens aberration that causes an off-axis point
D. Out-of-focus image resulting from improper lens adjustment
AS11-5

IN ANSWERING QUESTIONS 11-24 THROUGH 11-29 SELECT THE CAMERA ACCESSORY
THAT MATCHES THE DESCRIPTION GIVEN AS THE ANSWER.

11-24. Dyed in a specific manner in order to absorb light of certain colors.

A. Filter
B. Flash
C. Snoot
D. Scrim

11-25. Measures light.

A. Filter
B. Snoot
C. Lens hood
D. Light meter

11-26. Three-legged support for the camera.

A. Tripod
B. Hot shoe
C. Monopod
D. Lens hood

11-27. Electronic storage device.

A. Coaxial
B. Share point
C. Tandem cord
D. Memory card

11-28. Keeps strong sunlight from striking the lens.

A. Snoot
B. Barn door
C. Lens hood
D. Light meter

11-29. High-voltage light source that produces momentary high-intensity light.

A. Filter
B. Flash
C. Shutter
D. Light stream
AS11-6

11-30. At what distance from the subjects face should you hold the light meter when taking a
reading?

A. 3 inches
B. 4 inches
C. 5 inches
D. 6 inches

11-31. Which, if any, of the following methods of measuring light is being used when the light meter is
held at the position of the subject with the photoelectric cell toward the camera?

A. Incident
B. Reflected
C. Integrated
D. None of the Above

11-32. Which of the following occurs when light is transmitted through a filter?

A. The color of light is modified.
B. The amount of light is reduced.
C. The vibration direction of the light rays is limited.
D. All of the above.

11-33. Which of the following type of filters reduces the amount of light without changing the
reproduction of colors?

A. Gelatin
B. Polarizing
C. Monochrome
D. Neutral density

11-34. What type of filter changes the way your camera sees and treats light and reduces the effects
of haze?

A. Gelatin
B. Polarizing
C. Monochrome
D. Neutral density

11-35. What color is a light meter calibrated to see?

A. White
B. Black
C. Dark gray
D. Middle gray
AS11-7

11-36. Which of the following light meter methods requires you to take two readings from a scene
highlighted area and shadow area?

A. Bracketing
B. Darkest object
C. Brightest object
D. Brightness range

11-37. When employing the substitution light meter method of tiny objects or in a confined space,
what can you use to take the place of the subjects gray tones?

A. Black card
B. White card
C. Camera bag
D. Back or palm of hand

11-38. Which of the following photo terms is defined as the pleasing arrangement of subject-matter
elements within the image?

A. Contrast
B. Exposure
C. Composition

IN ANSWERING QUESTIONS 11-39 THROUGH 11-40 SELECT THE GENERAL RULE OF
COMPOSITION THAT MATCHES THE DESCRIPTION GIVEN AS THE ANSWER.

11-39. Tic-tac-toe like-pattern that divides an image to locate the possible center of interest.

A. Pattern
B. Perpendicular
C. Rule of thirds
D. Dynamic symmetry

11-40. Which of the following composition techniques appears to make an image appear
harmonious?

A. Unity
B. Pattern
C. Balance
D. Harmony
AS11-8

11-41. Which of the following describes a line that directs the viewers eyes to an images center of
interest?

A. Leading
B. Symmetrical
C. Asymmetrical
D. Perpendicular

IN ANSWERING QUESTIONS 11-42 THROUGH 11-45 SELECT THE TYPE OF LINE THAT

11-42. Strength, rigidity, power, and solidarity.

A. Curved
B. Vertical
C. Diagonal
D. Horizontal

11-43. Peace, tranquility, and speed.

A. Curved
B. Vertical
C. Diagonal
D. Horizontal

11-44. Movement, action, and speed.

A. Curved
B. Vertical
C. Diagonal
D. Horizontal

11-45. Grace, smoothness, and dignity.

A. Curved
B. Vertical
C. Diagonal
D. Horizontal

11-46. What photo composition technique provides unity and structure through repetition?

A. Pattern
B. Texture
C. Volume
D. Framing
AS11-9

11-47. What photo composition technique brings realism and character to an image?

A. Pattern
B. Texture
C. Volume
D. Framing

11-48. Which of the following terms best describes the relationship of objects within an image?

A. Balance
B. Harmony
C. Symmetry
D. Perspective

11-49. Which of the following types of photos is NOT an example of controlled-action?

A. Sports shot
B. Group shot
C. Studio portrait
D. Environmental shot

11-50. What is the emotional stopping power of an image called?

A. Focus
B. Creative
C. Contrast
D. Impact

11-51. What are two types of stand- alone photojournalism images?

A. Roster and Official Full Length
B. Low Oblique and High Oblique
C. Formal and Informal
D. Feature and Spot News

11-52. What is a series of photos that are connected but dont necessarily tell a story?

A. Picture Story
B. Picture Sequence
C. Picture Package
D. Picture Montage

11-53. What is one of the steps to developing a photo story?

A. Liberty
B. Focusing on objects
C. Wide range subject
D. Research
AS11-10

11-54. What are the two optically weak corners of a layout called?

A. Dead space corners
B. Vignette corners
C. Hallow corners
D. Fallow corners

11-55. Where is the primary optical area?

A. Top right corner
B. Bottom left corner
C. Bottom right corner
D. Top left corner

11-56. What image element within the picture story layout will help guide the viewers eyes through
the story?

A. Arrows
B. Framing
C. Directional lines of force
AS12-1

ASSIGNMENT 12

Textbook Assignment: Chapter 12, Specialized Documentation
12-1. What elevation, in feet, is considered medium altitude?

A. 500 to 1,500
B. 12,000 to 20,000
C. 1,500 to 10,000
D. 1,000 to 4,000

12-2. How is most vertical photography done?

A. With photo-configured aircraft
B. With handheld photography
C. With air-to-air photography
D. With weather balloons

12-3. Low-oblique imagery is normally photographed at what degree camera depression angle?

A. 15
B. 30
C. 45
D. 60

12-4. What distance, in miles, is considered good visibility for handheld aerial photography?

A. 1 or more
B. 3 or more
C. 5 or more
D. 7 or more

12-5. What wing configuration is best for handheld aerial photography?

A. Low
B. Mid
C. High
D. Folded

12-6. What aperture and shutter settings are best for handheld aerial photography?

A. f22, 1/2sec
B. f16, 1/125sec
C. f2.8, 1/4000sec
D. f4, 1/30sec

AS12-2

12-7. What type of equipment does night vision attachments use to increase available light?

A. Intensifier
B. Amplifier
C. Regulator
D. Capacitor

12-8. What is the shipboard intelligence gathering photography team called?

A. SNOOPIE
B. SCOOBY
C. INTPHOCAP
D. CAMOPS

12-9. Geo-tagging is stored in what part of the image?

A. Metadata
B. Caption
C. Dateline
D. Filename

12-10. What are the three basic types of aerial photography?

A. Airto-air, vertical, and oblique
B. Air-to-ground, perpendicular, and Dutch angle
C. 90-degree, 45-degree, and 10-degree
D. High, low, and flat

12-11. High-oblique photography is normally shot at what degree camera depression angle?

A. 10
B. 30
C. 90
D. 125

12-12. What focus setting do you put your lens on when performing handheld aerial photography?

A. Macro
B. 10 feet
C. Shallow depth of field
D. Infinity
AS13-1

ASSIGNMENT 13

Textbook Assignment: Chapter 13, Multimedia
13-1. Which of the following MC skills can be incorporated into a multimedia production?

A. Writing
B. Photography
C. Layout and design
D. All of the above

13-2. What happens to the quality of a) raster images and b) vector images when you increase their
size?

A. a) Decreases b) decreases
B. a) Nothing b) decreases
C. a) Decreases b) nothing
D. a) Nothing b) nothing

13-3. Which of the following items should NOT be edited using vector-based software?

A. Charts
B. Drawings
C. Diagrams
D. Photographs

13-4. Which of the following actions helps improve multimedia production skills?

A. Practice
B. Experimenting
C. Reading graphics software manuals
D. All of the above

IN ANSWERING QUESTIONS 13-5 THROUGH 13-8 SELECT THE VECTOR TERM FROM THE
LIST BELOW THAT MATCHES THE DESCRIPTION GIVEN AS THE ANSWER.
A. Fill D. Miter Limit
B. Path E. Anchor Point
C. Stroke F. Bezier Curve
13-5. The basis for all images formed in vector drawings.

A. B
B. D
C. E
D. F
AS13-2

13-6. Tracing the path of an object that can be colored or patterned.

A. A
B. C
C. E
D. F

13-7. Adds color or pattern to an open area inside a path.

A. A
B. B
C. C
D. D

13-8. A shape formed by lines connected at anchor points.

A. B
B. D
C. E
D. F

13-9. Which of the following instructions dictates policy for the marking and filing of all Navy
graphics?

A. OPNAVINST 3432.1
B. SECNAVINST 3104.1A
C. CHINFOINST 5230.16

13-10. Which of the following terms best describes the actual placement of items on a page as well as
the relationships among the items?

A. Perspective
B. Layout and design
C. Multiple-page layout
D. Raster-graphic design

IN ANSWERING QUESTIONS 13-11 THROUGH 13-14 SELECT THE TERM THAT BEST MATCHES
THE DESCRIPTION GIVEN AS THE ANSWER.

13-11. Demonstrates movement and communicates feeling or mood.

A. Unity
B. Balance
C. Rhythm
D. Emphasis

AS13-3

13-12. Visual cues to tell the reader what elements belong together on a page.

A. Unity
B. Balance
C. Rhythm
D. Emphasis

13-13. Equal distribution of weight in the elements on a page.

A. Unity
B. Balance
C. Rhythm
D. Emphasis

13-14. Highlights one element over another, capturing the readers attention.

A. Unity
B. Balance
C. Rhythm
D. Emphasis

13-15. Which of the following examples can create unity in a layout?

A. Kerning
B. Leading
C. Spacing
D. Grouping

13-16. Horizontal lines in a layout communicate which of the following messages?

A. Strength
B. Elegance
C. Movement
D. Relaxation

13-17. Curved lines in a layout communicate which of the following messages?

A. Strength
B. Elegance
C. Movement
D. Relaxation

13-18. In which of the following ways does using shapes enhances a layout?

A. Sustains interest
B. Organizes elements
C. Provides a starting point
D. All of the above

AS13-4

13-19. Which of the following items is considered an abstract shape?

A. Tree
B. Circle
C. Square
D. Handicap accessibilty symbol

13-20. Which of the following design terms BEST describes the space between and around items in a
layout?

A. Gutter
B. Galley
C. Leading
D. White space

13-21. What type of mood is created by using high-contrast colors in a layout?

A. Calmness
B. Instability
C. Confusion
D. Excitement

13-22. Which of the following design elements is considered the ultimate tool for symbolic
communication?

A. Size
B. Color
C. Shape
D. Texture

13-23. What is the main purpose of a good design layout?

A. Directs readers attention
B. Conveys intended message
C. Is aesthetically pleasing to the eye
D. All of the above

13-24. A 72-point headline is of what vertical length?

A. inch
B. inch
C. 1 inch
D. 1 inches
AS13-5

13-25. What, if any, of the following occurs when tight leading is used within your layout?

A. Fills the page
B. Airs out sentences
C. Decreases legibility

13-26. What is the target line length for optimal readability?

A. 10 characters
B. 25 characters
C. 55 characters
D. 100 characters

13-27. What is the minimum point size you should use for text in a layout?

A. 7
B. 8
C. 10
D. 12

13-28. Times New Roman is an example of what design element?

A. Stroke
B. Kerning
C. Typeface
D. Sans serif font

13-29. What are the three types of indentations used in layouts?

A. Flush, hanging and regular
B. Flush, pulled and regular
C. Hanging, pulled and regular
D. Hanging, kerned and pulled

IN ANSWERING QUESTIONS 13-30 THROUGH 13-34 SELECT THE DESIGN ELEMENT THAT
BEST MATCHES THE DESCRIPTION GIVEN AS THE ANSWER.

13-30. Invisible structure used to provide visual organization during layout process.

A. Grid
B. Gutter
C. Border
D. White space
AS13-6

13-31. Horizontal or vertical line used to offset areas on a layout.

A. Rule
B. Bleed
C. Border
D. Grid system

13-32. Photo or illustration that extends beyond a page margin.

A. Rule
B. Bleed
C. Gutter
D. Border

13-33. Decorative line or box used to give the layout an organized appearance.

A. Grid
B. Rule
C. Gutter
D. Border

13-34. Blank space between two facing pages.

A. Grid
B. Rule
C. Gutter
D. Border

13-35. Which of the following steps should be taken first during the development of an electronic
presentation?

A. Design
B. Testing
C. Planning
D. Production

13-36. Which, if any, of the following factors are the most important to consider when creating an
electronic presentation?

A. Text and color
B. Number of slides
C. Simplicity and legibility
AS13-7

13-37. What type of graphical relationship is created by using only one family of type in an electronic
presentation?

A. Conflicting
B. Contrasting
C. Concordant
D. Combination

13-38. What type of graphical relationship is created by using separate, but clearly distinct, typefaces
in an electronic presentation?

A. Conflicting
B. Contrasting
C. Concordant
D. Combination

13-39. Which of the following typefaces are recommended for use in electronic presentations?

A. Serif only
B. Slab-serif only
C. Sans-serif only
D. Slab-serif and sans-serif

13-40. Which of the following guidelines should be followed when creating presentation slides?

A. All caps for text
B. Three topics per slide
C. Six lines per slide, six words per line
D. All of the above

13-41. On average, what amount of time does a viewer spend reading each slide?

A. 2-second glance
B. 5 seconds
C. 7 seconds
D. 15 seconds

13-42. Which of the following types of color is best suited for use on slide backgrounds when you
want to create a receptive and passive atmosphere for your audience?

A. Cool colors
B. Warm colors
C. Bright colors
D. Neutral colors
AS13-8

13-43. Which of the following guidelines should be followed when using and deciding upon colors for
your electronic presentation?

A. Avoid red-green combinations
B. Use bright colors for emphasis
C. Establish color palette and stick to it
D. All of the above

IN ANSWERING QUESTIONS 13-44 AND 13-45 SELECT THE PRINCIPLE OF DESIGN FOR
PRESENTATIONS THAT BEST MATCHES THE DESCRIPTION GIVEN AS THE ANSWER.

13-44. Major cause of unappealing layouts.

A. Contrast
B. Proximity
C. Alignment
D. Repetition

13-45. Most important visual attraction for electronic presentations.

A. Contrast
B. Proximity
C. Alignment
D. Repetition

IN ANSWERING QUESTIONS 13-46 THROUGH 13-48 SELECT THE MOVIE AUTHORING STAGE
THAT BEST MATCHES THE DESCRIPTION GIVEN AS THE ANSWER.

13-46. Development of story line and writing of the script.

A. Design
B. Testing
C. Planning
D. Concept

13-47. Question-and-answer stage needed to establish the project and its purpose.

A. Design
B. Testing
C. Planning
D. Concept

13-48. Stage during which members of your intended audience review the product.

A. Design
B. Testing
C. Planning
D. Concept
AS13-9

13-49. Which of the following terms describes a type of multimedia production that is interactive, such
as with computer-based training and games?

A. Linear
B. Nonlinear
C. Horizontal
D. Perpendicular

13-50. Which of the following terms best describes the process of filling the frames between the main
points of action for fluidity in an animated production?

A. Keying
B. Walking
C. Morphing
D. Tweening

13-51. Which of the following Navy policies is the governing instruction for the maintenance and
development of websites?

A. OPNAVINST 5040.05
B. OPNAVINST 5112.3
C. SECNAVINST 3104.1
D. SECNAVINST 5720.47B

13-52. Which of the following terms best describes the unique address given to the location of a file
on the Internet?

A. File transfer site
B. Domain name server
C. Internet protocol address
D. Uniform resource locator

13-53. During which stage of website creation would you use drawings, flowcharts, and storyboards to
map out ideas for pages?

A. Design
B. Concept
C. Planning
D. Production

13-54. Which of the following guidelines is a best practice when deciding upon text and where to
place it on your website?

A. Use all caps
B. Center all text
C. Left-justify body text; center titles
D. Use common acronyms to save space and keep the page clean and simple

AS13-10

13-55. Which of the following guidelines should you adhere to when placing graphics on your
website?

A. Keep images at 300 dpi
B. Do not compress images
C. Reduce images for quicker downloading
D. Only link to images on Navy.mil

13-56. Which of the following sections of the 1973 Rehabilitation Act established requirements for the
public access to electronic information and information technology for people with disabilities?

A. Section 501
B. Section 503
C. Section 505
D. Section 508
AS14-1

ASSIGNMENT 14

Textbook Assignment: Chapter 14, Print Production
14-1. Who is credited with inventing the mechanical movable-like printing press?

A. Martin Cooper
B. Chester Carlson
C. George Eastman
D. Johannes Gutenberg

14-2. Which of the following is NOT a basic category of desktop publishing software?

A. Digital
B. Layout
C. Graphics
D. Composition

14-3. What type of desktop printer sprays electrically charged ink through tiny nozzles to form an
image of high-quality resolution?

A. Laser
B. Inkjet
C. Thermal-dye
D. Digital duplicator

14-4. What type of desktop printer uses thousands of tiny heating elements that come into contact
with donor ribbons to release color?

A. Laser
B. Inkjet
C. Thermal-dye

14-5. What term best describes the high-speed printing system designed for high-volume
photocopying and printing?

A. Laser
B. Inkjet
C. Thermal-dye

AS14-2

IN ANSWERING QUESTIONS 6-6 THROUGH 6-8 SELECT THE CHARACTERISTIC OF PAPER
THAT BEST MATCHES THE DESCRIPTION GIVEN AS THE ANSWER.

14-6. Determined by the type of pulp used, treatments and end use for the paper.

A. Finish
B. Grade
C. Basis weight
D. Paper density

14-7. Texture of the paper

A. Finish
B. Grade
C. Basis weight
D. Paper density

14-8. Measurement of papers compactness (how much light the paper lets in).

A. Finish
B. Grade
C. Basis weight
D. Paper density

14-9. Which of the following actions should you take when you begin to notice defective prints when
using a digital duplicator?

A. Change the print color
B. Replace the master roll
C. Clean the thermal print head
D. Change the print density setting

14-10. What type of scanner has the capability of scanning three-dimensional objects?

A. Slide scanner
B. Hand scanner
C. Flatbed scanner
D. Copy stand scanner

14-11. What type of scanner has the capability for small-quantity scanning?

A. Slide scanner
B. Hand scanner
C. Flatbed scanner
D. Copy stand scanner

AS14-3

14-12. Which of the following is another term used synonymously with the knife angle of a paper
cutter?

A. Draft
B. Bevel
C. Snubber
D. Cutting stick

14-13. What item keeps a paper cutters knife from dulling too easily or breaking every time its used?

A. Draft
B. Bevel
C. Snubber
D. Cutting stick

14-14. What term best describes the metal bar that runs parallel to the knife that holds paper firmly in
place during cutting?

A. Stock slide
B. Back gauge
C. Cutter clamp
D. Thumbscrew

14-15. Which of the following is NOT a common fold of paper used in print production?

A. Gate
B. French
C. Tabletop
D. Accordion

IN ANSWERING QUESTIONS 6-16 THROUGH 6-19 SELECT THE BINDING METHOD THAT BEST

14-16. Also known as padding, this method makes tablets or pads by cementing the edge of a stack
of paper sheets.

A. Adhesive
B. Mechanical
C. Thread-sewing
D. Saddle-stitching

14-17. Allows for flat binding and uses coils, combs, or metal rings to join sheets of paper.

A. Adhesive
B. Mechanical
C. Thread-sewing
D. Saddle-stitching

AS14-4

14-18. Uses staples through the centerfold along the backbone of brochures or thin magazines?

A. Adhesive
B. Mechanical
C. Thread-sewing
D. Saddle-stitching

14-19. Most expensive binding process usually reserved for fine literature and reference books.

A. Adhesive
B. Mechanical
C. Thread-sewing
D. Saddle-stitching

14-20. What term describes the type of mat cutter typically used in photo matting?

A. Emery
B. Carriage
C. Guillotine
D. Precision

14-21. Which of the following describes a major difference between matting and mounting a print for
display?

A. Matting enhances the image
B. Matting is only used for photographs
C. A matted print is a protected print
D. A matted print is placed behind a cut opening; the mat surrounds the print

14-22. In which of the following print-mounting methods is the bond often temporary?

A. Dry
B. Wet
C. Porous
D. Pressure

14-23. What rule IS NOT in adherence to the Counterfeit Act of 1992 for the use of money in
illustrations?

A. The illustration must be one-sided
B. The illustration must be an actual-size duplication of the actual currency
C. The illustration must be less than 3/4s or more than 1 the size of the actual currency
D. All files used in the making of the illustration must be destroyed following use
AS14-5

14-24. In what policy guidance will you find the Navy Visual Information Management and Operations
Manual?

A. OPNAVINST 3104.1A (series)
B. CHINFOINST 5720.8
C. DoD Directive 5040.02

14-25. What is the purpose of a mandatory job order log used to track visual information products?

A. Inventory materials used
B. Maintain close control of services
C. Provide receipt for finished works
D. All of the above

AS15-1

ASSIGNMENT 15

Textbook Assignment: Chapter 15, File Management and Transmission
15-1. Who assigns the Visual Information Record Identification Number (VIRIN)?

A. Defense Imagery Management Operations Center (DIMOC)
B. The originator
C. Navy Visual News Service (NVNS)
D. Chief of Information (CHINFO)

15-2. You are preparing a VIRIN for the third photograph shot on April 4, 2011. Which of the
following examples is in the proper format?

A. 040411-N-SQ684-003
B. 041104-N-SQ684-001
C. 110404-M-SQ684-003
D. 110404-N-ZY684-003

15-3. How many data fields does a VIRIN consist of?

A. 4
B. 5
C. 13
D. 15

IN ANSWERING QUESTIONS 15-4 THROUGH 15-7 MATCH THE FIELD FROM THE LIST THAT
MATCHES THE DESCRIPTION GIVEN AS THE ANSWER
A. Field 1 C. Field 3
B. Field 2 D. Field 4

15-4. The year, month and day of acquisition or origination

A. B
B. D
C. A
D. C

15-5. The originators Vision ID code

A. A
B. C
C. D
D. B
AS15-2

15-6. The image or unit of media number in sequential order

A. C
B. D
C. B
D. A

15-7. The service affiliation or status of the camera operator or originator

A. C
B. A
C. D
D. B

15-8. What information should be included on a VIRIN slate for a video?

A. Videographer name and rank
B. Brief description of the sequence
C. Release status of the video
D. All of the above

15-9. Which form is used for writing captions for motion imagery?

A. DD Form 10700
B. DD Form 2537
C. DD Form 1348
D. DD Form 2533

15-10. What are the two types of captions for video?

A. Total and Sequence
B. Sequential and Total
C. Sequence and Shot
D. Total and Shot

15-11. Which video caption type describes the contents of the entire video sequence?

A. Total
B. Sequential
C. Shot
D. Sequence
AS15-3

15-12. If system software does not support long file names, what information should the file name
include?

A. Date in VIRIN format and last two characters of the sequence number
B. Date in VIRIN format and Vision ID
C. Description of the image or video

15-13. Which file format is organized into alternating ("interleaved") chunks of audio and video data
used for storing and playing back movie clips?

A. MOV
B. DV
C. AVI
D. GIF

15-14. Which software takes a raw data file and turns it into a compressed file?

A. TIFF
B. RAW
C. CODEC
D. MIDI

15-15. Which file format is optimized for photographs and similar continuous tone images that contain
many, many colors?

A. JPEG
B. GIF
C. MPEG1
D. BMP

15-16. What describes the average amount of data required to store one second of music, expressed
in kilobits per second, or Kbps, with audio compression?

A. FTP
B. Bitrate
C. FFT
D. CODEC

15-17. Which file format is a flexible MPEG container format used for both streaming and
downloadable Web content?

A. MP3
B. MPEG1
C. MPEG2
D. MPEG4

AS15-4

15-18. Which file format is a flexible container format for digital still images, commonly used in
desktop publishing?

A. GIF
B. TIFF
C. MOV
D. JPEG

15-19. Which file format is a standard audio format for Windows operating systems, often used for
storing high-quality, uncompressed sound?

A. AIFF
B. MIDI
C. MP3
D. WAV

15-20. Which file format employs a glossy compression system and is the most popular codec for
storing and transferring music?

A. MP3
B. WAV
C. MIDI
D. WMV

15-21. What is metadata?

A. File format commonly used to compress data for desktop publishing
B. File that contains commands that let MIDI-capable synthesizers recreate a specific
musical passage
C. Pertinent information about the image embedded into the images file information
D. Uniform copyright protection protocol that would work with a variety of digital players,
software programs, and download sites

15-22. What information is contained in metadata?

A. Contact Information
B. Caption
C. Keywords about the photograph
D. All of the above

15-23. Which of the following is a preferred method to transfer image and video files to DIMOC?

A. Federal Express
B. E-mail
C. FTP
D. Social media site
AS15-5

15-24. Which client-server based transmission application allows users to routinely transmit large files
using IP-based networks?

A. FFT
B. HTTPS
C. HTTP
D. FTP

15-25. How should you keep information that is extremely valuable to our enemies?

A. Censored and classified
B. Classified and safeguarded
C. Uncensored and unclassified
D. Unclassified and safeguarded

15-26. What policy governs the safeguarding of classified material in the Navy?

A. OPNAVINST 5510.1 (series)
B. SECNAVINST 5216.5 (series)
C. SECNAVINST 5720.44 (series)
D. OPNAVINST 3104.1 (series)

MC NAVEDTRA 15010A (Basic)

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

MC NAVEDTRA 15010A (Basic)

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

MC NAVEDTRA 15010A (Basic)

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Mass Communication Specialist

You might also like

Pfad - The Proxy pFad of © 2024 Garber Painting. All rights reserved.