Revista Alemana de Refractarios

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www.refractories-worldforum.com
Ma n u f a c t u r i n g & Pe r f o r ma n c e o f Hi g h - Te mp e r a t u r e Ma t e r i a l s
CONGRESS UNITECR 2011 | MARKETS Refractory Products and Magnesia Raw Materials
in Russia and Abroad Foundries on Course for Growth Again Refractories Industry in India |
INTERVIEWS EKW/DE | REPORTS Conferences and Fairs in Austria, China, Czech Republique,
Germany and Russia | TECHNOLOGY Calcium Hexaluminate in a Corrosive Environment Re-
fractories for Gasification Reactors Refractory Solutions to Improve Steel Cleanliness Steel
Production at Nippon Steel Corporation | PAPER Fracture Resistance of Refractories
www.almatis.com
SLA-92
S UP E R L I GHT WE I GHT AGGRE GAT E
SLA-92 is a calcium hexaluminate-based micro-porous, non-brous, high purity and high
temperature insulating aggregate. This unique combination gives the material a low thermal
conductivity and offers excellent resistance to thermal shock with high refractoriness.
Entering new dimensions of insulation.
refractories WORLDFORUM 3 (2011) [4] 1
Dear Readers,
The new facilities of the ECREF European Centre for Refractories in Hhr-Grenzhausen/DE
are set to open in August 2012. For four years now, work has been underway to enable the
DIFK in Bonn to continue its acitivities under one roof, but also to provide the European
refractories sector with a far more differentiated concept, based on education (training and
advanced training) and applied research, in order to assure dynamic innovation in the refrac-
tories industry as well as the sectors relevant to refractories applications. For this purpose, a
focussed, market-oriented approach was and is essential.
As the availability of some of the raw materials has now been classed as critical, refractories
occupy a more crucial position than ever between the raw materials suppliers and the refrac-
tories users. Accordingly, issues such as the substitution and recycling of raw materials have
gained enormous importance. And, in addition, it is necessary for us to be more considered in
the way we use premium-quality raw materials and resources. On the other hand, the refrac-
tories users are making ever higher demands in respect of the reliability of refractories, be-
cause they have to hold their own with first-class products in global competition, and there-
fore very carefully scrutinize the assurances of the best product grades for their specific
applications. So refractories manufacturers are facing higher demands from both sides.
These complex challenges can only be successfully met in a network structure that ensures
integration of education, research and industrial requirements. No market partner can afford
everything on their own any more, everyone has to make sure to strengthen their strengths
and remain open for a culture of transferring specialist knowledge with other experts. Issues
such as energy, environment and raw materials, but human resources too, concern everyone
and everyone can work on these together free of competitive barriers.
At the ECREF we shall continue to develop the strengths of the DIFK in measurement and
testing technology as well as those of the Forschungsgemeinschaft Feuerfest in application-
oriented research. As an example of this, we have worked together with the Fraunhofer ISC
to devise a complex new testing system for high-temperature materials, which is scheduled to
go into operation even before the opening of the new centre. We aim to steadily widen the
range of our services, but we also aspire to provide a platform that universities and industry
as well as suppliers, manufacturers and users can use for the informal and constructive ex-
change of information. The ECREF will need to fulfil a vital communicative and steering
function, to systematically assure the positive outcome of all initiatives.
Todays challenges are so complex because the exigencies of time demand that many things
are run parallel e.g. material and process development. After all, global competition rewards
the supplier who can be the first to come up with solutions with success. And these solutions
are increasingly system solutions that necessitate the integration of other specialist fields.
At our site in Hhr-Grenzhausen/DE, we are not only geographically close to refractories
manufacturers, but also to the extended field-specific range of services offered by the univer-
sities and colleges in the German state of the Rhineland-Palatinate. With the newly created
cluster for metals, ceramics and plastics, we can take an interdisciplinary approach in discus-
sing issues and initiate appropriate projects.
Successful innovation management is crucial to
market success and the future of the German and
European refractories industry!
Yours
Dr. Peter Quirmbach
ECREF European Centre for
Refractories GmbH
info@ecref.eu
ISSN 1868-2405
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EDITORIAL
refractories WORLDFORUM MANUFACTURING & PERFORMANCE OF HIGH-TEMPERATURE MATERIALS
2 refractories WORLDFORUM 3 (2011) [4]
UNITECR 2011
5 Welcome Address
GLOBAL NEWS
6 Company News
Personal News
Market News
New on the Market
Events
TECHNOLOGY NEWS
13 Innovative Energy Saving Packaging
16 Celitement
: A New Environmentally
Compatible Cement
17 Urban Mining:
Will the Raw Materials Deposits of the
Future Come from the Cities?
19 Light-weight Kiln Cars for
Refractory Kilns
INTERVIEW
23 Eisenberg Luting Sand as a Means
for Functionalizing Refractory Products
COMPANY PROFILES
26 QAM Expertise in Minerals and
Processing of Refractory Raw Materials
27 Refrasil Ltd Traditional Producer
of Refractories
31 Mayerton Refractories Group
33 Pyroteks Dedicated Materials Deliver
Improved Performance and Productivity
35 CISMAC A History of Men
38 Tokai Carbon Italia: Leader in
High Temperature Application
MARKETS
& ECONOMY
39 Manufacture of Modern Refractory
Products and Magnesia Raw Materials in
Russia and Abroad
47 Foundries on Course for Growth Again
49 Refractories Industry in India
Present Scenario, Issues and
a Way Forward
TECHNOLOGY NEWS
Energy Saving Packaging;
Environmentally Compatible Cement;
Urban Mining;
Light-weight Kiln Cars
13
22
COMPANY PROFILES
Qingdao Asian Minerals/CN;
Refrasil/CZ; Mayerton/UK;
Pyrotek/USA; CISMAC/IT; Tokai/IT
26
38
INTERVIEW
EKW/DE 23
25
COVER PAGE
CB FEUERFEST GmbH, Sales Department, 8772 Traboch, Austria
Tel.: +43-(0)3843-35778-12, E-mail: info@cb-feuerfest.com, www.cb-feuerfest.com
REPORTS
Reviews on Conferences,
Meetings and Fairs
REPORTS
53 GIFA, METEC, THERMPROCESS,
NEWCAST 2011
56 FOGI Panel Discussion:
Energy Efficiency in the
Thermal Processing Industry
58 P-D Refractories CZ
10 Years in the P-D Group
62 Successful 2011 PRE Congress in Vienna
64 85
th
Annual Meeting of the DGG
in Saarbrcken
67 First China International Conference on
Refractory Production and Application
73 International Conference of
Refractories Manufacturers and
Metallurgists in Moskow
79 The Refractories Community
Met in Prague
TECHNOLOGY TRENDS
87 Advantages of Calcium Hexaluminate in
a Corrosive Environment
95 High Performance Refractories for
Gasification Reactors
101 A Novel Castable Binder System
Based on Old Knowledge
107 Low-temperature Oxy-fuel Combustion
Technology for Aluminium Re-melting
and Its Requirements for Refractory
Materials
111 Refractory Solutions to Improve
Steel Cleanliness
119 The Latest Trends in Refractories
Technology for Iron and Steel Production
at Nippon Steel Corporation
CAMPUS
128 New Challenges and Old Tools:
the Refractory Dilemma
PAPERS
129 The Fracture Resistance of Refractories
136 Thermal Interactions between Casted
High-alloyed TRIP Steel and Sodium
Silicate Bonded Moulding Systems
REGULAR FEATURES
1 Editorial, Imprint
4 Cooperations
141 Calendar
142 Situations Vacant
144 Preview, Index to Advertisers
53
86
TECHNOLOGY TRENDS
The Latest Technology Trends in
the Refractories World
87
128
PAPERS
Refereed Papers
129
140
Visit our homepage to read updates
in the GLOBAL NEWS section
refractories WORLDFORUM Cooperation Partners

T HE GL A S S COMMUNI T Y
ACerS American Ceramic Society,
Refractory Division
VDFFI
German Refractories Association
DGM German Association for
Material Science (Deutsche Ge-
sellschaft fr Materialkunde e.V.)
FOGI Forschungsgemeinschaft
Industrieofenbau im VDMA
IRMA Indian Refractory Makers
Association
PRE European Federation
of the Refractories Producers
Refractories Window
MORE-Freiberg e.V.
(Meeting of Refractory Experts)
SECV Spanish Ceramics and
Glass Society
HVG and DGG
(Httentechnische Vereinigung
der Deutschen Glasindustrie e.V
und Deutsche Glastechnische
Gesellschaft e.V.)
FIRE Federation for
International Refractory Research
and Education
TARJ Technical Association of
Refractories, Japan
Refractories Committee of the
Steel Institute VDEh
(Gemeinschaftsausschuss
Feuerfeste Stoffe im
Stahlinstitut VDEh)
glass global, e-commerce portal of
the international glass industry
GIESSEREI Verlag
BKRI
BKRI Bundesverband
Keramische Rohstoffe und
Industrieminerale e.V.
The conference will be sponsored by the
UNITECR 2011 Organization Committee
established in the Technical Association of
Refractories, Japan (TARJ), with co-sponsor-
ships of the Japan Refractories Association,
the American Ceramic Society , the German
Refractories Association and the Asociation
Latinamericana de Fabricantes de Refracta-
rios under the support of the Ministry of
Economy Trade and Industry (METI) of the
Japanese Government.
The conference is also being organized in
cooperation with the Ceramic Society of
Japan, the Iron and Steel Institute of Japan,
the Japan Iron and Steel Federation, the
Japan Cement Association, the Glass Manu-
facturers Association of Japan, the Japan
Industrial Furnace Manufacturers Associa-
tion, the Japan Foundry Society, the
National Institute for Materials Science
(NIMS) and the Japan Research and Devel-
opment Center for Metals (JRCM).
It is supported financially partly by the dona-
tions from various association and agencies
under the direction of the Japan Business
Federation (JBF) on the basis of a prepara-
tive application to the Japan National
Tourism Organization (JNTO).
The slogan Refractories Technology to
Sustain the Global Environment will be
discussed in plenary lectures and eleven spe-
cial sessions.
Plenary lectures will be presented by:
Norio Katsuyama (Vice President, Nippon
Steel Corporation/JP): Progress of steel
industries in Japan and contribution of
refractories
Prof. Jicheng He (former President, North-
eastern University/CN): Present status
and future prospects for steel industries in
China
Prof. Taikan Oki (Institute of the Industrial
Science, the University of Tokyo/JP):
World environmental problems and
water resources
Randy Channell (Japanese Tea Ceremony
Instructor; Sadou/Urasenke): Introduction
of Japanese culture from the foreigners
view.
An award system will be introduced, consist-
ing of the Excellent Presentation Award,
which will be conferred on the first author
younger than 35 years of age to present the
UNITECR 2011 paper in the refractories field
and the Contribution Award to celebrate
the 25
th
anniversary of the two international
congresses on refractories held in Tokyo/JP
in 1983 and 1987. This award will be be-
stowed on all the UNITECR distinguished life
members (DLM) in appreciation of their
efforts and contribution to founding and
establishing UNITECR.
Dr Kiyoshi Sugita (UNITECR DLM) will pres-
ent a review paper on the topics of develop-
ment and applications of refractories with
special emphasis on environmental tech-
nology. The energy shortage owing to par-
tial elimination of the nuclear energy poses
a threat but also presents a new opportuni-
ty.
See you soon in Kyoto at the UNITECR
the world congress for refractory experts!
Japan
Welcome to UNITECR 2011:
Refractories Technology to Sustain
the Global Environment
The Organization Committee of
UNITECR 2011 welcomes the
readers of refractories WORLD-
FORUM to the congress, which
will be held on 30 October to
2 November in Kyoto/JP. The
slogan and session topics of the
congress will be introduced
together with some very attrac-
tive features. The disaster on
11 March has influenced regis-
tration at the congress and led
to a decline in participation.
Estimated are 700 750 atten-
dees, which is a rather low num-
ber owing to the numerous can-
cellations of paper presentations
from 334 before the disaster to
about 230.
UNITECR 2011
30 October 2 November 2011
Masanori Ueki
Secretary General
UNITECR 2011
Technical Association of
Refractories, Japan (TARJ)
104-0061 Tokyo
Japan
E-mail: masanori-ueki@krosaki.co.jp
www.unitecr2011.org
Fig. 1 Golden Temple (Kinkakuji) in Kyoto/JP
India
KERNEOS Invests in
Calcium Aluminate Production
Following the opening of its commercial
subsidiary in Kolkata in March 2008,
Kerneos/FR, the world leader for calcium
aluminates, will build its first plant in India.
This plant will accompany the increasing de-
mand of high performing products for the
refractory market to sustain the growth of
the Indian steel industry.
Magus Marketing Private Ltd, a well estab-
lished player in the distribution of refractory
materials in India, will be partner in this
project.
A green field sintering unit of 30 000 t/a
capacity dedicated to the manufacture of
calcium aluminate cements for refractory
applications is being built to produce a
range of high quality products specifically
designed for the Indian market needs. This
plant will be set-up in the area of Visakha-
patnam city (Vizag) in Andhra Pradesh. The
efficient access to the refractory manufactur-
ers, the vicinity of Vizag harbour and the
support of the local authorities were some of
the reasons of the selection of this location.
This two-year project and USD 20 million
investment was initiated in collaboration
with an Indian engineering company, with
the objective to start the production in the
course of 2013. Approximately 60 employ-
ees will be recruited to manage and operate
the plant.
Germany
Uhde Expands Httenwerke Krupp
Mannesmanns Coke Oven Plant
In late 2010 Httenwerke Krupp Mannes-
mann (HKM) awarded Uhde a contract to
build a second coke oven battery at its Duis-
burg-Huckingen site as well as to expand
the gas treatment unit and revamp the push-
ing machines, coal charging cars and trans-
fer machines.
This new coke oven battery will enable HKM
to increase its current production from 1,16
to 2,32 Mt/a of coke. The coke oven battery
will comprise 70 large-capacity ovens, the
chambers will have an effective chamber
volume of 70 m
3
. The new coke oven plant
will be equipped with the latest state of the
gramme amounts to RUB 5 billion. The pro-
gramme contains a wide range of ecological
measures for the nearest decade practically
in all spheres of the companys activity. In
particular, by the middle of 2011 implemen-
tation of the programme for reduction of ex-
cessive emissions will be finished ahead of
schedule. It envisages measures for protect-
ion of all components of the natural envi-
ronment: atmospheric air, surface and un-
derground water, soil and vegetation in
addition to the list of obligatory works
approved by the regional government.
Nigeria
FLSmidth Wins Large Cement Project
FLSmidth/DK has received an order from the
Nigerian company BUA International Limited
to supply a complete 6000 t/d cement plant
in Nigeria. The plant will be located some
100 km from Benin City which is the capital
of the Edo State in southern Nigeria. The
order is a complete solution including equip-
ment supplies, engineering, supervision and
training. The scope of equipment supplies
includes EV crushers for raw material prepa-
ration, an ATOX50 mill for raw meal grind-
ing, a pyro system consisting of a five-stage
in-line calciner preheater, a two-base kiln,
UMS mills for cement grinding and four
packing plants as well as FLSmidth's latest
design cross-bar 16 x 50 clinker cooler. The
parties have agreed not to disclose the
value of the contract.
India
Ceramic Gas Products Announces First
Large Order in India for Ultralite
Ceramic Gas Products/GB, part of the Man-
tec Groups Technical Ceramics Division, has
announced its very first independent order in
India. Anchor Sanitaryware, one of Indias
leading brands in the sector, has placed an
initial order for 80 m
3
of Ultralite, a uni-
que lightweight refractory material for kiln
car loose fill insulation and is set to roll out
a programme of Ultralite use across its entire
sanitaryware manufacturing operation to
save energy and improve profits.
This is a substantial prospect as Anchor op-
erates two major facilities which produce
around 4000 pieces per day. The company
was established in 1970 by Suresh Sompura
and day-to-day management is now under-
taken by his son Dushyant Sompura who
said on signing the order: Innovative ideas
art, including the low-NO
x
COMBIFLAME
heating system developed by Uhde and the

PROven
single-chamber pressure control

system for reducing emissions at oven
closures due to leakage arising from devia-
tions from normal operation. The expansion
of the existing gas treatment unit will in-
crease the current throughput from 75 000
to 160 000 m
3
/h of coke oven gas. Uhde's
services with regard to this coke oven plant
project include the engineering, supply and
erection of most of the overall complex. The
plant is scheduled to produce its first coke in
autumn 2013.
Austria
RHI Expands its Raw Materials Base
and Acquires ZAO Podolsk Refractories
At the RHI Analyst Day, Henning Jensen,
CEO of RHI AG, confirmed the outlook given
with the publication of the first quarter
results. He expects revenues to increase
slightly compared to the first quarter with an
EBIT margin of 9% and exchange rates re-
maining unchanged. Due to a higher order
level, RHI will be able to repeat the revenues
of the first quarter in the second quarter and
raise profitability to 9,5 %.
On 16 June 2011, the full acquisition of the
Russian refractories manufacturer ZAO
Podolsk Refractories, which produces fused
cast bricks for the glass industry, was com-
pleted. Moreover, the investment pro-
gramme for 2011 was explained in further
detail: apart from building a plant in Brazil
and expanding capacity in China, it also in-
cludes increasing the level of self-supply
with magnesia raw materials to approx.
70 %. Jensen also reported that the entire
investment budget 2011 will be financed by
the companys cash flow and borrowed cap-
ital, thus ruling out a capital increase in the
foreseeable future.
Russia
Magnezit Develops Environmental
Programme for the Satka Site
Magnezit Group has developed the strategic
programme of environmental safety for
the Satka production site for the period
2011 2020. The document states that envi-
ronmental safety and preservation of nature
is an absolute priority in the activity of
Magnezit Group. The total volume of capital
investments in nature conservation activities
in the framework of the Strategic Pro-
Company News
are the keyword for us here at Anchor Sani-
taryware and using Ultralite certainly match-
es that goal. I do feel that Ultralite is answer-
ing an urgent need in our factories at a time
when energy costs are so high it is a
proven energy saver.Further information:
ultralite@ceramicgasproducts.com
India / Japan
Krosaki Harima Buys 51 % Stake in
Tata Refractories
Krosaki Harima Corp./JP has bought a 51 %
stake in Tata Refractories Ltd./IN from Tata
Steel Ltd./IN. The deal which values Tata Re-
fractories at USD 257 million, will reduce
Tata Steel's stake in the refractory company
to 26,46 % from 77,46 %. Tata Steel said
the deal with the Japanese refractory manu-
facturer would help Tata Refractories access
better technology and expand its product of-
ferings.
Venezuela
Bauxilum Aiming to Export Bauxite
The Venezuelan state bauxite and alumina
company Bauxilum which operates the Los
Pijiguaos bauxite mine in Bolvar state is
aiming to export 300 000 t bauxite. For the
production process this year the company
needs 4,2 Mt bauxite and the goal is to have
ailerons, elevators, and rudder sections of
aircraft, helicopter rotor blades, and cockpit
instrumentation, H.C. Starck offers complex-
shaped balance weights manufactured from
tungsten alloys. The company also supplies
defence manufacturers precision balance
weights for missile bodies and sensor arrays.
H.C. Starck also has an extrusion and forging
facility where large complex shapes are ex-
truded from specialty metals and alloy-
based systems including titanium, nickel,
molybdenum, tantalum, niobium and other
high-tech materials for critical aircraft struc-
tural components.
India
National Aluminium Increases Alumina
Capacity to Boost Exports
National Aluminium Co., Indias third-
largest producer, increased its alumina ca-
pacity 33 % to boost exports and tap global
demand for the raw material used to make
the lightweight metal.
Capacity at the Damajodi refinery in the
eastern state of Orissa was expanded to
2,1 Mt from 1,58 Mt. National Aluminium,
based in the eastern city of Bhubaneswar,
exported 702 554 t of alumina in the year
ended 31 March. Shipments fell in the last
two years as the company used more alumi-
4,5 Mt which means that it will be able to
export 300 000 t.
Bauxilum is aiming to produce 1,4 Mt alu-
mina this year and is currently looking for
customers for the bauxite. There are three in-
terested companies. The plant has an alumi-
na capacity of 2 Mt but due to the lack of in-
vestments in maintenance and parts, it is not
operating at full capacity. They expect to be
producing 2 Mt/a by 2014. The outlook for
the company has improved significantly.
Germany
H.C. Starck to Showcase Advanced
Aerospace Products
H.C. Starck presented its advancements in
aerospace products at this years Paris Air
Show. The company has been supplying to
aerospace and defence applications for sev-
eral decades using its own manufacturing
facilities in Europe, America, and Asia. With
refractory metal and ceramic applications for
everything from engines to air frames and
warheads to rocket nozzles, H.C. Starcks di-
verse product portfolio provides state-of-
the-art solutions. The company provides not
only refractory metal dies to cast the preci-
sion fan assemblies, but also the high per-
formance powders to coat them. To help bal-
ance and stabilize the control surfaces of
na to feed a 40 % increase in smelter
capacity.
Saudi Arabia
Outotec to Deliver Alumina
Calcination Technology
Outotec/FI has agreed with Ma'aden Bauxite
Alumina Company/SA, a joint venture
between Saudi Arabian Mining Company
(Ma'aden) and Alcoa in Saudi Arabia, on the
delivery of two calciners to the joint ven-
ture's integrated aluminium complex at Ras
Al Khair (formerly Ras Az Zawr).
The overall investment cost for the calciners
is approximately EUR 62 million, out of
which roughly EUR 50 million will be booked
in Outotec's order intake in the third quarter.
Outotec's scope of delivery includes process
technology and design, civil work, detail en-
gineering and construction as well as spare
parts for the two alumina calciners, each
with a capacity of 3500 t/d of alumina. The
project is scheduled to be completed at the
end of 2013.
Germany
Nabaltec AG Annual Report 2010
Nabaltec AG, a supplier of eco-friendly fillers
and additives, as well as raw materials for
technical ceramics for a large number of
applications in a variety of industries, pub-
lished its 2010 consolidated financial state-
ments.
The provisional figures for 2010 were con-
firmed: revenues grew by 54,2 %, from
EUR 73,1 million to EUR 112,7 million, a
new record. Nabaltec's earnings before in-
terest, taxes, depreciation and amortization
(EBITDA) increased from EUR 3,7 million to
EUR 14,3 million, and its EBIT reached
EUR 6,5 million, coming after a loss of
EUR 2,7 million the year before. Earnings be-
fore taxes improved from EUR 7 million to
EUR 1,4 million and the consolidated result
(after taxes and non-controlling interests)
turned positive, improving from EUR 5 mil-
lion to EUR 1,8 million.
Nabaltec Group's liquidity and cash flow
trend in 2010 was very strong, for which
three factors were primarily responsible: Na-
baltec's cash flow from operating activities
increased from EUR 4,6 million to EUR 15,4
million, while cash flow from investing activ-
ities changed from EUR 20,3 million to
EUR 7,5 million, as planned. Meanwhile,
Nabaltec was able to successfully place a
EUR 30 million corporate bond issue in Oc-
tober 2010. Cash and cash equivalents in-
creased from EUR 0,5 million to EUR 19 mil-
lion and free cash flow for 2010 was at
EUR 7,9 million.
USA
Harper Lands Contract for Complete
Pilot Scale Carbon Fibre Line
Harper International has booked yet another
contract for a fully integrated pilot scale car-
bon fibre conversion line. The line will be in-
stalled in Europe to produce carbon fibre for
use in advanced communication technology.
The fully integrated line incorporates several
progressive design features for the produc-
tion of carbon fibre from 6K PAN precursor
and is engineered for higher than traditional
processing speeds. Harper will supply its ad-
vanced oxidation oven technology, LT and HT
slot furnaces rated for 1000 and 1600 C re-
spectively, fibre surface treatment and size
application conditioning, waste gas abate-
ment, and material transport systems.
Harper has installed carbon fibre lines for
many applications of various scale, ranging
from micro-lines to lab and production
scale pilot lines to full production scale lines.
Saudi Arabia / Italy
SABIC Signs Agreement with
Montefibre for Fully Integrated
Carbon Fibre Project
Saudi Basic Industries Corporation (SABIC)
has signed a technology agreement with
Montefibre S.p.A./IT granting SABIC and its
affiliates an extensive international licence
on carbon fibre technology developed by
Montefibre.
SABIC will first use the technology for a new
carbon fibre plant to be built in Saudi Arabia.
SABIC and Montefibre also signed a Memo-
randum of Understanding for the companies
to study the feasibility of a new carbon fibre
production plant in Spain to be integrated
into Montefibres existing acrylic fibre pro-
duction site and thus allowing SABIC to ac-
celerate product development and material
qualification activities with customers and
end-users.
Once complete, the carbon fibre project is
expected to establish a domestic supply of
more than 3000 t of industrial grade carbon
fibre to serve emerging local markets in the
Middle East as well as international markets.
The project will also include the creation of a
new carbon fibre product development cen-
tre and composite plastics application devel-
opment capabilities at the SABIC Plastics
Application Development Centre (SPADC)
which is currently under construction at the
Riyadh Techno Valley research complex at
King Saud University.
Both the carbon fibre production plant and
the SPADC capabilities are aligned with Sau-
di Arabias National Industrial Clusters De-
velopment Programme to grow and diversify
the manufacturing sector in Saudi Arabia.
Personal News
Germany / China
First Winner of Utz-Hellmuth Felcht
Award: Prof. Walter de Heer
SGL Group/DE has awarded the Utz-Hell-
muth Felcht Award for the first time to
Prof. Walter de Heer at the International
Carbon Conference in Shanghai/CN. This
prestigious donation of EUR 20 000 will be
awarded by SGL Group every two years in
honour of its former Supervisory Board
Chairman Prof. Utz-Hellmuth Felcht.
Honoured will be outstanding scientific and
technological contributions in the field of
carbon and ceramic materials. This compris-
es polygranular carbon and graphite materi-
als, carbon fibres and their composites, sili-
con carbide (SiC) based ceramics, applica-
tions of carbon and graphite in energy pro-
duction, energy storage and energy savings,
nanoforms of carbon as well as break-
throughs in manufacturing and new applica-
tions. Quintessential contributions in com-
puter modeling of these materials will be
considered as well.
Prof. Walter de Heer from the Georgia Insti-
tute of Technology in Atlanta, GA/US is
awarded for his merits in the area of
graphene research and his revolutionary
concept of graphene based nanoelectronics.
Through his work on electronic transporta-
tion mechanisms in graphene, he opened
the door to a new era of extremely small
electronic circuits.
Individual graphite layers are known as
graphene. In 2010, Konstantin Novoselov
and Andre Geim were awarded with the
Nobel Prize in Physics for their contributions
in the field of electrical properties of the
thinnest graphite layers. Graphene has the
potential to replace silicon in electronics for
applications, such as ultra-high frequency
electronics.
At the time, SGL Group presented its Car-
bon Based Solutions for Urban Life con-
cept, which focuses on innovative applica-
tions and sustainable solutions through the
use of carbon-based products from elec-
tromobility to lightweight solutions, energy
efficient infrastructures and cooling systems
in buildings.
Australia
Cape Alumina Appoints
New Managing Director
Cape Alumina Limited has appointed
Graeme Sherlock as Managing Director and
Chief Executive Officer.
He is a qualified mining engineer with more
than 20 years of resource industry experi-
ence with senior business development posi-
tions within Peabody Energy Australia Limit-
ed, Rio Tinto Coal Australia and Mitsubishi
Development Pty Limited and a long career
with BHP Billiton (Energy Coal). He was most
recently with VCoal Pty Ltd. A Member of
the Australasian Institute of Mining and
Metallurgy.
Graeme also has an MBA in technology and
a postgraduate diploma in management. His
employment with Cape Alumina will com-
mence on 11t July 2011.
alumina brick, etc.), Al-Si refractory materials
(high alumina brick, fireclay insulating brick,
etc.), and heat insulation refractory materi-
als. Wherein, magnesite-chrome brick is
most commonly employed in cement kiln fir-
ing zone; nevertheless, chromium ion brings
about serious pollution against high temper-
ature, magnesite-chrome brick has therefore
been gradually replaced by chrome-free re-
fractory materials like dolomite brick and
magnesia spinel brick in recent years.
Fusion-casting refractory is usually applied in
glass industry and enjoys 58 % share. At
present, merely about 10 international com-
panies including Saint-Gobain SEFPRO and
Asahi Glass can steadily produce fusion-cast
refractory. The most representative enterpris-
es in China are: Ruitai Materials Technology
Co. Ltd., Beijing SEPR Refractories Co. Ltd.,
Zibo Asahi Glass Alumina Materials Co. Ltd.,
and Luoyang Dayang Refractory Co. Ltd.
Apart from the supply and demand of the re-
fractory market, the report underlines not
only the market segments of fusion-cast re-
fractories, basic refractory material, un-
shaped refractory material, and ceramic fibre
but the industrial competition pattern in-
cluding regional pattern and enterprise pat-
tern.
Refractory production bases have gradually
taken shape in Henan, Shandong, Liaoning,
and Shanxi, centering on the characteristics
of various raw material origins. In 2010, the
Market News
USA
Global and China Refractory Material
Industry Report 2010 2011
Vigorously fueled by such high-temperature
industries as steel, cement, glass, and non-
ferrous metal in recent years, the output of
refractory materials in China climbed to
28,08 Mt in 2010 from 14,77 Mt in 2003,
with the CAGR of 9,6 %; hereinto, the ener-
gy-saving and eco-friendly unshaped refrac-
tories contributed more than 1/3.
Meanwhile, the export volume of refractory
products increased substantially from
827 000 t in 2003 to 1,7928 Mt in 2010,
with the CAGR of 11,7 %.
Steel industry, the largest consumption field
of refractory materials, occupies over 65 %.
The per ton steelconsumption is less than
10 kg refractory materials in foreign coun-
tries, while that in China turns out to be 20
to 25 kg. The development policy of the re-
fractory industry shoots at a refractory con-
sumption per ton steel less than 20 kg in
2010 and shy of 15 kg in 2020.
The necessary refractory materials for the ce-
ment industry, the second largest consump-
tion field of refractory materials, mainly cov-
er basic refractory materials (magnesite
brick, magnesite-chrome brick, magnesite-
Visit us at
Colloquium on Refractories Aachen
19.-20.10.2011, stand 19
output of the above mentioned four bases
contributed 87,9 % to the national total, of
which, Henan ranked first with approximate-
ly 50 % share. Liaoning is abundant in mag-
nesium ores and it produced 5,53 Mt of re-
fractory in 2010; hereinto, magnesia refrac-
tory registered 5,45 Mt.
Along with the market improvement and de-
velopment, competitive refractory enterpris-
es have outshined themselves. Currently,
Puyang Refractories Group Co. Ltd. is the
biggest steel refractory manufacturer in
China, with a market share of 2,5 % in
2010.
As the largest fusion-cast refractory mag-
nate in China, Ruitai Materials Technology
Co. Ltd. has its products widely applied in
glass kilns and initiated the exploration
in refractory materials for cement industry
in 2010. This report is availabe from:
www.researchandmarkets.com
Vietnam
Start of Alumina Production
in September
Vietnam will produce the first alumina from
a bauxite complex in the Central Highlands
in September. The country's first alumina
plant in Lam Dong province is now due to
get its first product, quoting Tran Duong Le,
deputy director of the complex's manage-
ment board. Vinacomin, or the Vietnam Na-
tional Coal and Mineral Industries Group,
has also been developing the Nhan Co proj-
ect in Lam Dong's neighbouring province of
Dak Nong, with projected initial output of
600 000 t of alumina. Vinacomin has award-
ed the engineering, procurement and con-
struction contract for both the complexes in
Lam Dong and Dak Nong to China Alu-
minum International Engineering Co., which
is a subsidiary of state-owned Aluminum
Corp. of China (Chinalco), the country's top
aluminium producer.
Vietnam's mostly untouched bauxite ore re-
serves are estimated at between 5,6 billion
and 8,3 billion t, making it the world's 3
rd
-
largest after Guinea and Australia. Lam
Dong alone has more than 1 billion t, provin-
cial authorities have said.
Lam Dong and Dak Nong are among Viet-
nam's biggest coffee growing provinces but
the bauxite mining areas would not hurt cof-
fee trees, traders said. Vietnam is the world's
2
nd
-largest coffee producer after Brazil
(Source: Reuters).
Iran
Steel Output Growth
above World Average
Iran produced 5,583 Mt of crude steel in the
first five months of 2011, which was above
the world average figure, World Steel Asso-
ciation (WSA) reported.
Iran's output growth rate during the men-
tioned period was more than the average
output figures of the world's main producer
countries such as China, India, USA, France,
Germany, Italy, Spain, Russia, Ukraine, Cana-
da, Mexico, Brazil, Japan and Great Britain.
According to the World Steel Association,
Iran was the second leading steel producer
in the Middle East in 2010 after Turkey. Iran
also ranked 7
th
among the Asian producers.
Iran will become one of the world's main
steel exporters by March 2016 and plans to
reach the production capacity of 42 Mt/a.
The nation's steel production capacity is cur-
rently 19 Mt/a. The World Steel Association's
report also shows that Iran's crude steel pro-
duction increased to 3,38 Mt from 1 Jan. to
31 March 2011.
South Africa
Andalusite Resources Already has a
20 % Market Share
Andalusite Resources' mine in northern
South Africa is on territory surveyed and
overlooked by the market leader once the
monopoly supplier of andalusite to the
world. Today, Andalusite Resources already
has a 20 % market share and that could
become even larger.
Andalusite is used in a wide range of appli-
cations but the majority goes into refractory
materials used by the iron and steel industry.
Changes in technology, but more appropri-
ately in attitude, have opened the market for
the crystal size that Andalusite Resources
now offers.
Consequently, the current high price of
bauxite is leading to greater interest in an-
dalusite, as it can serve as a substitute to
bauxite in a number of applications. As Chi-
na has exports of bauxite restricted to the
extent that the price has risen 300 % in
three years, alternative approaches have
been sought.
Andalusite Resources andalusite mine has
reserves sufficient for 20 years, based on a
production rate of 30 000 t/a. In 2010, the
production was more than doubled to
70 000 t/a and even at this rate there is now
enough minable ore to last for 80 to 100
years.
With constantly rising prices of bauxite, the
market looks good. Andalusite Resources is
currently underway with the German refrac-
tory specialist Mine Feuerfest to study how
bauxite can be replaced entirely with an-
dalusite in specific applications. If the results
of the 12-month study are as favourable as
expected, evolution will once again take a
big step forward.
India
Glass Spectacular Growth
To cope with rising demand, glass manufac-
turers of the country plan to invest EUR 1,15
billion (INR 70 billion) over the next two-to-
three years on expansion and upgrading, ac-
cording to Mukul Somany, the President of
All India Glass Manufacturers Association
and the Vice-Chairman of Hindusthan
National Glass, one of Indias leading glass
producers.
Indias per capita glass consumption is
1,4 kg for container glass, used for making
jars and bottles, and 0,8 kg for flat glass,
used in the construction and automotive
industry. This is much lower than the
8 to 9 kg per person average for both types
of glass in other developing countries such
as China, Thailand and Malaysia. In the de-
veloped world, the average is 20 22 kg.
Starting from a low base, the EUR 1,44 bil-
lion (INR 90 billion) glass industry in India is
forecast by the association to grow 10 to
12 % annually over the next 3 years. Most of
the glass demand in India currently comes
from container glass, which accounts for
50 % of the countrys glass consumption by
value.
The other big use of glass accounting for
40 % of the use by value is in the construc-
tion and the automotive industries. Here de-
mand is expected to grow at 15 18 % over
the same period. In fact, the countrys de-
mand for flat glass is so high that it imports
8 % of its requirements. While 60 % of the
glass used in the construction industry, ac-
counting for 80 % of the flat glass usage, is
domestically produced, only 40 % of the
glass used for car windows is domestically
produced, prompting foreign glass manufac-
turers to enter Indias lucrative market. Saint
Gobain, the French glass maker, and Asahi,
from Japan, hold 35 % and 20 % market
shares, according to the association. Somany
said that his company, Hindusthan National
Glass, is investing EUR 137 million (INR 8,5
billion) over the three years to try to increase
its share to 33 % in the next three years.
New on the
Market
USA
New Products at ConExpo 2011
Putzmeister America, Inc. (Putzmeister),
Allentown Shotcrete Technology, Inc. (Allen-
town) and Esser Pipe Technology (Esser) de-
buted new products at ConExpo 2011 in
March.
Enhancing their Telebelt line, Putzmeister
showcased the MX TB placing conveyor
which was specially designed for large, civil
projects that require mass placement of
large aggregate, near zero slump concrete,
such as dams, hydroelectric powerhouses,
coal and nuclear power plants. The conveyor,
offered as both the MX TB 130 and MX TB
600, is the final concrete placing tool in a
much larger and complete solution the com-
pany provides through its Special Applica-
tions Business (SAB). The placing conveyors
are fed by an overland conveyor system
where a Maxon portable surge hopper feeds
concrete onto a large feeder conveyor that
then conveys the concrete into the MX TB`s
hopper. Putzmeister also presented the TBS
130 semi-trailer telescopic belt conveyor. The
semi-trailer configuration offers on-site ad-
vantages including greater mobility, a tighter
turning radius and reduced axle loads. Addi-
tionally, since the semi-trailer chassis can be
removed, the machine footprint is reduced,
freeing up space for other job site tasks.
Contractors around the world are able to
specify the type of chassis and the trailer
axle configuration, either two or three axles.
Allentown featured the updated Thom-Katt
TK 20 high pressure shotcrete/concrete
pump (formerly known as the Powercreter
20) which has both a larger hopper and mix-

er and is applied for mid-range wet-process
shotcrete and pumping applications. The
company also showcased the SPM 307 ro-
botic nozzle manipulator. Formerly known as
the AST 25, the SPM 307 is applied for wet-
or dry-process shotcrete applications in un-
derground work such as slope protection, or
A hydraulic agitator is included in the receiv-
ing hopper to ensure the mix stays consis-
tent and blended. The agitators high inten-
sity mixing action assures that the aggregate
materials remain in suspension as the mate-
rial is loaded into the pump.
Power options on the X-10 are a V3600, 66-
horsepower Kubota water-cooled diesel en-
gine or 40-horsepower electric motor with
starter and disconnect, and the machine
comes standard mounted on a 6000-pound
single capacity axle trailer. The X-10 is CE
certified, meeting European Union safety
standards for equipment operation, and
backed worldwide by Blastcretes un-
matched customer service and support.
For 60 years, Blastcrete Equipment Company
has been manufacturing safe, reliable and
user-friendly solutions for a variety of indus-
tries worldwide. With a complete product
line consisting of concrete mixers, pumps
and related products, Blastcrete Equipment
Company is poised to meet the needs of the
commercial and residential construction, ICF
and SCIP building systems, refractory and
underground markets.
Further information: info@blastcrete.com,
www.blastcrete.com
Events
China
ISR 2012 Refractories Serving Low
Carbon Economy
The 6
th
International Symposium on Refrac-
tories will be held on 18 21 October 2012
in Zhengzhou, Henan Province, China, or-
ganized by the Chinese Ceramic Society and
the Chinese Society for Metals under the
topic Refractories Serving Low Carbon
Economy.
Main topics are:
Refractories for insulating and new energy
areas
Energy conservation, recycling and eco-
friendly issues
Refractories for iron and steel industry
Refractories for cement, glass and ceram-
ics industries
Refractories for other industries including
non-ferrous, foundry, lime, petrochemical,
incineration, etc.
Refractory raw materials
for tunneling projects where a smaller ma-
nipulator is necessary. Several different SPM
307 features provide job site benefits, in-
cluding the ability to operate on either elec-
tric or diesel power which allows it to be
used on any type of job site. A wireless re-
mote allows the operator to be safely out
from under newly excavated, exposed rock
and a charging cable comes standard for
when wireless is not allowed. Esser intro-
duced its new SDVH 3/2 S-valve hydraulic di-
version valve for continuous use on high-rise
and long-distance pumping projects. It
works with delivery pressures up to 130 bar
and hydraulic pressures up to 200 bar. The S-
valve design was used because it prevents
any movement of connected delivery lines.
The valve was designed for selective charg-
ing of two delivery lines.
Further information from:
Putzmeister: weigleinb@putzam.com
Allentown: Fax +1-610-391-1934
Esser: +1-866-734-0296
USA
Blastcretes Shotcrete Pump Ideal
for Demanding Refractory and
Commercial Shotcrete Applications
Blastcrete Equipment Companys ultra-high
pressure X-10 pump is a reliable, powerful
solution for demanding refractory installa-
tions and shotcrete applications. Easy to
maintain, operate and own, the unit is de-
signed to achieve quick ROI and provide de-
pendable performance over a long product
life.
The X-10 is a 3-inch swing tube pump capa-
ble of pumping up to 12 cubic yards per
hour, and can handle aggregate up to 3/4-
inch diameter. Offering the highest piston
face pressure in the industry at 2200 psi, it
can pump material in excess of 500 feet,
horizontally and vertically.
To allow simplified cleaning and mainte-
nance, Blastcrete has designed its swing
tube pump for easy access to crucial areas.
Thanks to a heavy-duty hinge mounting, the
2500-pound capacity-receiving hopper fea-
tures easy swing-out capabilities. The flat
pack is held in place by four heavy-duty
bolts, allowing the spare flat pack to be
quickly and easily replaced, virtually elimi-
nating downtime. An optional 2000-psi hy-
draulic pressure washer is available for fast
and easy cleaning of the mixer and the
pump.
Equipment, characterization and simula-
tion
Fundamentals and education.
The deadline for submission of abstracts is:
31 December 2011.
Further information: Ms. Jianhui Hu,
E-mail: hjh@bjruitai.com,
www.ceramsoc.com/ISR2012.htm
United Arab Emirates
T.I.M.E. 2011
Thermal Industry Middle East
Thermal Industry Middle East (TIME) will
take place from 17 to 19 October 2011 in
Sharjah/AE as the technology trade fair for
the heavy manufacturing industry in the
Middle East. This biennial event exclusively
caters to the core sector industries showcas-
ing technology, equipment, products and
services for aluminium, steel, cement, glass
and ceramic manufacturing. Each industry
is brought into focus with sub-sections, such
as Steel-Tech, Alu-Tech, Cement-Tech and
Glass & Ceramic -Tech.
Glass and ceramic industries in the AE have
continued to perform well on the back of
several construction projects nearing com-
pletion. The GCC states have all the ingredi-
ents required for glass and ceramic making
with silica, gypsum, limestone and gas abun-
dantly available. The growth rate in glass
products in the past three years was about
8 % and it is expected to increase by 10 to
12 % in the near future.
The global market for ceramic tiles is pro-
jected to reach over 100 billion square feet
in three years. Asia-Pacific (excluding Japan)
and the Middle East with a double-digit
combined annual growth rate of almost over
10 % are projected to emerge as the fastest
growing regions for ceramic tiles.
RAK Ceramics in the AE, operates nine
factories in Ras Al Khaimah, with plants in
Bangladesh, Slovakia and China. With ex-
ports to more than 135 countries in five con-
tinents, the company is one of the top three
ceramic manufacturers in the world. The
Middle East probably has more than 50 ce-
ramic plants which create a relatively small,
but vibrant market for suppliers. Existing
plants in the Middle East, planned expan-
sions and new projects, hold good promise
for global suppliers to the glass and ceramic
industries. The largest float glass plant is be-
ing built in Yanbu/SA for Obeikan Glass with
a capacity of 800 t/d. A new joint venture
company Saudi Guardian Float Glass Co.
Ltd. has announced construction of its 450-
t/d float glass plant. Meanwhile the opening
of the RAK Ghani container glass plant in
the AE has increased regional bottle-making
capacity by 44 000 t/a.
Glass making technology will show glass
production technology including raw materi-
als, refractories, industrial gases, batch
preparation, glass melting technology, form-
ing for flat and hollow glass, glass tube pro-
duction, glass fibre production, kiln technol-
ogy, cold end technology for flat glass, lami-
nation, separators, coating systems, convey-
ing, packing, transport and warehousing.
In the ceramic section, exhibits will include
raw materials and additives, production ma-
terials and ancillaries, conveying, feeding,
batching, weighing, crushing, grinding,
grading, screening, separation, mixing,
moulding, glazing, decorating, surface treat-
ment, heat treatment, measurement and
control, laboratory equipment, plant con-
struction, engineering, dust extraction, filter-
ing, handling, packaging, and automation
systems and technology.
T.I.M.E. will serve as a platform where in-
dustry representatives can showcase their
products, gain access to a dynamic Middle
East market, assess market needs, and net-
work and share latest developments in the
field. The AE and other GCC states have
been highly successful in leveraging on the
natural advantage of cheap energy and the
availability of some raw materials in abun-
dance. This has resulted in the emergence of
production units for aluminium, steel, glass,
cement, ceramics and other energy-reliant
industries. Local demand for these construc-
tion related products is still high, considering
the on-going infrastructure developments
and the expansion in the oil and gas sector.
Although the current economic scenario has
enforced a slowdown on many construction
projects, it is effectively only a slow down
and not a shut-down. The ongoing construc-
tion projects in the AE are valued at around
USD 650 billion, according to recently re-
leased statistics, with the construction sector
remaining the third largest contributor to the
countrys economy. Further information:
www.thermalexpo.com,
E-mail: info@expo-centre.ae
Russia
Meeting of Refractory Experts and
Metallurgists 2012 in Moscow
The next International Conference of Refrac-
tory Experts and Metallurgists will take place
in Moscow on 22 and 23 March 2012, or-
ganized by Intermet Engineering. Further in-
formation: E-mail: l.sorkin@imet.ru
Germany
Secondary Raw Materials at
IFAT ENTSORGA 2012
IFAT ENTSORGA, which takes place from
7 to 11 May 2012 at the New Munich Trade
Fair Centre, is further expanding its portfolio.
The worlds most important trade fair for in-
novations and services in the water, sewage,
waste and raw-materials management sec-
tor now has two new product groups: "sup-
pliers of secondary raw materials" and
"users of secondary raw materials". The aim
here is to bring together those companies
which have secondary raw materials, e.g.
copper from piping, with customers who
need those raw materials in the manufacture
of their own products. For both suppliers and
users, therefore, IFAT ENTSORGA will be an
ideal and target-oriented platform for sec-
ondary raw materials. In addition to this
area, also new in the nomenclature for the
fair are transmission engineering, fluid tech-
nology and power generation units, acces-
sories and wear parts has been defined. In-
cluded in this product group are mainly sup-
pliers of machinery, plant and equipment for
waste disposal and recycling. Further infor-
mation: www.ifat.de
ERRATUM NOTE
In the previous issue of refractories WORLDFORUM 3 (2011) [3] a report on the 47
th
Annual St. Louis Meeting 2011 was published. On page
72 the paper "Oxidative Resistance of Various Resin Technologies", written by Dr Rajan Srinivasacharya, Stephen W. Arbuckle and
Dr Zhikai Zhong of Momentive Specialty Chemicals, Louisville, Kentucky was cited. The paper was given by Dr Rajan Srinivasacharya rather than
Dr. Zhikai Zhong as stated in this article. We apologize this error. The editors
Stretch hood packaging
replacing costly packaging
with cardboard and/or strapping
together with shrinking
The major challenge to enable safe delivery
of products using different transport modes
(e.g. railway, ship or truck) is finding the
packaging that at the same time fulfils all
transport-related legislation. Legislations
stating that under typical transport condi-
tions neither the payload nor even a part of
the truckload is allowed to slip, overturn, or
fall down.
Stretch hood is one of the fastest growing
applications in pallet packaging (around
20 % annual growth rate in Europe), due to
the high package integrity and the flexibility
of its use for palletizing various product
loads.
Stretch hood is the solution to stabilize and
handle very unstable loads. By use of the
right unitization technology one can mini-
mize the most prevalent types of damage to
loads such as shifting, ripped or loose pack-
ing, crushing, water damage and infestation.
tects the product from any damage during
delivery, is easy to integrate into the logistics
process, is safe to handle, and can be dis-
posed of easily. However, these aspects are
not always a packaging prerequisite and
conventional materials such as shrink wrap-
ping, cardboard packaging, and/or steel
strapping did not fulfill all these require-
ments at RHI.
The stretch hood is made from a continuous
roll of gusseted film which is stretched over
the pallet load for maximum load integrity.
It's a fully automatic operation where the
machine automatically adjusts to the pallet
height in question.
Refractories optimally packaged
with stretch hoods
Through a series of tests Lachenmeier and
the Austrian company RHI, manufacturer of
refractory bricks, have developed an intelli-
gent packaging method by means of stretch
hoods.
This kind of packaging has been tested re-
garding the form stability of palletized
formed and unformed refractory products.
The DEKRA Technology Centre/DE as veri-
fied and certified this packaging method for
palletized load units of building products up
to a mass of 2000 kg with accelerations of
up to 4 g in the laboratory.
At RHI, and at customers in general, the op-
timal packaging is a packaging, which pro-
Innovative Energy Saving Packaging Technology
Now more than ever the industry is crying out for savings, sustain-
ability and innovation all through the logistic chain, and thus also in
the packaging process.
The demand for such packaging machines is rising considerably
resulting in increased requirements concerning the flexibility of the
packaging process. Furthermore, the desire for low-cost packaging as
well as environmentally safe packaging have led to greater interest
in keeping the consumption of energy and materials as low as pos-
sible. The industry is now more than ever asking for machines that
use less energy, that have far less downtime and that deliver more
throughput for the amount of energy they are putting into it.
Learn how RHI obtained considerable savings by changing to a
Lachenmeier stretch hood packaging solution stretch hood, which
often can replace a shrink wrap solution with a payback in less than
two years. 180 Mt of packaging material and more than 30 000 m
3
of gas have been saved per year in the first two RHI projects.
Lachenmeier A/S
6400 Snderborg
Denmark
www.lachenmeier.com
Keywords: strech hood packaging, energy
saving
Fig. 1a New stretch hood packaging at RHI...
Fig. 1b ... and conventional way of wrapping
Fig. 2 Lachenmeier stretch hood machine type
Multi FleX1
The task for Lachenmeier at RHI was there-
fore to develop a homogeneous and stable
load securing method to replace costly
packaging with cardboard and/or strapping
together with shrinking. The products in
question were fireproof formed bricks and
unformed products in big bags or paper
sacks.
After several test trials stretch hood was ac-
knowledged to be the preferred method.
Then, DEKRA was asked to carry out conclu-
sive tests for the certification of palletized
load units regarding form stability in accor-
dance with the requirement of load unit se-
curing under the regulations in force for
combined freight transport (accelerations up
to 1,0 g) and for pure rail transport (acceler-
ations when moving of up to 4,0 g).
These load assumptions go beyond the ac-
celerations of 0,8 g in forward direction and
0,5 g in rearward direction or left and right
specified in guideline VDI 2700 for road-only
transport.
During delivery, unloading and on all inter-
nal transportation stretch hood packaging
demonstrated its true strengths: The film did
not tear even under great load, the pack-
aged pallets remained intact, the bricks did
not shift, and the pallets could be transport-
ed and stored safely. The absolute shape
stability, in addition to many other proper-
ties, guaranteed enhanced industrial safety
in all processes. For example, difficult and
dangerous steel band removal is no longer
necessary.
The project, which was started at two pilot
plants in 2009 has now successfully been
implemented in several RHI plants. Since the
introduction, more than 300 000 packages
have been delivered to over 990 customers
in more than 90 countries.
In the two pilot projects more than 180 Mt
of packaging material and more than
30 000 m
3
of gas have been saved per year.
A similar reduction is to be expected at the
other RHI plants (no energy for shrinking
necessary anymore, no additional reinforce-
ment made from a second material is re-
quired and only one packaging material
needs to be disposed of).
Multi FleX1 innovative energy
saving stretch hood packaging
Everybody that looks for extreme load stabil-
ity should consider Lachenmeiers latest de-
velopment in stretch hood packaging the
Multi FleX1 machine that applies film in a
way that provides extreme holding force
without increased film usage. The load will
be locked to the pallet. The system has a
pending patent.
The new machine boasts more simplicity
and user-friendliness than previous models
along with enhanced savings in time,
space and energy. The right way to lower
the carbon footprint and to increase sustain-
ability.
The electrical energy consumption on the
Multi FleX1 is 40 % less than compared to
previous models. Savings obtained by the
main weight being placed at floor level. It
will not follow the up- and down movement
of the machine frame for each single wrap-
ping cycle, meaning less tear but not in-
significantly, at the same time less energy is
required.
The reduced weight of the machine com-
pared to the previous model leads to signif-
icant secondary benefits in other parts of the
machine operation all leading to less ener-
gy consumption.
The Multi FleX1 has been reduced in size in
length, width and height, resulting in less
costly production floor space and required
building height.
With the Multi FleX1 an easy access to all
over servicing is ensured as the machine will
be equipped with the unique feature of low-
ering the top of the machine down to floor
level for even easier, faster and safer service
and maintenance (Lachenmeier patent no.
EP 2 069 206 B1). No need to carry tools
and spare parts to the top of the machine.
The top is simply moved down to the desired
service height. Also, no need to stand on the
conveyor for service due to an integrated
platform. Every single service or mainte-
nance job on the machine can be carried out
at floor level.
Furthermore, the machine will be running
with top stretch film unwinding system
patented by Lachenmeier (EP 1 184 281)
that saves up to 10 % film and eliminates
thin and fragile film on the corners of the
load . Another benefit of this system is the
possibility of down gauging film thickness
and further reducing film consumption.
With the Multi FleX1 Lachenmeier is re-
sponding to industry demand for high per-
formance, lower operating costs and higher
level of sustainability, all in a small design
where no detail is too small.
Fig. 3 Lachenmeier stretch hood machine at RHI
Especially during railway transport or on
pure roads the stresses are very high and
therefore robust packaging solutions are re-
quired.
Shrink film and steel strapping proved un-
suitable for accelerating forces approaching
4 g, therefore cardboard packaging was
necessary. However, cardboard packaging
has the disadvantage of requiring strapping
to hold the cardboard system together, and
cardboard absorbs and stores moisture
and if the temperature increases the mois-
ture evaporates into the packaged unit.
Furthermore, it is not possible to see the
condition of the product inside the card-
board box which can be dangerous during
stacking.
History of Lachenmeier
Since 1969, Lachenmeier has established
itself as one of the worlds leading, most in-
novative producers of end-of-line packaging
machinery. Lachenmeiers commitment to
continual improvement and new product in-
novations ensures customer satisfaction and
has made Lachenmeier the packaging sup-
plier of choice for many of the worlds top
manufacturers.
Sustainability in packaging is one of the
leading parameters in the development of
the Lachenmeier stretch hood machines. To
be able to deliver solutions with speed and
efficiency, reducing costs and environmental
impact.
Lachenmeier smartpack
Now more than ever industries are crying
out for savings, sustainability and innova-
tion. Lachenmeier has accepted this chal-
identifying customers problems and needs,
testing customer products, crafting a poten-
tial solution, to establishing value and ROI.
The consulting services vary, ranging from
brief surveys, to long range studies, tests at
the DEKRA Technology Centre in Neumun-
ster/DE, and in depth analysis of customers
packaging processes.
lenge and has developed the smartpack con-
cept. With Lachenmeier smartpack one can
get all from one source, as Lachenmeier sup-
ply not only pallet stretch hood and shrink
packaging machines but also film and serv-
ice.
Mid 2009 Lachenmeier entered the stretch
hood film market, enabling them to sell
machines together with film in different
packages; machine only, machine followed
at a later stage by film, and finally machine,
film and service combined.
With this approach Lachenmeier offer cus-
tomers guaranteed packaging costs, higher
availability on their packaging line, less
scrap, possibility of less maintenance people,
and finally no transfer of responsibility as
they will have only one contact person all
leading to savings in one way or another.
Lachenmeier has a consultative approach to
all aspects of the packaging process, from
Fig. 5 Products to be wrapped; refractory bricks and unformed products in paper sacks and big bags
Fig. 6 Lachenmeier smartpack all from
one source
Your Media Partner
Advertisement International
Isabelle Martin, +49-7221-502-226
E-mail: i.martin@goeller-verlag.de
refractories
WORLDFORUM
Every two years, the Baden-Wrttemberg
Ministry of the Environment, Climate Pro-
tection, and the Energy Sector grants the
Environmental Technology Award to excel-
lent and innovative environmental technol-
ogy products in four categories. The special
award of the jury considers current chal-
lenges in environmental policy and is grant-
ed to Celitement GmbH this year.
Cement production is an energy-consuming
process. Annually, cement works emit about
three billion tons of the greenhouse gas
carbon dioxide, corresponding to 5 to 7 %
of the worldwide CO
2
emissions. Hence,
CO
2
emission of cement production exceeds
that of worldwide air traffic by a factor of
3 to 4.
Compared to conventional cement produc-
tion processes, the new cement promises to
result in enormous reductions of energy
consumption and presumably half of the
CO
2
emissions. Celitement
also saves re-

sources, as only one third of the amount of
limestone is required compared to conven-
tional Portland cement and no gypsum ad-
ditive is needed.
Celitement
has the potential of replacing

conventional cement in many areas in the
long term, emphasizes Dr Hanns-Gnther
Mayer, one of the managing directors of
Celitement GmbH. First, the KIT scientists
produced Celitement
on the laboratory
scale. After more than one year of extensive
and highly successful testing, Celitement
GmbH started to build a pilot plant on KIT
Campus North with an investment volume
of EUR 5 million last year. From autumn
2011, this pilot plant will supply 100 kg
of Celitement
daily. "This will be another

big step towards the maturity of this envi-
ronmentally compatible cement, says
Mayer.
With energy- and material-efficient pro-
cesses and products, enterprises in Baden-
Wrttemberg can reduce costs enormously,
increase their competitiveness, and open up
new, strongly growing markets worldwide,
explains Franz Untersteller, Minister for the
Environment, Climate Protection, and the
Energy Sector of Baden- Wrttemberg.
With the Environmental Technology
Award, we wish to point the way by focus-
ing attention on enterprises and their inno-
vations to save resources and protect the
environment.
Further information: www.celitement.de
Germany
Celitement
:
A New Environmentally Compatible Cement
The Celitement
environmentally compatible cement developed by

Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) is granted the Baden-Wrt-
temberg Special Environmental Technology Award. From todays per-
spective, Celitement
will require only half of the energy for produc-

tion and carbon dioxide (CO
2
) emission into the environment will be
halved compared to conventional processes. The new cement is
presently being further developed to maturity by Celitement GmbH,
a spin-off of the four inventors, KIT, and the industry partner Schwenk
Zement KG.
Monika Landgraf
76131 Karlsruhe
Germany
Phone: +49 721 608-47414
Fax: +49 721 608-43658
Keywords:
energy saving, CO
2
reduction
Fig. 1 Towards environmentally compati-
ble cement production: Celitement
is
granted the Baden-Wrttemberg Special
Environmental Technology Award
(Photo: Markus Breig)
Fig. 2 The new pilot plant produces
100 kg of Celitement
daily
Fig. 3 The new building of Celitement
GmbH on KIT Campus North
It currently costs up to EUR 200 to dispose
of one tonne of household waste. Up until a
short time ago, the price of a tonne of wheat
was well under this figure, although now it
is slightly over. The global market prices for
raw materials have risen by more than 80 %
in recent years, for example because the re-
serves of resources are depleting and current
demand is set to increase fourfold by 2050.
The criteria according to which this immense
increase has been calculated are not
known, but hopefully the calculation is not
based on the decades-long practice of the
industrial nations, that is an increase in the
consumption of resources parallel to the
level of prosperity. With the exception of
fossil fuels, Germanys resources consist es-
sentially of raw materials for silicate mass
building materials and for products in the
ceramics and glass industry. Preventative ac-
tion to secure the supply of raw materials is
often in competition with the infrastructure,
and clays, kaolins and sands are not always
available at all desired production locations.
timated to comprise 10,5 billion Mt of min-
eral-based building materials, such as clay
bricks, concrete and mortar, 220 billion Mt of
wood and 100 billion Mt metal. The power
networks consist of more than 4 Mt steel,
500 000 t lead, 750 000 t aluminium and
3 Mt copper. These claims may seem uto-
pian, they are, however, the estimated re-
serves and, compared to the natural raw
material deposits, they are, in the terms of
geologists, reconnoitred reserves. Yet the
potential of indigenous waste-derived raw
materials has so far been neither systemati-
cally analysed nor developed. This also con-
cerns existing buildings, the volume of which
is increasing further, because new buildings
are constantly being built while old buildings
are more seldom pulled down. As the build-
ing stock differs widely with regard to indi-
vidual materials, resource researchers are
demanding registers in which the raw mater-
ials in each property are documented cer-
tainly a project for the future! On the other
hand, there is a need for a raw-material-spe-
cific recycling. At present, according to the
waste statistics in Germany, already 87 % of
the building rubble is reported as recycled.
The figures from the previous years are low-
er and the landfill rates in the previous years
are also higher. Of the recycled material,
however, the larger part is only coarsely
comminuted and used primarily in civil and
underground engineering and for the sub-
courses of roads. But the future prospects
are more positive. So, for example, since
2010 an AIF cooperative research project
has been running under the heading Ma-
terial cycles in masonry construction SIM
with sub-topics in four research associations
in construction. The sub-project Liberation
processes for the separation of compound
structures in masonry construction is head-
ed by the Institute of Prefabricated Element
Engineering and Prefabricated Construction
Weimar Regd. Selected specially manufac-
tured model exterior walls form the basis for
the comprehensive assessment of their re-
cyclability. For the subsequent coarse and
fine comminution, instead of the usual se-
But, on the other hand, modern preparation
methods contribute to reproducible grades.
In principle it would also be possible in fu-
ture, especially for silicate building materials
and ceramic building materials to continue
consumption from indigenous deposits.
Against this, however, are the relevant statu-
tory regulations and considerable imports of
metals and important minerals, the direct
correlation is explained in the following.
Germanys revised Act for Promoting
Closed Substance Cycle Waste Management
and Ensuring Environmentally Compatible
Waste Disposal dated 30 March 2011 in-
cludes the introduction of a recycling quota
of 65 % for waste from human settlements
and a recycling quota of 70 % for construc-
tion and demolition waste to be reached by
the year 2020. For the latter, by the end of
2016, it is to be reviewed whether the target
quota can be increased. Corresponding
regulations also exist on EU level or are be-
ing processed to divert waste flows away
from landfills.
For decades Germany and other industrial
nations have imported almost their entire
demand for metals and important minerals
from other parts of the earth, the large part
of which have been or are found in build-
ings, industrial commodities and later in
landfills and waste heaps. This has led, for
instance, to the following statement of the
Wuppertal Institute for Climate, Environment
and Energy: In Germany, more copper lies
under the earth than there are reserves
worldwide. The towns and cities in particu-
lar are growing mines. A differentiation is
made between long-term and short-term ur-
ban mines. The long-term reserves include
landfills and buildings, i.e. all forms of infra-
structure. Consumer goods, waste from set-
tlements and production are classed as
short-term urban mines. Together they form
the local reservoir of raw materials. It was
determined that every European throws
around 600 kg of recyclable material into
the waste bin every year, that corresponds to
1,5 billion tonnes. The long-term mines are
many times larger. German buildings are es-
Germany
Urban Mining: Will the Raw Materials Deposits of the
Future Come from the Cities?
At IFAT-Entsorga 2010, the
worlds leading trade fair for en-
vironmental technology, urban
mining was already a keyword
for various materials. Either the
value per tonne, the forcast of
certain shortages in recources or
political constraints can be the
drivers for.
Manfred Rhrs
99423 Weimar
Germany
E-mail: RoehrsManfred@t-online.de
Keywords: raw material specific
recycling, urban mining
lective demolition, conventional demolition
was chosen. Here the focus is on maximizing
the purity of the separated materials and the
identification of problems and other devel-
opment potential of recycling technology.
The conclusion of this project is scheduled
for 2012.
Back in 2007 the Zurich-based building ma-
terials supplier and the Jura Cement factory
in Wildegg/CH presented the Aroma process
Aroma for alternative raw materials with
which building rubble is recycled to cement.
Modern separation and processing methods
grind demolition waste to granulate, remove
the value materials as well as the different
metals, until 5 to 10 % defined mineral frac-
tion is added to the lime and marl in the
mixture for the cement to be fired. The ad-
vantage for the cement works is primarily
the lower demand for natural raw materials,
as the quarries in the surrounding areas will
soon be exhausted. Moreover the landfilling
of building rubble is reported to be more ex-
pensive.
The advocates of urban mining are of the
firm opinion that landfills will be developed
into open-cast mines in the next few years.
They explain this primarily with reference to
their metal content. It is estimated that the
waste heaps in Germany contain more iron
than the country uses in one year. The land-
filled copper would last 1,5 years and alu-
minium 0,5 years. Other experts reckon on
another 10 to 20 years before recovery as it
is still cheap to extract the metals from ores
although the metal content in the waste is
sometimes much higher. If, however, one
considers that in the period of the last
12 years the industrial minerals shipped to
Germany have become more than 250 %
more expensive, prices reaching a new high
only in February this year, the deposits will
be opened up in the next few years. At pres-
ent the main problem is said to be the min-
ing of the landfills. A current research project
therefore addresses how the frequently es-
caping foul-smelling methane a 25 times
stronger greenhouse gas than carbon di-
oxide can be cost-efficiently trapped when
the landfills are opened.
The waste heap was identified as a mine al-
ready because of the damaged solar cells
and later perhaps panels damaged for rea-
sons of age. These are classed as hazardous
waste with regard to disposal. It is known
that solar cells consist of 94 % float glass
with vapour-coated strategically significant
metals like gallium, indium while the panels
contain copper, molybdenum, cadmium, tel-
lurium and selenium. A short time ago, the
company Loser Chemie in Hainichen/DE suc-
ceeded in completely removing the metal
from the glass in special acid baths. With
pumping of the acid in the circuit of the
pilot plant, high concentrations of these
strategic metals are obtained, which a
smelting furnace operator processes into
pure metals. After treatment, the glass is so
pure that it is suitable for use in new collec-
tors and can be sold for EUR 50 to EUR 70
per tonne. At Unicore, a company based in
Hoboken/BE, a large number of metals and
special metals are recovered from waste. For
example, a lithium-containing slag is pro-
duced which for various reasons sometimes
does not permit any lithium extraction. This
slag is utilized at a renowned German glass
factory. During melting of the glass, lithium
from the slag is absorbed into the material,
the lithium making the glass heat resistant,
e.g. for ceramic hobs and tea services. A sec-
ond possible use is in the construction in-
dustry. As a component in cement produc-
tion, lithium penetrates into the building
material. The concrete made in this way is
supposed to be more resistant to wetness,
dries faster and exhibits particular suitability
for hydraulic construction. This example
proves how a waste-derived raw material
can switch from the IT industry into the con-
struction industry and consequently transfer
from a short-term into a long-term urban re-
serve.
Resource researchers are convinced that the
move to a complete recycling economy will
be complete in around 100 years. For metals,
it is already technically possible today and
for silicate building materials it is certainly
feasible.
Reference
[1] Die Stadt als Mine; Technology Review, 04.2011
Introduction
In a great number of cases, the kiln car lin-
ings are made of large blocks of ramming
mixture. These blocks are usually poured di-
rectly onto the car. The cost of these un-
formed masses is much lower than for pre-
formed bricks.
And the great weight of the large individual
blocks already ensures that the lining re-
mains physically stable.
However, a great amount of work is required
since everything has to be done manually.
This is the reason that this system is very fre-
quently to be found in countries with low
wage costs although refractory producers of
industrial countries also use such systems
frequently which, in actual practice, means
that one group of workers is permanently
occupied with repairing / relining the cars.
This represents a significant cost factor in
addition to the relatively short lifespan of
the large blocks which frequently split due to
their size.
When this method is used, the top-most lay-
er or the two top-most layers are usually
made of standard, dry-pressed bricks which
are normally laid without mortar and, as the
tivity of the lining layers located underneath,
this causes distinct differences in the kiln be-
tween the temperatures in the product load
above and below. Thus the temperature of
the kiln car deck and the products directly
above it have more than 200 C difference
in some cases. This can also almost never be
corrected by optimization of the kiln set-
tings.
The temperature deficit of the lower layers in
the kiln car product load usually continues
up to the main firing zone and the tempera-
tures of the product load are not equal again
until the soak time area.
This running behind of the temperatures
in the bottom of the product load can only
be attenuated by slowing down the firing
speed although that reduces kiln perform-
ance and automatically increases specific
power consumption.
This has the reverse effect on the cooling.
Here the kiln car is usually much warmer
wearing layer, can be quickly replaced. Such
a layer also absorbs the high specific pres-
sure of the product setting.
Cast or rammed mixtures are used for the
layers underneath. These mixtures vary in
quality depending on their location and the
thermal stress whereas in the lower cold
portion insulating mixtures can then also be
used.
Usually these blocks are shaped so that a
physical fixation is created between them
and the individual parts cannot slip. Fig. 1
shows a schematic view of such a typical
set-up.
Effects on the firing process
In the preheating zone of a normal refracto-
ry tunnel kiln, the product is heated by ex-
haust gases coming out of the firing zone in
the direction of the kiln entrance. Burners
are only required for higher temperatures. If
the kiln channel is constructed correctly and
there is a flow-optimized product setting,
hot exhaust gases surround the product and
this then ensures that the material to be
fired is heated up in a more or less uniform
manner based on the flow pattern.
However, the car lining can also only be
heated convectively from above through the
top-most layer which means that the upper
layers of the kiln car lining heat up much
more slowly than the product located above
that. If a significant downward outflow of
energy occurs due to the high heat conduc-
Germany
Light-weight Kiln Cars for Refractory Kilns
When kiln car linings for high-
temperature kilns are involved,
most refractory producers prima-
rily consider the aspects of cost
and maintenance effort/lifespan.
It is naturally very important that
many of todays tunnel kilns
which are in operation are al-
ready older models that use the
same kiln car concepts that have
been in existence for years now.
The direct effect on the actual
firing process is either not
known or not considered.
Naturally many different systems
are used.
Ernst-Georg Hartung
Riedhammer GmbH
90411 Nrnberg
Germany
E-mail: ernst.hartung@riedhammer.de
Keywords: light-weight lining, energy
efficiency
dense br i cks
cast bl ocks
Fig. 1 Kiln car with typical heavy refractory lining
than the product setting. Since the kiln
car lining can only be cooled convectively
from above via the top-most layer, the effec-
tiveness of the cooling is limited and creates
longer throughput times. Post heating
after leaving the kiln is also typical for
heavy linings. The already cooled down
product is reheated again by the tremen-
dously high temperatures of the heavy
kiln car lining. This can slow down the un-
loading of the car significantly. With sensi-
tive products this can also cause cracks in
the product.
Although the layer of hollow blocks which is
used occasionally under the product does
somewhat improve the temperature com-
pensation, it increases the mass to be heat-
ed and creates extra costs. Fig. 2 shows the
great difference in temperature between the
top and bottom product load in the preheat-
ing zone.
Light kiln car design
One solution to the described problem is
to predominantly use insulating materials
in the kiln car lining. This reduces the
mass to be heated and prevents too much
thermal energy from escaping. As a result,
the top layers of the lining can warm
up quicker and even the lower product
layers reach the desired temperature faster.
The differences between the top and bot-
tom of the product setting are greatly re-
duced.
This has already been tried often in the past
but specific properties of the insulating bricks
used in the design have set certain limits.
This is the reason why the predominant use
of insulating bricks for a lining is still rela-
tively rare even today.
One problem involved with this is the high
physical load of the top layers caused by the
product, which can be up to 2 t/m
2
. As well
known, insulating bricks consist almost ex-
clusively of material containing high alumina
which tends to deform under great physical
loads and high temperatures which then re-
duces the lifespan drastically. In the past,
this problem often caused designs with light
weight materials to fail. However, during the
last 10 to 15 years, the selection and quality
of available insulating bricks has improved
significantly (e.g., several manufacturers of-
fer insulating bricks of a certain temperature
class with different degrees of density and
strength). The significantly improved process
control in modern tunnel kilns allows faster
firing times than in the past so that the tran-
sient thermal stress of the bottom layers is
reduced.
Even in a light-weight kiln car setting, at
least the top layer of the kiln car lining must
be made of dense bricks which offer suffi-
cient resistance to pressure. In addition, a
chemically resistant top layer is indispensa-
ble for basic products, for example.
Measuring car curve light
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
C
)
Fig. 2 Kiln car measuring curve with heavy car lining
I nsul at i ng br i cks
Fig. 3 Kiln with light lining out of insulating bricks
Measuring car curve heavy
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
C
)
Fig. 4 Kiln car measuring curve with light car lining
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

[
C
]
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

[
C
]
Measuring car curve light
Measuring car curve heavy
the expertise
www.ceramitec.de
CERAMITEC 2012
Technologies
|
Innovations
|
Materials
22 25 May 2012
New Munich Trade Fair Centre
The best gathering:
Take advantage of the trade fairs
leading international role.

As a global trade fair, CERAMITEC is the most interna-
tional event of its kind and features the industrys most
extensive range of machines, equipment, systems,
processes and raw materials for ceramics and powder
metallurgy.
Pow
der M
etallurgy D
ay
22 M
ay 2012
the transient temperature curves in heavy
and light kiln cars after having reached the
temperature of 1750 C after 30 h.
It is certainly sensible to give more attention
to the kiln car of an existing kiln system par-
ticularly regarding acceleration of the firing
process.
Summary
The use of light-weight kiln cars has a sig-
nificant positive effect on the energy con-
sumption of refractory kilns and should be
considered in all cases.
Results from recent kilns equipped with
light-weight cars show high energy savings
when compared to traditional massive kiln
cars.
heats up faster and the temperature com-
pensation related to this in the product set-
ting during heat-up is much better.
Cooling can also be designed much more ef-
fectively which accelerates the entire firing
process.
In Fig. 4 one can see that the differences in
temperature between the top and bottom
are considerably smaller than those shown
in Fig. 2. This measurement was carried out
in the same kiln with the same temperature
curve.
The temperature curve inside the kiln car
brickwork shows, that the heavy car lining
consumes considerably more energy than a
light-weight car lining. This causes a higher
vertical heat flow into the car. Fig. 5 shows
The design of a physically and thermally
stable, light-weight kiln car lining for higher
firing temperatures > 1600 C requires a
great deal of constructive experience since
mortar can only be used to a very limited
degree due to the changes in size caused
by the continuously changing tempera-
tures. Particularly with insulating bricks, the
mortar joint is frequently more stable than
the brick itself since bricks crack easier and
this weakens the kiln car construction over
time.
Kiln car superstructures made of shaped
bricks are available on the market, which
physically interlock with each other (e.g., the
so-called knobbed blocks) so that mortar is
no longer needed. However, these systems
are usually very expensive since so many dif-
ferent formats are needed and that makes
production time-consuming.
An alternative is a setup which only uses
shaped bricks around the outer edge. This
ring provides the entire setting with suffi-
cient stability so that normal bricks can be
used for the inner portion of the lining.
Fig. 3 shows the schematic setup of such a
kiln car lining.
Such a light-weight lining offers consider-
able advantages for the firing process. Only
one layer of dense bricks has to be heated.
The temperature in the lower insulating lay-
ers drops quickly and the amount of energy
needed is considerable less than with a
heavy setting.
An even greater effect on the firing process
is the already described fact that the kiln car
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Kiln car lining (mm)
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
C
)
light
heavy
Fig. 5 Temperature curve inside the kiln car brickwork at 1750 C kiln temperature after
30 h firing time
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

[
C
]
Kiln car lining [mm]
New Directory for Refractories Suppliers
refractories WORLDFORUM will build up an international
business guide for all suppliers to the refractories industry and
their affiliated segments. All relevant suppliers can make their
individual registration online.
The subscription on www.refractories-worldforum.com is
free during the first 12 months. An index is provided, further
insertions (no trademarks) can be suggested.
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Germany
Eisenberg Luting Sand as a Means
for Functionalizing Refractory Products*
At GIFA 2011 in Dsseldorf our
editor took the opportunity of
talking to Michael Peter
Wiessler, Managing Director at
EKW GmbH, Eisenberg/Palatina-
te, about his experience and
plans since he took up his posi-
tion. We also asked him about
his expectations of GIFA.
Fig. 1 Managing Director M. P. Wiessler
*) Aneziris, C.G.: Personal memo dated 3 De-
cember 2008, Institute of Ceramics, Glass and
Building Materials Engineering, Freiberg Univer-
sity of Mining and Technology/DE
adapt and complement the existing product
range. It is particularly gratifying for us that
we have already achieved this goal before
the end of my first year working at EKW.
Other focuses are the expansion of our
bases abroad, ongoing internationalization,
the expansion of our market presence into
other industrial segments as well as the de-
velopment of our research and develop-
ment.
rwf: Luting sand with 80 % quartz content
is certainly an outstanding raw material in
foundry applications, but does it have any
significance as a raw material in other re-
fractory applications?
MPW: The lowering of the melting point in
connection with alumosilicates, as can be
seen in the three-phase diagramme, has ad-
vantages in microstructural formation. In this
context I should like to refer your readers to
our publications.
rwf: As a family business, how did EKW
cope with the 2008 / 2009 crisis? Did you
suffer any sales losses? And which conclu-
sions have you drawn from this?
MPW: We are in the fortunate position,
thanks to our own unique raw material de-
posit, to be less affected by quality and cost
fluctuations than other competitors. We also
profit from strong customer loyalty on the
back of our pronounced service orientation.
That was probably one of the reasons why
we were spared any severe losses during the
crisis. In some areas EKW can rely on prod-
ucts that use our own raw material as their
raw material basis. Accordingly, our depend-
ence on externally sourced raw materials is
limited. This gives us the advantage of being
able to maintain consistent quality and hav-
ing a guaranteed supply with relative inde-
pendence of price fluctuations for at least a
part of our product range.
rwf: How is EKWs position currently in the
refractories market in Europe and world-
wide?
MPW: As mentioned, EKW GmbH is also
very strongly focussed internationally on the
foundries market sector. In future we shall
widen our range and position our company
appropriately in the steel, pig iron, alumini-
um, cement and non-ferrous metals sectors.
Here we shall incorporate own raw material
whenever possible in product design.
This raw material enables us to develop
products that our competitors cannot pro-
duce because they lack this raw material.
With this raw material as a functional ele-
ment, even high-tech products can be pro-
duced. Moreover there is rapid development
of products on the basis of alumosilicates
and combinations with luting sand fractions.
The production sites outside Europe will also
be further extended with regard to research
and development and can produce their
own products without relying on shipments
from the parent site.
rwf: You have subsidiaries in France, Italy
and Malaysia and holdings in companies in
Germany, Brazil and Slovenia. In addition,
there are sales activities in many countries in
the world. According to which criteria have
you oriented your diversification policy
worldwide?
MPW: We are still focussing our activities on
foundries. This orientation is also evident in
rwf: Mr Wiessler, you took over the man-
agement of EKW GmbH at the beginning of
2010. What insights have you gained and
what are you planning to do to improve the
position of your company and strengthen it
for the future?
MPW: EKW GmbH is a solid medium-sized
company with a strong sense of tradition,
which has positioned itself specifically in the
foundries market sector as a competent
partner for refractory products and associat-
ed services as a system supplier. The compa-
nys strength in foundries has been tradi-
tionally derived from our unique raw materi-
al base our luting sand, and will probably
remain the most important economic main-
stay for EKW in the future too.
Nevertheless it is my aim to further develop
the company and position it as a competent
system supplier in other market segments as
well. The strategies resulting from this vision
and their realization contribute to the best
possible development of the entire company.
Here it is important to focus on certain pro-
jects and their implementation.
The example of this in my first year is the
aluminium sector. Our goal is to extend,
EKW GmbH
67304 Eisenberg
Germany
www.ekw-feuerfest.de
EKW GmbH
Established in 1903 as Eisenberger Kleb-
sand-Werke GmbH with the involvement of
the clay mining companies Johann
Friederich, Pflzische Schamotte- und Ton-
werke (Schiffer & Kircher) A.G., von
Gienanth'sche Erben and Nikolaus Her-
mann as the founding partners, the compa-
ny is headquartered in Eisenberg/Palatinate
with an open pit for luting sand, a kaolin-
ized silica sand, the largest deposit of this
specific type of raw material in Europe.
Capacity after prospection: around 150 Mt.
Internationally leading producer of refracto-
ries and supplier of engineering and service
solutions.
In October 2005 the companys name was
changed to EKW GmbH.
Turnover in 2010 (Germany only):
EUR 32 million
Production data in 2010 (Germany only):
silicate and alumosilicate (acid) product
line 53 000 t,
aluminate (neutral) product line 25 000 t,
including basic (MgO) materials, prefabri-
cated components 5000 units
Exports: 51 %
Product range
(typical product and pro-cess range):
Technical high-temperature ceramics in
the form of first-class innovative refracto-
ries on the basis of refractory phase sys-
tems (SiO
2
, Al
2
O
3
, SiC, C, CaO, MgO, ZrO
2
)
Thixotropic and self-flowing castables,
conventional castables, plastic and semi-
plastic mixes, dry vibration mixes for dif -
ferent application conditions, installation
and repair materials for cold and hot
gunning processes (dry gunning tech-
niques, wet torcreting, shotcreting), mor-
tar, mastics
Prefabricated shapes, functional ceramics,
project planning and full-service tech-
nologies and engineering of customer
equipment.
R&D investment (in Germany):
3 % of the turnover in 2010
Number of employees (in Germany):
138 in 2010
rwf: How do you take account of the needs/
wishes of your customers?
MPW: The focuses at EKW GmbH are on
products and services. Every employee is
committed to this goal. For us as a system
supplier, it is important that our customers
get perfect service in every respect. The qual-
ity of our products and the implemented
service orientation are designed to guaran-
tee high application reliability for our cus-
tomers.
rwf: What major trends have emerged?
MPW: The requirements to be met by our
products are manifold and accordingly it is
very difficult to describe any clear trends.
However, the requirements of our refracto-
ries customers are increasing steadily, and
quality, functionality as well as durability are
the parameters on which we are measured.
Furthermore, it is becoming more and more
important to position the company on the
market as a competent system supplier, ac-
cording to our motto systematized supply
of refractories and services.
rwf: Can you tell us about your market po-
sition for refractory products in steel,
foundries, the Al industry, NF metals and ce-
ment sectors? Are there any other applica-
tions that you would like to get more in-
volved in?
MPW: It is difficult to estimate our market
shares for the different market segments in
Germany and internationally. If you look at
the internal distribution, the foundries sector
accounts for around 70 % of our turnover.
The remaining 30 % is distributed across the
steel, pig iron and aluminium sectors.
rwf: How is your product range distributed
across these applications?
MPW: The predominant part of our current
product range is tailored to foundries. We
have recently completed our product range
for aluminium, and also in the sectors for
steel, pig iron, NF metals and cement,
the number of products developed has in-
creased steadily. My goal for the mid-term is
to serve all the sectors mentioned with ded-
icated refractories on high-tech level.
the internationalization of our company. The
goal will now be to further develop these
holdings and subsidiaries and prepare to en-
ter the market in other industrial segments.
rwf: Your subsidiaries in Italy and France as
well as your Brazilian holding appear partic-
ularly interesting? Are there special develop-
ment plans for these enterprises?
MPW: At our Brazilian holding, on account
of the local raw materials deposit, the inde-
pendent production and the companys own
product know-how, the emphasis remains
on independent research and development.
Here, however, it should be noted that the
development programme as well as all re-
search projects are agreed with the parent
company. The goal in Brazil too is to adapt
and further develop the product range tai-
lored to the local needs.
Our subsidiaries in France and Italy are or-
ganized as sales companies. An expansion in
the direction of the companys own produc-
tion in these countries is not planned at
present.
Fig. 1 EKW GmbH with its own raw material deposit and high-end production facilities
rwf: What results do you expect for the cur-
rent business year in respect of turnover and
delivered volumes?
MPW: As the economy developed very well
in the year 2011, we assume that EKW
GmbH will profit from this upswing. Current-
ly, it is very difficult to make any forecasts as
we are awaiting the summer months and
linings that are so important for the
foundries sector. But if you take the prevail-
ing trend into consideration, so we should
expect a plus of around 10 % both for sup-
ply volumes and for turnover.
rwf: Are you planning investments and ca-
pacity increases?
MPW: As already discussed, we have very
ambitious goals and for these it is also nec-
essary to make investments. Currently a pro-
ject is under way to increase productivity at
our production facility in Eisenberg. The re-
sulting investments will be realized in the
next few years. We are also currently invest-
ing in a new production facility for the pro-
duction of prefabricated shapes. As I men-
tioned earlier, we also invest strongly in R&D
and sales.
rwf: Back in 2008, you received the compa-
ny award for the raw materials industry for
the development of new types of refractory
ceramics on the basis of alumosilicates from
the Eisenberg luting sand. You were recent-
ly presented with the company award in the
raw materials industry 2010 of the German
state of the Rhineland-Palatinate. For which
company achievement did you receive this
award?
MPW: The company award of the raw mate-
rials industry for innovation in the state of
the Rhineland-Palatinate was awarded to us
in 2010 for the development of a refractory
composite on the basis of luting sand. We
not least supports modern, environmentally
friendly production processes, also with re-
gard to logistics aspects.
rwf: EKW owes its origins to the extensive
deposit of luting sand in the Eisenberg Basin
in the Palatinate. What makes the Eisenberg
luting sand so unique that you can look back
on more than 100 years of history with one
product? And what do you expect from this
unique product in future?
MPW: The Eisenberg luting sand basically
represents a material that is inherently re-
fractory in nature and can resist tempera-
tures to around 1700 C in an untreated
condition. Besides its versatility typical
uses are ramming, gunning, but also casting
processes, the material with its outstanding
bonding properties and mechanical charac-
teristics soon enjoyed an excellent reputa-
tion beyond Germanys borders and devel-
oped to a standard product in the iron and
steel industry for molten metal applications.
With global acceptance of the refractory raw
material, Eisenberg luting sand supports a
wide application portfolio, which to this day
essentially covers iron foundries, non-ferrous
metal foundries and important equipment in
the iron and steel industry.
The relevant refractories industry is also one
of the users of our raw material. With a view
to the further stable development and future
of our company, respectful treatment of our
raw material resources, the luting sand de-
posit in the Eisenberg Basin, is imperative.
Important for us is long-term stability, which
secures us a certain independence of the in-
ternational raw materials market and will
contribute to the economic success of the
company and our customers in the future.
rwf: Mr Wiessler, thank you for talking to
us. RVM
have succeeded in developing and produc-
ing a structurally flexible, carbon-bonded
high-temperature ceramic that combines the
positive refractory properties of the luting
sand with those of synthetic raw materials
and materials. Worth singling out are the
significantly improved wetting and corrosion
properties when exposed to aggressive
molten and gaseous media. The refractory
composite can be processed directly as well
as supplied in the form of modules to other
production processes.
rwf: Do you conduct research projects with
external partners with regard to raw materi-
als improvement, technology development
or new applications?
MPW: Yes, for many years now we have co-
operated successfully with the Institute of
Ceramics, Glass and Building Materials at
Freiberg University of Mining and Technolo-
gy, the Deutsches Institut fr Feuerfest und
Keramik (DIFK GmbH), Bonn, and the
Forschungsgemeinschaft Feuerfest e.V.
(FGF), Bonn.
rwf: To meet the rising requirements of your
customers in respect of durability, higher ap-
plication temperatures and increasingly ag-
gressive applications, you are concentrating
on the development of new materials, espe-
cially for applications in very corrosive at-
mospheres. Which advantages does the
Eisenberg luting sand have as one of the ba-
sic raw materials?
MPW: First Eisenberg luting sand can be ad-
justed to meet the needs of specific process-
ing methods and serves as a functional ele-
ment in advanced ceramic refractories.
Secondly, with Eisenberg luting sand, we
have an indigenous and sustainably avail-
able refractory raw material that impresses
with its consistent quality characteristics and
Your Media Partner
Advertisement Manager
Corinna Zepter, 0 72 21-502-237
E-mail: zepter@goeller-verlag.de
refractories
WORLDFORUM
Qingdao Asian Minerals Co.,
Ltd. (QAM) is a competent
company specializing in min-
erals and refractory raw materi-
als processing, refractory mono-
lithics producing (including sub-
production), domestic and inter-
national trading for various seg-
ments: refractories, foundries,
ceramics, steelmaking, electron-
ics and so on.
The main products produced and handled
are: bauxites (all types), sintered and fused
mullites, calcined flint clays and kaolins,
fused alumina (all types), different grades
and types of sintered and fused Al
2
O
3
-MgO
spinels, flake and amorphous graphites,
silicon carbides, fused and natural silica, in-
sulating lightweight aggregates etc.
QAM owns two plants with a total area of
59 900 m
2
. Here are installed five aggre-
gates processing lines, one flake graphite
drying and sieving line and four independent
grinding mills suited for different materials.
In addition to the minerals processing lines,
also refractory pre-mixing single mixers as
well as computer controlled fully automatic
dosing, blending and packing lines for re-
fractory monolithics production are avail-
able.
In the past 10 years period, ISO 9001 qual-
ity control management system certificates
on both raw materials processing and mono-
lithics manufacturing were obtained. The ob-
vious advantage and character of QAM is
the ability in meeting stable supply for the
most difficult and strict sizes / specs require-
ment orders for all related minerals.
In addition to the large scale world-wide ex-
port markets, global players are domestic
users, who have very special and strict qual-
ity requirements (e.g. American Standard
Shanghai Pottery Co., Ltd.; Morgan Molten
Metal Systems Suzhou Co., Ltd.; Ashland
Changzhou Modern Chemical Co., Ltd.;
Panasonic Anyang). Due to the trust-worthy
stable quality as well as costs controls, the
China
QAM Expertise in Minerals and Processing of
Refractory Raw Materials
Fig. 1 Qingdao Asian Minerals main building
Qingdao Asian Minerals Co., Ltd.
266300 Jiaozhou, Qingdao
China
www.dralonrefractory.com
Fig. 2 Grains processing line Fig. 3 Packed final products
sub-production of refractory premixing and
monolithics for overseas partners was
quickly expanding in the past few years
period.
History
The beginning of refractory materials pro-
duction in Trinec reaches back to the first
half of the 19
th
century when the Czech
Chamber started production of raw and cast
iron by the river Olza. The first refractory ma-
terials were used for blast furnace castings
in aggregates working in iron foundries and
enamel plants.
Gradually production expanded and prod-
ucts for coking plant steelworks and rolling
mills were made.
In 1889, originating from the small work-
shop a refractory plant, which satisfied the
whole needs of iron factories, came to exis-
tence. Approximately 20 000 t/a of chamot-
te and silica materials were produced in the
factory. Owing to the increased steel pro-
duction and change of requirements on as-
sortment and quality of the delivered
refractory materials a new company was
put into operation in 1961, which enabled
the production of 75 000 t/a of chamotte,
high alumina, siliceous and magnesite prod-
ucts.
In 1994 in the course of the privatisation of
T (Trinec ironworks), linking to the long-
time tradition of Trinec ceramic and refracto-
ry production, an independent private com-
pany Refrasil Ltd was founded and in a rela-
Czech Republic
Refrasil Ltd Traditional Producer of Refractories
The company Refrasil belongs to the most significant producers of
refractory materials in the Czech Republic. Besides production of re-
fractories, it provides technical services with regard to application of
refractories and renders complex technical services during installing
its materials at customers premises. Turnover in 2010 amounted to
EUR 17 million. More than 30 % of the companys production is ex-
ported to 12 countries.
Refrasil is member of Czech and Slovak Association of Refractory
Producers, which associate all significant producers of refractories
from Czech and Slovak Republics and therewith Refrasil is member
of the European Federation of Refractory Producers (PRE).
Refrasil s.r.o.
73965 Trinec Konsk
Czech Republic
E-mail: office@refrasil.cz
tively short period of its existence it earned a
prominent position in the temporary Czech
metallurgical and ceramics industry.
Production range
The production range involves fireclay and
high alumina bricks, mixes, mortars, mastics,
refractory castables and castables for pre-
shaped components.
All products are for use in metallurgical in-
dustry, foundries, building, ceramic and glass
industries, cement plants, lime works, power
generating plants etc.
Fireclay bricks TRISAM are produced on
the base of calcined fireclay, refractory clays
and kaolins in two different technological
processes dry and semi-dry pressing on
computer-controlled production lines. These
bricks are intended above all for consump-
tion in the metallurgical industry. There they
are used for linings of hot-blast stoves, blast
furnaces, ladles, stopper rods, hollowware,
ceramic recuperators, heating furnaces etc.
Furthermore, these products are used in the
ceramic and chemical industries.
High alumina bricks TRIAL are produced
on the base of calcined fireclay, andalusite,
bauxite, aluminium oxide, fused corundum,
refractory clays and kaolins, using the same
manufacturing technology as for fireclay
bricks. These bricks are for linings of aggre-
gates operating at elevated temperatures in
various industrial branches.
Insulating products TRIZOL are effective
insulating materials for service temperatures
exceeding 1300 C. They are manufactured
on the base of high-quality kaolins, refracto-
ry clays, aluminium oxides, expanded poly-
styrene and special additives.
The whole range of insulating products can
be manufactured in almost any shape ac-
Fig. 1 The Refrasil factory
cording to customers wish. There exists a
huge number of applications in a variety of
industrial branches, where insulating prod-
ucts are used in linings to save heat losses or
protect steel castings.
Tundish and gunning mixes TRIGUN:
Tundish mixes are produced of magnesia,
olivine, mineral and organic fibres and spe-
cial additives. They are applied by slurry gun-
ning in tundishes, where the mix is projected
on the tundish walls and bottom creating
the working lining. They are dispatched as
dry mixes packed in big-bags.
Gunning mixes are manufactured of bauxite,
andalusite, calcined fireclay, plastifying
agents and other additives. They are applied
by gunning as repair materials to supply
worn areas on refractory linings. They are
packed in paper sacks or big-bags.
Refractory mortars TRIPLAST are pro-
duced on the base of calcined fireclay, an-
dalusite, bauxite, brown fused alumina, alu-
minium oxide, silica sands, refractory clays
and kaolins, plastifying agents and other
additives. They are prepared for dispatch as
dry mixes or ready to use ones, packed in pa-
per bags or big-bags, set on palettes or in
containers, if necessary, free loaded on trucks
or wagons according to customers demand.
Refractory mortars are used as bricklaying or
jointing materials for fireclay, high alumina or
silica linings, particularly in cases when tight
up to 1 mm joints are demanded.
Refractory mastics TRITIC are manufac-
tured on the base of calcined fireclay, an-
dalusite, bauxite, high-alumina aggregates,
alumina, aluminium oxides, refractory clays
and kaolins, plastifying agents and other ad-
ditives. They are dispatched as dry mixes in
paper or big bags, or ready to use plastic
mixes in buckets.
The products are intended for fireclay and
high alumina linings as jointing and brick-
laying material. Owing to their excellent
workability and grain size in particular, they
are advisable for linings where tight-up
joints are demanded.
Dense and insulating refractory castables
TRICAST: Dense refractory castables are pro-
duced on the base of calcined fireclay, high-
alumina refractory aggregates, andalusite,
bauxite, white-fused alumina and high-alu-
mina cements. Insulating refractory casta-
bles are made of refractory lightweight ag-
gregates, special additives and high-alumina
cements.
These castables are prepared for dispatch as
dry mixes packed in either paper bags or big-
bags according to customers wish. They are
used for many industrial applications like re-
fractory linings or pre-cast shapes. Some of
the castables are used for a number of re-
fractory lining veneer repairs like gunning or
trowelling.
Low cement refractory castables (LCC) are
produced of a number of aggregates such as
Fig. 2 High alumina bricks TRIAL
Lachenmeier
Fynsgad G-JD GdDD Sndrborg Onmark Tl. +d5 73d2 22DD infoGlachnmir.com
www.lachnmir.com
Lachnmir Slrlch Hood
Rplacing coslly packaging wilh cardbord and|or
slrapping loglhr wilh shrinking.
Robusl packaging suilabl for railway lransporl
and lransporl on pur roads
Provn slabilily for combind frighl lransporl
(acclralions of up lo !.OG) and for pur rail
lransporl (acclralions moving up lo 4.OG)
Eliminals lh nd for cardboard and slrapping
Eliminals problms wilh cardboard absorbing
moislur
Eliminals lh us of gaz
Slrlch Hood Wrapping
nnovaliv nrgy saving packaging lchnology
calcined fireclay, andalusite, bauxite, high-
alumina, tabular and white-fused aluminas
and spinel, micro-components, deflocculat-
ing agents, high-alumina cements and other
additives.
They are prepared for dispatch as dry mixes
packed in either paper bags or big-bags.
They are used for refractory linings or pre-
cast shapes that are to withstand severe
conditions Installation is carried out by vi-
brating or casting without vibration (self
flowing grades).
Special refractory castables (ULCC, NCC) are
produced of a number of aggregates such
as calcined fireclay, andalusite, bauxite,
high-alumina, tabular and white-fused alu-
minas and spinel, micro-components, defloc-
culating agents, high alumina cements and
other additives (SiC, Mg) on advanced auto-
mated technological lines. They are prepared
for dispatch as dry mixes packed in either
paper bags or big-bags according to the cus-
tomers demand. They are used for applica-
tions like refractory linings or pre-cast
shapes to withstand severe conditions. Usu-
ally installation is carried out by vibrating or
wide range of refractory materials for metal-
lurgical industry, with the main focus on re-
fractories for pig iron making, steel plants,
foundries, rolling mills and forging shops.
Within the building industry sector they sup-
ply a wide scope of fireclay bricks, particu-
larly suitable for setting interior or exterior
fireplaces, decorative facing of facades, or
eventually erection of landscape architec-
ture.
For the ceramic sector a wide range of fire-
clay bricks, castables and insulating materi-
als is offered for use in linings of various ce-
ramic kilns.
Linings for tunnel kiln cars in the brick mak-
ing industry are of special importance within
the ceramic sector activities.
For rotary kiln linings in the cement making
sector first of all fireclay and high-alumina
bricks, refractory castables, and pre-cast
shapes are offered. With respect to growing
use of alternative fuels in cement plants, al-
kali resistant refractories are demanded.
Some of the fireclay brick grades are tailor
made for this environment.
As for the power-generating sector, i.e. elec-
tricity and heating, Refrasil are focussing on
fluidized bed boiler linings in electric power
stations, and linings of incineration shafts in
incineration or heating plants.
For the glass industry fireclay bricks and re-
fractory castables, jointing materials, and
monolithic pre-cast shapes are supplied.
However, the major product coming to the
sector in question is the TRIZOL insulating
brick. These bricks are, owing to their low
thermal conductivity, particularly suitable for
linings of glass furnaces.
The main advantage of these bricks is easy
workability that allows tailor made solutions
to face specific customer demands and con-
ditions on site.
casting without vibration (self flowing
grades).
Refractory monoliths are produced on the
base of calcined fireclays, high-alumina re-
fractory grogs, andalusite, bauxite, fused
corundum, tabular alumina, spinel and high-
alumina cements. All the manufacturing
process steps, such as mixing, preparation,
vibration and drying are automated and
computer controlled. Refractory monoliths
are used especially in metallurgical plants as
well as in a variety of industrial branches,
where application of refractory materials is
demanded, such as monolithic lances for
powder additives and gases blowing into the
steel bath, as refractory plugs for slag-free
tapping from oxygen converter, as tundish
dams, as ladle and tundish lids, snorkels for
chemical heating of steel etc. Refractory
monoliths are produced from a wide range of
dense and LCC castables, including special
castables for particular purposes.
Applications
Refrasil, as the subsidiary of the Trinec Iron
and Steel Works, have been producing a
Fig. 3 Fireclay bricks TRISAM
Company values:
progressive, committed to
quality and consistency
Mayerton is a progressive company, it utilis-
es its resources, knowledge and comprehen-
sive product range to bring solutions, inno-
vation and value in use in line with clients
own expectations. Mayertons strategic
blend of worldwide know-how combined
with optimised European production
methods and standards, ensure customer
satisfaction. Being committed to quality and
continual improvement projects, its world-
class reputation for refractory supply and
services is built on reliability, trust and confi-
dence.
History
1991 Mayerton was established in Europe
as a key source of Chinese magne-
site and refractories to Russian iron
and steel industry
1994 refractory solutions engineering of-
fices were opened in Shanghai and
Moscow
1998 the refractory engineering office was
opened in United Kingdom handling
global design & materials
United Kingdom
Mayerton Refractories Group
Mayerton is a leading European Group providing refractory solu-
tions through high quality refractories to the worlds iron, steel and
non-ferrous industries. Mayerton has ultra modern and automated
production facilities from its manufacturing base in China (Fig. 1).
The Group operates worldwide in over 40 countries, employing over
500 people from over 30 nationalities in over 50 locations.
Committed to bringing strategic value to the worlds iron, steel and
non-ferrous industries, Mayertons aim is to optimise refractory per-
formance to completely satisfy end-user requirements, whether it be
to extend campaign lives, maximise vessel availability, reach target-
ed vessel output or to supply the best value in use products. With the
target of complete client satisfaction in mind, it looks to set new
standards is quality and cost effectiveness.
Mayerton Refractories Group
B94 6NW Hockley Heath, Solihull
United Kingdom
www.mayerton.com
2000 a global expansion programme was
launched in America (2000), China
(2001), India (2002), Europe (2004),
South Korea (2006), Africa (2008)
2001 Liaoning Mayerton Refractories
(LMR) production facility were
opened
2007 Dalian Mayerton Refractories (DMR)
production facility were opened
2008 Mayerton developed a refractory
press producing 1500 mm bricks
2010 Mayerton launched the new mag-
nesia alumina carbon product
range for the Americas markets.
Growth strategy
The group began supplying magnesia car-
bon bricks and has increased its product
range and know-how to include comple-
mentary monolithics (basic and alumino-sil-
icate) and specialist pre-shapes. Its produc-
tion capacity has grown from 6000 t/a to
200 000 t/a. The company operates cus-
tomised hydraulic presses (Fig. 1) for its
core business and also maintains long term
partnerships with approved preferred sup-
Fig. 1 Hydraulic presses at the Dalian plant
Fig. 2 Design of individual lining concepts
pliers with strategic long-term cooperation.
Mayerton is SGS accredited to ISO 9001-
2008.
Mayerton advantages
The group works with leading global iron
and steel producers, and shapes the future
of refractories through:
Supplying a wide range of products manu-
factured with the highest quality raw ma-
terials
Continuous R+D-programme to optimise
current products, as well as developing
new product solutions
Expanding its existing multi-national team
of experts in refractories and metallurgy
Building partnerships with end users to
bring strategic value
Providing services extending beyond tech-
nical design and installation, such as in-
stallation and full service contracts
Supporting clients actively with the com-
panys global distribution network.
With its dedicated team of experts,
Mayerton values the importance of right
first time innovations and technology
selection in achieving the joint aims of sup-
ply and client, whilst prioritising cost-effec-
tiveness.
Working closely with customers the compa-
ny can optimise and modify the vessel lining
concepts to deliver a balanced lining config-
uration (Fig. 2). From zoning to complete lin-
ing modifications, delivering target perform-
ance is essential.
Mayertons number one priority is to deliver
the right products to the market, with re-
fractories that are fine tuned in line with
client processes.
As part of Mayertons full line product and
service packages, they are able to progress
and monitor installation, repair, mainte-
nance and dismantling of production vessel
linings, within specified timeframe and ac-
cording to clients production and process
needs.
Fig. 3 Typical magnesia carbon brick
products
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sales.specialty-aluminas@riotinto.com
Introduction
Pyroteks team of product specialists and sci-
entists help refine existing products and cre-
ate new materials to meet changing cus-
tomer needs. This effort is supported by
strategic alliances with our suppliers and
backed by ISO Quality Assurance Standards
in the companys major facilities around the
world.
Pyroteks combined experience, extensive
technical support and global resources form
the basis for strategic partnerships with cus-
tomers, with a clear focus on improving cus-
tomer performance and profitable growth in
a global economy. The companies structure
is designed to support the pursuit of its stat-
ed mission: To provide innovative solutions
to customer needs utilizing our global re-
sources.
PyroFast and PyroGun
refractory range launched
for furnace repairs
Amongst an extensive portfolio of high tem-
perature materials, Pyrotek recently
launched a range of six specialized refracto-
ries for key applications in the aluminium,
primary and foundry industries. PyroFast and
PyroGun were developed to repair melting
and holding furnace roofs and walls. Furnace
repair allows the customer to boost produc-
tivity by reducing the crucial frequency and
downtime of furnace rebuilds.
PyroFast and PyroGun refractory systems are
based on unique phosphate-bonded alumi-
na-based castables, recommended for use in
aluminium applications where corrosion,
thermal shock, alkali attack and high tem-
perature are key factors. These materials are
essentially designed around a two-compo-
nent technology incorporating a dry refracto-
ry aggregate mixed with a liquid binder.
Typical applications for PyroFast and Pyro-
Gun include the following:
melting and holding furnace upper side-
walls and lower walls
USA
Pyroteks Dedicated Materials Deliver
Improved Performance and Productivity
Since its foundation in Spokane,
Washington, USA in 1956, inter-
national organization Pyrotek
has specialized in the develop-
ment, manufacture and sale of a
diversified selection of high-tem-
perature materials and related
equipment for industrial applica-
tions. With a dynamic product
range and customized in-plant
engineering services, Pyrotek is
aimed at helping customers con-
tinually achieve higher quality
standards and improve their op-
erating performance and effi-
ciencies at lower total costs.
Pyrotek Inc.
99206 Spokane (WA)
USA
www.pyrotek.info
belly bands
heated launder systems for continuous
casting and foundry die-casting
trough patching and repair
furnace roofs, doors, lintels, sills and jambs
charge wells, pouring blisters
furnace repairs / patching
Pyrotek technical specialists are available to
assist in specifying the best PyroFast and
PyroGun materials for particular applica-
tions.
Pyroteks dedicated engineering and instal-
lation group, UK based TAB Refractory divi-
sion specialize in the novel Big Block fur-
Fig. 1 Pyrotek TAB Refractory Big Block
system schematic model
Fig. 2 Steel ladle lined with ISOMAG
nace refractory systems (Fig. 1) large pre-
fired shapes that reduce downtime, guaran-
tee block properties and have indefinite
shelf life.
In recent years, the manufacture and use of
large precast refractory shapes to line alu-
minium melting and holding furnaces has
become more popular, along with a trend to
move away from traditional brick to new
monolithic linings. These large precast
shapes or Big Blocks are pre-fabricated off
site and provided in kit form to customers
for use in complete furnace relines, or for
specific areas within a furnace lining in com-
bination with traditional monolithic lining
materials. This avoids the problems some-
times encountered in installing high technol-
ogy castables. The concept is designed to re-
duce the overall furnace downtime and im-
prove the performance and service life of the
refractory lining.
The Big Blocks refractory systems can be
designed and manufactured for most types
of furnaces and applications, with the ex-
ception of typical rotary type furnaces, al-
though certain parts of the furnace can be
evaluated, such as the cone shaped front
area of the rotary furnace.
Big Blocks installation is less labour-inten-
sive than traditional brick replacement or
patching and also, depending on furnace cir-
cumstances, turnaround time can be re-
duced by 25 40 % compared with tradi-
tional methods. Hydrogen off-gassing during
commissioning is also reduced because the
blocks are high-fired prior to installation.
ISOMAG
, proven high-strength
thermal insulation
Partnering with its customers, Pyrotek offers
tailor-made applications with ISOMAG
, a
proven high-strength thermal insulation for
steelmaking vessels. Pyrotek engineers can
work with customers using a unique interac-
tive software tool that helps to calculate the
time and cost savings, as well as highlight
the production process improvements real-
ized with ISOMAG. The special properties of
ISOMAG at elevated temperatures, com-
bined with good refractory practice, enable
substantial improvements in refractory per-
formance and a combination of technical
and cost saving benefits:
The hot metal and liquid steel tempera-
tures are improved during residence time.
Lining stability is improved and major op-
erating cost savings are realized, coupled
with the assurance of a proven track
record of safety and reliability.
ISOMAG is available in various grades to
meet specific applications, which include
ladles, torpedo cars, tundishes and blast
furnace main runners.
Fig. 3 Gunning a furnace with PyroGun
A philosophy, which comes from the father to son concept and is con-
tinued through out the years. Behind good machinery there are good
people, said Francesco Baldini (the companys founder), and today his
son says the best investment for a company is done on men on hu-
man resources. This is the meaning of continuity at the company.
Its history began in 1974, when Francesco Baldini, who had already
gained a ten-year experience working in another leader company in the
same sector, decided to establish Automazioni CISMAC srl, which start-
ed to move its first steps in the automation sector, mainly for the ce-
ramics industry. In 1979 the production was moved from the facilities in
Tabina di Formigine / IT to the new plant in Sassuolo / IT. In 1983 the
metalworking shop and the electronic offices were established inside
the company head office (Fig. 1), paving the way that would lead the
company to come to a completely self-sufficiency: from the engineering
of the machines to their production, installation, testing and after-sales
assistance. 1993 is the turning year, due to the takeover of the whole
property by the Baldini family, which is still operating in the company re-
specting continuity but with a modern mind with innovative develop-
ment strategy. In 2002 CISMAC obtained the UNI EN ISO 9001/2000
certification.
Already from its foundation, the company has always given special at-
tention to the machinery development, by means of considerable and
continued investment in research and innovation; from the first manual
production in metalworking shop, to the automation of these process-
Italy
CISMAC A History of Men
Automazioni CISMAC srl, founded in 1974 by
Francesco Baldini, is a leading company on do-
mestic and international level, not only in the ce-
ramics, bricks and in the building prefabrication
sector, but also in metallurgy, concrete products,
refractories, paper and glass.
Fig. 1 Head office
es, to the production of the first single manufac-
turing machines, until the big complete turnkey
installations became part of the com panies port-
folio. The management, its big flexibility and the
achieved know-how enable the company to op-
erate in a wide-ranging way, competing with the
major world competitors of this sector.
Today CISMAC is a leading company on a do-
mestic and international level, not only in the ce-
ramics, bricks and in the building prefabrication
sector, but also in metallurgy, concrete (Fig. 2),
paper and glass sector. Thanks to its inside tech-
nical and research offices, both in the mechanical
and electronic department, the company man-
ages projects all over the world; CISMAC avails
of the most advanced computer and data trans-
mission systems, which are particularly suitable
for the near future in which the company is go-
ing to broaden its horizons.
The philosophy of CISMAC is sustained even
by the biggest international groups. One of these
groups, RHI, has entrusted to the com-pany for
the realization of a pilot project: an entire pal-
letizing robotic system with 3D laser vision sys-
tem.
An operation that CISMAC realized by introduc-
ing its sophisticated electronic technologies that,
through a highly sophisticated vision system, op-
erates without the needs of operators participa-
tion.
We do not sell products but certain solutions to
each problems of our customers says the
General Manager, Marco Baldini, a steady point
of business continuity our customers are our
real partners, not mere receivers of the products
supplied by us.
The company has changed the way to do busi-
ness and the way to realize products. The com-
pany mainly intends to sell trust and those
companies who buy it rather than a product
take inside their company a credibility that has
been built by the typical experience of people
that every day work to make this role easier and
more teachable.
Certainly, CISMAC has technical and commercial
departments, electronic programming and pro-
duction workshop, service and assembling of the
machinery (which also provides after sales serv-
ice to all its customers within a maximum time of
24 h in Europe and 48 in the rest of the world);
but CISMACs products, even the ones of the lat-
est generation in refractory industry and particu-
larly the highly specialized robotic systems, rep-
resent just a starting point, as the future of the
company is not put into one single system but
into its ideas. Those ideas that come from collab-
orations with leading companies in ceramics,
glass, refractories, paper industries.
In these cases, the best feedback is the reference
that these companies give us by a word of
mouth propaganda that means above all: trust,
reliability and professionalism. Those are the val-
ues that make CISMAC an authentic multi-
sector world leader.
Automazioni Cismac S.r.l.
41049 Sassuolo
Italy
www.cismac.it
Fig. 2 Robotic system
The Refrasil company belongs among the most signifcant producers
of refractory materials in the Czech Republic.
We ofer you:
Refractory
castables
and mixes
Fireclay and
high-alumina
bricks
Insulating
products
Refractory
monoliths
REFRASIL, s.r.o.
Prmyslov 720, 739 65 Tinec Konsk
Tel.: +420 558 532 026, Fax: +420 558 534 260
E-mail: of ce@refrasil.cz, www.refrasil.cz
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Thank you
for visiting us
at Thermprocess
2011.
SILICON do Brasil Ltda. Rua Alfredo Engler, 243 Sala 3 e 4 Centro, CEP 13820-000 Jaguarina, So Paulo Brasil,
tel./fax +55 19 3867 3911
Product range of
Tokai Carbon Italia
EREMA

heating element
EREMA

heating elements, are composed of
recrystalized high-purity silicon carbide and
have pioneered many advanced applications
in high temperature and heating technology.
The continuous improvements are focused
on energy savings, environmental as-
pects by achieving good results at high
temperatures with high quality products.
They are the culmination of many years of
research activities combining technologies
and making every effort to enhance and up-
grade quality since they were introduced to
the market in 1936. Main application fields
are ceramics, metal, electronics and chemical
industries.
Italy
Tokai Carbon Italia: Leader in High Temperature Application
Tokai Carbon Italia Srl, estab-
lished in 1994, is the Italian
branch of Tokai Carbon Co. Ltd.,
a Japanese leading producer of
technical ceramics and graphite
products. In 1936 Tokai Konetsu
Kogyo Ltd was established.
As wholly owned company of
Tokai Carbon, Tokai Konetsu Ko-
gyo Ltd , since its foundation has
been developing not only mate-
rials but also industrial furnaces
for high temperature applica-
tions.
Today Tokai Konetsu Kogyo Ltd
is specialized in the production
of special refractories, e.g. the
silicon carbide, silicon nitride or
fused alumina based materials.
Tokai Carbon Italia S.r.l.
20060 Trezzano Rosa
Italy
E-mail: info@tokaicarbonitalia.it
www.tokaicarbon.co.jp
www.tokaikonetsu.co.jp
www.winnertechnology.co.kr
Recryte TN
components
Recryte TN
is a new type of silicon nitride

sintered body developed by Tokai Konetsu.
As this material can provide a higher cost
performance than conventional products, it
can be used for a wide range of applications,
including aluminium melting. Thermocouple
protection tubes, dosing tubes and others
products designed to fit customers appli-
cation and demand, are available.
MoSi
2
heating elements
MoSi
2
heating elements are used to achieve
higher temperatures (1700 1800 C) pro-
duced by Winner Technology Co. Ltd., this
young and fast growing Korean company is
dealing with advanced technology products
in the field of electric heating systems and
paste material.
WINNER PRIMA MoSi
2
heating elements are
the appropriate product for industrial fur-
naces, ceramics industry, glass melting fur-
naces, incinerators and furnaces for R&D.
Product peculiarities are rapid heating and
cooling cycles as well the maintainance of
uniform temperature fields. High efficiency in
operation, easy replacement, stability of
properties and durability are unbeatable ar-
guments. These heating elements are avail-
able in various shapes.
Tokai Carbon Italia products are certified ac-
cording to ISO 9001 and ISO 14001 stand-
ards.
Fig. 1 EREMA
heating elements
Fig. 4 Heating coil
Fig. 2 Recryte TN

components
Fig. 3 MoSi
2
heating elements
1 Introduction
Dynamic changes in the market, moderniza-
tion processes in metallurgy and other
branches of the basic industry place refrac-
tories manufacturers before the challenge of
innovative modernization and active growth.
Efficient development of production is close-
ly related to the realization of tasks like
modernization and technological renovation
and production of advanced high-quality
competitive products.
Further development of export potential is a
logical step on the way to qualitative growth
in order to become an efficient player in the
world arena. Magnezit has created a strong
foundation, which is substantially strength-
tion of new facilities on these sites will en-
able the Magnezit Group to fully meet the
requirements of enterprises in Russia and
CIS countries for novel magnesia refractories
in just a few years.
The development of the Talsk magnesite
deposit, which is one of the best in terms
of mineral quality will enable the company
to form a high-quality resource base for
the new complex for advanced processing
of magnesite in Lower Angara area. The
biggest complex in the CIS for production
of refractory materials with capacities of up
to 200 000 t/a calcined magnesia and
150 000 t/a fused magnesia will be built in
the immediate vicinity of the mining site for
the starting materials in the Motyginsk dis-
trict of Krasnoyarsk Territory. The new com-
plex will become a source of materials for
the production of refractory bricks by the
Groups subsidiaries. Interest in supplies of
Russian magnesite is also shown by some
of the largest consumers in the world.
In April 2011 the company was granted the
licence to develop the Talsk magnesite de-
posit, which contains a total volume of mag-
nesite reserves exceeding 70 Mt. The high-
quality resources at this deposit will supple-
ment the already existing resource base of
the project for the production of high-quali-
ty refractories in this region.
The first stage of the project will be com-
pleted by the year 2012. A new workshop
will be constructed and two shaft furnaces
will be commissioned one after the other.
The annual production capacity of each of
these furnaces totals 50 000 t/a calcined
magnesia. Existing fusion capacities at the
Razdolinsk Periclase Plant are under mod-
ernization now. The capacities will be con-
verted to operation with caustic material
and, as a result of this, by 2012 it will be
possible to increase the production of fused
magnesia multifold and bring it to the annu-
al level of 50 000 t. The project for develop-
ment of the Lower Angara production site is
ening the Groups competitive position on
the international market. This is based on
novel production technologies and high-
quality resources, scientific and technical po-
tential, an efficient management system and
partner-like relationships with consumers.
2 History of development
This year the Magnezit Group celebrates its
110
th
anniversary. The company commenced
its activities in 1901 in the South Urals and
soon became the leading player in the Russ-
ian refractories industry. It has maintained its
position successfully for many years.
Magnezit is a shining example of the
establishment and development of an indus-
trial company on a global scale. The Groups
production capacities are located in China,
Slovakia and Germany and it has a wide net-
work of representative offices and partner-
like relationships with consumers, enabling
the Group to interact directly with its cus-
tomers and get first-hand information.
The main production capacities and resource
potential of the company are concentrated
in the Russian territory of South Urals and
lower reaches of the river Angara where the
Satka and Lower Angara production sites of
the Group are located. Large-scale modern-
ization of operating capacities and construc-
The development of prospective markets for refractory products and
the improvement of export potential are some of the priority tasks in
the Magnezit Groups development strategy. The company has pro-
duction capacities located in Russia and abroad. This enables the
company to respond flexibly to market requirements and supply a
wide range of novel products on the basis of Russian magnesite
high-quality magnesia clinker or fused powders produced in Russia
from high-quality raw materials. This has resulted in competitive
products, which have already experienced considerable interest from
some of the largest consumers in the world.
Manufacture of Modern Refractory Products and
Magnesia Raw Materials in Russia and Abroad
A. Trisvetov, T. Zabrodina
Alexey Trisvetov
Tatiana Zabrodina
Magnezit Group
119180 Moscow
Russia
Corresponding author: T. Zabrodina
E-mail: tzabrodina@magnezit.com
Keywords: magnesite, Russia, refractory
raw materials, refractories
one of the Magnezit Groups most promising
projects and constitutes a continuation of
the companys strategic course towards a
transition to clinker technology and expan-
sion of Russian magnesite production.
The installation of novel thermal equipment
unique for Russia is underway at the Satka
production site with a high-temperature
shaft furnace and a multiple-hearth furnace.
These new furnaces will be commissioned
and put into operation by 2012. They will
enable an increase in the production vol-
umes of super-dense magnesia clinker by
more than 2,5 times up to 130 000 t/a. An
integrated technological cycle will combine a
multiple-hearth furnace for burning raw
magnesite, a high-temperature shaft furnace
as well as technology for fine dispersion
grinding and briquetting of magnesia pow-
ders. All the treatment processes are auto-
mated and managed from a single control
centre.
High economical efficiency from the transi-
tion to the clinker technology is achieved
thanks to the consistent high quality of the
finished product (homogeneous coarse-
grained densely sintered clinker), improve-
ment of brick properties, produced on the
basis of clinker materials (higher density,
considerably lower porosity). The production
of high-class products no longer depends on
Fig. 1 Satka: raw magnesite is extracted from underground Fig. 2 The second deposit in Russia (Krasnoyarsk Territory) uses
and open-pit mines only open-pit mines
Tab. 1 Typical chemical composition of deposits (Magnezit Group, Russia)
MgO SiO
2
CaO Fe
2
O
3
Satka group
(Chelyabinsk region) [%]
44 47 0,6 2,5 0,8 7,0 0,8 1,0
Nizhneangarsk group
(Krasnoyarsk Territory) [%]
high grade
medium grade
47 48
46 47
0,25 0,35
0,35 0,75
0,47 0,55
0,55 0,70
0,10 0,15
0,10 0,15
the quality of the starting materials. Clinker
technology enables an up to 50 % saving in
raw materials, an up to 40 % reduction in
fuel consumption, as well as up to three
times lower operational and maintenance
costs.
Efficient use of raw materials resources as
well as treatment of off-grade and low-qual-
ity raw materials will enable a considerable
expansion of the companys resource base.
After implementation of this project, the
competitive advantage of the Magnezit
Group will be unmatchable for most CIS
enterprises.
Basis for all high-quality refractory bricks is
fused magnesia. That is why increasing the
production volume of this material is also
one of the Groups key tasks.
At the Satka site a project has been initiated
with the aim of modernizing the existing ca-
pacities by increasing the productivity of the
existing ore thermal furnaces by 30 %.
During implementation of the second stage
of the project a new fusion workshop will be
constructed with achieving a capacity up to
50 000 t/a.
The realization of the project is planned for
2012. The outcome of the project will be a
modern complex for the production of fused
products with the application of state-of-
the-art technology.
3 Geography of activity
One of the main principles of the Group in
its implementation of projects for geograph-
ical diversification is providing the produc-
tion facilities with raw material resources.
Many experts have pointed out the struggle
for raw materials resources for refractory
industry, especially beyond the borders of
China.
The biggest magnesite deposits in the world
are located in China, 80 % of the world pro-
duction of magnesite is manufactured in
China. During recent years the Chinese
government has steadily pursued a policy
aiming at the development of the domestic
market and encouraging the production of
refractories in China. Such a policy favours
an incessant rise in prices for raw materials
in other countries as well as the transfer of
production facilities of foreign producers to
China.
At the same time China is one of the most
powerful and dynamic refractory markets
owing to the fact that during the recent
decade steel production in China increased
manifold and in the year 2010 a total of
627 Mt/a of steel were produced, an abso-
lute world record.
The Magnezit Group currently operates five
enterprises in China, the products of which
efficiently supplement the Groups product
range, enabling the complete supply of
refractories for lining thermal equipment at
customer plants. Refractories produced in
China are sold in the Ukraine, Belarus and
other CIS countries as well as in Southeast
Asia.
The Magnezit Group considers the Chinese
sites as an efficient bridgehead for further
www.magnezit.com
110 years of partnership
In September 1901, the plant in Satka manufactured the rst batch of products
made from magnesite, a refractory material that was a novelty at that time.
Thanks to their durability, these products immediately became very popular
in the Russian market. Today, being a leading manufacturer of refractory materials,
we continue to supply our top-quality output to plants and factories of various
industries. Maintaining constant dialogue with our partners, we make high-
performance products tailored to their individual needs and come up with the best
comprehensive solutions for key sectors of the economy.
activity on Chinas domestic market. The
main feature of work at the Chinese
plants is not simply the supply of refractory
materials but complete servicing of metallur-
gical equipment by the refractories suppliers.
The extensive experience of the Magnezit
specialists in evaluating the condition of
operating linings enables the correct
selection of possible resources and mainte-
nance methods, which in turn results in
Tab. 2 Caustic Calcined Magnesia (CCM) from Russian magnesite for agricultural and industrial use
Product name
DALPOR
P85s
DALPOR
P83sk
DALPOR
P90sm
DALPOR
P97sm
DTMR 84 DTMR 87
Production
method
Rotary or shaft kilns From lter of burning kiln
Deposit Chelyabinsk region Krasnoyarsk territory Chelyabinsk region
Chemical analysis
[mass-%]
MgO min.
CaO max.
SiO
2
max.
LOI max.
85,0 ( 86,0) *)
6,0 (< 5,0)
4,5 (< 4,0)
5,0 (< 4,5)
83,0 ( 86,0)
6,0 (< 5,0)
6,0 (< 5,0)
5,0 (< 4,5)
90,0 ( 92,0)
3,0 (< 2,8)
3,2 (< 3,0)
5,0 (< 4,5)
95,0 ( 96,0)
2,0 (< 2,5)
1,5 (< 1,0)
2,0 (< 1,0)
83,0 ( 85,0)
2,3 (< 1,9)
2,4 (< 2,0)
8,0
87,0 ( 88,0)
3,0 (< 2,8)
3,2 (< 3,0)
5,0 (< 4,5)
Grain size [mm] 0 2,0
0,2 2,0
(< 0,2 10 %)
0 0,2
(< 0,2 10%)
0 0,2
(< 0,2 10%)
max 5 % > 0,2
min 75 % < 0,09 mm
max 5 % > 0,2
min 75 % < 0,09 mm
*) contract data (typical)
Product name DALPOR P92m
Chemical analysis [mass-%]
MgO min.
CaO max.
SiO
2
max.
P max.
S max.
LOI max.
91,0 ( 92,0)*)
3,0 (< 2,5)
3,0 (< 2,5)
0,01
0,01
0,2 (< 0,15)
Grain size [mm] 0 2,0
We process and supply below products:
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Chamotte, Mullite (Sintered/Fused), Spinel (Sintered/Fused),
Silicon Carbide, Ferro Silicon Nitride
and many more...
Providing our great range of
products at a great price...
Tel: +86 25 6662 0988 Fax: +86 25 6662 0990
Website: www.refmin.com.cn Email: info@refmin.com.cn
Tab. 3 Dead Burned Magnesia (DBM) from Russian magnesite for the welding industry
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an improvement of the service life of the
linings.
Organizing an efficient chain of production
cooperation is among the most important
tasks of the Magnezit Group. This together
with the technological specialities of all the
Groups enterprises creates synergistic ef-
fects and concentrates efforts in the imple-
mentation of new projects.
A shining example of this is the project for
modernization of the Slovmag plant in
Lubenic/SK, which has a rich history as the
biggest refractories plant in Eastern Europe.
The plant joined the Magnezit Group in
2008 and now successfully supplements the
Groups production range with its products
on the CIS market as well as on the markets
in Europe and North America.
The project will considerably strengthen the
Groups competitive position on the Euro-
pean market and increase its presence on
the international market, thanks in part to
the supply of Russian magnesite. Produc-
tion volumes of novel magnesia-carbon and
burnt bricks at Slovmag on the basis of high-
quality Russian magnesite will increase up to
50 000 to 60 000 t/a. In particular: produc-
tion of oxide-carbon bricks production will
grow to 25 000 t/a, while production of
burned shaped products will rise to 30 000
to 35 000 t/a. The supply of high-quality re-
fractories of Russian origin will not only im-
prove the physical and chemical characteris-
tics but also the efficiency of applications at
customer sites.
4 Prospects
The strategy of the Magnezit Group develop-
ment is aimed at the main industry branches
consuming refractory products: ferrous and
non-ferrous metallurgy, cement and glass
industry.
The key goals include increasing the produc-
tion of high-quality raw materials, magne-
sia-carbon refractories, shaped refractories
with the application of fused and sintered
magnesia with an MgO content of 95 to
98 %, of high-grade unshaped refractories
Tab. 4 Dead Burned Magnesia (DBM) from Russian magnesite for refractories
Product name DALPOR P89e DALPOR P89m DALPOR P89k
MgO min.
CaO max.
SiO
2
max.
Fe
2
O
3
max.
Al
2
O
3
max.
LOI max.
89,0 ( 90,0) *)
4,8 (< 4,0)
4,0 (< 2,7)
2,5 (< 2,0)
1,0 (< 0,7)
0,5 (< 0,3)
89,0 ( 90,5)
5,5 (< 4,8)
4,0 (< 3,5)
3,0 (< 2,7)
1,0 (< 0,7)
0,5 (< 0,3)
89,0 ( 90,0)
6,0 (< 4,8)
4,0 (< 3,5)
3,0 (< 2,7)
1,0 (< 0,7)
0,5 (< 0,3)
Grain size [mm]
0 4 min. 95 %
50 85 % < 1 mm
max. 10 % > 8 mm
45 75 % > 1 mm
25 55 % < 1 mm
max. 10 % > 8 mm
75 90 % > 1 mm
10 25 % < 1 mm
Product name DALPOR P90kd DALPOR P90k DALPOR P94m DALPOR P95m
MgO min.
CaO max.
SiO
2
max.
Fe
2
O
3
max.
Al
2
O
3
max.
LOI max.
90,0 (91,5) *)
3,5 (< 2,5)
3,5 (< 3,0)
2,0 (< 1,8)
0,7 (< 0,5)
0,5 (< 0,3)
90,0 (91,5)
3,5 (< 2,5)
3,5 (< 3,0)
2,0 (< 1,8)
0,7 (< 0,5)
0,5 (< 0,3)
94,0 (95,0)
2,5 (< 2,3)
2,2 (< 1,8)
2,5 (< 1,8)
0,5 (< 0,3)

95,0 (95,5)
1,7 (< 1,6)
1,8 (< 1,6)
2,0 (< 1,8)
0,5 (< 0,2)

Grain size [mm]
Briquettes
max. 35 mm
3 15 mm
max. 10% > 15 mm
max. 15% < 2 mm
Briquettes 35 mm
(possibly 0 1, 1 3,
3 5 mm)
Briquettes 35 mm
(possibly 0 1, 1 3,
3 5 mm)
Bulk density [g/cm
3
] min 2,80 min 3,00 3,19 (min 3,22) 3,28 (min 3,30)
Tab. 5 Fused Magnesia (FM) from Russian magnesite for refractories
Product name DALPOR P97f DALPOR P98f DALPOR P971f
Deposit Krasnoyarsk territory Krasnoyarsk territory Chelyabinsk region
MgO min.
CaO max.
SiO
2
max.
Fe
2
O
3
max.
Al
2
O
3
max.
LOI max.
96,5 (97,0) *)
< 2,0 (< 1,8)
< 1,3 (< 1,1)
0,7 (< 0,6)
0,8 (< 0,7)
0,3
97,5 (98,0)
< 1,3 (< 1,1)
< 0,8 (< 0,7)
0,5 (< 0,4)
0,6 (< 0,5)
0,3
96,5 (97,0)
1,4 (< 1,3)
1,4 (< 1,3)
1,5 (< 1,4)
0,5 (< 0,4)
0,3
Grain size [mm] 5 3, 3 1, 0 1, 0 40 5 3, 3 1, 0 1, 0 40 5 3, 3 1, 0 1, 0 40
Bulk density [g/cm
3
] 3,45 (> 3,48) 3,45 (> 3,48) 3,45 (> 3,48)
and the simultaneous reduction of the pro-
duction volumes of low-grade products.
The growth rate of new types of products in
the Groups product range amounts to 15 to
20 % annually.
One of the key advantages is the complex
approach to customer service and lining
of thermal equipment on a turnkey basis.
Efficient use of refractories manufactured
at the Groups different production sites in
Russia, Slovakia and China enables a con-
siderable reduction of the specific costs per
tonne of finished product at customer
plants.
Customers are offered a complete set of
services: starting with the supply of refracto-
ry materials, through to the installation of
linings, monitoring the condition of linings,
hot repairs during the operation period,
stripping of linings at the end of their service
life and up to the utilization of used refrac-
tories.
tive markets including India and countries in
the Asiatic-Pacific region and Northern
Africa. The company will continue to build
up its presence in other spheres where mag-
nesia products can be used. Diversification
of the application of magnesia products is
another possible direction in production and
product market development. In this con-
text, magnesia cement and feed additives
for agricultural animals should be men-
tioned. These are new kinds of products for
the company. They are gradually conquering
the market. In Russia and the CIS countries
the culture of applying these products has
not yet been formed to the full.
Nevertheless, feed additives for agricultural
animals manufactured at the Magnezit
Groups plants are successfully used beyond
the borders of CIS countries, which is assist-
ed by the availability of the GMP+ certificate
confirming the ecological safety of the
product.
Backed by its extensive experience on the
global market, the Magnezit Group is ready
to offer its services in the field of mainte-
nance on the traditional CIS market as
well. Various forms of interaction with
metallurgists in the complex field of the
servicing of equipment in Russia, Europe and
China give the specialists of the company
indisputable advantages in competitive
media, permitting optimization of the corre-
lation between lining costs and lining quali-
ty, improvement and modernization of main-
tenance methods and technological process-
es during the operation of thermal equip-
ment, and an increase in joint responsibility
with metallurgists for stable operation of
equipment.
The Magnezit Group exports its products to
CIS countries, many countries in Eastern and
Western Europe, the USA and Southeast
Asia. The success achieved by the Group has
encouraged it to move into other prospec-
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Engineering, machines
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Wide range of
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SMART INDUSTRIAL SOLUTIONS
1 Market trends in the foundry
industry by material segment
For iron and steel casting a worldwide in-
crease by a total of three-quarters to almost
95 Mt until 2015 is expected. The boom is
supported by demand from the emerging
markets in Asia (Fig. 1).
There are clear shifts within the material
classes. The relative loser is grey cast iron.
On the other hand, ductile cast iron gains a
market share of around 6 % points.
Worldwide aluminium casting production in-
creases significantly stronger than that of
grey-, steel- and malleable cast iron in the
period 2000 until 2015. More than two-fold
increase of aluminium casting to 16 Mt is
forecasted. Germany records market share
gains within Western Europe and it may
again surpass the pre-crisis level in the
duction will almost double to a good 2 Mt
compared to the beginning of the millen-
nium (Fig. 3).
current year (Fig. 2). Worldwide copper cast-
ing will reach pre-crisis level by 2013 at the
latest. Until 2015, it is expected that pro-
The worldwide foundry industry benefits from the growing world economy, although sales and pro-
duction focus will be shifted in the future. Not only larger parts of the worldwide car output are absorbed
by the emerging markets, but also production capacities are relocated here. Winner is the Asian region,
primarily China. In 2010 the world production of light vehicles (up to 2,8 t) reached 71 millon. Accord-
ingly for 2015 nearly 90 million are forcasted as also other Asian regions will pick up and Central and
Eastern Europe will see increasing figures.
Sales of the German mechanical engineering industry are determined not only by exports. In general the
global mechanical engineering market is growing (2010: EUR 1100 billion; 2015: EUR 1500 billion). All
major players (Germany, Japan, USA, China and also other countries) can follow this trend. But again
China is on the way to play a major role in production as well (2010: EUR 350 billion; 2015: approx.
EUR 500 billion).
The strong increase of incoming orders supports a forecast for the future expansion of world casting
production.
Foundries on Course for Growth Again
H.-J. Bchner, M. Mohaupt
Heinz-Jrgen Bchner
Markus Mohaupt
IKB Deutsche Industriebank AG
40474 Dsseldorf
Germany
Corresponding author: M. Mohaupt
E-mail: Markus.Mohaupt@ikb.de
Western Europe
in million tons
Eastern Europa NAFTA
South America Asia
100
80
60
40
20
0
08 09 10p 11p 15p
p = projection
12p 13p 14p 2000 01 02 03 04 05 06 07
Fig. 1 Iron casting: rising importance of Asia
Western Europe
in million tons
Eastern Europe NAFTA
South America Asia
18
15
12
9
6
3
0
08 09 10p 11p 15p
p = projection
12p 13p 14p 2000 01 02 03 04 05 06 07
Fig. 2 Aluminium casting: back on the growth path
2 Performance of
German foundries
How did the German companies of the
foundry industry withstand the crisis com-
pared to their international peers? The pres-
ent situation of the companies is document-
ed in an analysis of annual financial state-
ments of customers of IKB Deutsche Indus-
triebank AG, supplemented by published
financial statements of foundries of the
European and Asian regions.
The revenues of the German foundries de-
creased by almost a third in the crisis year of
2009. The operating profit (Ebitda) resp. the
Ebitda margin of non-ferrous foundries de-
creased slightly more than that of the iron
foundries (Tab. 1).
Just like German foundries, European
foundries could not escape the effects of the
economic crisis. In 2009 sales declined in the
same dimension as German foundries. The
operational profitability (Ebitda) of German
companies deviates only slightly from the
European. On the other hand, Asian manu-
facturers show more than 50 % higher
profit margins.
The equity capital of Asian foundries is by up
to 15 % points higher than that of German
and European foundries, which show only
slight differences.
In total, requirements for qualified foundries
are increasing significantly worldwide. How-
ever, those foundries which adjust to this
and enter JVs and strategic alliances in the
global market have good chances for the
future.
Tab. 1 Selected performance ratios in the German foundry industry
Western Europe
in million tons
Eastern Europe NAFTA
South America Asia
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0
08 09 10p 11p 15p
p = projection
12p 13p 14p 2000 01 02 03 04 05 06 07
Fig. 3 Copper casting recovers
Iron foundries 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010p
Total performance [%]
Sales growth (to the previous year) [%] 20,1 18,4 14,5 33,4 18,0
Gross prot 48,6 47,0 45,5 50,0 49,0
Personell cost 28,1 26,1 24,7 31,4 27,5
EBITDA 8,5 9,8 8,4 6,3 7,5
EBT 5,1 5,7 4,9 0,2 4,0
Equity ratio [in % of total assets] 33,1 36,8 34,0 35,2 35,5
Non-ferrous foundries 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010p
Total performance [%]
Sales growth (to the previous year) [%] 21,9 14,7 0,8 31,0 24,0
Gross prot 47,1 46,3 45,0 50,3 49,0
Personell cost 25,6 25,3 25,6 32,6 26,5
EBITDA 9,1 8,7 6,5 3,9 8,0
EBT 3,6 3,0 0,2 4,8 2,5
Equity ratio [in % of total assets] 39,1 39,8 38,3 36,8 37,0
(Sources: Annual accounts of IKB customer companies; Bureau van Dijk, p = projection)
Knllinger Keramische Verschleiteile GmbH
Auf den Dorfwiesen 20 D-56204 Hillscheid
Phone: +49 26 24 955 26 10 Fax : +49 26 24 955 26 12
E-mail: info@knoellinger-gmbh.de www.knoellinger-gmbh.de
1 Introduction
The Indian refractory industry has witnessed
sustained growth in the past few years
buoyed by the growth in the iron and steel,
cement and non-ferrous industries. Refracto-
ries play an extremely important role in the
development of the core sectors, a fact
which mostly remains unnoticed. Although
turnoverwise it is miniscule compared to the
GDP of the country, it is critical to the pro-
duction processes and as well as quality. The
industry, which is now at the advanced stage
of growth has the capability to address the
increased challenges posed by the user in-
dustries like stringent operating parameters,
demand for clean steel etc.
The growth curve of the refractory industry
in the recent years is shown in Fig. 1.
75 % of the total refractories produced go
to meet the demand of the steel sector while
10 % is utilized by the cement industry and
8 % by the non-ferrous industry. The rest of
7 % is consumed by glass and other indus-
tries.
The growth rate of the main consumer in-
dustries are presented in Figs. 2 4
2 Demand of refractories for
clean steel
Steel cleanliness is an important factor of
steel quality and the demand for cleaner
steels increases every year. The so-called
clean steel generally is the steel in which the
content of impurity elements, such as phos-
phorus, sulphur, total oxygen, nitrogen, hy-
drogen (including carbon sometimes) and
inclusions are very low. The improvement of
steel cleanliness has therefore become a
more and more important subject in the de-
velopment of ferrous metallurgical technol-
Maybe for to long time the
progress in India has been over-
looked, when China was boosting
its economy year by year. The in-
creasing middle class led to a stable
growth of the GDP. Taking the per
capita steel consumption as an indi-
cator for lifestyle the value of ap-
prox. 50 kg is still low, but constant-
ly on the rise. A annual growth of
9 % in domestic steel production
and accordingly refractory produc-
tion are signs for a good future. The
Indian glass industry projects a
growth of 23 % and the cement in-
dustry of 19 %.
Refractories Industry in India
Present Scenario, Issues and a Way Forward*
A.K. Chattopadhyay
A.K. Chattopadhyay
Tata Refractories Ltd
Ex-chairman IRMA
700 020 Kolkatta
India
E-mail: irmaindia@hotmail.com
Keywords: refractory market, steel and
cement production, India
*Acknowledgement to our cooper-
ation partner Indian Refractory Makers
Association (IRMA) for passing the
rights for publication
Fig. 1 Development of the Indian refractories production [1000 t]
(Source: IRMA & Internal Estimate)
Fig. 2 Indian steel production [Mt]
ogy, and also an important task for the re-
fractory makers.
The key tasks faced by the refractory for pro-
ducing clean steel are:
No re-oxidation of refractories into the steel
Minimise inclusion size of de-oxidation
product
No formation of liquid oxide that would
become detrimentally solid in the final
steel product
Low sulphur pick-up
Refractory systems that prevent air en-
trainment or nitrogen pick-up
Low hydrogen and carbon contents
Oxide cleanliness
Sulphur cleanliness
Low nitrogen content
Low hydrogen content
Low carbon content.
3 Understanding of
refractory failure
The study of refractory failure is a multi-di-
mensional subject and calls for detailed un-
derstanding of the operating parameters
and customers needs apart from the prop-
Fig. 3 Indian glass production [Mt]
Fig. 4 Indian cement production [Mt]
erties of refractories. The main reasons for
failure of refractories are as follows:
Material selected did not match the envir-
onment inside the furnace
Material selected did not match the fuel
being burned
Material was improperly stored, mixed, in-
stalled, cured or dried
Material selected did not match the envir-
onment created after the burning of the
fuel, i.e. ash and slag.
The step-by-step process of addressing the
issue is outlined below:
Step I: Discovery process
Step II: Examine the existing material
and testing
Step III: Calculate the base/acid ratio
Step IV: Review process
Step V: Review of installation procedure
Step VI: Final analysis.
4 Future direction of
product development
With newer technological innovations, clean
technological requirements and unique
needs of each customer, refractory industry
is now a knowledge industry where success
depends on obtaining, managing, and using
knowledge in a focussed manner. Till date
little attention has been paid for develop-
ment of new products which is of para-
mount importance in order to create a niche
market in a globally competitive market.
Some key issues related to product develop-
ment are:
Develop some innovative materials new
binders, new additives
Development of new installation methods
Magnesia carbon bricks with high density
and controlled porosity
Producing MgO - C castables and other
C-containing monolithics
Development of water-free ready to use
mixes
Study of mechanical and chemical stresses
in the lining
Carbonless SEN for avoiding clogging
Improvement of thermal shock resistance
of carbon bonded material
Al
2
O
3
- Cr
2
O
3
- ZrO
2
process plugs by fusion
route
-SiAlON added trough castable.
5 Use of more monolithics
and improvements
Monolithics constitute approximately 25 %
of the total refractory production in India un-
like some developed countries like Japan
where it forms bulk of the production.
Nonetheless, consumption of monolithics
is expected to grow 40 % although there
are some technical issues associated with
it:
Ability to deliver stable placing property
through controlled reactivity of the cal-
cium aluminium binder
Understanding of the chemical inter-
actions and mechanisms of deflocculated
castable systems
Inadequate knowledge of the equipments
for placement of the castables.
6 Key issues being faced
by the industry
A major factor that constraint the refractory
makers is their limited bargaining power due
to modest size. Refractories are a 1-bil-
lion USD industry in India while SAIL (Steel
Authority of India) alone stands at
USD 10 billions. It accounts for a mere 2 %
of input cost of steel although it is the first
to face the onslaught in case of meltdown.
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Return on investment in this industry has re-
mained poor, PBT is only 10 % compared to
30 35 % of steel industry.
To sum up, the main issues faced by the in-
dustry is as follows:
Ever increasing expectations of user indus-
tries-improving specific consumption from
30 kg/t of steel to 10 kg/t
Adverse impact on the industry due to rise
in input cost
Not able to pass on the increase in cost to
the users
7 Way forward
The growth of steel is envisaged at 200 Mt
in 2020 and 500 Mt by 2050. The present
refractories capacity can support up to
100 Mt of crude steel production further
which capacity expansion (in terms of
world class facilities), technological infusion
and raw material linkage is needed. This
calls for nurturing of refractories industry by
steel industry for its own benefit and sus-
tenance. Refractory makers too, need to pro-
vide value added service to the steel indus-
try like:
Strengthening of total refractories solu-
tions
Application equipment like shooters, robot-
ics and laser guided automatic gunning
Advanced design software (FEM, CFD)
Strengthening of R&D teams
Constant innovation in refractories for life
and quality enhancement
Joint projects (TISTRIA for Tata Refractories
Ltd & Tata Steel)
The sustenance of user and supplier indus-
tries lies in creating a win-win situation for
both of them for which there is a need to
take a collaborative approach.
Impact of cheap / unreliable imports par-
ticularly from China
Non-availability of indigenous raw mater-
ials and major dependence on imports
Increase in working capital requirements
Has to wait up to 6 months for payment
from steel plants
Development of indigenous raw materials.
The following tables show the abnormal
increase in the price of raw materials and
fuels that have taken place in the last few
years (Tab. 1, Figs. 5, 6).
Tab. 1 Raw material price increases from
September 2009 to March 2011

'06 -07 '07 -08 '08 -09 '09 -10 '10 -11
Fig. 5 Price increases [%] for furnace oil (period 2006 2007: index 100 %)
Item Increase
[%]
Dead burnt magnesite 133
Fused magnesia 55
Sea water magnesia 37
Rotary kiln bauxite 14
Brown fused alumina 16
Graphite 109
Zirconia 46
Zirconia mullite 71
Resin 36

'06 -07 '07 -08 '08 -09 '09 -10 '10 -11
Fig. 6 Price increases [%] for coal (period 2006 2007: index 100 %)
44,85
14,64
38,64
71,38
60,57
40,97
121,7
128,0
Introduction
The trade fairs took place at a perfect point
in time. Investment in cutting-edge tech-
nologies is imminent all leading players. Ac-
cording to a market research of IKB (see
page 47) the foundries are on course for
growth again. For the iron and steel casting
the forecast is to top the pre-crisis level al-
ready in 2012. Accordingly aluminium cast-
ing is back on growth path and may surpass
the precrisis level also in the current year.
Worldwide copper casting will reach the pre-
crisis level by 2013 at the latest.
Numerous technical innovations and a very
high propensity to invest internationally
among foundries has been typical of the
foremost trade fairs in the casting industry,
GIFA and NEWCAST.
GIFA and METEC were also an important
platform for refractory manufactures. Not
only top players like RHI / AT, Magnezit / RU,
Magnesita / BR, Vesuvius / BE, and IMERYS
Group / FR presented their portfolio of prod-
ucts and services. For all refractory specialists
involved in metallurgy and foundry business
this event was a must.
Fair statistics 2011
The share of international visitors was up
again over the previous events: Over 54 %
of visitors travelled to Dsseldorf from
abroad, especially from India, Italy, France,
Austria and the USA. The long journey
proved worthwhile because nearly all vis-
itors voiced great satisfaction with the trade
fairs (98 %) and regard the aim of their
visit fulfilled (97 %). Also outstanding is the
number of experts from top management.
Some 80 % of visitors plan capital expend-
iture over the next two years and the ma-
jority of them prepared for these at GIFA,
METEC, THERMPROCESS and NEWCAST.
However even concrete business deals were
concluded at the four trade fairs under the
Germany
GIFA, METEC, THERMPROCESS, NEWCAST 2011
The quartet of technology trade
fairs GIFA, METEC, THERM-
PROCESS and NEWCAST closed
right on target after five trade fair
days in Dsseldorf. The trade fairs
posted new records both in terms
of exhibitors and visitors. 1958
exhibitors from throughout the
world met with 79 000 visitors
from 83 countries. With these re-
sults the trade fairs impressively
confirmed their standing as the
leading trade fairs in their sectors.
Fig. 1 Fair quartet GIFA, METEC, THERMPROCESS, NEWCAST
umbrella brand The Bright World of
Metals. For instance, at the trade fair a
USD 54 million deal was concluded between
a German casting machinery manufacturer
and the Uzbek railway company. A Dort-
mund-based induction furnace producer
also reported the sale of one of the worlds
most powerful melting furnace to an Indian
steel producer.
Fair evaluation
Leading spokespeople from associations and
companies of the exhibiting industries in
Fig. 2 Presentation of RHI / AT
refractories WORLDFORUM 3 (2011) [4]
casting technology, metallurgy as well as
thermoprocess technology and castings es-
pecially praised the visitors high profession-
al competence. Dr Ioannis Ioannidis, board
spokesman of Oskar Frech GmbH / DE and
President of GIFA, noted that GIFA 2011 had
taken place in a positive economic environ-
ment saying: We were visited by a great
number of international customers voicing
concrete intentions to buy. The atmosphere
was fantastic. For Dieter Rosenthal, Board
Member at SMS Siemag AG / DE and Presi-
dent of METEC, the trade fair has entirely
fulfilled and in part even exceeded all his
companys expectations. We were particu-
larly impressed by the high quality of con-
versations with interested parties and busi-
ness associates from throughout the world.
This provides us with a very good basis for
developing these contacts, following up con-
versations and intensifying business rela-
tions. Rosenthal also reported that a com-
pany part of SMS group had already been
awarded with an order for an inductive com-
bined heat & power plant by a Russian pro-
ducer of forged spheres for milling units.
Dr Hermann Stumpp, Chairman of the LOI
Italimpianti Group / IT, LOI Thermprocess
GmbH/DE and President of THERMPROCESS,
underlined how the trade fair has pooled
the entire competence of the industry in
terms of both exhibitors and visitors.
THERMPROCESS is a unique centre for in-
ternational thermal process engineering
worldwide! We succeeded in making many
new contacts welcoming a particularly high
number of experts from India to our stand.
THERMPROCESS 2011 was once again a
top-notch event we are very satisfied!
The promoter associations VDMA and
bdguss reported that their innovative mem-
ber companies were highly delighted with
the wide representation of the machinery
market on the one hand, and the high inter-
nationality of well-informed visitors on the
other, who came to the event with specific
purchasing intentions.
Summing up the response of the represent-
ed member companies, Dr. Gutmann Habig,
the responsible General Manager at VDMA
(German Machine Manufacturer Associa-
tion) / DE, said: After overcoming the eco-
nomic crisis this, the global get-together of
the metallurgy sectors in 2011, has proven
once again to be an efficient platform for
making new contacts.
Current trends were discussed at a very high
level and the trade fairs also served as mar-
ketplaces for preparing and concluding busi-
ness deals.
The Germany Foundry Association was de-
lighted with the response both from exhib-
itors and visitors. Commenting on this
bdguss / DE General Manager Dr Gotthard
Wolf said: The international casting indus-
try confirms its competitive edge over alter-
native manufacturing processes on a broad
basis. The trade fairs were a resounding suc-
cess.
Also meeting with special interest among
trade visitors was the campaign for energy
efficiency and saving resources ecoMetals
participated in by 28 high-calibre interna-
tional exhibitors. This means the four tech-
nology trade fairs also served as forums for
discussing medium- and long-term sustain-
ability strategies and, hence, for the devel-
opment of metallurgical technologies of the
future.
And the diverse programme of side events
also gave trade visitors excellent
value added. Each of the four trade fairs
came with matching congresses, seminars,
discussion forums or competitions meeting
with avid interest (page 57 FOGI-Forum; a
report on the the 4
th
DGFS conference will
be published in the next issue).
GIFA, METEC, THERMPROCESS and NEW-
CAST will again be presented jointly as tech-
nology trade fair quartet in summer 2015.
KS
Fig. 3 The EKW / DE stand was always busy
EXPERTISE IN
FILLING TECHNOLOGY
Paper valve-bags
or PE tubular lm bags
The variety
of powder-type products
requires individual
packaging solutions.
HAVER & BOECKER, Germany
Phone:+49 2522 30-0
Fax:+49 2522 30-403
E-mail: bm@haverboecker.com
www.haverboecker.com M

9
4
7
-
E
4
At this years leading trade fair for thermal
process engineering, the 10
th
THERM -
PROCESS, which took place together with
the 12
th
GIFA (International Foundry Trade
Fair, 8
th
METEC (International Metallurgy
Trade Fair) and 3
rd
NEWCAST (International
Trade Fair for Precision Castings), through its
Director, Dr Franz Beneke, FOGI issued invi-
tations to a high-calibre panel discussion on
the key theme of the trade fair, i.e. energy
efficiency.
The panel of experts invited to take part in
the round of talks co-moderated by Dr
Beneke, included representatives from re-
search and manufacturing.
In the industrial field, energy saving and en-
ergy efficiency are associated with mechan-
ical engineering and especially thermal
process engineering as well as the corres-
ponding supplier industry. Owing to the na-
ture of the process, thermal processing
equipment is one of the big energy con-
sumers. For kiln and furnace engineers, this
is a very familiar issue. From a direct com-
parison of the respective energy requirement
for equipment built in recent decades, it can
be easily established that energy losses have
steadily decreased. Accordingly, depending
of the age of the thermal processing equip-
ment, the potential energy saving varies.
Some modern plants, for example, need a
third less energy. But even in new plants, the
possible reduction in consumption is esti-
mated up to 15 % providing the plant con-
cept is optimized, the equipment is thermal-
ly integrated in the production process or the
waste heat is utilized.
The design and engineering of thermal pro-
cessing equipment today is the result of a
long chain. The operators present their
process or describe it, and the plant supplier
proposes solutions. Computer-aided simula-
tions are conducted, which also take
account of the material properties; then the
realized equipment is tested in the test
centre. The integration and connection of the
new equipment to the existing production
plant is another step.
The new engineering methods and process-
es are, however, not only used in new equip-
ment. The manufacturers of thermal process-
ing equipment have specialized in moderniz-
ing used equipment and make these eco-
nomically efficient with new modules. The
companies active in the field of thermal
process engineering are predominantly
medium-sized in structure, which enables
wide flexibility and dynamic adaption to
changes. Associated with this is systematic
market orientation.
Energy saving and the preservation of re-
sources is the trend of recent and future
years and behind this are also technology
steps in other fields.
Representing research were Prof. Dr Egbert
Baake, Institute of Electrotechnology at the
University of Hanover / DE, and Prof. Dr
Eckard Specht, Institute of Experimental
Physics at the Otto-von-Guericke University
of Magdeburg / DE.
The representatives of the manufacturers in
the panel discussion were: Helmut Egger,
Managing Director at IVA Industrieofenbau,
Dortmund / DE; Dipl.-Ing. Dr Peter Schobes-
berger, Managing Director at Aichelin Hold-
ing GmbH, Mdling / AT as well as Dr.-Ing.
Heinz-Peter Wbben, Technical Director at
Linn High Therm, Eschenfelden / DE, and
newly elected Chairman of FOGI.
Germany
FOGI Panel Discussion:
Energy Efficiency in the Thermal Processing Industry
To maintain the high technical and economic standard, especially in
thermal process engineering, intensive field-oriented research work
is needed as thermal process engineering is a key technology for in-
dustry. To this end, in 1967 the FOGI Forschungsgemeinschaft In-
dustrieofenbau e.V. (Research Association for Industrial Thermopro-
cessing Equipment) was formed from the member companies of the
Thermo Process and Waste Treatment Technology Association (TPT)
in the VDMA Verband Deutscher Maschinen- und Anlagenbau e.V.
(German Engineering Federation). The FOGI members, plant and ma-
chine suppliers as well as engineering companies, are involved in the
sectors heating, melting ad casting of metals, heat and surface treat-
ment of metal, ceramics and glass as well as firing systems. Research
focuses of the FOGI are the development and optimization of ther-
mal processes and thermal processing equipment in the following
fields:
Preserving resources: energy saving, recovery of resources, recyc-
ling management, CO
2
and NO
x
reduction and combustion pro -
cesses
Process safety: process control and risk reduction
Quality assurance: product and system quality
Man-machine interaction: safety at the workplace, workplace
conditions and plant safety
Materials for kiln and furnace engineering: environmental
compatibility as well as chemical and thermal resistance
Production optimization: automation, process simulation and
visualization of the plant condition.
The essential technology trends for thermal
process engineering resulting from the
panel discussion can be summarized as follows:
Integrated energy analysis of production sites or
thermal processing plants: input resource flows
(energy, water and auxiliaries) of plants and
components are coupled with the output flows
of other plant components and adapted to each
other.
New types of burner with low emissions and
high efficiency: during heat generation, by
means of regenerators, recuperators and heat
exchangers, installed externally or directly at-
tached to the burners, very high air preheating
temperatures and therefore high firing-related
efficiency are achieved. The associated negative
effects on the emission of pollutants have been
overcome so that NO
x
and CO
2
limits can be
complied with.
Integration of energy-optimized individual com-
ponents: the energy consumption of fans,
pumps and electric motors has been reduced in
response to the requirements of relevant stan-
dards; these components are optimized in ther-
mal processing equipment and used in the re-
spective process steps.
In recent years established processes for energy
reduction were technically feasible, but not eco-
nomically realizable. Not at least thanks to the
increase in energy prices, a turnaround has now
been heralded in.
Robots and handling systems: new handling
systems and flexible storage systems with new
charging pallets are combined with thermal
processing equipment to complex and high-
flexibility manufacturing plants.
New safety concepts on the basis on new stan-
dards requirements in Europe.
The plant operators still lack information with re-
gard to the versatile possibilities for the utilization
of recovered heat. In old plants the transport of
energy remains a problem. In addition many fur-
naces in various production sectors are not fully
utilized over the entire year there are aspects
that came up during the lively discussion between
the total of 40 participants and all should be re-
garded as potential for considerable great energy
savings in the future.
The catastrophe at Fukushima has heralded a
turnaround in German energy policy: the German
government has decided to phase out nuclear
power by the year 2022. The experts from the dis-
cussion round see this change as being associat-
ed with a string of opportunities, which, however,
will be distributed differently among different
industries. mm
www.nedmag.nl
LEADING PRODUCER
OF HIGH QUALITY SYNTHETIC DBM
Company history
The history of P-D Refractories CZ a.s. dates
back to 1852. The initial activity of quarrying
refractory clays was continuously extended
and improved by our predecessors to meet
the increasing demands for both quality and
quantity.
The original plant was constructed at the be-
ginning of the 20
th
century. The company be-
came a strong refractory producer in the
1960s when the new plant was constructed
in Velk Opatovice. The company was called
MLZ (Moravsk amotov a lupkov
zvody).
The final increase in production capacities
came in the 1980s with the construction of
a modern silica plant in Svitavy. The produc-
tion portfolio on alumino-silicate basis
changed from raw materials to finished
products, mainly to shaped refractory prod-
ucts.
For most of the second half of the 20
th
cen-
tury, the company formed an integral part of
the state-owned company C
KZ (C
esko-
slovensk keramick zvody) Praha. The pe-
riod following the Velvet Revolution, which
brought not only political but also economic
changes, saw the company change to a
joint-stock company, which was a precondi-
tion for inclusion in the privatization process.
The privatization process took the form of
coupon privatization. The new owners, priva-
chase activities were coordinated, the
process of increasing the productivity signif-
icantly accelerated, the number of employ-
ees was reduced, including the implementa-
tion of outsourcing (transport, cleaning,
canteen, etc.).
The production and administrative processes
were studied in-depth and new measures
taken. The most significant contribution was
noticeable in the radical improvement of
cleanliness in the production halls and bet-
ter working and technological discipline.
The slight economic recovery at the end of
the 1990s and the companys inclusion in
the P-D Group had a positive influence on its
profitability. The companys role within the
tization funds or smaller shareholders, had
no relation to the refractory industry. There-
fore it was only a matter of time before the
major package of shares found a strategic
partner already established in this area. In
the meantime, our company became an in-
teresting potential partner. In this period it
was necessary to adapt to all the changes
political, economic and also technological. It
had to be improved the quality of the prod-
ucts and the product portfolio. The company
came up with new products (ceramic chim-
ney pipes, magnetite bricks, unshaped mate-
rials), many traditional products were inno-
vated.
The courting period with many leading re-
fractory producers was ended with the pur-
chase of a major part of our shares by a
company well known to us, that is Feuerfest-
werke Wetro (from the 1990s part of the
group owned by the German sole proprietor
Heinz-Jrgen Preiss-Daimler) at the end of
2000, stated Ladislav Kapar. This change
of ownership was reflected in all the compa-
ny processes. The significant sales and pur-
Czech Republic
P-D Refractories CZ 10 Years in the P-D Group
P-D Refractories CZ a.s.
in Velk Opatovice cele-
brated its 10 years under
the roof of the P-D Group.
Heinz-Jrgen Preiss-Da-
imler, the sole proprietor of
the Group, marked this
membership with a gift a
new hydraulic press from
Sacmi / IT to support a furt-
her healthy growth.
P-D Refractories CZ a.s.
679 63 Velk Opatovice
Czech Republic
E-mail: kaspar@mslz.cz
www.mslz.cz
Fig. 1 H.-J. Preiss-Daimler hands over to Director of the Board L. Kapar a gift to mark
10 years with the P-D Group a new hydraulic press from Sacmi
In 2011 We celebrate
P- kffkACI0kIfS 6k0uP
years
together Wth
P- kefractorIes C2 a.s.
hdrazn 218
619 35 Velke 0patovce
Czech kepublc
!eleon 420 516 493 111
ax 420 516 411 338
www.msIz.cz
kefractory materIaIs for:
netallurgy and coke ovens
glass-nakng ndustry
cenent ndustry
cerancs
alunnun ndustry
ncnerators
P-D Group started to develop also thanks to
the utilization of its strengths (high quality,
reasonable prices and reliable deliveries).
Benefiting from these aspects within the P-D
Refractories Group, the company has been
able to improve its position on world mar-
kets. This was enabled by the technical de-
velopment, new products and an active sales
policy.
It was important that we always found un-
derstanding and support from our partners
within the P-D Refractories Group mainly
from the major owner, H.-J. Preiss-Daimler
for these development activities, Kapar
explained.
Investment activities
This aspect will become even clearer when
the investments made in the past decade are
reviewed. A new state-of-the-art facility for
the manufacture of steel moulds was con-
structed. Moulds for the entire P-D Refracto-
ries Group, i.e. for Bochum, Wetro and Ds-
seldorf as well as Svitavy and Velk Opa-
tovice, are manufactured there. To save on
energy costs, the kiln aggregates have been
continuously modernized. A completely new
tunnel kiln with the maximum firing temper-
ature of 1550 C was built in Velk Opa-
tovice. Another tunnel kiln in Velk Opa-
tovice and shuttle kiln in Svitavy were
equipped with a new regulation and control
system.
Similar adjustments are planned for the re-
maining kiln aggregates with the target of
finalizing all the modernizations by 2015.
A significant investment was a new complex
line for the production of vibro-cast materi-
als for manufacturing complicated shapes
and systems with applications mainly in the
glass industry. Modernization of the presses
is also in process. Four hydraulic presses
from SACMI were purchased in 2005 and
2006 for the Velk Opatovice plant.
Recently, H.-J. Preiss-Daimler has provided
finances for the purchase of a new press
SACMI 1000 t / 800 mm to mark the 10
th
an-
niversary of the company as part of the P-D
Group. This machine is able to press large-
sized silica especially for use in the glass in-
dustry.
Other investments are made in the areas of
working mass preparation (scales system),
decreasing the workload, improving the en-
vironment and occupational hygiene.
Market activities
P-D Refractories CZ a.s. delivers its products
to the majority of industries using refractory
materials. The main industrial areas are met-
allurgy, cokemaking, glass and aluminium
industries. Other branches served are the ce-
ment and ceramics industries, industrial ag-
gregates, power stations and incinerators.
The company delivers its products to 45
countries worldwide.
A wide assortment of shaped and unshaped
products enables offering complete delivery
or delivery for major parts of linings
with all the advantages for the customers.
The portfolio of shaped products includes
materials on the basis of fireclay, bauxite, sil-
limanite, mullite, corundum, zircon-mullite
and also silica, insulating and magnetite
bricks.
The portfolio of unshaped products consists
of a complete set of castables, mortars, mas-
tics and special masses such as ramming
masses or masses for hot repairs, etc.
The business activities not only involve the
production and the delivery of refractory ma-
terials, but also encompass the recognition
of customer problems and the selection and
recommendation of the most appropriate
product in terms of shape and material.
With over a century of experience in the pro-
duction of shaped and unshaped refractory
materials, comprehensive solutions can be
offered that assure a longer service life for
refractory linings under even the toughest
and most varied operating conditions.
The company sees its mission in providing
tailor-made solutions for problems involving
high-temperature challenges. Top-quality re-
fractory products form the core of the solu-
tions offered.
Competitiveness
The adverse impact of the economic crisis
could be overcome mainly thanks to the
companys good shape in 2006 2008. The
boom in the economy in these years was
used to start the process of continuously in-
creasing the competitiveness. A focus was
systematically set on decreasing all cost cat-
egories.
A successful cooperation with the company
ENVIROS in the area of energy savings was
initiated.
A very important, maybe decisive, process of
increasing productivity has been started with
the company CMS. The contributions in both
cases run to millions of euros annually.
The basic figures for the past decade are as
follows:
Turnover: EUR 487 million
Sold products: 845 645 t
Investments: EUR 18,8 million
Staff number in 2010: 624
These figures clearly document that the
10 years, the company has been part of the
P-D Refractories Group, can be considered a
successful period. The turnover, profit, vol-
ume of sold products, level of investments
and also development of the average wage
justify this assessment. The figures provide
evidence that the company duly fulfils all its
roles, towards customers, owners, employees
and also towards itself in the development
of investment.
Very good results have brought many prizes
for P-D Refractories CZ. The company is reg-
ularly among the best companies in the
competition for the best producer of building
materials.
The highest possible rating AAA was
achieved from the company C
EKIA AWARD
in 2010 for the stability of economic and fi-
nancial results also in the current year.
The company also has won a grant from the
HSBC bank for export activities to Asia,
namely for exports of silica materials to the
Chinese glass market.
It is clear that the company has built firm
foundations for future activities. The strate-
gic target remains unchanged continuous
but sustainable increase of its competitive-
ness. The processes contributing to achieving
this target will be further developed and
deepened.
To do so, a development plan for the whole
company and partial plans for individual de-
partments reaching up to 2015 have been
elaborated. The basic attributes of these
plans are a significant increase in productiv-
ity and optimal volumes of sales of products
by 2015 with the partial targets set for each
year.
Achieving these targets and all the related
criteria will ensure the future of the compa-
ny and satisfaction of owners and employ-
ees. It will also make sure that this company
will be a full-valued member of the P-D
Group in the forthcoming decade.
SiC As Unique As Your Product
SiC As Unique As Your Product
No two ceramic products are alike.
The product application, properties and
design are crucial criteria. Silicon carbide
from ESK is tailored precisely to meet
your product requirements. Moreover,
we work in close, confidential cooperation
with you, using our SiC to improve
your product. After all, the best results
are achieved by teamwork.
ESK Silicon Carbide is ideally suitable
for all applications from refractories
through technical ceramics to
composites.
ESK Silicon Carbide is resistant to
wear
high temperatures and thermal shock
chemicals
oxidation
ESK Silicon Carbide exhibits
extreme hardness
good electrical conductivity
high thermal conductivity
ESK Silicon Carbide is available
in green and dark colour
in sizes from a few millimetres down to
submicron range
with an SiC content exceeding 99 %
in fractions and grades to match your
individual product compositions
ESK-SIC GmbH
Gnter-Wiebke-Strae 1 50226 Frechen Germany
Phone +49 (0) 22 34-94 95-0 Fax +49 (0) 22 34-94 95-115
info@esk-sic.com www.esk-sic.com
you can trust us!
This years meetings were enriched by two
high-level guest speakers. On Thursday
9 June, Dr Weber, head of the department
for raw materials of the Austrian Federal
Ministry of Economy, Family and Youth and
at the same time Austrian representative in
the EU Raw Materials Supply Group, gave a
very informative presentation entitled Is
there a place for the refractory industry in
Europe.
On Friday 10 June, Dr Rbig presented the
raw materials policy of Europe. Dr Rbig is
an Austrian Member of the European Parlia-
ment (EP) and a member of the EP Commit-
tee on Industry, Research and Energy and of
the Committee on Climate Change. He is
also the shadow rapporteur for the EP own-
initiative report on the raw materials initia-
tive. This report will be voted on in the EP
plenary session in September.
At the PRE Economic Committee, PRE Presi-
dent Dr Schmidt-Whitley presented the
PRE member statistics for the year 2010.
Statistics aggregated at national level
showed the changes in production for over
10 different product categories. Information
on sales, employment and end-use was also
presented. Overall, production and sales in-
creased considerably compared to 2009 to
over 4 Mt and EUR 3 billion. However, this
still remains below 2007 levels. Long-term
employment remained nearly stable since
2009, but has decreased by 30 % since
2003.
At the PRE General Assembly, an overview
was given of the activities carried out by PRE
as well as Cerame-Unie (the umbrella or-
ganisation representing 8 European ceramic
industry sectors, including PRE). At first, Prof.
Quirmbach, Chairman of the PRE Technical
Committee, presented the role of this com-
mittee and the importance to have a strong
participation of experts, both within PRE as
within the standardisation body CEN. The
CEN TC 187 on refractory products meets
annually in Brussels.
Mrs Volckaert, Secretary-General of PRE,
presented the activities that took place in
Austria
Successful 2011 PRE Congress in Vienna
From 8 to 10 June 2011, the
European Refractories Producers
Federation (PRE) held its 58
th
an-
nual congress. The event, taking
place in the beautiful centre of
Vienna, was hosted by both the
Austrian Mining and Steel Asso-
ciation and the Austrian Associ-
ation for Building Materials &
Ceramic Industries.
The high attendance, 80 partici-
pants from 11 different countries,
underlined the importance this
event has for the European re-
fractory industry.
Astrid Volckaert
PRE Fdration Europenne des Fabricants
de Produits Refractaires
1000 Brussels
Belgium
E-mail: Volckaert@cerameunie.eu
Fig. 1 The auditorium of the PRE Congress in Vienna
the field of EU environmental policy. The first
REACH registration deadline ended in De-
cember 2010 and the refractory industry
successfully registered all substances requir-
ing registration. A detailed overview was
given of the EU post-2012 Emissions Trading
Scheme (ETS) and the recent Commission
proposal to revise the Energy Taxation Direc-
tive. In some cases, small emitters could opt-
out of the ETS; however they would then
have to comply with equivalent measures
which are still under development at nation-
al level. Further information was also given
on the Industrial Emissions Directive, which
after more than 3 years of negotiations was
published in the EU Official Journal in Janu-
ary 2011. Last but not least, the activities in
the field of resource efficiency were present-
ed, including the organisation of a Ceramics
Forum debate at the European Parliament
on this topic in May 2011.
Further information was also provided in the
area of trade and raw materials, with an up-
date on the imports of magnesia carbon
bricks from China to the EU, the on-going
WTO case on exports of raw materials from
China and the percentage price increases of
a number of raw materials.
The 2012 congress will take place in the Slo-
vak Republic, hosted by the Czech and Slo-
vak refractory producers association.
BROWN FUSED ALUMINA
WHITE FUSED ALUMINA
PINK AND RUBY FUSED ALUMINA
FUSED MULLITE AND MULLITE-ZIRCONIA
MAGNESIA ALUMINA SPINELS
ACTIVATED BAUXITES AND
SINTERED BAUXITES
BLACK SILICON CARBIDE
GREEN SILICON CARBIDE
BORON CARBIDE
BLACK SILICON CARBIDE
GREEN SILICON CARBIDE
METALLURGICAL SILICON CARBIDE
SINTERED BAUXITE
ACTIVATED BAUXITE
OIL AND GAS PROPPANTS
SINTERBALL
SINTERBLAST
SINTERLITE
BROWN FUSED ALUMINA
WHITE FUSED ALUMINA
PINK AND RUBY ALUMINA
FUSED MULLITE, MULLITE-ZIRCONIA
FUSED MAGNESIA-ALUMINA SPINELS
CALCIUM ALUMINATE CEMENTS
In Brazil and abroad, generating solutions
with technology and responsibility
Celebrating in 2011 its 50
anniversary, Elfusa is a
worldwide known producer of
fused oxides for abrasives,
refractories and ceramics:
For more than 28 years in the
North American market, USEM is
one of the most reliable sources
of fused oxides:
Electro Abrasives is known for
its high quality products
specially designed for different
applications. Producer and
trader of carbides in all range of
grits, including water classied
powders:
Established in 2001 Sublimes
produces Silicon Carbide using
state of the art Acheson Electric
Furnaces with a capacity of over
50.000 tons per year of various
product grades:
Curimbaba Mining Company uses
bauxite as the raw material for a
series of special products aimed at
the petrochemical industry, solder
for welding, jet-blasting, ceramics,
refractory materials, clarication of
mineral oils, smelting and
agrochemicals:

Rua Julio Michelazzo, 501
So Joo da Boa Vista, SP
13872-900
Brazil
Phone: 55-19-36342300
comercial@elfusa.com.br
www.elfusa.com.br
600 Steel St.
Aliquippa, PA, 15001
United States
Phone: 724-857-9880
info@usminerals.com
www.usminerals.com
701 Willet Road
Buffalo, NY, 14218
United States
Phone: 716-822-2500
info@electroabrasives.com
www.electroabrasives.com
Plot 141 IS
Matla Power Station - Kriel
South Africa
Phone: 27-(0)176486016
www.sublime-sic.com
Av. Joo Pinheiro, 3665
Ponte Preta
Poos de Caldas MG
37704-392
Brazil
Phone: 55-35-37297600
www.curimbaba.com.br
G
S
B
2
th
Germany
85
th
Annual Meeting of the DGG in Saarbrcken
The DGG (Deutsche Glastechnische Gesellschaft/German Glass Society)
had organized from 30 May to 1 June 2011 in Saarbrcken a compre-
hensive programme for the societys annual meeting. Nearly 400 par-
ticipants attended this conference, which offered 55 oral presentations
in eight seminars, 34 posters, a special workshop for students and for
the first time a workshop to promote job opportunities for young engi-
neers and scientists. Furthermore seven company visits to the glass,
steel, automotive and aluminium industry nearby could be booked al-
ternatively to round out the individual meeting programme. Five suppli-
ers also attended the event in the congress hall to present their prod-
ucts for the glass manufacturing industry or to support their procure-
ment activities.
Plenary speech
The Cradle to Cradle Concept was pre-
sented by its inventor Prof. Dr Michael
Braungart. In 1987 he founded the Environ-
mental Protection and Encouragement
Agency (EPEA) Internationale Umwelt-
forschung GmbH and has worked since then
with clients worldwide to apply the Cradle to
Cradle
methodology to the design of new

processes, products and services in various
industry segments. In this context materials
are applied with respect for their intrinsic val-
ue and their useful afterlife in recycled or
even upcycled products, which have value
and technological sophistication that may
be higher than that of their original use. With
the Cradle to Cradle
concept as in nature
no waste product is left. Using biological
and technological nutrient cycles, the right
materials are brought to the right place at
the right time. The aim of the Cradle to Cra-
dle
design concept is to improve the quali-

ty of products so that they have an improved
consumer quality for the end-user, pose no
health risk for anyone who comes into con-
tact with them and are of both economic and
ecological benefit. He explained: Energy
shortage is not the problem of our society.
We have diversified systems at hand, but we
have to learn how to harvest energy and to
reuse our materials in the best way. We are
already facing the shortage of some raw ma-
terials. The attempt only to reduce waste or
to target zero emission is wrong. We need
engineers and scientists to redesign the ma-
terial processing, product development and
reuse of products. The Cradle to Cradle
method of production is in direct contrast to

the Cradle to Grave model in which mate-
rial flows are formed without any conscious
consideration of protecting resources. Rather
than attempt to reduce the linear material
flows and present-day methods of produc-
tion, the Cradle to Cradle
design concept
envisages their redesign into circular nutrient
cycles in which value, once created, remains
of worth to both man and nature. Instead of
eco-efficiency we ask for eco-effectiveness. It
is e.g. energy efficient to seal houses and to
achieve a lower energy consumption. But by
doing so we have to be aware that the ex-
tremely bad atmosphere conditions in-house
get even worse that is not effective at all.
But it is one reason why more and more peo-
ple are suffering from asthma, he warned.
Braungart encouraged the attend-ees to
analyse carefully and critically the
material and product flows in place in the
glass industry, as the set up of biological and
technological nutrient cycles can not only
protect the environment effectively but also
provide economic advantages.
Oral sessions
A two-day programme comprised eight
sessions:
Electromagnetic processing of glass melts
Silica glass and glass surfaces
Opening ceremony
After the welcome speeches given by Prof.
H. Barklage-Hilgefort (President of DGG)
and E. Schrader (Officer for Cultural Affairs
for the city of Saarbrcken), Prof. Dr U.
Ungeheuer was awarded with the golden
Gehlhoff Ring of the DGG. In the laudation
given by Prof. H. Schaeffer, the work of
Prof. Dr U. Ungeheuer for HVG, the partner
association of the DGG, was given special
mention. He was President of the HVG (Ht-
tentechnische Vereinigung der Deutschen
Glasindustrie) for nine years and, in his
role as member of the board and later as
head of the board at Schott AG, he support-
ed the steady development both in econom-
ic and technical aspects of these two associ-
ations.
Fig. 1 Audience during oral session
A N D A L U S I T E
Commitment to partnership
Our customer is our priority and we make every effort
to meet their long term expectations.
Commitment to supply
Through our geographic locations, products range,
and continual investment in production capacity, we are
able to meet the global Andalusite market demand.
Commitment to innovation and quality
Innovation and quality is our foremost priority owing
to our know-how accumulated over decades.
Web site: www.damrec.com
In France:
Glomel...
In South Africa:
Thabazimbi,
Havercroft,
Apiesdoring,
Krugerspost,
Annesley...
In china:
Korla...
In Peru:
Pata...
Fig. 2 Presentation of Air Products
ric measurement based on the example of
float tanks.
HVG/DE reported on experience with the use
of ceramic pore burners for the production of
glass. In the scope of the InnoNet R&D pro-
ject, it was established that the pore burners
with SiC foams are limited to application
temperatures of 1350 C, and therefore
their application in the glass industry is
limited as here a temperature range to
1550 C must be reached.
Career workshop for prospective
newcomers to the sector
In the work of the Bundesvereinigung fr
Materialwissenschaften und Werkstofftech-
nik e.V. (BV MatWerk Federal German As-
sociation of Material Sciences and Materials
Engineering Regd.) encouraging and sup-
porting young talents plays a prominent
part. Prof. P. Portela explained the MatWerk
activities to promote the graduate career
prospects, but also vocational training for
technical professions such as material
testers or materialographers (further infor-
mation at: www.matwerk.de).
In spontaneous talks, the companies Niko-
laus Sorg/DE and Saint Gobain Oberland/DE
presented career opportunities in their com-
panies and gave tips on preparing for job
interviews. The Fraunhofer ISC/DE, the
DFG/DE and Freiberg University of Mining
and Technology/DE spoke on behalf of the
institutes. 40 potential newcomers to the
sector took this opportunity to take part in
constructive discussions. The representatives
of the human resources departments ex-
pressed considerable satisfaction with this
first such organized event.
Summary
With the Congress Centre in Saarbrcken an
excellent venue had been chosen for this
multifaceted event. The two seminars de -
voted to the upcoming and future profes-
sionals in the sector encouraged the attend-
ance of many young participants. Without
doubt, this was an important signal for the
further development of the DGG. The high
quality of the papers and the lovingly pre-
pared support programme contributed
equally to the success of the event. Next
year the 86
th
Annual Meeting of the DGG
will be held in cooperation with the 11
th
ESG
Conference from 03 06. June 2012 in
Maastricht/NL. KS
The properties of mixes containing 30 %
and 50 % Cr
3
O
2
were presented. In general
not only the chemistry but also the micro-
structure of the materials notably influences
material performance, giving one reason to
study the influence of the shaping technol-
ogies applied (NB: this work will be pub-
lished in refractories WORLDFORUM issue
2/2012).
Energy efficiency and the related EU direct-
ives are issues that launched a co-operative
research project conducted by Zippe Indus-
trieanlagen/DE, Vetroconsult/CH; HORN
Glass Industries/DE, TNO/NL on advanced
preheating technology. Meanwhile a first in-
stallation in the Netherlands has gone on
stream. Results of this industrial-scale and
individual project contributions were pre-
sented by the partners. A major problem of
the system is the dust development as the
raw materials and cullet have to be
processed in a very dry state. An integrated
preheating concept was designed by Niko-
laus Sorg/DE. Following on from this were
the talks of Optimum/NL Preheating of re-
cycling cullet by steam from waste heat
boiler and the paper presented by Freiberg
University of Mining and Technology/DE on
Influencing the melting rate and the dust
generation with glass batches in a semi-
industrial day tank.
Not only for glass tank manufacturers and
operators, but generally for industrial fur-
nace engineering, the furnace chamber visu-
alization system FIOScope is an interest-
ing prospect. Franke IOS/DE showed videos
on endoscopy, thermography and geomet-
Research project FORGLAS
Measurement methods, glass microstruc-
tures, glass properties
Refractories, melt preheating
Glass joining, borate glass
Glass microstructures
Glass melt
In the DGG workshop for students, informa-
tion was presented on the topics of sintered
glass and optoceramics, monocrystals,
optical glass, luminescence in glasses and
photonic crystal fibres.
The topic of refractories was concentrated in
two papers on chromium oxide materials,
which are used for the production of spe-
ciality glasses, e.g. for glass fibres. Chro-
mium oxide requires particular attention
firstly on account of the associated environ-
mental problems and secondly owing to its
limited availability.
The contributions of M. Dietrich, RHI AG/DE
Application and environmental aspects of
chrome alumina refractories and M.
Schilling, P-D Refractories/DE Investigation
of the corrosion behaviour of refractory
phases in the system Cr
3
O
2
and Cr
3
O
2
- Al
2
O
3
against glass melts of different basicity de-
pending on the thermal conditions consid-
ered those crucial facts. RHI has established
a recycling system that consists of the pro-
duction of a fused secondary raw material
processed from used chrome alumina refrac-
tory material. The benefits of using in-house
processed secondary raw material in the per-
formance of refractories were described.
P-D Refractories elaborated a comprehen-
sive study to partly replace Cr
3
O
2
with Al
2
O
3
.
Introduction
The conference was held at a five-star hotel,
the White Swan Hotel, in Guangzhou, a beau-
tiful floral city with both ancient and modern
features. A birds eye view of a corner of the
city overlooked from the 24
th
floor of the
White Swan Hotel and the well-equipped in-
house conference facilities are shown in Figs.
1, 2 respectively.
As Tian Xueguang, President of ACRI/CN (Fig.
3) explained in his opening speech, holding
this conference was aimed at launching fur-
ther discussions on the development orienta-
tion and strategy for the refractories industry,
which is facing new challenges, as well as clar-
ifying the focuses of structural adjustment,
transforming development strategies and
technical innovation, to look for effective ways
for low-carbon and green development of
high-temperature industries, to promote inter-
national exchange and collaboration and ac-
celerate the refractories sectors sustainable
and healthy development. Abstracts of the 23
papers are presented in the following.
Steel industry and its demand
for refractories
There were six presentations on this subject,
with informative statistic data to review the
recent development of steel industry and re-
fractories industry and provide constructive
suggestions for future prospects.
Yin Ruiyu, Chinas Engineering Academy/CN
(Fig. 4), held a keynote address on the recent
development of the iron and steel industry and
its demand for refractories, pointing out that
the development of refractory products should
concentrate on the following four aspects:
promoting the continuity, consistency and
stability of the workflow in iron- and steel-
making;
boosting the efficiency and extending the
service life of the metallurgical equipment in
which refractories are used;
facilitating a reduction in energy consump-
tion in steel enterprises;
and availing clean steel production and im-
proving steel quality.
He encouraged refractories manufacturers,
suppliers and research institutes to pay more
attention to the following points:
upgrading of products varieties and enter-
prise structures;
increase in productivity and energy-saving
and reduction of emissions;
more effort in R&D work for new-generation
refractories with a longer service life;
recycling of resources;
more R&D work on unshaped refractories to
meet the requirements for cost reduction
and energy-saving in steel plants;
development of casting powder (mould
powder) for efficient continuous casting of
steel.
China
First China International Conference on Refractory Production
and Application
The first China International
Conference on Refractory Produc-
tion and Application, co-organ-
ized by the China I & S Associa-
tion (CISA), the Association of
China Refractories Industry
(ACRI) and Metallurgical Consul
of CCPIT, was successfully held
from 10 to 12 May 2011 in
Guang-zhou/CN, with about 300
participants coming from China,
Japan, the USA, Germany, France,
South Korea, India, Turkey, Viet-
nam, Thailand, Malaysia and re-
gions of Taiwan and Hongkong,
etc.
Liu Jiehua
Refsource
Jinyuan Intl, Bld. C
471003 Luoyang, Henan
China
E-mail: ryljh@126.com
Fig. 1 A birds eye view of the city nearby
the Hotel (courtesy of Dr Zhou Ningsheng)
Fig. 2 Auditorium (courtesy of Willson
Chiu)
Fig. 3 Tian Xueguang, giving his opening
speech (courtesy of Willson Chiu)
Zhang Changfu (CISA/CN), reported that dur-
ing the last five years, the Chinese steel indus-
try had developed at a fast pace in terms of in-
dustrial capacity while crude steel output had
increased from 400 Mt in 2006 to 600 Mt in
2010 and many modernized and large-sized
facilities have been installed in some steel
plants and great progress has been made in
structural adjustment and in technology inno-
vation and in energy-saving as well as in emis-
sion reduction, and the comprehensive com-
petence of the entire industry has been en-
hanced. However, in the meanwhile, bottle-
neck problems had occurred with regard to
energy conservation, in environment protec-
tion, in redundant building projects , in the
overall organization of the industry, in re-
source controlling as well as raw materials
supply and price increases. Then he empha-
sized that during the next five year plan, fac-
ing challenges from the slow recovery of the
world economy and opportunities from contin-
uous growth of the domestic economy, the
Chinese steel industry would have to realize
the four following changes:
from quantity-orientation to quality-orienta-
tion;
from single-industry to multi-industry;
from inland organization to the coast, with
more development orientation to the raw
materials and users;
from the implementation of introduced tech-
nology to original invention and innovation.
Xu Dianli (ACRI/CN), reviewed the recent de-
velopment of the Chinese refractories industry
and deemed that for more than ten years, Chi-
na has been the worlds largest refractory pro-
ducing, consuming and exporting country, as
can be seen from Figs. 5, 6.
Xu pointed out that in the next five-year plan,
the China refractories industry shall do the fol-
lowing: adjust the industrial structure, upgrade
technology and facilities, sensibly utilize re-
sources; implement policies for energy-saving,
emission reduction and clean production.
Dave Kurtz, (Vesuvius Group/BE), on his topic
Future of Refractories Challenges and Op-
portunity, believed refractories should meet
the requirements of health and safety and en-
vironment foremost and also lower energy
costs and increase productivity for refractories
and users. How to achieve all this? He pro-
posed a systematic engineering approach in-
cluding, for example, physical and computer
simulations for the improved design of refrac-
tory solutions in steel casting and foundry
casting, computer-aided design and optimiza-
tion with flow modelling, product design and
process optimization for ladle processes,
mould/tundish flow modelling, application of
finite element analysis in the design and man-
ufacturing of refractory products.
N. K, Ghosh (SAIL/IN) presented his R&D work
on refractories for steel ladles and results of
the application MgO-C bricks in the metal
zone and Al
2
O
3
-MgO-C bricks in the bottom
impact zone. He concluded that lining life
varies from 60 to 102 heats depending on the
ladle size and process route. Wear is more se-
vere in the slag zone and bottom impact zone
area; Al
2
O
3
-MgO-C bricks have been success-
fully developed for the bottom impact area
and their performance is much better than
MgO-C bricks. The average lifetime of steel la-
dles could be increased to 114 heats.
Alexander Chabanov (United Metallurgical
Co./RU), discussed the refractories market in
Russia. For refractories demand in United Met-
allurgical Co. and in the procurement of re-
fractories, it is necessary to take into account
factors such as price/quality ratio, quality con-
sistency, delivery reliability, workable coopera-
tion between users and suppliers.
Refractory production and
application technology advances
For this subject there were twelve presenta-
tions, some of them concerned with research
findings on refractories application in clean
steel-making facilities as well as functional re-
fractories for continuous casting of steel, while
some focussed on monolithic refractories as
well as a new concept for green refractories
production.
Shen Zhongming (Baosteel/CN) described the
application and selection of refractories for
Baosteel, including: for converters, porous
plugs for the bottom, for RH refining furnaces,
MA spinel bricks for the upper vessel, precast
Fig. 4 Yin Ruiyu during his speech (cour-
tesy of Willson Chiu)
Fig. 5 Outputs of main refractory products in 2010 [10
4
t]
Fig. 6 Exports of Chinas refractories products from 2001 to 2010
corundum spinel blocks for lower vessel and
spinel castables for snorkels, for ladles, high
alumina castables as a permanent lining,
corundum castables for working lining, to-
gether with lightweight monolithics as an in-
sulating layer between the ladle shell and per-
manent lining, achieving stable insulating ef-
fects.
Shen Haibo (Shougang Jingtang United Iron &
Steel/CN), summarized the technical advances
and refractories application for a BSK hot blast
stove of the 5500-m
3
blast furnace in the com-
pany, the expected blast temperature of
1300 C under full combustion of blast fur-
nace gas has been realized by adopting an op-
timized technical process for the blast furnace
gas system, BSK top-combustion HBS and pre-
heating furnace, double-preheating of the
combustion air and gas, optimizing the com-
bustion operation of HBS, etc. Safe running of
the HBS can be ensured by means of the sen-
sible selection of refractories.
Hong Xueqin (Wuhan Iron and Steel (Group)
Corp./CN), dealt with the technology progress
of management and technology innovation in
clean steel production.
Chang-su Ha (POSCO Technical Research
Lab./CN), pointed out in his presentation that
low-quality iron ore ratio has been increased
in iron-making process owing to price rises
of refractories for clean steel secondary refin-
ing and continuous casting, including selec-
tion of refractories with high performance,
lower pollution and even with functions of pu-
rifying steel for ladle refining, RH refining and
tundish systems, emphasizing the importance
Fig. 7 Xu Dianli (left), Jouki Yoshitom (centre) and Gao Xinkui (right) at the conference
(courtesy of Willson Chiu)
and the depletion of high-quality material, re-
sulting in an increase in the phosphorous con-
tent in molten iron and a decrease in steel-
making productivity, which contradicts the re-
quirement for decreasing impurities like car-
bon, phosphorous, sulphur, etc. from down-
stream users. Refractories suppliers can only
enhance their competitiveness with improve-
ment of lining life, optimization of repair prac-
tices, quality improvement of functional refrac-
tories, development of new refractories for
new grades of steel, and also energy saving
and recycling of waste materials.
Zhang Zhaoxia (Taiyaun Iron & Steel (Group)
Co./CN), presented a report on how to reach a
service life of average 150 heats for AOD fur-
naces with a zone lining of MgO-Cr
2
O
3
bricks,
MgO-CaO bricks and dolomite bricks as well
as other measures, and on how to achieve a
service life of max. 23 heats for VOD furnaces
with selection of semi-lightweight castables
for permanent lining and MgO-CaO for the
wall and slag zones.
Li Hongxia (Sinosteel Luoyang /CN) reviewed
the development of refractories for clean steel
making, pointing out that from the thermody-
namic point of view, there is an equilibrium
oxygen content dissolved from oxides into
molten steel. Compared with other oxides and
their compounds, the oxides MgO, ZrO
2
, CaO
or MA spinel materials have a lower oxygen
potential in molten steel and should be select-
ed for low-oxygen-content clean steel making.
To reduce carbon pick-up in steel, low carbon
and carbon-free materials should be consid-
ered as functional refractory products and for
refining ladle.
Jouki Yoshitomi (Krosaki Harima Corp./JP) dis-
cussed the reduction of heat loss with the use
of low-carbon MgO-C bricks and application
of nanotechnology to increase the corrosion
resistance and thermal shock resistance of
MgO-C bricks. His presentation also discussed
measures to realize stable casting of steel,
such as technology to make clean flow avoid-
ing eccentric flow in mould and technology to
avoid alumina clogging in the bore of the noz-
zle.
Gao Xinkui (Yingkou Qinghua Group/CN) de-
scribed the application of MgO-CaO bricks for
secondary refining furnace, including
AOD,VOD, LF-VD and GOR and studied the ef-
fect of CaO content, the source of CaO and
carbon content on the performance of the
bricks, which should be optimized in line with
working conditions.
He Zhongyang (Puyang Refractories Group
Co./CN) outlined a study on the performance
of purging plugs and its relation with material
quality and design pattern as well as opera-
tion parameters by means of analyses of the
thermal distribution and mix flow field of the
plugs; the study also focussed on functional
refractories including shrouds, submerged en-
try nozzles and stoppers, indicating that diver-
sification and compounding of functional re-
fractories should be the development trend in
the future.
Wang Linjun (Tongda Refractories Technology
Co./CN) reported on research work on the ap-
plication of unshaped refractories such as
castables for blast furnace troughs, slinging
mixes for converter lining repairs, wet shotting
mixes for ladles and coating mixes for RH fur-
naces. He believed that the energy-saving tar-
get could be achieved by improving the appli-
cation of unshaped refractories, including im-
Fig. 8 Dave Kurtz, presenting his paper
(courtesy of Willson Chiu)
Innovative Partnerschaft
EXCELLENCE
IN REFRACTORIES
www.rhi-ag.com
For more than 10,000 customers in 180 countries the best refractories technology is provided by RHI.
RHIs innovative power is based on decades of established R&D excellence,
which are concentrated at the RHI Technology Center in Leoben.
More than 150 experts work continuously on product innovations and developments
in close cooperation with universities and other research institutions.
For our customers this means competitive advantages through top leading technology
and maximum value creation in their production processes.
RHI: World Market Leader in the
Refractories Technology
proving the quality of raw materials, in techni-
cal process and in installation as well as bak-
ing technology.
Lin Bingyin (Winna Industrial Group/CN) re-
viewed the development and role of silliman-
ite group minerals in improving the quality and
thermal properties of traditional Al
2
O
3
- SiO
2
system refractories. The improvement of per-
formance with the addition of sillimanite
group minerals is attributed to the increase in
in-situ formed mullite and decrease in glass
phase in products and also some volumetric
expansion caused by phase transformation
owing to the addition of sillimanite group min-
erals is conducive to compensating for the
shrinkage of Al
2
O
3
- SiO
2
system refractories.
Zhou Ningsheng (Henan University of Science
and Technology/CN) advocated concepts and
practices of green refractories, which, he
believed, could be realized by means of the
wider application of unshaped refractories, re-
source conservation refractories (for instance,
recycling of used materials and direct use of
some natural raw materials like raw coal
gangue and sillimanite group minerals), ener-
gy-saving refractories (lightweight micro-pores
aggregates, lightweight castables and un-
burned refractories), environment- and eco-
friendly refractories (with reference to the
harmlessness in processing of raw materials
and during entire manufacturing of refracto-
ries and application at end-users).
Development of other
refractory-using sectors
and their requirement
for refractory products
On this subject, there were three presentations
covering refractories for the non-ferrous met-
als, cement and ceramic industries.
Xiao Zhipeng (China ENFI Engineering
Corp./CN) reviewed the refractories for the
non-ferrous industry including roasters and
electrolytic cells in the aluminium industry,
flash furnaces, Norland furnaces, Ausmelt fur-
naces, oxygen bottom blowing smelting fur-
naces, Baiyin copper smelting furnaces, con-
verters, anode reverberatory furnaces for the
copper industry and closed blast furnaces for
the lead industry as well as fluidized bed
roasters for the zinc industry.
He Tianxiong (China Ceramics Industry Associ-
ation/CN) outlined the situation and develop-
ment of refractories for the Chinese ceramic
industry, pointing out that about 2000 tunnel
kilns, 4000 roller kilns and 2000 shuttle kilns
are currently in operation, for which about
500 000 t lightweight bricks and 2 Mt kiln fur-
niture are consumed annually for newly built
or rebuilt kilns. The refractories for the sector
mainly include cordierite-mullite, SiC and ce-
ramic fibre products.
Chen Junhong (University of Science and Tech-
nology Beijing/CN) reported on a study on the
synthesis of hercynite and preparation of mag-
nesia hercynite bricks for application in ce-
ment kilns, obtaining a breakthrough achieve-
ment when used in the burning zone of ce-
ment kilns with improved kiln coating and a
longer service life and better thermal shock re-
sistance than MgO-Cr
2
O
3
bricks under the
similar application conditions
The World Refractory Market and
International Trade
Wang Yuanjiang (China Chamber of Com-
merce of Metals Minerals& Chemicals Imports
and Exports/CN) presented the exports situa-
tion of Chinas refractory raw materials, which
is characterized by a fast increase in the vol-
ume of exports, price increases, a low concen-
tration ratio of exporting enterprises, etc. As
for the more trade frictions generated in the
last ten years, he emphasized that counter-
measures should be taken to timely react to
case warnings; actively face cases and quickly
enter a communication without litigation; ac-
tively cooperate with overseas importers and
users and coordinate with commercial cham-
ber as well as with the help from government
lobbying and negotiation.
Comments
As described in the announcement of the con-
ference, the aim of the event is to connect re-
fractory manufacturers with consumers and
suppliers, to promote refractory production
and application technology advancement, and
to strengthen international cooperation. The
conference achieved its target and brought to-
gether industry leaders and experts to discuss
hot issues such as new technologies, new
products and new concepts to meet new re-
quirements and challenges from end-users un-
der the new economic situation and globaliza-
tion. As there were still many issues which
could not be discussed fully in one conference,
they are left for future forums. It appears that
many attendees have not given full expression
to their views. So, the reporter wishes to take
this opportunity to welcome those friends
from home and abroad to participate at an-
other event,
The 6
th
International Symposium on Refracto-
ries to be held from 18 to 21 October 2012 in
Zhengzhou/CN, which will be jointly organized
by the Chinese Ceramic Society and the Chi-
nese Society for Metals.
Fig. 9 Interaction between Zhang Changfu (CISA) and Gerald Kaufmann (RHI) and Yang
Zunqing (Metallurgical Consul of CCPIT) during a coffee break (courtesy of Willson Chiu)
Fig. 10 The reporter Liu Jiehua (right) and
Dr Zhou Ningsheng (left) after their pres-
entation
Organizers of the conference were the Asso-
ciation of Financial and Industrial Groups of
Russia, Intermet Engineering Ltd, and Mag-
nezit Group Ltd.
Traditionally in the magazine New Refracto-
ries new information messages (90 pcs) by
the opening of the conference were pub-
lished on the subjects of the conference and
on the results of the works done in 2010 in
the institutes of higher education by labora-
tories of refractory and metallurgical enter-
prises. Information about raw materials,
equipment and technologies representing
interest for the CIS market was compiled.
During 2011/2012 the most interesting re-
ports, presented at the conference, will be
published in this magazine.
In his opening address Prof. S.V. Kolpakov
(Association of Financial and Industrial
Groups of Russia) evaluated the situation
and perspectives of the development of me-
tallurgical enterprises on the territory of CIS.
He informed about changes in the structure
of metallurgical production and about the
nearest future plans of metallurgical enter-
prises developments, which are the main
consumers of refractory materials. The
speaker has drawn the conclusion that the
metallurgical industry in whole is successful-
steel cast on continuous casting machines
(by the year 2015 92 94 % in Russia and
about 80 % in Ukraine) an increase of pro-
ducing steel treated out of furnaces (vacuum
steel degassers of various type, ladle
furnaces) will be observed.
Correspondingly, requirements to the quality
of refractory materials become more and
more strict. More efficient refractory repair
materials are in higher demand, and at the
same time the total amount of produced re-
fractories decreases. This concerns the pro-
duction of silica-alumina refractory mater-
ials, refractories of basic composition of
medium quality, both shaped and unshaped.
The production of oxide-carbon refractories
and novel unshaped refractories will con-
tinue to increase. Economically inefficient
production facilities will be closed. The best
perspectives on the CIS market belong to the
companies possessing their own raw ma-
terial base, primarily magnesium-con-
taining raw materials, having their own re-
search sub-divisions and offering to their
customers maximal set of services.
Nowadays on the territory of CIS only Mag-
nezit Group is able to make a complete offer
to the customers for refractories for any me-
tallurgical vessels as well as a complete set
of services. It goes without saying, that there
will always remain certain niches for domes-
tic firms of small and medium size working
in narrow segments of the market.
Reports of a number of representatives of
enterprises concerned questions of technical
re-equipment and organization of produc-
tion of new competitive types of refractory
materials. A.A. Gorodov (JSC Kombinat
Magnezit part of Magnezit Group/RU) pre-
sented the plans of production development
at Kombinat Magnezit within the framework
of the investment program of the Magnezit
Group for the period up to the year 2020.
ly overcoming consequences of the finan-
cial-industrial crisis. Processes of renovation
of capital assets at metallurgical plants were
accelerated and the adoption of new tech-
nological processes was intensified and, as a
consequence, the demand for high-quality
refractory materials rose.
The present situation and the forecast of de-
velopments in production and application of
refractory materials in Russia and CIS for the
nearest decade were discussed in the report
of Dr L.M. Akselrod (Magnezit Group/RU).
The speaker attracted attention to the fact
that consumers are interested in lowering
specific consumption of refractories per ton
of steel. But to a greater extent they are in-
terested in lowering the specific costs per
ton of manufactured products (for example,
in dollars per ton of steel). Besides, the prob-
lem of decreasing energy consumption per
ton of manufactured products is of high im-
portance and the application of novel types
of refractories is of considerable significance
for the solution of this question. On the
background of reducing the production of
steel in open-hearth furnaces and increasing
the share of steel produced in electric arc
furnaces (Russia) and oxygen converters
(Ukraine), and also of the growing share of
Russia
International Conference of
Refractories Manufacturers and Metallurgists
The International Conference of Refractories Manufacturers and
Metallurgists was held in Moscow/RU on 31 March to 1 April 2011.
More than 250 specialists in the field of production and operation of
refractory materials took part in this event. The participants arrived
from 14 states, first of all from Russia and Ukraine as well as from
Kazakhstan, France, Austria, China, Japan, Germany, etc. Represen-
tatives of more than 140 plants and organizations participated in the
conference. The most part of reports were devoted to the questions
of theory and practice of production and application of unshaped re-
fractory materials, heat-insulating refractory materials, to the prob-
lems of development of refractory production at the refractory plants
of Russia and to the results of application of refractory materials in
various metallurgical vessels, first of all for production of iron and
steel.
L.M. Akselrod
Magnezit Group
119180 Moscow
E-mail: lakselrod@magnezit.com
The production of super-dense sintered peri-
clase will increase considerably (up to
130 000 150 000 t/a) when the construc-
tion of the second high temperature shaft
kiln complex will be finished (2012). The
production of fused periclase (97 98 %
MgO) will rise up to 150 000 t/a (2015)
thanks to the expansion of the existing facil-
ities and construction of a new workshop.
The production of oxide-carbon and peri-
clase spinel refractories, unshaped refractory
materials etc. will also increase.
Dr V.V. Skurikhin (JSC Borovichi Refractory
Works/RU) told about the implementation of
the program for growing production of un-
shaped refractory materials on the basis of
silica-alumina raw materials and fused
corundum. In order to lower production
costs of these refractories they have organ-
ized the manufacturing of high alumina ce-
ment immediately at the Borovichi Refracto-
ry Works as well as the production of matrix
systems (<2,5 m) for low cement and ultra-
low cement concretes. They also began the
production of efficient concretes for melting
furnaces and mixers in the aluminium indus-
try with optimal fraction composition and
the production of pre-cast shapes for metal-
lurgy and glass industry.
In his report Ye.V. Beklemishev (JSC Per-
vouralsk Dinas Works) presented informa-
tion about the practice of cooperation with
metallurgical plants, where they install un-
shaped refractory materials: trough and
tuyere masses, shapes from refractory con-
cretes of silica-alumina composition. The
most efficiency is demonstrated by semi-dry
formed high alumina bricks (75 % Al
2
O
3
),
which are produced with the help of highly
concentrated binding systems. The produc-
tion of oxide-carbon refractories formed by
isostatic pressing for CCM is being expand-
ed. The plant has successfully overcome the
period of the crisis and since 2009 the pro-
duction of salable goods increased by
19,4 %.
D. Sorokin from RHI-Vostok reported about
a number of innovative solutions of the
RHI AG/A in the field of clean steel produc-
tion. He began with formulating the require-
ments, which are necessary for clean steel
production and with a general approach
aimed at minimization of harmful impurities
in stock steel. Then the author discussed in
detail the application of a number of tech-
nologies and various refractory bricks. He
demonstrated the efficiency of converter
tuyere blocks Isojet with conical channel,
systems for early detection and cut-off of
slag, systems of bottom blowing with argon
in electric arc steel-making furnaces and
converters. The speaker presented infor-
mation on the role of monolithic linings of
steel-teeming ladles and linings of tundishes
for CCM including products formed by iso-
static pressing.
The representative of RUP BMZ/BY, V.M.
Kuleshov, reported about the efficiency of
applying the unit for bay casting of steel
from electric arc furnaces with rectangular,
oval and conical cross-section of the outlet
channel.
I.V. Galenko reported about the moderniza-
tion of unshaped refractories production at
the Keralit Ltd/RU and in particular about
the production expansion of trough and
tuyere masses, and dry mixes for trough cov-
er linings. All the recommendations given
are intended for a particular consumer after
specifying the operation conditions of the re-
fractories. They continue to produce a wide
range of unshaped refractories and pre-cast
shapes, first of all of silica-alumina and
corundum composition. Quality control by
many parameters of final products is carried
out at the plant. In 2010 production vol-
umes at Keralit Ltd exceeded 24 000 t/a.
Dr P. Gudovskih (Kerneos Ltd/FR) reported
about processes influencing the properties
of concrete, which contain high alumina ce-
ment under conditions of prolonged storage
of dry mix till its usage. Ageing is a general
term used for describing the process of in-
teraction of cement with the atmosphere,
influencing cement activity and concrete mix
properties. The new aluminate cement
Secar
712 ensures resistance of the dry con-

crete mix against the process of ageing. The
speaker cited proves of preservation of such
properties as flowability, setting time,
strength and other properties after 6 and
24 h. Working time is improved for LCC in
which the new cement is used in comparison
with Secar
71. While using the new cement

consumers obtain specific advantages in ap-
plication of LCC.
Prof. Yu.E. Pivinski (Kerambeton-Ogneupor
Ltd/RU) spoke about his own experience:
how scientific activity is transformed into a
practical result. He presented perspective di-
rections of developments: HCBS highly
concentrated binding systems (cement free)
not only as an alternative of cement con-
taining concretes used in metallurgy and
other branches of industry, but also as an
universal technology which can be applied in
silica material science, for example in the
synthesis of cordierite. He demonstrated that
during the process of wet grinding of quartz
glass a matrix structure is formed which is
enriched with nano-particles resulting in the
possibility of obtaining quartz ceramics for
industrial usage in rocket firings and quartz
submerged nozzles with excellent service
properties. In spite of growing consumption
of corundum-graphite products for protec-
tion of metal streams, quartz submerged
nozzles and tubes remain economically fea-
sible even in 25 years after development of
this technology at the refractory plant.
In his report Dr P. Tassot (Calderys/DE) made
an analysis of modern solutions for steel
teeming ladles and tundishes of CCM and of
products of his firm, which can be recom-
mended for solving the pointed out prob-
lems. He presented an original design of
purging set for sliding gate systems for steel
teeming ladles as well as a number of im-
Fig. 1 Working presidium of the conference: Prof. S.V. Kolpakov, Dr L.M. Akselrod ,
Prof. I.D. Kashcheyev and Prof. Yu.E. Pivinski
provements for tundishes including a multi-
player well block with the possibility of
blowing argon into the area where tundishs
nozzle is located.
Prof. R. Stronys reported on the works car-
ried out by the specialists of Vilnius Techni-
cal University/LT on the influence of tem-
perature onto the process of setting of
medium cement heat-resistant concrete with
compositional deflocculants. It is recom-
mended to use in medium cement silica-alu-
mina concrete (with application of high alu-
mina cement and microsilica) the complex
deflocculant Castament FS20 and sodium
tripolyphosphate in ratio 2:1. It was found
that with increasing temperature of the
mass during its preparation under conditions
of up 30 C the strength of concrete was
lower than at 10 C and 20 C.
Cofermin Rohstoffe GmbH & Co. KG/DE pre-
sented information about the application of
andalusite as high-alumina raw material
supplied from South Africa under the trade
name marlusite.
SiO
2
in the production of refractory con-
cretes, including experiences made with
equipment for distribution of low amounts
of nano-particles in the mix. Dr Kuznetsov
recommended to use magneto-cavitational
forces for the destruction of nano-materials
aggregates under conditions when there is
In the reports of representatives of the Na-
tional University of Science and Technology
MISIS (Dr D.N. Kuznetsov) and the Belgorod
State Technological University (Dr V.A.
Doroganov) was presented experience
gained from application of nano-dispersed
components nano-dispersed -Al
2
O
3
and
Fig. 2 Discussion of presentations: G.S. Rossikhin, I. Shtinnesen, L.M. Akselrod
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FROM A GLOBAL PLAYER
CONSISTENT QUALITY
no liquid medium, and in suspensions with
the help of ultrasound. The introduction of
< 0,1 % of nano-component brought a con-
siderable increase of density of the concrete
shape.
Reports of specialists from different com-
panies were devoted to various aspects of
production and application of unshaped ma-
terials:
Experts from CSJ Mariupol Metallurgical
Works/UA (A.K. Harin) and Dr V.P. Tara-
sovsky from Scientific and Technical Center
Bacor Ltd/RU spoke about the application of
unshaped materials in rolling mills. Special-
ists from OgneuporInvest Ltd. and Prom-
resurs Ltd (both from Russia) spoke about
unshaped refractories and bricks made from
them which are intended for use in vessels
of steel-melting workshops. A representative
from the Vermolit Ltd/RU spoke about the
application of expanded vermiculite in heat-
insulating concretes. A.M. Tropinov from
NFP Alineka/UA spoke about the lining of
shaft furnaces for burning lime. Z.I. Ismag-
ilova presented a concept for producing un-
shaped refractory materials at the new pro-
duction site of JSC Kyshtym Refractory
Works/RU (part of Magnezit Group), where
silica-alumina and corundum refractory dry
mixes of various composition and purpose
are produced as well as refractory masses of
various purpose on phosphate- and silica
binder, including heat-insulating materials.
H. Mori of Shinagawa Refractories Co./JP
(Fig. 3) suggested the use of submerged
nozzles of original design Mogul, rather well
known by earlier reports and articles. He also
presented a new system of sliding gate with
automatic pressing mechanism. The last
topic arose great interest of the audience as
there are plans in the CIS countries to grad-
ually transfer to application of sliding gates
with multiple use of sliding plates instead of
fixed sliding gates which have been used
during recent thirty years. The new shape of
sliding gate plates was proved in the process
of modeling of thermomechanical loads and
according to the author it favours the in-
crease of strength of these shapes.
The main tendencies of sliding gates devel-
opment were presented in the report of Dr
V.M. Kononov (Shiber Ltd/RU). A.G. Golovko
spoke about the application technique of
book-type sliding gates designed by the
Russian firm Vulkan-TM Ltd with the possi-
Fig. 3 H. Mori (Shinagawa Refractories)
giving his speach
bility of multiple plate use. He described also a high-speed ef-
ficient mixer for the refractory industry.
Dr A.P. Duka (Borovichi Refractory Works/ RU) presented re-
sults of the works for the production of refractories in the sys-
tem Al
2
O
3
SiCC for torpedo and charging ladles. He spoke
also about the role of anti-oxidants in the composition of re-
fractories. They suggest to use silica-alumina bricks 45 55 %
Al
2
O
3
for the control layer of torpedo ladles. Linings of charg-
ing ladles in converter workshops demonstrated service life up
to 1047 heats with a specific refractories consumption of
0,11 kg/t of iron.
Theory and practice of application of heat-insulating materials
as a reliable way of energy saving in industry as a whole and
in metallurgy in particular was presented in a number of re-
ports. Ye.A. Nikiforov (Diatomite Kombinat Ltd/RU) reported
about establishing a scientific-technical center Silica Materials
and Technologies at which they carry out research work, tests,
measurements and efficient cooperation with various organiza-
tions, including the cooperation in the development of novel
heat-insulating materials with use of diatomite mined in the
Ulyanovsk region. A.V. Oistraikh (Teplopromproyekt Ltd/RU)
demonstrated successful projects of application of heat-insu-
lating materials in thermal vessels of the petrochemical indus-
try. The range of products of the joint venture Morgan Thermal
Ceramics Sukhoi Log Ltd/RU was presented in the report of
K.M. Mikhalyov, who spoke about bricks formed under vacuum
for furnaces of the chemical industry. The company Unifrax Ltd
(A. Davis) presented a review of their own products from
ceramic fiber and examples of successful application of these
materials for lining of thermal vessels in the ferrous metallurgy.
Vermolit Ltd/RU (A.P. Sergeyeva) presented a wide range of dry
mixes for the production of heat resistant heat-insulating con-
cretes and shapes from them with application of phosphate-
and silica-alumina binders as well as aluminate cements with
fireclay filler, with silica-alumina hollow micro-granules and
expanded perlite.
Prof. I.D. Kashcheyev (Ural Federal University/RU) reported
about investigations on the efficient application of surface-
active substances produced in Russia in the production of
shaped silica-alumina refractories. This resulted in considerable
lowering of pressing forces necessary for obtaining the same
density of green brick. He pointed out the necessity of individ-
ual selection of grade and amount of surface-active sub-
stances.
V. Garten, director of VGH AG/DE reported about products of
the subsidiary Petronix Ltd/DE. The plant produces various
equipment for lining and servicing of thermal vessels including
those for heating up and drying of ladles, mechanisms for re-
moval of refractories of the bay of electric arc steel melting fur-
naces (removal of refractories after finishing operation of the
furnace was reduced to 67 h). They can offer also concretes for
working linings of steel teeming ladles with the use of which it
is possible to reduce the specific refractories consumption per
ton of steel.
Company Eirich/DE (I. Kontsurov) presented information about
mixing and grinding equipment of the firm, including the nov-
el mixers R16 and RV16, which supplement mixers R15 and
RV15. Batch mass increased correspondingly from 960 to
1440 kg. Eirich mixers are the most popular mixers at enter-
prises producing shaped and unshaped refractories both in
Russia and Ukraine.
A concept of successful application of hot-pressed carbon
blocks from UCAR Refractory Systems GrafTech/USA for
hearth bottom and hearth of blast furnaces at a number of
plants in 2010 was presented by. E. Goncharov (report of
P. Sylven and P. Duncanson). Record strength was achieved at
many plants in China, including the holdings Shougang, Bao-
steel/CN etc. Fifteen and more years of operation of UCAR
linings is a usual practice at Chinese plants. Linings with ap-

plication of UCAR

bricks are successfully used in Europe,
Great Britain (Tata Steel, Scunthorpe). An absolute strength
record of linings made from hot pressed bricks was achieved
at the blast furnace of AK Steel Amanda/USA: 27 years lining
of hearth and 47 years lining of under-hearth. Practical expe-
rience confirmed successfulness of the concept of thin-walled
frozen lining of under-hearth and hearth of blast furnaces.
M.Yu. Turchin (Magnezit Group/RU) presented experience on
application practice of high magnesia modifiers in converter
and electric steel melting production. In 2010 they have pro-
duced about 300 000 t of high magnesia modifiers of various
composition for applications in different operation conditions
of metallurgical vessels. It was proved that correcting the slag
composition by MgO content in converters, electric steel melt-
ing furnaces and steel teeming ladles enables to considerably
increase the service life of linings. In converters it is advisable
to combine correcting of slag composition in the process of
steel melting with correcting of slag composition after teem-
ing metal and its further blowing with compressed nitrogen.
At 100 % of the converters in Russia and at the majority of
converters in Ukraine this technology was introduced. Intro-
duction of high magnesia modifiers (produced by Magnezit
Group) in steel melting vessels and steel teeming ladles is per-
manently expanding.
M.V. Ushakov, representative of JSC Seversk Pipe Works/RU,
spoke about experiences from the application of high magne-
sia modifiers of their own production for correcting of slag
compositions by MgO in 80-t electric arc steel-melting fur-
naces. This made it possible to improve the service life of the
lining by 30 %. In Tomsk Polytechnic University/RU (Dr O.A.
Konovalova) they developed a production technology for high
magnesia modifiers with application of burned brucite.
During the plenary meetings, breaks and dinner specialists of
different firms had the possibility to exchange information.
In the lobby of the conference hall during the conference there
was installed an exhibition where at the stands of a number
of companies: (Almatis/DE, Zschimmer and Schwarz/DE,
Bruker/DE, General Insulation Europe/DE and Momentive/DE,
Kerneos/FR, Calderys/DE, Shinagawa Refractories/JP,
Elkem/NO, Cofermin/DE and Possehl/DE, Poliplast/RU) spe-
cialists of CIS enterprises could get consultations and agree
about cooperation for the future.
RuiTai Materials Technology Co., Ltd.
China Building Materials Academy
Guanzhuang, Chaoyang District,
Beijing 100024, China
Fax: +86 10 6574 9474
E-mail:hjh@bjruitai.com
Technology and application of
refractories
T. Franek, Refrasil s.r.o.I CZ, opened the con-
ference with his presentation on the Czech
and Slovak refractories industry in the period
of the economic crisis. After the critical
period of time from first half of 2008 until
mid-2009, the economy is now undergoing
revitalization, evident from the growing steel
production and other industrial sectors. The
total refractories production in the Czech
Republic declined over the last 3 years by
27 % and in Slovakia by 17 %. In Czechia
the decline could be mainly attributed to the
drop in the production of fireclay bricks
(36 %) and monolithics (36 %), while in
Slovakia it was the decline in the production
of basic bricks (-55 %) and fireclay bricks
(45 %). But it will take some time to reach
the production levels of 2007, because in
the following three years only gradual
growth of economy in the EU countries is ex-
pected.
H. Seifert, Freiberg University of Mining and
Technology/DE, described the non-destruc-
tive testing of refractory building materials.
He reported on the results of non-destructive
testing of precast refractory shapes achieved
during a long-lasting cooperation between
the Freiberg University of Mining and Tech-
nology Institute for Ceramics, Glass and
Building Materials Technology and DBI Gas
und Umwelttechnik GmbH, Freiberg, regard-
ing ball blow examination, rebound hard-
ness examination, adhesive tensile strength
measurements, ultrasonic examinations and
radiography with radioactive isotopes.
T. Hlscher, Calsitherm Silikatbaustoffe/DE,
gave an overview on process innovations
and energy saving in the cement industry
and waste incineration industry due to alka-
licorrosion-resistant refractories and com-
ponents, investigated in the PEHA research
project of German BMBF. Aim of the project
is the development of an alkali-resistant in-
organic non-metallic insulating material on
Czech Republic
The Refractories Community Met in Prague
In May this year the International Conference on Refractories was held
in Prague as usual on the banks of the river Moldau at the head-
quarters of the Czech Silicate Society. More than 200 participants at-
tended the conference; besides coming from Czechia and Slovakia,
they had travelled from Austria, France, Germany, Hungary, Iran, Lux-
embourg, Malaysia, Peru, Poland, Spain and Turkey.
The conference was organized by the Czech Silicate Society in cooper-
ation with the Institute of Ceramic, Glass and Construction Materials
at Freiberg University of Mining and Technology, MORE Meeting of
Refractory Experts, Freiberg, and the Association of Czech and Slovak
Refractories Producers.
The report gives a brief overview of the papers presented.
Fig. 1 The auditorium (Source: J. Gtz)
the basis of reaction products between
ceramics and alkaline compounds. Partici-
pants in the research project are: Institute of
Ceramics, Glass and Building Materials of
Freiberg University of Mining and Techno -
logy, Fraunhofer Institute for Ceramic Tech-
nologies and Systems, Dresden, Calsitherm,
Bad Lippspringe, Refratechnik Cement, Gt-
tingen, Lafarge Zement, Karsdorf, and
Schler + Bolte, Witten.
J. Ulbricht and M. Hampel, Freiberg Univer-
sity of Mining and Technology, Institute for
Ceramics, Glass and Building Materials
Technology, showed in their paper on high-
density refractory aluminosilicates some
possibilities to produce refractory materials
with low porosity (3 to 10 %) from refracto-
ry clays and kaolins materials that are
much cheaper than raw materials like the
corundum and mullite used nowadays. For
lowering the porosity in order to produce
high-density bricks they described three
technological possibilities, having an enor-
mous influence on the product properties
achieved:
Using dried grog of clay and kaolin for
moulding shaped bricks. In this case the
brick has high shrinkage during firing, re-
sulting in high density and low porosity,
but the problem is the poor dimensional
accuracy.
Using dried grog of clay and kaolin for
moulding shaped bricks, firing the bricks
at about 1400 C, taking them out of the
kiln at this temperature and putting them
into the refractory mould of a press. The
hot bricks are pressed for a second time
and slowly cooled down in a kiln, perhaps
in the same kiln in which they were heat-
ed up.
Using high-burnt, high-density grog of
kaolin and making an exact particle size
grading. The addition of a small amount of
binding material like kaolin and optimal
firing results in bricks with nearly 0 %
porosity and excellent dimensions.
M. Kotouc ek, P. Kovr, K. Lang, P-D Re-
fractories CZ a.s., L. Nevr ivov, VUT FAST
Ustav THD, Brno, presented a paper on in-
sulating silica production, properties and
applications. With increasing efforts of kiln
operators to reduce the energy costs of
their operations, the requirements also rise
for the production of insulating materials
with even lower bulk density and better
thermal insulating properties. Insulating sil-
ica is mostly produced concurrently with
dense silica, which causes many problems,
especially the problem of limited production
capacity. The firing time is approximately 14
days. It is necessary to use mineralization
agents, as the burn-out agents influence
the firing regime significantly. The authors
reviewed the history of silica production at
P-D Refractories CZ, where insulating silica
is produced with bulk densities of 650 to
1250 kg/m
3
and classification temperatures
up to 1600 C for application in furnace
arches in the glass industry or hot blast
stoves in metallurgy. In order to increase
the production capacity in response to the
market demand, the company is investigat-
ing possibilities to shorten the firing regime
to half the time of the recently used regime.
The acceleration of the firing period for in-
sulating silica using coke gives unaccept-
able results. Producing insulating silica on
the basis of light-weight silica materials
with low Al
2
O
3
content looks promising:
the firing regime is estimated as half of
the current technology, the reduction of
greenhouse gases as well, but the produc-
tion technology has to be optimized ac-
cordingly.
Refractories technology
New calcium aluminate aggregates (CAA)
for refractory castables installed in highly
abrasive environments were presented by
C. Whrmeyer, C. Parr, H. Fryda and E. Frier
of Kerneos SA/FR. In this study it was
demonstrated that CAAs build a strong
physical and chemical linkage with much
higher bonding forces between CAA and
calcium aluminate cement (CAC) giving two
examples with different CAA: a fused pore-
free aggregate (R50) and a porous sintered
CAA (R60). With R50 mechanical abrasion
resistance and aluminium penetration resist-
ance have been found to be superior to Chi-
nese bauxite, with a lower amount of
castable required per 1 m
2
. R60 enables
slightly lower castable density than fireclay
and employs at the same time 50 % more
open porosity. Despite this difference the
flexural strength remains unchanged. Both
R50 and R60 are CAAs which suit applica-
tions up to 1350 C 1400 C, for example
in power plants, secondary aluminium indus-
try, re-heating furnaces and back-up linings
in many industrial furnaces.
The influence of different matrix compo-
nents on rheological and mechanical proper-
ties of high-alumina LC castables, impor-
tant for production and installation process,
was investigated by M. Webb-Janich, U.
Martin and M. Bernard, Zschimmer &
Schwarz/DE. The study focused on the work-
ability of the test products, considering test-
ing of flowability, CCS, MOR, and density
and determining the sensitivity and measur-
able impact on the properties of LC casta-
bles owing to changes in the contents of re-
active alumina, deflocculating agent and
water.
The influence of content and origin of
Al
2
O
3
MgO spinel on the resistance of re-
fractory castables against steel slag corro-
sion was investigated by J. Peek, J. Fiala,
L. Rybk, Z. Kuc era of rohmoty Ltd, and
J. Hamc ek, J. Kutzendrfer of Institute of
Chemical Technology, Department Glass
and Ceramics, Prague/CZ. The authors dealt
with the preparation and evaluation of re-
fractory castables with graded spinel content
(18 to 30 mass-%). Both synthetic spinel
and in-situ spinel (formed in the specimens
during heating up to classification tempera-
ture) were used. The specimens were pre-
pared simultaneously as vibro-casting and
self-flowing materials. The physical proper-
ties of the specimens were measured
after drying and firing and the bending
strength at 1500 C was determined. The
slag corrosion was tested at 1450 C
with 7 h soaking time. The castables con-
taining in-situ spinel had shown more
favourable physical properties, in contrast to
the results of the corrosion tests. The spinel
content had no substantial influence on the
slag corrosion resistance in the investigated
range.
M. Schnabel, A. Buhr of Almatis/DE and
R. Exenberger, C. Rampitsch of voestalpine
Stahl /AT discussed in their paper Spinel
forming versus spinel containing castables
for steel ladle lining the difference in the
formulation concepts of alumina-spinel
(spinel-containing) and alumina-magnesia
(spinel-forming) castables and the influence
on their physical properties. The individual
property profile was discussed with regard
to the requirements to be met by refractory
lining materials in the different zones of a
steel ladle.
Fig. 2 Prague at night from Charles Bridge (Source: rvm)
The manufacturing of refractories with
larger dimensions by direct freeze-foaming
technique was presented by M. Ahlhelm,
J. Fruhstorfer, T. Moritz, Fraunhofer IKTS,
Dresden/DE. There are many possible meth-
ods for adjusting porosity, e.g. the burn-out
of sawdust or petrol coke, gas injection
approaches, inflation processes or the use of
volatile additives and fibre structures. Now,
the freeze-foaming as direct foaming tech-
nique is to be introduced as an environmen-
tally friendly and cost effective way to make
refractories. The paper describes the foaming
of an aqueous ceramic mullite suspension
within a few minutes by mere pressure re-
duction in a freeze-drying chamber. As the
pressure decreases, the vapour pressure acts
as the driving force for the foaming. The
foam structure is suddenly frozen when the
suspension temperature, related to the vacu-
um pressure, reaches the liquidus-solidus
equilibrium line. The achieved porous struc-
ture is then thoroughly dried by sublimating
the frozen water. The obtained large-sized
foam parts (235 mm length, 114 mm width,
70 mm height in the green state) exhibit
open porosity and dense struts. The open
porosity provides an equal thermal distribu-
tion and the dense struts improve the me-
chanical properties. Just 5 to 10 mass-%
organic additives, required for stable foam-
ing, minimize the effect of crack formation
during the sintering step and provide an
environmentally friendly and effective pro-
cessing route for the final product.
O. Krause, Coblenz University of Applied
Science, Hhr-Grenzhausen, D. Clle and
H. Schaffhauser, EKW, Eisenberg/DE, and
D. Jahn, Refractory Research Association,
Bonn/DE, have investigated the hardening
kinetics of refractory castables in terms of
varying cement and dispersing agents with
reference to the expected drying
behaviour. The researchers figured out that
the setting and curing behaviour of refracto-
ry LC castables is strongly dependent on the
applied combination of cement and dispers-
ing agent. Four commercially available CA
cements were combined with four polycar-
boxylate-derived products and their results
were referenced to sodium hexametaphos-
phate, as it is commonly in use as dispersing
agent in the refractories industry. More than
40 different castable compositions were
tested by means of electrical conductivity
and sonic velocity. The measurements were
lose fibres added to the slip to generate an
adjusted pore volume after sintering, which
is important for the thermal shock properties
of the material. The organic binder strongly
influences the flexibility and the further
processing properties of the green tape. The
orientation of the fibres can be influenced by
adjusting the casting speed and casting
thickness.
C. Whrmeyer, C. Parr, J. Mahiaoui and
H. Fryda of Kerneos SA/FR discussed in their
paper A new calcium aluminate cement
(CAC) for longer shelf-life of refractory low-
cement castables the ageing behaviour of
CACs or dry castable mixes during storage in
humid atmosphere. A clearer understanding
of the underlying mechanisms has led to the
development of a new CAC, Secar
712,
which is much more resistant to ageing and
offers an intrinsic solution in providing pre-
dictable placing properties for LCCs, and
consequently extends the shelf-life. In the
paper results and analyses of different age-
ing experiments were presented, performed
under different conservation and climatic
conditions, as well as with different formula-
tions. Different testing conditions demon-
strated the improved resistance to ageing
that the new product can offer.
A brief survey of literature on silica refrac-
tory research and development a case for
nanostructured silica obtained from rice
husk ash (RHA) was given by B.I. Ugheoke,
O. Mamat and B. Ariwahjoedi, University of
Technology Petronas, Tronoh/MY. In this
review the authors have pin-pointed the
problem, connected with silica refractories
from research of the early era (1913 to
1990) and have assessed the theme of
current research, in order to ascertain how
well these current research works have
conducted over the first 48 h after casting.
Although the applied cements show roughly
equal chemical compositions (about
70 mass-% alumina), the setting time varies
between 8 h and >48 h. The data obtained
by sonic velocity and electrical conductivity
measurements do not lead to comparable
results.
U. Scheithauer, K. Haderk, H.-J. Richter,
U. Petasch, M. Zins and A. Michaelis of
Fraunhofer IKTS, Dresden/DE, informed the
attendees about lamination techniques for
new multilayer thermoshock resistant refrac-
tories, based on the material system calcium
aluminate. The manufacturing of carbon-
free refractory multilayer composites by
means of aqueous ceramic tape technology
allows for the production of components
with large dimensions and gradient struc-
tures regarding porosity and phase composi-
tion, which will yield improved thermal
shock properties of the materials. The results
of different characterization techniques for
laminated and sintered multilayer materials
were presented. Microstructure of sintered
multilayers and interfaces between the tapes
were characterized by means of SEM. The
mechanical strength of the different lami-
nates was characterized in tensile tests. After
lamination, computer tomography scanning
enables detection of possible delaminations
between different tapes, which would result
in big defects in the sintered multilayer
product.
In a second paper presented by the same
authors on Development of ceramic tapes
for thermal-shock-resistant calcium alumi-
nate refractory materials with graded poros-
ity for the tape casting process an aqueous
slip of alumina, calcium carbonate and
organic binder system was developed. Cellu-
Fig. 3 Prof. Kutzendoerfer and Dr. Lang chairing the session (Source: rvm)
attended to the problems of the early
research era. The review showed that the
gaps identified in the early research era still
remain unattended too. It concludes by mak-
ing a case for nanostructured silica obtained
from RHA for the production of silica refrac-
tories as a way of solving these problems
and making them a booming industry again.
Refractories application
L. Spik and D. tefanko, Slovmag as,
Lubenik/SK, presented new solutions and
applications for refractory materials of the
Magnezit Group. First they gave an
overview on the plants of the Group and
their product portfolio. Then, for their
customers they presented some examples
for saving costs which apparently are not re-
lated to refractory materials:
Saving of welding in casting ladle collar: it
has the advantage of saving mechanical
works in welding of a collar after each
campaign, saves steel, and the lifetime of
the collar is the same as that of the ladle
shell.
Electric arc furnace: instead of using metal
cladding of bricks to use the glue MCM 90
for MgO-C bricks in electric arc furnaces in
places, where there is a risk of brick fall-
out or mechanical damage of the lining.
The glue creates a monolith that is
stronger and more resistant to mechanical
impact.
Addition of MgO to a slag of converters,
electric arc furnaces and ladles: one
method of increasing the MgO content
in a slag is the addition of MgO to the
coke that is blown into the process. This
has the advantage of increasing the life-
time of the lining by 10 to 50 %, shorten-
ing the duration of the heat by 1 to 3 min,
and reducing the cost for electricity by
15 25 kWh/t steel.
For cement plants Solvmag has developed
a magnesia-forsterite brick SLIFORM, de-
signed for the sintering zone in rotary
kilns, especially for those using alternative
fuels. This brick may not be used in the
direct vicinity of the burner.
L. D
urik, iaromat as, Kalinovo/SK, reported

on the use of innovative and newly devel-
oped refractories in the steel industry since
2004, when the company was taken over by
P Podbrezov. The development was fo-
cused on the following types of refractories
for the steel industry: gating ceramics with
high aluminium oxide content, refractory
mastics, castable mixes and precast shapes,
synthetic slags, magnesia-based products.
In his paper Refractory linings of pig iron
transfer ladles J. Lasota of Refrasil sro,
Tr inec/CZ, discussed the measures for the
reduction of the sulphur content in steel
either by producing pig iron with low
sulphur content in the blast furnace or by
desulphurization of pig iron outside the blast
furnace. Therefore the desulphurization
process was transferred to vessels which
originally served only as transport vessels,
i.e. to torpedo cars or iron ladles. In the past,
iron ladles were designed just for trans-
portation of pig iron from blast furnace to
the steel vessels, e.g. BOF converters. Sub -
sequent processes of pig iron modifications
proceeded in steel vessels. By introduction of
the desulphurization process in pig iron
transfer ladles, both lining designs and qual-
ity of refractory materials used had to be ad-
justed or changed. Results of desulphuriza-
tion field tests at Tr inec ironworks with an
iron ladle, the entire working lining of which
is made of bauxite bricks, were presented.
On the optimization of working linings for
hot metal torpedo ladles at US Steel Koice
reported M. Mikulajc ik, A. Malejov,
S. tulrajter, A. Karic kov of US Steel
Koice/SK and J. Parnahaj, D. Chudikov of
Refrako sro/SK. At the present time, the
torpedo ladle refractory lining requires the
utilization of high-quality refractory materi-
als resistant to increased chemical, mechan-
ical and thermal stress of hot metal and slag
being transported. The reliability of the
torpedo ladle lining depends to a great
extent on the constructional design and the
quality of the refractory materials used.
Based on the corrosion results gained from
two torpedo ladles, in a third one a new
lining concept was realized and the first
results introduced the ecological tap-hole
clay KOPUH VP as a possible option to
replace tar-bonded tap-hole clays with
environmentally sound materials with
compositions on the basis of synthetic resin
bonds. This change is required as part of the
implementation of ISO 14000 in the produc-
tion process.
M. Frolichov, M. Tatic of Technical Univer-
sity Koice/SK and J. Krupa, US Steel
Koice/SK informed attendees about a
tundish lining development history and
current trends and spoke on lining develop-
ments at US Steel Koice, which went
through individual stages from linings classi-
cally bricked via monolithic sprayed linings
up to filled linings representing current
trends. Various concepts of lining implemen-
tation, their impact on tundish outfit and
various methods of drying and heating were
described in this article.
J. Segeda and R. Gaur, SMZ as, Jelava/SK,
discussed monolithic refractory materials as
working/insulating lining for tundishes. The
increasing demand for eliminating labour
work, reducing time consumption and pro-
longation of lifetime with installations of in-
sulating tundish linings led to modernization
of the insulation linings. The brick lining was
replaced with wet or dry installed mono-
lithics, which increased not only the lifetime
of the working linings but also that of the
basic linings. The whole process resulted in
cost reductions for steel production.
M. Mikulajc ik, M. Tatic , A. Malejov and
M. Luc an reported on lifetime extension of
hot blast stoves with external combustion
chamber at US Steel Koice/SK. The de-
scribed repairs either performed from out-
side or inside serving to provide fluent and
uninterrupted operation of a blast furnace.
Minor medium repairs of the stove with
quite low costs can provide a prolongation
of the stove lifetime. In a similar way, repairs
of another two stoves are also being pre-
pared. It is very important to have all four
stoves in operation. In case of necessary re-
pairs it is possible to perform such measures
even during blast furnace run.
L. Tvrdik, K. Lang of P-D Refractories CZ,
Velke Opatovice, S. Bajus, Termostav-Mrz
sro, Koice/SK, and T. ticha, Fireclay spol.
sro, Litvinov/CZ, informed attendees on
Fig. 4 The Kepler-House in the Charles Street
possibilities and reality of linings for the Claus reac-
tor. The development of Claus reactors is mainly fo-
cused on stability of operation. Experiences with refrac-
tory linings in Claus reactors, operating in the Czech
and Slovak Republic, are very different, mainly because
of the differing operating conditions, its origin, and the
performance parameters of these aggregates. The Claus
reactor is commonly used in factories that have their
own sulphuric acid production, such as oil refineries or
coke-making facilities. As different as the operating
conditions are the refractory qualities used in the ma-
sonry of Claus units. The main part of the reactor is
lined with standard fireclay, the exposed areas with
high-alumina materials. The main differences in the
choice of refractories exist in the burner internals (cat-
alyst grid, condenser section entry). The burner stones
are usually made of castable monolithics, dome area
and the upper part of the working lining with Al
2
O
3
ma-
terials (60 to 70 %), based on andalusite, corundum or
mullite. Considerable differences exist in the construc-
tion design (Krupp-Koppers, Uhde, Heurtey Industries
etc.). As the Claus process is a relatively widespread
technology, more attention should be paid to the de-
velopment of refractories to be used in it.
Theoretical principles of
technological processes
E. Skiera, J. Malzbender, J. Mnch, R.W. Steinbrech of
Jlich Research Centre/DE and S. Dudzig, C.G.
Aneziris, Freiberg University of Mining and Technolo-
gy/DE, discussed crack propagation in novel alumina-
based refractories. Controlled experiments on crack
propagation in carbon-free or carbon-reduced refracto-
ry materials partially with in-situ microstructural ob-
servation have been conducted with the ultimate
goal to support the improvement of these ceramics to-
wards application in high-temperature processes under
thermal shock conditions. Investigation of the mi-
crostructural mechanisms and the determination of rel-
evant thermal shock parameters were the purpose of
this work.
In the study Thermo-mechanical properties of refrac-
tory ceramics for the numerical simulation of their ther-
mo-shock behaviour O. Dreibati, W. Zhang, M. Wolf,
R. Ossenbrink, V. Michailov, Brandenburg University of
Technology, Cottbus/DE, proposed an investigation
method for refractory ceramics a graphite containing
alumina ceramic and an alumina-mullite ceramic us-
ing the Geeble 3500 simulation and test centre. A new
heating method based on the heat transfer from the
electrical heater into the specimens was developed to
investigate non-electrically conductive materials (alu-
mina-mullite ceramic). The graphite containing ceram-
ics were heated directly by means of electrical current.
The thermo-mechanical properties of the materials test-
ed were determined.
J. R. Campello, D. Castao and M. Miranda
of ITMA Materials Technology, Llanera/ES,
performed a post-mortem analysis of mag-
nesia-hercynite bricks from a cement rotary
kiln lining. Such bricks are used in the
lining of rotary kiln sintering zones. This
refractory material shows improved tenden-
cy to coating build-up and therefore exhibits
high corrosion resistance against alkali salt
attack. The authors presented the results of
this study, indicating that an unexpected
temperature increase had taken place in the
sintering zone, causing the destabilization of
the protective coating.
L. Fchtjohann, W. Kwarteng, HuK Umwelt-
labor, Wenden/DE, investigated (In-)organ-
ic carbon modifications in refractory
products with analytical methods for the
determination of carbon phases and gave an
interpretation of the relevant results. The aim
of this work was to develop a method for
analysing the organic binder, containing dif-
ferent carbon types present in concentra-
tions [several milligram/kilogram]. The use of
gas chromatography mass spectrometry
with thermal desorption as well as pyrolysis
allows the observation of the different tem-
perature characteristics of the binder.
At Freiberg University of Mining and Tech-
nology/DE, A. Al-Zoubi, R. Zehmisch, S. Ray,
F. Ballam, D. Trimis performed numerical
determinations of effective thermal conduc-
tivity of refractory materials using the ther-
mal lattice Boltzmann method. In the study
the main constitutive grains, i.e. aluminium
Ovens, drying and thermal treatment plants:
e. g. dryer with 4 chambers and one control cabinet
Specialized and tailor-made handling systems:
e. g. intelligent handling of tundish moulds
Components like turntables and transfer cars:
e. g. transfer car for brick production in China
Measurement and control systems:
e. g. visualization of kiln car transport system
Dedusting and lter systems and components:
e. g. unit for dedusting of several workplaces
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INNOVATIVE PLANT ENGINEERING FROM GERMANY
Fig. 5 During lunch on the banks of Moldau river (Source: rvm)
ln an induslrial segmenl wilh mosl slringenl
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FOR REFRACTORIES SECOND TO NONE
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L-6868 Wecker
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Fax +352 27612 109
L-Mail ih!olaeis.eu
VI5IT U5
A1 121H UNI1LCR CONCRLSS
OcIober 30 - November 02, 2011
IhIerhaIiohal coh!erehce cehIer
KyoIo, 1apah
oxide and corundum have been modelled as
pentagonal prisms, whereas graphite as
platelets. Fine-size components have been
modelled as a single material, filling the free
spaces between the large grains, with an
effective thermal property.
V. Kubong Atanga, M. Scheffler, University
of Magdeburg/DE, M. Kappa, C. Ohl, Bran-
denburg University of Technology, Cott -
bus/DE, have investigated microstructure
and properties of novel-type alumina/mullite
refractories from alumina and different silica
sources, which were prepared from alumi-
na particles and tetraethyl orthosilicate
(TEOS) or silica sols. The slurries were cast to
specimens with different geometry for
further characterization and fired up to
1200 C and 1600 C in air. It was shown
that shaped parts can be manufactured
easily. The material consists of a core/shell
structure with alumina in the core surround-
ed by mullite particles. The porosity is
approximately 20 % after firing at 1600 C.
The performance of materials processed
with silica sol and with TEOS was compared
in this paper.
L. Hegedsov, P. Raschman, G. Suc ik,
Technical University Koice/SK, investigated
the effect of chemical composition and
particle size on the hydration of magnesia.
The hydration behaviour of four different
types of magnesia was studied with special
regard to the effect of the nature of magne-
sia (sintered, fused, CaO:SiO
2
molar ratio)
and particle size (0,045 to 0,080 mm). Two
series of laboratory experiments were con-
ducted at different temperatures and with
different water-vapour pressures. The effect
of the process parameters on the fraction of
MgO hydrated was discussed.
R. Weigand, Freiberg University of Mining
and Technology/DE, presented in his paper
the refining of refractories for the glass
industry. The service life of refractories in
glass melting furnaces increases by creating
an oxygen depression in the pores of the
bricks. This can be realized by refining the
bricks with aluminium, aluminous solutions
and substances, which raise the surface ten-
sion of the molten glass. After finger and
crucible tests were conducted, a decrease in
the flux line and the infiltration depth were
measured. These results correlate with an in-
crease of the wetting angle and the pure
transmission of the glass. Furthermore, the
brick properties before and after thermal
shock treatment were not negatively influ-
enced.
H. Seifert, S. Dudzig, Freiberg University of
Mining and Technology /DE, reported on in-
vestigations of the strength behaviour of un-
fired refractories at elevated temperatures.
The solidification of refractory materials can
be realized by hydraulic, chemical or organic
bonding mechanisms or possible combina-
tions of these. With regard to practical appli-
cation it has to be taken into account that
these bonding mechanisms can be de-
stroyed with increasing temperature or that
they give only a minimum bonding effect in
a special temperature range. The successful
technical use of these refractory materials
results from the fact that they are used as
wall materials/linings with temperature gra-
dients. An intended use of unburned materi-
als in applications without thermal gradients
must be considered very carefully. Important
for such a decision is the knowledge of the
strength development of the chosen un-
shaped refractory material.
H. Kern, Rath GmbH, Meissen/DE, and
U. Steiner, Steiner Engineering, Viersen/DE,
presented information on repair actions of
refractory linings in high temperature reac-
tors, describing some examples for efficient
maintenance of refractory linings, i.e. stop-
ping vagrant gases, repairing partial lining
damages, maintenance and repair of heat
insulation in high-temperature reactors and
kilns with plastic fibre mastics, etc. and fi-
nally explained the material hints in this con-
text.
Concluding comments
The papers were presented in two parallel
sessions, the more technologically oriented
papers being given with simultaneous trans-
lation and the more theory- and fundamen-
tal research-oriented papers being held only
in English. Each attendee at the meeting re-
ceived the Proceedings which included
34 papers.
The proceedings volume is available from
the Czech Silicate Society (e-mail:
sis@csvts.cz). RVM
Your Media Partner
Representative (Italy, Spain, Turkey, Portugal)
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refractories
WORLDFORUM
Advantages of Calcium Hexaluminate
in a Corrosive Environment
M. Schnabel, A. Buhr, G. Bchel, R. Kockegey-Lorenz, J. Dutton
A growing world population is demanding that all industries be-
come smarter about how they use and reuse raw materials and en-
ergy. It also demands that they recycle their waste material to help
preserve the environment. New technologies to increase the per-
formance of processes or alternative designs are being pushed for-
ward vigorously. Projects to reduce energy losses and therefore CO
2
-
emissions by better thermal insulation have high priority throughout
all industries. In refractory applications, longer life of units will reduce
material consumption in the linings. This in turn will save raw mate-
rials, some of which already face shortages around the world. More
innovative new concepts and product solutions will be required to
achieve these set targets.
hexaluminate when compared to other min-
erals of similar densities.
The dense Bonite is produced by the same
process used to produce tabular alumina.
Because of the controlled sintering process
and the subsequent processing steps it is
possible to produce a homogeneous, non-
hydraulic CA6 aggregate with only traces of
other impurities such as metallic iron
(< 200 ppm).
SLA 92 is a super lightweight raw material
for insulation applications. It results from
a multi-step process with final calcina-
tion temperatures > 1550 C. Bonite and
SLA 92 were discussed in depth in previous
papers. [16]
Because of their identical chemical and min-
eralogical composition, both calcium hexalu-
minate aggregates can be used singularly or
in combination. This allows for the formula-
tion of tailor made solutions taking into
account density, strength and thermal insu-
lation.
2.1 Reaction with other
refractory raw materials
Calcium hexaluminate is the most alumina-
rich intermediate compound of the CaO-
Al
2
O
3
system. It is therefore thermochemi-
cally stable with corundum. The thermal ex-
pansion coefficient of CA
6
(8,0 10
-6
K
-1
from 20 1000 C) [7] is similar to that of
Al
2
O
3
indicating a low thermal mismatch be-
tween both materials. This allows mixing of
both materials in any ratio technically re-
quired. For calcium hexaluminate based mix-
es with micro silica addition in the matrix,
the stable phase composition is mullite-
anorthite-cristobalite with first melt forma-
tion at 1345 C [6]. This has to be taken into
consideration when designing recipes for
applications where a high thermal stability
1 Introduction
About a decade ago new synthetic raw ma-
terials, based on calcium hexaluminate
(CA6), a highly refractory mineral, were
launched by Almatis. These have proved ad-
vantageous in various applications such as
steel (in reheating furnaces and burner cov-
er linings), in the petrochemical and chemi-
cal industry, in ceramic kilns (lining and kiln
cars), and in the glass industry. This paper
presents a brief overview of the special char-
acteristics of calcium hexaluminate in vari-
ous corrosive environments and should help
drive the developer to new innovative re-
fractory solutions.
2 Properties of CA6 aggregates
Almatis offers two aggregates, SLA 92 and
Bonite, both available in a range of sizes. The
major difference between the two products
is their density and therefore their insulating
properties (Tab. 1).
They are composed of about 90 % CA
6
with
a small corundum content and traces of cal-
cium dialuminate (CA
2
). Both aggregates
show the typical hexagonal plate-like crystal
structure, which is assumed to be the reason
for the low thermal conductivity of calcium
Marion Schnabel, Andreas Buhr,
Gunter Bchel, Rainer Kockegey-Lorenz,
Jerry Dutton
Almatis GmbH
60 528 Frankfurt
Germany
Corresponding author: M. Schnabel
E-mail: Marion.Schnabel@almatis.com
Keywords: calcium hexaluminate, corrosion,
insulation
SLA 92 Bonite
Mineralogical composition
Main phase: CA
6
(~ 90 %) CA
6
(~ 90 %)
Minor phase: Corundum Corundum
Al
2
O
3
91 91
CaO 8,5 7,6
Fe
mag
0,01
Impurities 0,5 1,3
Physical properties
Bulk density [g/cm
3
] 3,0
Lose bulk density [kg/l] 0,5 0,6
Apparent porosity [vol.-%] 70 75 9,8
Tab. 1 Properties of SLA 92 and Bonite
The catalytic reaction follows a vapour-liq-
uid-solid mechanism where the carbon is
absorbed in a liquid iron droplet until satu-
ration. Thereafter the carbon is segregated
on the surface of the droplet in at least two
different types of structures: So called
bucky onions decreasing the total grow-
ing rate and carbon nanotubes, which en-
courages further carbon deposition [13]. The
destructive effect of these carbon structures
depends on the predominant carbon modifi-
cation with nanotubes being the much
more critical form. Although the detailed
wear mechanism of carbon disintegration
is still under discussion a selection of appro-
priate refractory materials, especially with
regard to low iron content will result in a
high resistance in CO-bearing atmosphere.
Because of the requirement for low silica
and low iron content, only high purity re-
fractory raw materials such as tabular alumi-
na or premium grade white fused alumina
are suitable aggregates for the formulation
of dense castables or bricks. Insulating ma-
terials contain either bubble alumina or cal-
cined alumina in the case of high purity fire-
bricks.
Calcium hexaluminate is an interesting alter-
native due to its purity combined with its
low thermal conductivity when compared
with typically used raw materials.
In the frame of a German public sponsored
development project [14], extensive calcula-
tions of the thermochemical stability of cal-
cium hexaluminate were performed consid-
ering an atmosphere typical for petrochemi-
cal applications (Tab. 2).
It was concluded, that under a reducing at-
mosphere, calcium aluminate phases are
stable over the entire temperature range. In
the presence of water vapour and with in-
creasing pressure the stability ranges of the
CA phases do not change above 700 C. Be-
low 700 C, only slight phase transforma-
tions result in equilibrium conditions [15]. In
another project, the CO-resistance acc.
ASTM C288-87 of a medium weight
castable, (32 vol.-% porosity) based on
dense calcium hexaluminate was tested and
rated class A (highest resistance class) after
pre-firing at 540 C [3].
SLA 92 as an aggregate for insulating mate-
rials is of special interest because of its very
low thermal conductivity in these mixes
when compared to bubble alumina contain-
ing castables (Fig.1).
> 1350 C is required. However, the fact
that CA6 creates liquid phases at lower tem-
peratures can also be used to formulate re-
fractory products with a self-coating effect
that reduces further penetration of corrosive
media or to increase the elasto-plastic be-
haviour of a high alumina formulation.
3 Specific advantages of CA6 in
selected application areas
3.1 Stability in H
2
/
CO atmosphere
Various industrial processes operate under
atmospheres that require special attention
when selecting the right refractory lining
material for a particular plant. In parts of the
chemical and hydrocarbon processing indus-
try, for example, steam reformers which are
used to produce the required process gases
from natural gas, the refractory material is in
direct contact with the synthesis gases at
high temperatures up to 1400 C under ex-
treme hydrogen and carbon monoxide con-
ditions [8].
Also industrial furnaces, used for the treat-
ment of metals or the sintering of metals
and ceramics, are increasingly operating un-
der inert gas atmospheres (H
2
/N
2
) demand-
ing optimised refractory linings [9]. Reducing
atmospheres can also be found in combus-
tion processes for heat generation e.g. boil-
ers with circulating fluidised beds (CFBs)
[10].
3.1.1 Hydrogen attack
At temperatures > 1200 C oxides with low-
er stability such as SiO
2
, either as tridymite,
cristobalite or in silicate form, react with hy-
drogen according to the following reaction:
SiO
2 (s)
+ H
2 (g)
SiO
(g)
+ H
2
O
(g)
[11]
The extraction of silica weakens the refracto-
ry materials by reducing their strength and
may cause premature lining failures. Further-
more the gaseous SiO can be carried down-
stream in the process where it will condense
in areas of lower temperature leading to po-
tential fouling in heat exchangers or con-
tamination of the product. [12]
3.1.2 CO-resistance
Recent studies carried out at the Research
Association for Refractories (FGF) in
Bonn/DE describe the catalytic carbon depo-
sition in refractory materials under a CO
atmosphere. Metallic iron, hematite or
magnetite act as catalytic reactive particles
leading to carbon deposits in the lining
following the Boudouard balance reaction
2 CO CO
2
+ C.
Fig. 1 Thermal conductivity of high temperature insulating materials
Tab. 2 Typical synthesis gas composition
Pressure Temperature Gas composition [vol.-%]
[hPa] [C] H
2
CH
4
CO CO
2
H
2
O
steam
30 500 700 800 36,52 6,24 4,86 6,18 46,10
The improved insulation behaviour is pro-
nounced at elevated temperatures where
the thermal conductivity is dominated by ra-
diation. Here, the micro porosity of SLA 92
shows a clear benefit compared to the big
pores in bubble alumina grains. Furthermore
the SLA 92 based castables are easier to
handle and gunning mixes show significant-
ly lower rebound due to the better embed-
ding of the SLA 92 grains in the matrix.
3. 2 Resistance against alkali
attack
Many high temperature applications such as
cement kilns, incinerators, blast furnaces,
gasifiers and glass furnaces face corrosion
by alkalis. These can be in either vapour form
or the corrosion can occur by direct contact
with alkali rich melts or slags.
Although in literature it is often referred to
as alkali corrosion in general, in reality the
situation is more complex, since the corro-
sive compounds and the process tempera-
tures vary depending on the application. Al-
kali sulphates are the typical salts found in
cement plants, whereas carbonates are more
prominent in CFBs and gasifiers. The burning
of municipal waste, either in incinerators or
its use as a secondary fuel in cement kilns
leads to increased emission of chlorides and
heavy metals such as zinc or lead. This fur-
ther increases the corrosive potential due to
formation of eutectic compounds with very
low melting points (Tab. 3).
Dependent upon the alkali compounds and
temperature in a given application, the de-
structive corrosion progresses with varying
speeds but follows a similar mechanism.
At a temperature near the boiling point of
the salt mixtures, the alkalis will be vapours.
Initially the gaseous compounds diffuse into
the refractory lining at a rate determined by
the porosity and permeability of the materi-
al. In lining areas with lower temperatures
the salts condense and recrystallize, densify-
ing the porous structure of the refractory.
Differences in the E-modulus of the original
and densified material will lead to structural
spalling when the temperature changes
(Fig. 2).
The often quoted mechanism of alkali
bursting is related to the reaction of
the alkali compounds with the refractory
material. New mineral phases within the
Na
2
O/K
2
O Al
2
O
3
SiO
2
system are formed.
The density of the reaction products is
lower than the original phases in the refrac-
tories. This leads to considerable volume
expansion. Corundum reacts with alkalis
to form -alumina (K
2
O11 Al
2
O
3
or
Na
2
O11 Al
2
O
3
) giving expansions of 26,4 %
for KA11 and 29,6 % for NA11. Andalusite
and mullite form low density alkali sili-
cate phases such as kalsilite or nepheline
(NaAlSiO
4
). The stresses induced by the ex-
pansion of the refractory material ultimately
lead to cracking and spalling of the lining.
The mechanism of alkali bursting is dis-
cussed more in detail by [17] and [3]. In ar-
eas where the refractory lining material is in
direct contact with an alkali rich melt the
solubility of the refractory compound in the
melt is the most important criteria. In prac-
tice all corrosion mechanisms are often pres-
ent in different zones of a unit or throughout
the thickness of the refractory lining. The
Melting point (MP) [C] Boiling point [C]
NaCl 801 1461
KCl 772 1500
CaCl
2
(H
2
O free) 782 >1600
Na
2
SO
4
888 Decomposition at MP
K
2
SO
4
1069 1689
CaSO
4
K
2
CO
3
Na
2
CO
3
ZnSO
4
>680 Decomposition at MP
FeCl
2
(H
2
O free) 674 1026
Melting point of typical salt mixtures [C]
Na
2
SO
4
+ Zn
2
SO
4
(eutectic) 472
NaCl + CaCl
2
(49 % : 51 %) 500
NaCl + FeCl
2
(25 %: 75 %) 156
Tab. 3 Melting and boiling points of typical corrosive compounds [16, 30]
Fig. 2 Spalling of incinerator lining due to alkali corrosion [16]
knowledge of the prevailing corrosion mech-
anism in a given application will define the
concept used by the refractory materials de-
veloper to improve the alkali resistance.
For dense high alumina refractories the alka-
li resistance can be improved by addition of
silicon carbide to the refractory formulation.
The protective mechanism is described by
Poirier et al. as a protective silica layer
formed by the oxidation of SiC limiting the
diffusion of gaseous compounds [18]. How-
ever, in practice, controlling the SiC oxidation
to the right level is difficult. Unfavourable
conditions such as increased temperatures,
thermal cycling, water vapour or inconsisten-
cy of the corrosive compositions could accel-
erate the SiC oxidation leading to too much
melt formation, resulting in damage to the
lining. It could also lead to increased sticking
of fly ash or clinker to the lining. The high
thermal conductivity of SiC mixes is another
potential drawback. This is an advantage in
boilers or incinerators with power genera-
tion. However, in other applications, e.g. ce-
ment plants, the higher conductivity leads to
increased energy loss when compared to
pure alumina linings if no counteraction is
taken. Bonite and SLA 92 are available as
potential alternatives with high alkali resist-
ance together with low thermal conductivity.
The resistance of calcium hexaluminate to
alkalis originates from the mineralogical
structure of CA
6
. Calcium hexaluminate has
a crystal structure similar to -alumina
(KA11 or NA11). Large cations Ca
2+
are in-
corporated between the planar alumina lay-
ers (spinel structure type with vacant posi-
tions). In these layers alkalis (Na
+
, K
+
) can be
incorporated without significant change of
volume. Therefore, calcium hexaluminate
based refractories show much higher volume
stability when under alkali attack compared
to other high alumina refractories (Fig. 3).
Thermochemical calculations have shown
that in high alkali conditions and with in-
creasing temperature, hibonite may form -
alumina. This was shown by a corrosion test
of microporous CA
6
(SLA 92) conducted at
1250 C with K
2
CO
3
. It was confirmed that
small amounts of hibonite decomposed and
-alumina and CA
2
were formed, but with
little crack formation in the cups. [3]. This
was explained by the fact that in calcium
hexaluminate refractories, the formation of
KA11 and NA11 does not lead to a new
crystal structure, as CA
6
belongs to the same
family of crystal structures. [4].
At a project undertaken at the Oak Ridge
National Laboratory, corrosion studies of
various refractories were carried out to se-
lect the best suited material for back linings
in black liquor gasifiers. The corrosive media
cannot be fully blocked by the wear lining
refractories. Therefore an alkali resistant
back lining material is required to guarantee
stability of the whole lining. The test materi-
als were suspended in a molten mixture of
sodium sulphide, sodium sulphate, and sodi-
um carbonate at 1000 C for 50 or 100 h. It
was concluded that an alternative refractory
material based on calcium hexaluminate
(CA
6
) was found to be highly resistant to
penetration by the molten mixture and
showed minimal expansion [19]. A similar
situation can be found in the crown of glass
furnaces. Insulating mixes based on alkali
tolerant calcium hexaluminate were pro-
posed by Windle et al. as the insulation lay-
er, especially under oxy-fuel conditions when
interfacial temperatures are increasing [20].
3.3 Resistance against metal and
metal slag
The containment, handling, and processing
of liquid metal are key parts of several met-
allurgical processes. These include the melt-
ing and casting of aluminium alloys.
Although the process temperatures in the
aluminium industry are low when compared
to iron or steel the requirements of refracto-
ry materials for direct contact with alumini-
um and aluminium alloys are many and var-
ious.
The refractory materials in transfer ladles
should preserve energy during transport,
protect the underlying insulation materials
from infiltration by molten metal and protect
the steel casing. The chosen lining concept
has to guarantee the operating safety, espe-
cially for transportation on public roads. In
melting furnaces, used to re-melt aluminium
alloys or scrap, the refractory materials in the
upper structure have to withstand tempera-
tures that can easily exceed 1100 C. With
the use of oxy-fuel burners to increase the
melting efficiency the temperatures can even
be higher. Alkali salts, such as chlorides and
fluorides of sodium and potassium may also
be added to reduce oxidation of aluminium
by the atmosphere. The refractory lining
should resist increased chemical attack by
these components. One of the most critical
areas in aluminium furnaces is the belly-
band area. Refractory materials installed in
this zone are exposed to the high tempera-
tures in the upper furnace, having contact to
liquid aluminium and salts. Mechanical re-
sistance is also required to withstand charg-
ing and cleaning procedures. Because of the
low viscosity of aluminum alloys, furnace
builders and refractory producers pay special
Fig. 3 Test cups after corrosion test with K
2
CO
3
(left: Bonite, right: andalusite)
attention to the design of the furnace lin-
ings. By the selection of a multi-layer design
with dense, medium-dense and insulating
materials the solidification point of the alloy
will occur in the wear or safety layer to avoid
metal break through.
Refractory linings in contact with aluminium
generally require high chemical purity raw
materials. Because of its high oxidation po-
tential, molten aluminium will reduce impu-
rities like SiO
2
, Fe
2
O
3
and TiO
2
to their metal-
lic state. The most common of such reactions
is the reduction of silica by aluminium with a
very high negative free energy change
(Fig. 4). Alumino-silicates such as kyanite
and mullite also lead to the formation of
corundum, which is the major contributor to
refractory damage.
Corundum formation is a major problem in
aluminium furnaces and occurs by two com-
monly accepted processes.
External corundum growth occurs at the
triple point junction of the aluminium, re-
fractories and atmosphere. The outward
corundum growth is explained by Allaire
atmosphere, where it oxidizes to form more
corundum. If magnesium is present, the
mushroom growth is accelerated. Pres-
ence of fluxing agents and salts also en-
[21] as direct metal oxidation. Some alu-
minium penetrates the refractory and moves
up into the refractory by capillary action. The
penetrated metal is then exposed to an open
Fig. 4 Free energy of typical minerals used in refractory lining materials for aluminium
and aluminium alloys [25]
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54
th
INTERNATIONAL
COLLOQUIUM ON REFRACTORIES
October 19
th
and 20
th
, 2011
EUROGRESS, Aachen, Germany
hances corundum growth. This corundum
build-up reduces the furnace capacity caus-
ing frequent downtime of production lines,
and severely reduces energy efficiency.
The internal corundum growth process is ex-
plained as an oxido-reduction mechanism.
The corrosion of the refractory first leads to
the formation of an Al
2
O
3
/Al composite. The
formation of this composite is favoured at
higher temperatures and lower oxygen par-
tial pressure. At low temperatures, silica re-
duction is considered to be the rate-control-
ling process and is more favoured in the
presence of magnesium. At high tempera-
tures metal penetration is considered to be
the rate-controlling process [21].
Internal corundum growth causes extreme
damage to the refractory wall over time. This
is due to stresses created by the alumina
surface concretion and creation of porosity
inside the castable structure. There is also a
corresponding difference in thermal expan-
sion behaviour, which leads to mechanical
damage during thermal cycling. Further-
more, the thermal efficiency of the lining is
reduced leading to greater heat losses and
less heat retained in the process.
Classical refractories used so far in the alu-
minium industry are high alumina materials
based on alumino-silicate or bauxite refrac-
tory aggregates. Often, additives like BaSO
4
,
CaF
2
, SiC or phosphate are added to im-
prove the resistance against molten metal or
slag.
The function of the non-wetting additives is
still not fully understood. Aguilar-Santillan
[22] concluded that the non-wetting theory
for the improvement of aluminium refracto-
ries by BaSO
4
additions does not appear to
be the correct explanation. Afshar et al. pos-
tulated that the efficiency of non-wetting
additives is in their potential role in convert-
ing silica to some alumino-silicate based
crystalline phases that are more resistant to
aluminium attack [23].
Whatever the mechanism, the practical ex-
perience has proven the function of these
additives for temperature ranges below
1000 C. At higher temperatures their effi-
ciency is reduced and corundum formation
will appear. But sometimes even at low tem-
peratures corundum formation can be ob-
served. A possible explanation is given by
Richter et al. [24]. According to their tests
the coarse refractory aggregates do not ben-
efit from non-wetting additives and some
corrode in contact with aluminium, even en-
hancing the corrosion of the matrix. As a
consequence the development of an opti-
mum non-wetting matrix is only part of the
solution to improve the corrosion resistance
of refractory materials to molten aluminium.
With aggregates based on calcium hexalu-
minate it is possible to use aluminium resist-
ant fractions throughout the whole product.
The high resistance of calcium aluminates
against metal and metal slags was already
described in the literature [7]. In contact
with aluminium, calcium hexaluminate ex-
hibits a high stability with a significantly
lower Gibbs energy for the reaction com-
pared to silica and mullite (Fig. 4).
The advantage of dense calcium hexalumi-
nate based refractories over conventional
high alumina refractories containing anti
wetting agents such as BaSO
4
, has already
been described in detail in by Buhr et. al. In
an enhanced aluminium resistance test at
the Corus Research Centre in Ijmuiden/NL it
was demonstrated that the superior resist-
ance of calcium hexaluminate remains at el-
evated temperatures up to 1400 C, while
conventional bauxite/BaSO
4
refractories lose
their protective properties [1, 2].
In the frame of a project supported by the
U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Energy
Efficiency and Renewable Energy [26], calci-
um hexaluminate was tested together with
other raw materials such as mullite and SiC
as new potential lining material for alumini-
um furnaces. It was concluded that high-alu-
mina based materials, in particular calcium
hexaluminate (Bonite), are superior to tradi-
tional bauxite type materials. No metal pen-
etration was observed (Fig. 5).
Another advantage of calcium hexaluminate
that was emphasised in this work was the
fact that calcium hexaluminate (Bonite), due
to its inherent low thermal conductivity, in-
creases the thermal efficiency of a furnace
with the same lining thickness when com-
pared to traditional refractory materials.
Based on layered silicates, these special
additives offer solutions for the most
varied ceramics requirements.
If you have any questions, please call us!
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SPECIAL ADDITIVES
FOR REFRACTORIES
This effect could be further optimized by the
use of the super lightweight aggregate
SLA 92 or combinations of Bonite with
SLA 92.
The advantage of the low thermal conduc-
tivity of calcium hexaluminate based aggre-
gates in combination with their high resist-
ance against CA-rich steel ladle slags was
presented in detail in a previous paper [6].
4 Summary and outlook
Synthetic, calcium hexaluminate based raw
materials exhibit various advantages when
compared to traditionally used refractory ag-
gregates in a given application:
high refractoriness
low thermal conductivity
stability in H
2
/CO atmosphere
resistance against alkali attack
resistance against metal and metal slag
attack
fibre free, therefore environmentally
friendly.
But, it is the combination of the presented
properties that makes calcium hexaluminate
aggregates unique as refractory raw materi-
als. The availability of two commercially
available products, Bonite as a dense aggre-
gate and SLA 92 as a super lightweight ma-
terial, allows the developer to create tailor-
made solutions taking into account density,
strength and thermal insulation.
Successful industrial scale applications in the
aluminium, glass and cement industry have
already shown the potential of dense, calci-
um hexaluminate based Bonite in new inno-
vative refractories. The light-weight aggre-
gate SLA 92 has been successfully used in
steel reheating furnaces significantly improv-
ing the energy performance of the units. It
has also been used in petrochemical appli-
cations. Ceramic kiln linings have also been
installed with this insulating material
[2729].
Both aggregates, SLA 92 and Bonite are pro-
duced by Almatis in Ludwigshafen/DE, which
guarantees state-of-the art production
processes, high quality and secure supply.
References
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BONITE A new raw material alternative for re-
fractory innovations
47. International Colloquium on Refractories, Aa-
chen, Germany (2004) 205210
[2] Bchel, G; Buhr, A.; Gierisch, D.; Racher, R.P: Al-
kali- and CO-resistance of dense calcium hexal-
uminate Bonite
[3] Kockegey-Lorenz, R.; Buhr, A.; Racher, R.P: Indu-
strial application experience with microporous
calcium hexaluminate insulating material SLA-
92. 48. International Colloquium on Refracto-
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[4] Garsel D.v.; Gnauck, V.; Kriechbaum,G.W.; Stin-
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[8] RHI Dinaris GmbH: Brochure Chemical and
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[17] Schlegel, E.: Auswertung von Phasendiagram-
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Zeitschrift (2009) [2-3] 9497
[18] Poirier, J.; Colombel, L.; Prigent, P.: The corrosion
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[19] Keiser, J.R.; Hemrick G.J.; Gorog, P.; Leary, R.: Fi-
nal Technical Report Improved materials for
high-temperature black liquor gasication; Oak
Ridge National Laboratory; June 2006
[20] Windle, C.J.; Bentley, V.K.: Rebonded magnesia-
alumina spinel products for oxy-fuel and alkali
saturated atmospheres. UNITECR 99, Berlin,
Germany 219225
[21] Allaire, C: Mechanism of corundum growth in
als for energy-efcient handling of molten
metals. Award No: DE-FC36-04GO14038
[27] Wuthnow, H.; Ptschke, J.; Buhr, A.; Boelmann,
D.; Gerharz, N.; Golder, P.; Grass, J.: Experiences
with microporous calcium hexaluminate insula-
ting materials in steel reheating furnaces at
Hoesch Hohenlimburg and Thyssen Krupp Stahl
AG Bochum. 47. International Colloquium on
Refractories, Aachen, Germany (2004) 198204
[28] De Wit, T.; Lorenz, W.; Przgen, D.; Specht, M.;
Buhr, A.: Innovative ceramic ber free steel lad-
le preheaters at Corus Steelworks IJmuiden, 44.
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[29] Przgen, D.; Heide, W.; Buhr, A.: Innovative re-
fractorysolutions using a new microporous ma-
terial for kiln cars in the ceramic industry. CN
Ceramic News, Special Refractories 7 (2000) [2]
6870.
[30] GESTIS Stoffdatenbank ; IFA
refractories exposed to Al-Mg alloys. Aluminium
Transactions (2000) [3] 106120
[22] Aquilar-Santillan, J.: Wetting of Al
2
O
3
by Molten
aluminium: The inuence of BaSO
4
additions.
Journal of Nanomaterials (2008) ID 629185
[23] Afshar, S.; Allaire, C.: Protection of alumina sili-
cate aggregates against the corrosion by mol-
ten aluminium. 43
rd
Annual Conference of
Metallurgists 2004, Hamilton, Ohio, 279290
[24] Richter, T.; Vezza, T.; Allaire, C.; Afshar, S.: Casta-
ble with improved corrosion resistance against
aluminium. 41. International Colloquium on Re-
fractories, Aachen, Germany (1998) 8690
[25] Karakus, M.; Headrick, W.; Shukla, D.; Bright,
M.: Characterization of submerged and metal
contact refractory materials for aluminum mel-
ting/handling processes. Conference Materials
Science & Technology, 2006, Cincinnati, OH,
USA
[26] Multifunctional metallic and refractory materi-
High Performance Refractories for Gasification Reactors
L. San-Miguel, Chr. His, M. Schumann
Gasification of hydrocarbon feedstock (e.g. oil, coal, petroleum coke) as well as biomass becomes more
and more popular in a global environment where the optimization and use of energy resources are
critical for economical development of companies and countries.
Refractories as key components in each gasification reactor have to offer the best performances under
various process conditions to ensure long service life and to limit costs caused by long maintenance out-
age. Refractories used in gasifiers are subjected to extremely hostile environments. Operating tempera-
tures in the range of 1400 1600 C, contact with highly corrosive slag and strongly reducing atmos-
phere impose very severe demands on corrosion resistance of these materials.
Therefore, tailored material properties are requested for each zone of the reactor to withstand the dif-
ferent damaging mechanisms as high temperature, chemical wear, thermal shock or spalling. In this ob-
jective, Saint-Gobain developed a product range for gasification reactors containing alumina, chromia
and zirconia materials that meet customers needs. Refractories with relatively low chromia content (up
to 60 %) used in the dome section and upper sidewall of gasifiers exhibit an excellent thermal shock re-
sistance. On the other hand, lower sidewall and cone section refractories have to withstand harsher
conditions as attack and infiltration by corrosive molten slag combined with severe thermal loading.
Therefore, the latter require the use of high chromia refractories (> 60 %) with high resistance to slag dis-
solution and optimized microstructure limiting slag penetration.
To meet customers needs, Saint-Gobain is extending their product line Zirchrom
TM
by an improved high
chromia product Zirchrom
TM
900 and is developing products with a low and medium range of chromia:
Zirchrom
TM
400 and Zirchrom
TM
750, dedicated for the dome and upper cylinder section respectively.
A detailed explanation of the damaging mechanisms will be exposed in this article as well as the per-
formance of the new Zirchrom
TM
product line.
scher-Tropsch liquids. In the late 1950s,
gasification focused more on the conversion
of coal and heavy oil into hydrogen to
meet the increasing needs for fertilizer indus-
try.
Between the 1960 and 1980, the chemical
and refinery industry discovered the gasific-
ation and generated the boom on this tech-
nology [1]. Nowadays, gasification is more
and more used to produce energy. IGCC
(Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle)
power plants are optimized in using gas
and steam for energy production while mini-
mizing the emission of carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere. To limit environmental
impact, IGCC plants can be combined with
CCS (Carbon Capture and Storage) technolo-
gy.
1 Introduction
Gasification is a clean and relatively efficient
means for producing power and / or chemical
compounds from coal, petroleum residues or
low-value carbon containing feedstock or bio-
mass. Gasification of these feedstocks results
in the formation of synthetic gas and heat
that can be converted into electricity using a
combination of gas turbine or used for the
production of various chemical products.
Gasification process becomes more and more
important in a global environment where the
production and consumption of energy and its
optimization are keys for sustainable develop-
ment.
Patented by Lurgi in 1887, gasification was
extensively developed in the 1940s with the
gasification of coal for producing Fi-
Christian His
Laurie San-Miguel
Saint-Gobain CREE
France
Matthias Schumann
Saint-Gobain Savoie Refractaires
69200 Vnissieux
France
Corresponding author: M. Schumann
E-mail:
matthias.schumann@saint-gobain.com
Keywords: slagging gasifiers, refractories,
thermal shock resistance, corrosion
Chemical corrosion is defined as the dissolu-
tion of the refractory by molten slag or the for-
mation of new phases by the components of
slag and refractory. Free flowing particles (e.g.
slag, feedstock, particles from refractory
bricks) at high velocity may also damage the
lining.
The slag penetration mechanism is more com-
plex. Due to the flat thermal gradient (420 K
cm
1
), molten slag penetrates deeply into the
refractory (5 7,5 cm) and weakens the hot
face. For all these reasons, chromia based re-
fractories are commonly used to withstand
those severe conditions.
3 Gasification reactor design
A typical gasification reactor (type GE / Texaco)
is shown in Fig. 1. The feedstock is injected
from the top of the reactor and also the flame
is directed from the top into the reactor. The
syngas and the molten slag exit from the bot-
tom of the vessel. Three main sections can be
identified in the reactor: top zone / dome sec-
tion; cylindrical / sidewall section; bottom /
cone section; some reactors have a transfer
section to the syngas cooler (throat) that has
to be considered as well. The refractory choice
is driven by the different parameters of the
process and the wear mechanisms occurring
in the different sections. Therefore, the devel-
opment of an extended range of chromia re-
fractories was necessary to offer the cus-
tomers an optimum refractory solution dedi-
cated to the different zones.
Mostly, gasification reactors are designed
with several refractory layers, only the hot face
is directly exposed to high temperature and
corrosive slag. An intermediate layer can be
used between hot face and outer insulating
layer as a security layer in the case of a dam-
age of the first layer. Usually for the security
layer, alumina refractories with a low chromia
content (ChromcorTM 12; 10 % chromia) are
used for slagging gasifiers and alumina re-
fractories (80 90 % alumina) are used for
non-slagging designs.
4 Corrosion mechanisms in
slagging gasifiers
Refractories used in gasifiers are sub-
jected to extremely hostile environments. Op-
erating temperatures in the range of 1400
1600 C, contact with highly corrosive slag
and reducing atmosphere, impose very severe
demands on corrosion resistance of these ma-
terials.
The worldwide increasing need for energy en-
courages revamping and development of new
gasification projects. In 2010, US DOE listed
144 gasification plants with 412 gasifiers pro-
ducing 70 817 MW thermal (MW
th
) [2].
5-year forecast until 2016 foresees an addi-
tional production of 51 288 MW
th
shared
among 192 plants with 505 gasifiers. All key
technologies (Shell, Sasol Lurgi, GE, ECUST, E-
Gas) and others contribute to this growth and
a new trend with the construction of larger re-
actors with higher volume and higher produc-
tion capacity of syngas is observed. Recent
discussions about the use of nuclear energy
and its advantages and drawbacks could even
accelerate this trend towards new gasification
installations for energy production using hy-
drocarbon feedstock.
The refractory lining is an essential part in the
majority of high temperature gasifiers [3]. The
right design of refractory lining and the choice
of the suitable refractory material are neces-
sary to ensure the longest service life. In se-
vere cases, excessive loss of refractory can
force unscheduled shutdowns of the gasifiers.
Cost related to production shutdown can ex-
ceed several hundreds of thousands of Euros.
It is obvious that cost effective operation and
process reliability require the development of
new refractory products with improved corro-
sion resistance and offering a good resistance
to thermal cycling.
Saint-Gobain has been supplying refractories
for gasification reactors for more than
40 years. The latest product development for
chromia refractories resulting from the combi-
nation of R & D work and field tests taking
into account customers needs is presented
here.
2 Refractories issues
in gasification
Different gasification technologies are com-
mercially available (Lurgi, GE, SCGP, Conoco-
Philips, E-Gas) and will lead to regimes in
temperature or pressure as well as the use of
different feedstocks.
The choice of cooling the reactor by increasing
the thermal conductivity of the walls or main-
taining the heat inside by using insulating ma-
terials will vary according to the gasification
system. Furthermore, the feedstock and its
composition have significant impact on the
selection of the gasification technology and
refractory system. Moreover, the addition of
fluxes to control flowability, reactivity and
chemical composition of the feedstock will
play an important role on the wear rate of the
refractory.
The use of natural gas or oil will generate a
lower amount of slag in the vessel due to the
purity of the initial feedstock. On the contrary,
coal, petcoke or tar feedstock that cannot be
completely transformed into / in syngas, will
produce a high amount of unreacted material
that will flow along the gasifier sidewalls.
All these parameters have to be taken into ac-
count to ensure a powerful and reliable reac-
tor system.
Reactors for which working temperatures are
below 1200 C use mainly castable,
water-jacketed linings made up of alumina or
silicon carbide material. Refractory linings
made of shaped bricks are used for service
temperatures above 1400 C and high pres-
sure. This is even more valid for processes
generating molten slag that could attack and
infiltrate the refractory lining.
Non-slagging gasifiers require the use of re-
fractories with good refractoriness at me-
dium-high temperature and an appropriate
resistance to thermomechanical stresses (ther-
mal cycling and / or thermal shocks) eventual-
ly leading to creep and spalling or cracks par-
allel to the hot face. In this case, high alumina
containing refractories is the best option since
this type of reactor generally offers longer
service life and needs less often refractory
change.
In the case of slagging gasifier, resistance
against chemical corrosion and erosion as
well as low slag penetration is requested.
Fig. 1 Typical design of slagging gasifier
refractory lining (GE/Texaco type)
Understand corrosion mechanisms occurring
in the gasifier is the key to develop high per-
formance products capable of withstanding
such environments. Post-mortem analysis of
retrieved bricks and good knowledge of the
application will be one way to reach this
objective. For example, post-mortem ana-
lyses conducted on bricks from commercial
gasifiers show that the stresses are not the
same according to the location in the gasifier.
Indeed, measurements performed on used
bricks show a wear rate around 59 mm /
1000 h in the dome section while the same
material placed in the cylinder section exhibits
a wear rate around 2028 mm / 1000 h. These
different wear rates in the distinct sections of
the gasifier confirm the need for chromia re-
fractories adapted to each special zone.
In the case of high chromia content refracto-
ries, mechanisms of corrosion are more com-
plex compared to low chromia refractory
where dissolution is the main mechanism.
Generally, two main regimes can be distin-
guished. The impact of the different regimes
are controlled by chromia content, compos-
ition and microstructure of the refractory as
well as process parameter like temperature,
thermal cycling, feedstock and slag compos-
ition.
1
st
regime: Chemical dissolution by molten
slag involves a low wear rate in the
case of high chromia refractories
(3 5 mm/1000 h). This type of corrosion is
generally predictable based on
refractory/slag compos-ition.
2
nd
regime: Spalling that leads to a sudden
and large loss of material (> 2 cm). Spalling
generally results from the combination of
several damaging mechanisms with slag in-
filtration. Slag infiltrates through porosity,
causing difference into the material proper-
ties between the penetrated / unpenetrated
layers. Additionally to slag infiltration, creep,
thermal cycling, oxidizing / reducing atmos-
phere or new mineral phase formation may
contribute to this phenomenon.
Discussion with customers and detailed analy-
ses of retrieved refractories bricks from
commercial gasifiers allowed to set develop-
ment directions for products. Based on this
knowledge, Zirchrom
TM
90 product was re-
placed by the Zirchrom
TM
900 and two new
products Zirchrom
TM
400 and Zirchrom
TM
750 were developed in 2010 to answer the
customers demand for dome and upper cylin-
der sections.
tration into the matrix. Improvements are con-
firmed after corrosion test in rotary furnace
showing a penetration of the calcium and iron
elements more than 17 mm (resp. 11 mm)
into the sample of Zirchrom
TM
90 whereas
they infiltrate only 11 mm (resp. 5 mm) into
the Zirchrom
TM
900 product. The zirconia de-
pletion is also reduced thanks to the use of a
more stabilized zirconia sourcing.
Based on the same principles, two new prod-
ucts, Zirchrom
TM
400 and Zirchrom
TM
750
have been developed.
The choice of refractories in these different
zones described above has to be made care-
fully in consideration of the reasons men-
tioned above to ensure the best compromise
between performance and cost of the refrac-
tory lining. The performance of the refractory
in the top zone of the reactor including dome
and upper sidewalls is mainly affected by the
flame and the reaction of feedstock with the
flame. Damage of refractory lining caused by
high temperature and thermal shock during
start-up and shut-down is the most common
observation. In this area, refractories with rel-
atively low chromia content are recommend-
ed. Saint-Gobain is offering Zirchrom
TM
400,
Zirchrom
TM
60 and Zirchrom
TM
750 material
5 Refractories for slagging
gasifiers: Latest Zirchrom
TM
product line development
Standard analyses like microstructure ana-
lyses, cold crushing strength, modulus of rup-
ture or density measurements and corrosion
tests are being used to evaluate refractory
performance.
Zirchrom
TM
900 as a replacement for
Zirchrom
TM
90 exhibits a completely new
powder matrix, set up by redefining the parti-
cle size distribution of the grains and
powder system. This modification enables to
gain on slag infiltration resistance as well as
improve thermal shock resistance and make
the development of more necessary sophisti-
cated tests. In a continuous will to develop
new performing material for the application
and test them in realistic conditions, Saint-
Gobain developed a dynamic corrosion test
enabling to assess infiltration resistance of the
new products (Fig. 2). Here, the infiltration of
refractories by molten slag can be simulated
using a modified rotary kiln. For these experi-
ments, eight arch bricks are mounted in a
steel casing. Insulation and sealing of the cas-
ing are warranted by ceramic fibres and
castable cements. Corrosion experiment is
conducted at 1600 C for 5 h. Microprobe
analyses were conducted before and after cor-
rosion to assess element infiltration.
The new Zirchrom
TM
900 product is character-
ized by a grain matrix network that is much
smaller and more homogenous than
Zirchrom
TM
90 (Fig. 3). The optimized
chromia grain particle size distribution of
Zirchrom
TM
900 allows to reach a tailored
porosity that reduces significantly slag pene-
Fig. 2 Corrosion test in rotation
slag furnace
Fig. 3 Microstructure and slag infiltration
on Zirchrom
TM
90 (left) and Zirchrom
TM
900 (right) product
with chromia content of 40 %, 60 % and
75 % respectively.
The lower sidewall and cone zone of the
reactor are subjected to harsher attacks due
to the contact with the slag. A reduced sur-
face contact phase between corrosive slag
and refractory is preferable and a higher chro-
mia content refractory is recommended for
these areas. As an effect of the chromia con-
tent, the wettability of the refractory surface is
reduced, limiting slag attack and leading to a
longer service lifetime. The products
Zirchrom
TM
750 and Zirchrom
TM
900 are suit-
able materials for these zones of the reactor.
Today, Zirchrom
TM
900 product is the only ma-
terial recommended for the throat zone /
transfer zone between the reactor and syngas
cooler.
A comparison between the different
Zirchrom
TM
chromia refractory products in
terms of wear, slag infiltration and thermal
shock resistance is shown in Tab. 1.
It was demonstrated that dissolution rate re-
duces with increasing chromia content. There-
fore, in the case of low chromia refractories,
dissolution by molten slag is the main corro-
sion mechanism, letting little time for slag in-
filtration. In the case of high chromia refracto-
ry, spalling initiated by slag infiltration ap-
pears to be the most damaging mechanism
since slag dissolution is minimized by high
level of chromia.
Moreover, the thermal shock resistance is cal-
culated based on the relative percentage be-
tween the MoR of the product before and af-
ter thermal shock at T = 800 C. It can be no-
ticed that Zirchrom
TM
400 and Zirchrom
TM
60
Product Zirchrom 400 Zirchrom 60 Zirchrom 750 Zirchrom 900
Cr
2
O
3
[%] 40 60 75 86
Porosity [%] 13 13,4 9,05 13,5
CCS [MPa] 130 200 270 190
MOR (20 C) [MPa] 33 28 39 35
Loss of MOR after
TS at 800 C [%]
0,68 0,68 0,85 0,74
Corrosion Index* 60 100 120 150
*The higher is the corrosion index, the better is the resistance to the corrosion by molten slag
Tab. 1 Zirchrom
TM
product family performance
exhibit a higher residual mechanical strength
than Zirchrom
TM
750 or Zirchrom
TM
90.
The product range was developed taking into
account the request of users and installers for
tion and thermal shock performance. Lab tests
as well as test panels at customers site con-
firmed the performance of each individual
product.
products with tailored and well specified
properties related to special reactor zones
and wear mechanisms. The focus was espe-
cially put on resistance against slag penetra-
Product Alumina content
[%]
Chromia content
[%]
Density
[kg/m
3
]
Resistance against
slag attack
Thermal shock
resistance
Recommended
application
AH199H 99,55 3300 + +
hot face, non slagging
gasiers
AL100 99,50 3320 + +
hot face, non slagging
gasiers
Chromcor 12 87,00 12,50 3350 + + second layer
Zirchrom 400 47,00 40,50 3650 ++ ++
dome and upper side-
wall slagging gasiers
Zirchrom 60 15,00 63,00 3780 ++ +++
dome and sidewall
slagging gasiers
Zirchrom 750 11,00 73,0 4050 +++ ++
sidewall slagging
gasiers
Zirchrom 90 86,00 4200 ++++ +++
sidewall, cone, throat
slagging gasiers
Zirchrom 900 87,00 4200 ++++ ++++
sidewall, cone, throat
slagging gasiers
Tab. 2 Saint-Gobain refractories for gasification reactors
UNITECR 2011
Unified InternationaI TechnicaI Conference on Refractories
Kyoto nternational Conference Center
Oct. 30 Nov. 2, 2011
website: http://www.unitecr2011.org/
Refractories Technology to Sustain the Global Environment
Schedule: 30, Oct. (Sun) FIRE Short Course, Welcome Party
31, Oct. (Mon) Opening Ceremony, Oral Session, Exhibition
1, Nov. (Tue) Oral Session, Exhibition
2, Nov. (Wed) Oral Session, Exhibition, Banquet
Contact Information: Secretary General: Dr. Masanori Ueki
Secretariat: Ms. Yoko Yoshii, Te Technical Association of Refractories, Japan
New Ginza Bldg., 7-3-13 Ginza, Chuo-ku, Tokyo 104-0061, Japan
Tel.: +81-3-3572-0705, Fax: +81-3-3572-0175, E-Mail: unitecr-info@tarj.org
Te ofcial partnership agency for UNITECR2011:
Nippon Travel Agency Co., Ltd. (NTA), Public Sector & Corporate Sales Department
11 F. Tranomon-marine Bldg, 3-18-19, Tranomon, Minato-ku, Tokyo 105-0001, JAPAN
Tel.: +81-3-5402-6401, Fax: +81-3-3437-3955, E-Mail: mcs inq05@nta.co.jp
6 Refractory recommendation for
gasification reactors
The experience and the know-how are not
limited to refractories for slagging gasifiers;
other refractory products of different shapes
(bricks, blocks or monolithics) and compos-
itions (alumina, alumina chromia) are quali-
fied and available for other types of reactors.
Tab. 2 is listing a non-exhaustive selection of
the main products used for gasification appli-
cation showing material properties, perform-
ance and recommended application. It is rec-
ommended to use mortar and castables with
equivalent composition to join bricks during
installation to avoid the creation of preferred
attack points on the refractory lining.
Moreover, Saint-Gobains in-house Engineer-
ing Department can support customers in pro-
viding design work, thermal and thermo me-
chanical stress calculation that help choose
the optimal refractory.
During the past 20 years, the performance of
refractory linings has been mainly associated
with corrosion by slag. Nowadays, as eco-
nomical issues become more and more impor-
tant in running gasifiers, refractory perform-
ance is the driver for product development to
achieve longer refractory lining lifetime and
reduce maintenance outage costs.
For example, to withstand rough process con-
ditions, refractories with outstanding thermal
shock resistance would enable customers to
reduce outage time significantly, allowing a
faster ramp-up and shut-down protocol.
Consequently, maintenance time would be re-
duced and money saved.
However, refractory development is not yet
completed. Saint-Gobain is continuously
working on deeper understanding of wear
mechanisms to develop products in accord-
ance with customers requirements. New chal-
lenges like the use of
alternative feedstock (e.g. biomass or
waste) and
new developments in burner technology
(e.g. plasma burner)
will open additional directions for R&D proj-
ects to offer suitable refractory solutions in
the future.
References
[1] Breault, R.W.: DOEs gasication program over-
view. Clean Air Council, Harrisburg, PA, 24 April
2008
[2] Gasication database 2010 (http://www.netl.
doe.gov/technologies/coalpower/gasication/
worlddatabase)
[3] Taber, W.A.: Refractories for gasication. Refracto-
ries Applications and News 8 (2003) [4] 1822
[4] His, C.: High performance refractories for high tem-
perature and corrosive applications. 4
rd
Conference
Refractory and Chimney Engineering, Dsseldorf,
Germany, 28 June 2011
A Novel Castable Binder System Based on Old Knowledge
B. Myhre, H. Fan
How to make castables that are self-flowing at low water addition,
have high hot-strength, high refractoriness, are dense and are virtu-
ally explosion proof? A binder system that consists of microsilica to-
gether with ultralow amounts of Alphabond and cement may be the
answer to the above riddle. This promising binder has been used in
refractory castables and the results are described in the present work.
The functions of microsilica in castables are fully utilised due to the
ultralow amounts of Alphabond and cement. It is considered that the
formation of a gel of microsilica is responsible for the green-strength
and that ceramic bonding takes over at higher temperatures. At high
and very high temperatures a mullite bond predominates giving rise
to strong and stiff refractory bodies.
Flowability is high (self-flow >80 %), com-
bined with low porosity (<13 %), the
castable is self-flowing at low water add-
ition (4,15 mass-%).
If dried to 110 C, the castable can take
extreme heating rate without explosion or
spalling. This is due to the very special
bond system that is used.
It is very strong at high temperatures, hot-
MOR (Modulus of Rupture) of above
20 MPa at 1500 C is normally found.
The castable has a high proportion of mul-
lite that ensures high strength and stiff-
ness and also contributes to a very high
RUL (Refractoriness under Load).
How can these desirable properties be made
into one castable? Simply, use microsilica to-
gether with ultralow amounts of Alphabond
(hydraulic alumina) and cement as binder.
Sufficient amount of microsilica both acts as
a binder and ensures proper mullitisation.
Microsilica as binder might sound strange,
as microsilica normally is used as a flow
enhancer. The secret is to gel the microsilica
after placement.
2 High flowability and density
Normally, castables with self-flow values
above 20 % are regarded as acceptable,
whereas values above approximately 80 %
are very good. By adding microsilica and
controlling PSD (Particle Size Distribution),
a self-flow above 20 % is readily attained
for WFA based castables at a water add-
ition of 13 vol.-% water (approximately
4,15 mass-%). Earlier experimental results
indicated that the more microsilica you add,
the higher flowability you get. Especially
when 8 mass-% microsilica was added to
LCC (Low Cement Castables) with 6 mass-%
1 Introduction
What would one say about being offered a
castable with high flowability, high hot-
strength, high refractoriness, dense structure
and excellent explosion resistance? Based
on 20 years experience in making refractory
castables based on WFA (White Fused Alu-
mina), this papers ambition is to show some
of the attractive properties that one can get,
if it is done right. The castable in question
has the following characteristics:
Bjrn Myhre
Elkem Silicon Materials
4675 Kristiansand
Norway
Haibing Fan
Wuhan University of Science and Technology
The Key Laboratory
Breeding Base of Refractories and Ceramics
430081 Wuhan
China
Corresponding author: B. Myhre
E-mail: Bjorn.Myhre@elkem.no
Keywords: microsilica, novel binder, gel
bond
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
S
e
l
f
-
f
l
o
w

[
%
]
A B C D E

Fig. 1 Self-flow of WFA based castables with 8 mass-% microsilica and different
amounts of cement and Alphabond. Flow measured with the 50 mm tall cone as
described in ASTM C230, flow testing
A: 0,5%Cement
B: 0,5%Alphabond
C: 0,5%Cement + 0,5%Alphabond
D: 0,5%Cement + 1,0%Alphabond
E: 1,0%Cement + 0,5%Alphabond
samples of ULCC (0,5 mass-% cement) with
8 mass-% microsilica and LCC (6 mass-%
cement) with 8 mass-% microsilica. The
standard describes placing green (not dried)
samples (cubes of 50 mm) into a furnace
heated to a preset temperature and inspect-
ing the result after 30 min. The temperature
at which cracks form or explosion occurs is
then reported as explosion resistance. The
results are given in Tab. 1. It was found that
on wet samples, the ULCC samples explod-
ed at a temperature of only 350 C, while
samples dried at 110 C exhibited a remark-
ably high resistance. Even 1200 C did not
give any signs of cracks or spalling. The LCC
samples spalled or exploded at 600 C both
wet and dry. Such a remarkable difference
triggered the authors curiosity, and it is con-
sider that it is due to the interaction of mi-
crosilica by cement and Alphabond. The
bond here might not be a traditional hy-
draulic bond, but one that is less sensitive to
heating-up by not containing significant
amounts of chemically bond water. If there
were very small amount hydrates present,
i.e. only traces of chemically bonded water,
then it would be easy to heat without
spalling or explosion.
4 High hot-strength and
refractoriness
At UNITECR95 Myhre and Sunde [1, 2] pre-
sented an investigation on the use of com-
binations of Alphabond, cement and micro-
silica as binder. Part I contained information
about setting and flow and part II was about
hot-strength obtained by use of such binders
in a fused alumina based system. It was
demonstrated that addition levels of cement
and Alphabond of less than 1 mass-% was
sufficient to obtain proper setting. It was fur-
ther demonstrated that variation of the
Alphabond/cement ratio not only gave
control over setting time, but also yielded
castables that were astonishingly strong at
high temperatures (Fig. 2).
At 1500 C hot-MOR values exceeding
20 MPa were routinely obtained [3], and
later as RUL was measured, it was found to
have a T
0,5
of approximately 1750 C and T
2
of above 1800 C [4] (Fig. 3). In other
words, yielding the same refractoriness with
8 mass-% microsilica as microsilica free
compositions based on pure alumina.
As already earlier advocated the use of
lower amount of cement and higher amount
cement, self-flow values of approximately
80 % were easy to attain. According to our
recent experiments on WFA based castables
with 8 mass-% microsilica together with
ultralow amounts of cement and Alphabond
at 4,15 mass-% water addition, self-flow
values more than 100 % were found
(Fig. 1). Even if the water addition was re-
duced to 3,5 mass-% in ULCC (Ultralow
Cement Castables) with 0,5 mass-%
cement, a self-flow of 60 % and a vibra-flow
of 93 % are still satisfactory, because the
decrease of water addition means improving
several other properties like density and
strength. Related properties of this castable
will be reported in a later paper.
The mechanism of microsilica to act as a
flow enhancer has been depicted in previous
investigations. If microsilica is added to a
castable mixture without (or deficient in)
superfines, the first step is that microsilica
enters the void structure and replaces water
on a volume-to-volume basis. Substitution of
the water proceeds up to a certain limit,
when the liquid of microsilica and water
reaches a critical density. When the microsil-
ica addition exceeds this limit, the total vol-
ume of the liquid system starts to increase,
resulting in the increase of the total volume
of the castable. Because of the increased
volume of the liquid phase, the particles
move apart and become free to move rela-
tively to each other.
Microsilica is the finest fraction in castables.
More than 50 % of the surface area of a mix
is normally found originating from the micro-
silica. When water is added to castables,
microsilica and the other fine ingredients
join into a liquid slurry-phase. The extremely
small size of the individual microsilica par-
ticles fills voids down to nano-scale, ensur-
ing a castable with fine pore size, dense
structure and improved properties.
3 High explosion resistance
The authors paid special attention to explo-
sion resistance of castables. The Chinese
standard YB/T4117-2003 was applied on
Tab. 1 Explosion testing results of WFA based LCC and ULCC with 8 mass-% microsilica
Temperature
[C]
LCC ULCC
Wet sample Dry sample Wet sample Dry sample
200
250
300
350
400
600
800
1000
1200
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600

Fig. 2 Hot MOR of WFA based castables with 8 mass-% microsilica [3]
6 mass-% cement
0,5 mass-% cement
No cement
H
o
t

M
.
O
.
R
.

[
M
P
a
]
Temperature [C]
: no crack or spalling : spalled or exploded
of microsilica is a way of improving refracto-
ry castables; the reason lies in the reduction
of liquid formation at high temperatures.
This was described and correlated to the
phase diagram repeatedly [47] on earlier
occasions. Although the authors feel that
this topic is well described earlier, they have
been somewhat reluctant in presenting re-
sults of castables without microsilica in
papers dealing with mullite formation, etc. In
this instance an exception is made, just so
that the similarities and differences may be
clearly visible to the reader.
Looking at the recipes of Tab. 2, one might
argue that refractoriness of the castables
would benefit from a lower microsilica
addition than 8 mass-%. To verify this as-
sumption, a LCC (Low Cement Castable)
composition with 8 mass-% microsilica was
compared in the RUL testing with a similar
composition, but with 4 mass-% microsilica,
i.e., WFA based castables with 6 mass-%
cement and 4 or 8 mass-% microsilica. In
Fig. 4 the result is shown, the lack of differ-
ence between the two compositions is
remarkable.
So, according to Fig. 4, there is no difference
in ultimate application temperature whether
4 or 8 mass-% microsilica is used. Here it
must be added that it is well proven
(amongst other places [8]) that lower micro-
silica content also lowers hot-strength ex-
pressed as MOR as well as influences flow
negatively. Fig. 5 taken from [9] illustrates
this effect on flow very well. In Fig. 5
0 vol.-% reactive alumina denotes a cast -
able with 8 mass-% microsilica, 50 vol.-%
reactive alumina is 4 mass-% microsilica etc.
In Fig. 5, self-flow as a function of time is
plotted for a set of 5 WFA based castables
containing 6 mass-% cement, and with
microsilica contents varying from 8 mass-%
to zero. When preparing those castables,
special care was taken to keep PSD constant
and also water addition in terms of vol.-%
was constant. What can be seen is that
8 mass-% microsilica gives a self-flow of
more than 60 % (measured with the ASTM
50 mm tall cone), while the castable with
4 mass-% microsilica (sample 50 vol.-% re-
active alumina) yields a self-flow of only
15 %.
Fig. 6 shows the hot-MOR of WFA based
LCC compositions with 6 mass-% cement
for a number of microsilica contents. The
recipes are the same as shown in Fig. 5. This
effects on flow and hot-strength, but that
liquid formation poses a hindrance for appli-
cation temperatures above 1400 ~ 1500 C.
Lowering microsilica in the castable does not
help much either, it only lowers flow and
figure shows clearly that it may not be a
good idea to reduce the microsilica content
down to 4 mass-% in this case.
According to the treatise above, the authors
can agree that microsilica has some positive
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
ULCC 1000C/24h
ULCC 1500C/24h

Fig. 3 RUL for WFA based ULCC (0,5 mass-% cement) with 8 mass-% microsilica
E
x
p
a
n
s
i
o
n

[
%
]
Temperature [C]
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
0 500 1000 1500 2000
4% microsilica
8% microsilica
Fig. 4 RUL for LCC (6 mass-% cement) with 4 or 8 mass-% microsilica
E
x
p
a
n
s
i
o
n

[
%
]
Temperature [C]
Raw materials [mass-%] ULCC (8 % MS) LCC (8 % MS) LCC (0 % MS)
Hydraulic alumina 0,5
CA-cement (70 % alumina) 0,5 6 6
White fused alumina 84 77 74
Microsilica 8 8 0
Reactive alumina 0 0 13,5
Calcined alumina 7 9 6,5
Retarder 0,03
Deocculant 0,05 0,05 0,05
Water (13 vol.-%) 4,10 4,15 4,25
Tab. 2 WFA based ULCC with microsilica, LCC with and without microsilica
strength. Here it must be admitted that very
good LCC can be made entirely without
microsilica, but these are often difficult to
place due to tendencies of dilatancy, etc.
However, as stated above, good progresses
have been made in the field of microsilica-
0 20 40 60 80 100
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160

Fig. 5 Self-flow of WFA based LCC as a function of time and microsilica/reactive alumina
ratio [4]. Flow measured with the 50 mm tall cone as described in ASTM C230, flow
testing
F
r
e
e

f
l
o
w

[
%
]
Time [min]
0 vol-% reactive alumina
25 vol-% r. al. (0,03% citric acid)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600

Fig. 6 Hot-MOR of WFA based LCC (6% cement) with different microsilica content [3]
H
o
t

M
.
O
.
R
.

[
M
P
a
]
Temperature [C]
8 mass-% MS
6 mass-% MS
4 mass-% MS
2 mass-% MS
-2
-1
0
1
2
0 500 1000 1500 2000

-2
-1
0
1
2
0 500 1000 1500 2000

Fig. 8 Comparison of RUL for WFA based ULCC (0,5 mass-%
cement) with 8 mass-% microsilica, LCC (6 mass-% cement)
with 8 mass-% microsilica and LCC without microsilica
Fig. 7 Effect of cement on RUL for WFA based castables with
8 mass-% microsilica. LCC has 6 mass-% cement
Temperature [C] Temperature [C]
E
x
p
a
n
s
i
o
n

[
%
]
E
x
p
a
n
s
i
o
n

[
%
]
LCC (70 % CAC)
LCC (84 % CAC)
0,5 % (70 % CAC)
0,5 % cement 8 % MS
6 % cement 8 % MS
6 % cement, 0 % MS
free castables, and they have for various rea-
sons become quite popular. When dealing
with silica containing systems, the liquid for-
mation at around 1500 C is something we
have to confront, and as long as we have sil-
ica in the system, the only way to get around
the problem is to remove the cement, to a
higher or lesser degree.
The melting around 1500 C for the cement
containing castables is, as outlined before,
melting of the peritectic composition of the
castable given by the phase diagram. The
composition of the peritectic liquid is close
to a 50 / 50 mixture of microsilica and 70 %
CA-cement, and any excess microsilica will
form needle-like mullite within that liquid. If
we use 6 mass-% of a 84 % CA-cement in-
stead of a 70 % CA-cement, then this is
equal to using approximately 3,5 mass-% of
the 70 % CA-cement in terms of CaO con-
tribution. The excess microsilica may then
form mullite that serves to strengthen the
structure so that it is capable of taking high-
er temperatures without collapse. This is
seen in Fig. 7. A substantial amount of liquid
(approximately 7 %) will still form at
1500 C and although the situation gets
better by using the 84 % CA-cement it is
not enough for a castable that is intended
to be operable at higher temperatures with-
out creep. In that case, the cement has to
be removed more or less entirely. A castable
with 0,5 mass-% cement is such a castable,
and Fig. 7 shows the excellent stability
of that castable up to very high tempera-
tures. If we revert to the compositions given
in Tab. 2, this one is the castable labelled
as ULCC.
Fig. 8 shows the RUL of the compositions
given in Tab. 2. Perhaps somewhat surpris-
ing, the castable with 8 mass-% microsilica
and 0,5 mass-% cement shows at least as
good results as the microsilica-free compos-
ition. So, we have now established that the
Gunning & CastabIes
Controlling set-time and improving flow properties
8ioxX
and
8ioxX-Ouick
Performance Enhancer for Advanced Refractories
SioxX and
SioxX-Quick are registered trademarks and belong to Elkem AS.

For more information, pIease contact us:
Elkem AS
P.O.Box 8126
NO-4675 Kristiansand - Norway
www.refractories.elkem.com
Telephone: +47 38 01 75 00
Telefax: +47 38 01 49 70
E-mail: refractories.materials@elkem.no
castable, labelled as ULCC provides cast-
ables with high hot-strength and high re-
fractoriness as well as providing good flow
values and good explosion resistance.
5 Microsilica together with
Alphabond and cement as binder
Although the concept of using ultralow
amounts of cement together with Al-
phabond to make microsilica containing
castables set is not a new idea [1, 2], little
effort has been made to understand the set-
ting in detail.
Elkem in conjunction with Wuhan University
of Science and Technology has been studying
this binder in further detail recently (unpub-
lished work). Studies on conductivity, zeta-
potential and pH have confirmed the im-
pression that one here are not talking about
a hydraulic bond, it is closer to a bond creat-
ed by the microsilica being gelled by the in-
teraction of cement and Alphabond.
Flow decay of castables with 0,5 mass-%
cement and Alphabond in combination was
tested by using the ASTM cone of 50 mm
height for flow measurements as a function
of time. In Fig. 9, self-flow and vibra-flow
are given as a function of time and Al-
phabond addition for a cement content of
0,5 mass-%. The tests were done at about
20 C ambient temperature.
Fig. 9 shows that setting can be adjusted by
the use of Alphabond as accelerator; or vice
versa (not shown) increasing cement, accel-
erates setting. The mechanism behind the
setting is not well understood, but it seems
tribution on ow and set. Proc. UNITECR95,
Kyoto, Japan, Nov. 1922 1995, II/309316
[2] Myhre, B.; Sunde, K.: Alumina based castables
with very low contents of hydraulic compound.
Part II. Strength and high-temperature reactions
of no-cement castables with hydraulic alumina
and microsilica. Proc. UNITECR95, Kyoto, Ja-
pan, Nov. 1922 1995, II/317324
[3] Myhre, B.; et al.: Correlation between mullite
formation and mechanical properties of refrac-
tory castables at elevated temperatures. Pres-
ented at VIII Int. Met. Conf. Ustron, Poland. May
2528, 1999
[4] Myhre, B.: Lets make a mullite matrix! Ref. Ap-
plic ations and News 13 (2008) [6] 1119
[5] Peng, H.; Myhre, B.: Effect of bauxite nes and
cement content on workability and high-tem-
perature properties of bauxite based castables.
Proc. UNITECR'09 Salvador de Bahia, Brazil,
Oct. 1316, 2009
[6] Peng, H.; Myhre, B.: High-Temperature prop-
erties of bauxite-based castables with microsil-
ica. Proc. 51
th
Int. Coll. on Ref., Aachen, Germa-
ny, Oct. 1516, 2008
[7] Myhre, B.: The making of a mullite matrix. Proc.
ALAFAR 2008, Buenos Aires 2008
[8] Myhre, B.; Hundere, A.M.: Substitution of reacti-
ve alumina with microsilica in low cement and
ultra low cement castables, part II: The effect of
temperature on hot-properties. Proc. UNITECR
97, New Orleans, USA, Nov. 48, 1997
[9] Myhre, B.; Hundere, A.M.: Substitution of react-
ive alumina with microsilica in low cement and
ultra low cement castables, Part I: Properties re-
lated to installation and demoulding. Proc. UNI-
TECR 97, New Orleans, USA, Nov. 48, 1997
clear that one are here talking of a bond cre-
ated by the gelling of the microsilica, primar-
ily by Ca
2+
ions coming from the cement.
The accelerating action of the Alphabond is
believed to come from enhanced precipita-
tion of Al-hydrates coming from the alumi-
nate part of the cement. The Alphabond
serves here as nucleation aid for that precip-
itation.
6 Conclusion
Desirable properties such as high flowability,
high explosion resistance combined with
high density, high hot-strength and refrac-
toriness can be made into one castable,
using microsilica together with ultralow
amounts of Alphabond and cement as
binder. Microsilica as a flow enhancer en-
dows castables with self-flow values above
80 % at low water addition. This special
bond system forms by interaction of Alpha-
bond and cement with microsilica and pro-
vides castables of this kind with some very
interesting properties with respect to heat-
up particularly. Once dried at 110 C, the
castables seem unaffected by further heat-
up conditions. Moreover, the formation of
mullite and lack of liquid at high tempera-
tures contribute to ultra-high hot-strength
and refractoriness.
References
[1] Myhre, B.; Sunde, K.: Alumina based castables
with very low contents of hydraulic compound.
Part I: The effect of binder and particle-size dis-
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
0 5 10 15

0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
0 5 10 15

Fig. 9 Flow decay of ULCC with 0,5 mass-% cement in combination with Alphabond. Flow measured with the 50 mm tall cone as de-
scribed in ASTM C230, flow testing
Time [h] Time [h]
V
i
b
r
a
-
f
l
o
w

[
%
]
S
e
l
f
-
f
l
o
w

[
%
]
0 % Alphabond
0,5 % Alphabond
1 % Alphabond
0 % Alphabond
0,5 % Alphabond
1 % Alphabond
Low-temperature Oxy-fuel Combustion Technology
for Aluminium Re-melting and Its Requirements
for Refractory Materials
H. Gripenberg, J. Lodin, K. Torvanger
Low-temperature oxy-fuel burners are designed to utilize the prin-
ciple of flameless combustion. The combustion occurs under diluted
oxygen concentration by mixing the furnace gases with the flame.
This avoids high peak temperatures and provides a uniform heating
of the furnace and the metal. It favours the melting capacity without
negative impact on refractory wear and dross formation. Low-tem-
perature oxy-fuel is in operation at the PFA cast house at Hydro Alu-
minium, rdal/NO. During a recent re-lining of the furnaces, it was
concluded that the original lining designed for air-fuel combustion
performed equally good together with the new burner technology.
The second fundamental result is that the
concentration of the highly radiating prod-
ucts of combustion, CO
2
and H
2
O is in-
creased in the furnace atmosphere. Calcula-
tions according to VDI-Wrme-Atlas indicate
that the emissivity of oxy-fuel burner exhaust
gases is 55 60 % higher than air-fuel burn-
er exhaust gases in the temperature range
400 1000 C. Therefore the heat transfer
through radiation increases. As the radiative
component of the heat flux is dominating the
heat transfer between gas and metal by far
[1] this leads to higher melt rates.
The third influence of conventional oxy-fuel
on the combustion process is the increase in
the burner flame temperature. This can un-
der certain process and furnace conditions
be negative as it could lead to a localized
energy spot with very high temperature. The
consequence could be local overheating of
the aluminium metal or of the refractory lin-
ing. The low-temperature oxy-fuel burner is
designed to address these possible prob-
lems.
In low-temperature oxy-fuel the flame
temperature is reduced by the use of the
prin-ciple of flameless combustion. This
means that the combustion is dispersed
and spread out in a larger volume [2, 3]
(Fig. 2).
The dispersed flame still contains the same
amount of energy but is more spread over
the furnace volume. Low-temperature oxy-
fuel therefore provides a more uniform heat-
ing and melting, avoiding hot spots on the
refractory as well as dross formation. Fig. 3
illustrates the flame temperature distribution
of low-temperature oxy-fuel compared to
conventional oxy-fuel. In fact, the tempera-
1 Introduction to low-temperature
oxy-fuel technologies
Low-temperature oxy-fuel is designed and
developed for the melting of aluminium in
reverberatory furnaces. It is a further devel-
opment of the conventional oxy-fuel burners
that are state of the art for melting of sec-
ondary aluminium in rotary furnaces.
In oxy-fuel combustion the combustion air is
replaced by industrial grade oxygen. This in-
fluences the combustion process in a num-
ber of ways. The first obvious result is the in-
crease in thermal efficiency due to the re-
duced exhaust gas volume and energy loss-
es as illustrated in Fig. 1.
Henrik Gripenberg, Johannes Lodin
AGA AB Linde Gases Division
Application Development Non-Ferrous &
Mining
18181 Liding
Sweden
Ken Torvanger
Hydro Aluminium
6882 rdal
Norway
Corresponding author: Henrik Gripenberg
E-mail: henrik.gripenberg@linde-gas.com
Keywords: oxygen, burner, oxy-fuel, melt-
ing, aluminium, refractory, productivity
Thermal efficiency with 2% oxygen in off gases
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1 000 1 100 1 200 1 300 1 400 1 500 1 600 1 700 1 800
T
h
e
r
m
a
l

e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
Oxyfuel
Airfuel
Fig. 1 Combustion with industrial oxygen increases the thermal efficiency
Flue gas temperature [C]
keep up the production of cast house prod-
ucts. However the re-melting capacity was
limited by the air-fuel combustion systems
used.
The objective for PFA was now to increase
the amount of solid metal in the batch from
27 % to 43 %. That is to re-melt more solid
metal using the same furnace and casting
equipment. A feasibility study showed
that the productivity increase could be
reached by replacing the air-fuel combustion
systems for the low-temperature oxy-fuel
technology.
Hydro Aluminium first converted the PFA2
line to low-temperature oxy-fuel. The
conversion was made in June 2007. The old
3 MW air-fuel burner systems were com-
pletely removed. One 3 MW low-tempera-
ture oxy-fuel burner was installed in each of
the two furnaces at the same positions as
the air-fuel burners (Fig. 4). The oxy-fuel sys-
tems installed are fully automated with
touch screen operator interface and ad-
vanced power control.
The low-temperature oxy-fuel installation
was made after the second year of a refrac-
tory lining campaign planned to last five
years. That is, no changes in refractory mater-
ials or design were made. The refractory lin-
ings and burner position is shown in Fig. 5.
The furnace bottom and the metal bath line
are made of a standard high alumina brick
with 81,5 % Al
2
O
3
. The refractory above the
bath level is monolithic bauxite based gun-
ture of the low-temperature oxy-fuel flame is
on the same level as the flame from an air-
fuel burner operated with cold not pre-heat-
ed combustion air [3].
2 Application of low-temperature
oxy-fuel and performance of
the refractory lining at Hydro
Aluminium, rdal/NO
Today Hydro Aluminium rdal produces
175 000 t/a pot-room metal. There are two
cast houses, one for sheet ingots and one for
primary foundry alloys (PFA). There is a ca-
pacity to produce about 130 000 t/a PFA.
The main alloys produced are AA4000 se-
ries. There are two parallel production lines
called PFA1 and PFA2. Each line consists of
two gas fired furnaces feeding one casting
system. PFA1 has horizontal continu-ous
casting making 75 mm 50 mm bars in dif-
ferent lengths. PFA2 casts 8-kg ingots on a
casting mould belt [4].
In year 2007 the old 50 000 t/a Sderberg
pot-room at Hydro rdal was closed. This
reduction of the pot-room metal supply
meant that Hydro rdal had to increase the
re-melting of commodity metal in order to
Fig. 2 Low-temperature oxy-fuel combustion occurs
under diluted oxygen concentration by mixing the
furnace gases into the flame; this slows down the
reactions and results in lower flame temperature and
a more dispersed flame
CH
4
+ 2 O
2
+ Hot furnace gases CO
2
+ 2 H
2
O + Heat

Low-temperature
Conventional
Fig. 3 Temperature [K] contours along a cross section, calculation in fluent
for a 50-t furnace
Fig. 4 Low-temperature oxy-fuel installations at PFA2, Hydro Aluminium, rdal/NO
}ournu o
Cerumc Scence
und 1echnoogy
Journal Description
The Journal of Ceramic Science and Technology publishes
original scientic articles on all topics o ceramic science and
technology from all ceramic branches.
The papers may have either theoretical or experimental back-
ground. A high quality of publications will be guaranteed by a
thorough reviewing process. The Journal is published by Gl-
ler Verlag on behalf of the German Ceramic Society (DKG).
Journal Editor
Jrgen G. Heinrich, Clausthal University of Technology,
Germany
Executive Director
Markus Blumenberg, Deutsche Keramische Gesellschaft,
Germany
Editorial Board
Christos Aneziris, TU Bergakademie Freiberg, Germany
Yoshio Bando, National Institute for Materials Science, Japan
Lennart Bergstrm, Stockholm University, Sweden
Thierie Chartier, Science des Procds et de Traitements de
Surface, France
Paolo Colombo, University of Padova, Italy
Robert Danzer, Montanuniversitt Leoben, Austria
Fatih Dogan, University of Missouri-Rolla, USA
Rainer Gadow, Universitt Stuttgart, Germany
Ludwig Gauckler, ETH Zrich, Switzerland
Jens Gnster, BAM Berlin, Germany
Peter Greil, Universitt Erlangen-Nrnberg, Germany
Stuart Hampshire, University of Limerick, Ireland
Dongliang Jiang, Shanghai Institute of Ceramics, Chinese
Academy of Sciences, China
Zviad Kowsiridze, Georgian Technical University, Georgia
Walter Krenkel, Universitt Bayreuth, Germany
Sanjay Mathur, Universitt zu Kln, Germany
Alexander Michaelis, Fraunhofer-Institut fr Keramische
Technologien und Systeme, Germany
Vojislav Mitic, Department of Microelectronics, University of
Nis, Serbia
Tatsuki Ohji, Advanced Manufacturing Research Institute,
Japan
Dong-Soo Park, Korea, Institute of Machinery and Materials,
South Korea
Pavol Sajgalik, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Slovakia
Wolfgang Sigmund, University of Florida, USA
Vladimir Shevchenko, Russian Academy of Science, Russia
Mrityunjay Singh, Ohio Aerospace Institute, USA
Vijay Srivastava, Banaras Hindu University, India
Paolo Zannini, Universit Degli Studi, Italy
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3
rd
is
s
u
e
v
o
lu
m
e
2
(2
0
1
1
)
a
v
a
ila
b
le
n
o
w
!
Fig. 5 The refractory lining at PFA2. The
low-temperature oxy-fuel burner refrac-
tory block is fitted in a sleeve made of a
low expansion refractory castable with
40 % Al
2
O
3
and 43 % SiO
2
ning mix with 77,5 % Al
2
O
3
. The tempera-
ture limit for application is 1720 C accord-
ing to the manufacturers data sheet. This set
up of the refractory linings is standard pro-
cedure at the plant. The intervals between
re-linings are five years.
3 Results
The objective of increasing the re-melting of
commodity aluminium in the PFA2 cast
house was met. Between June 2007 and
June 2010, the increase in re-melting was
47 %.
In Fig. 6 is shown process data from a fur-
nace batch charged with 40 % solid ingots
and 60 % liquid primary metal. The roof
temperature was during the melting period
kept at about 1000 C and it falls down to
just above 800 C during casting. The burn-
er power is controlled by the roof tempera-
ture during melting and by the metal tem-
perature during casting.
that of an air-fuel burner. The temperature of
the refractory roof and walls is controlled by
adjustment of the burner power.
In June 2008 the production line PFA1 was
also converted that is all four melting fur-
naces in the cast house are now using low-
temperature oxy-fuel. The conversion to low-
temperature oxy-fuel at PFA1 coincided with
a planned re-lining. At the time when this ar-
ticle is being published PFA1 has thus been in
operation for three years and the refractory
lining shows an equally good performance.
References
[1] Buchholz, A.; Rdseth, J.: Investigation of heat
transfer conditions in a reverberatory melting
furnace by numerical modelling. TMS Light
Metals, 2011
[2] von Schele, J.; et al.: Invisible ames for clearly
visible results. Nordic Steel & Mining Review,
2005, 204
[3] Gripenberg, H.; et. al.: Optimized oxy-fuel mel-
ting process at SAPA Heat Transfer AB. TMS
Light Metals, 2007
[4] Gripenberg, H.; Lodin, J.; Torvanger, K.: Opti-
mised re-melting by the use of low-temperature
oxy-fuel at Hydro Aluminiums primary alumi-
nium cast house vre rdal, Norway. TMS An-
nual Meeting & Exhibition 2010
The refractory lining performed excellent to-
gether with the new low-temperature oxy-
fuel burner system.
The furnace was re-lined after the normal
five year cycle. At that time the furnace had
been run for two years with the old air-fuel
burner and three years with the new low-
temperature oxy-fuel burner. During the
three years with oxy-fuel, 47 % more tons
solid aluminium blocks were charged into
the furnace. This led to an expected increase
of mechanical wear on the furnace bottom
and around the charging door caused by the
impact of the charging tool and the solid
blocks. There was no increased wear due to
interactions between the flame and the
monolithic refractory above the bath level.
Owing to these very good results the refrac-
tory materials and design were kept the
same for the re-lining.
To conclude, the results from this refractory
campaign at PFA2 Hydro rdal show that
there is no need to change refractory lining
materials when converting from air-fuel to
low-temperature oxy-fuel burners. The rea-
son being that the temperature of the flame
and the furnace gases are well distributed
over the furnace volume and that the tem-
perature of the flame is on the same level as
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
hours
500
600
700
800
900
1 000
1 100
1 200

Fig. 6 Process diagram from PFA2 operating with low-temperature oxy-fuel and 40 %
solid metal in the batch; during the melting period the refractory roof temperature is
kept at about 1000 C by automatic adjustment of the burner power
Burner power [kW] Refractory roof temp [C] Metal bath temp [C]
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

[
C
]
B
u
r
n
e
r

p
o
w
e
r

[
k
W
]
Time [h]
Refractory Solutions to Improve Steel Cleanliness
K. Badr, M. Tomas, M. Kirschen, G. McIlveney
The demand for clean steel production is ever increasing, principally because steel for more sophisti -
cated processing routes and applications requires smaller sized oxide inclusions. Modifying inclusion
morphology, composition, and size is employed to produce lower melting point species and harmless
characteristics during rolling. This type of treatment procedure is known as inclusion engineering. In add-
ition, minimizing residual impurities including sulphur, phosphorous, hydrogen, nitrogen, and carbon is
also targeted during clean steel production. RHI provides a range of refractory solutions to enhance steel
cleanliness during the entire steelmaking process. In addition, various modeling capabilities are available
to optimize tundish efficiency during clean steel production.
form as micro-particles during deoxidation
but then grow mainly by coagulation and
can reach sizes of approximately 1000 m.
The threshold value between micro and
macro inclusions has been agreed as 50 m
[2]. With respect to the source of inclusions,
they are classified into two types; the first
are termed indigenous oxide inclusions that
stem from deoxidation products. They are
usually small (i.e., micro-inclusions) and ac-
1 Introduction
The molten steel produced in basic oxygen
furnaces (BOFs) or electric arc furnaces
(EAFs) is tapped with dissolved oxygen into
the ladle. It is then deoxidized with ferro -
alloys including FeSi, FeSiMn, and/or metallic
aluminium. The resulting deoxidation prod-
ucts such as silica and alumina are largely
removed from the melt by flotation. How -
ever, during ladle treatment, further separ-
ation of the remaining deoxidation products
(e.g., nonmetallic inclusions), desulphuri-
zation, and adjustment of the melt chemistry
and temperature take place. It should be em-
phasized that the definition of clean steel
varies according to the steel grade and its
end use as shown in Tab. 1.
2 Types of inclusion
Nonmetallic inclusions can be categorized
according to their size and source of forma-
tion. Regarding inclusion size, oxide inclu-
sions are classified as microscopic and
macroscopic. The oxide inclusions typically
Karim Badr, Marcos Tomas
Marcus Kirschen, Gavin McIlveney
RHI AG, Steel Division
1100 Vienna
Austria
Corresponding author: Karim Badr
E-mail: karim.badr@rhi-ag.com
Keywords: BOF, EAF, steel inclusions, CFD
Steel product Maximum impurity fraction Maximum inclusion size
Automotive and deep drawing
sheets
[C] <= 30 ppm, [N] <= 30 ppm 100 m
Alloy steel bars
[H] <= 2 ppm, [N] <= 10 20 ppm,
T.O <= 10 ppm
HIC resistant steel
(sour gas tubes)
[P] <= 50 ppm, [S] <= 10 ppm
Bearings T.O <= 10 ppm 15 m
Tyre cord
[H] <= 2 ppm, [N] <= 40 ppm,
T.O <= 15 ppm
10 m
Wire [N] <= 60 ppm, T.O <= 30 ppm 20 m
Tab. 1 Steel cleanliness requirements for various steel grades [1]. Total oxygen (T.O) is
the sum of the free oxygen dissolved in the steel and the oxygen combined in non-
metallic inclusions
Fig. 1 Sources of nonmetallic inclusions
available to reduce the level of inclusions
and produce cleaner steel are described.
3.1 Reduced slag carryover
Multiple measures have been examined over
the last decades to control slag carryover in
the steelmaking process. In the BOF, various
slag retaining systems have been developed
to reduce the quantity of slag carryover, re-
sulting in an average specific amount of 2 to
6 kg of slag/t of steel (Fig. 2).
During the EAF tapping process, an infrared
camera provides a state of the art solution to
target consistent and low slag carryover. In
addition, RHI has developed and successful-
ly introduced to the market computational
fluid dynamics (CFD) optimized tap holes
that can be used for EAF and BOF applica-
tions. These tap holes are characterized by
both an increased lifetime and reduced slag
carryover. A basic comparison between the
CFD flow optimized conical shaped tap hole
and the conventional cylindrical tap hole is
shown in Fig. 3. In the cylindrical tap hole,
there is a constriction in the steel stream at
the inlet zone. The existence of a radial flow
velocity component in the cylindrical tap
hole contracts the effective diameter of the
tap hole. Having a reduced effective diame-
ter increases the turbulences due to the sep-
aration of the stream from the tap channel
wall. This phenomenon is avoided in the case
of the conical tap hole design because
the effective diameter is larger, minimizing
turbulences and erosion rates at the inlet
zone.
cordingly are less harmful provided they do
not agglomerate into macro-inclusions dur-
ing the melt transfer. The second type is re-
ferred to as exogenous inclusions and they
are formed during the melt transfer by reoxi-
dation of the refined steel through contact
with air or oxidizing slag. These exogenous
inclusions can also be formed as a result of
the entrainment of reoxidation products,
slag, and refractory fragments [3]. However,
the harmful macro-inclusions originate
mostly from exogenous inclusions (Fig. 1).
3 Controlling steel cleanliness
Looking at the various stages of the steel-
making process in relation to inclusion for-
mation, it should be noted that the primary
vessel (i.e., EAF or BOF) has a marginal in-
fluence on oxide cleanness of the final prod-
uct. In contrast, the slag carried over from
the BOF or EAF to the ladle has a substantial
role as a reoxidation source due to the con-
tained FeO and MnO. During the secondary
metallurgy phase, the inclusion content in
the liquid steel is controlled through proper
ladle treatment, separation of particles via
the various flow controllers, and by avoiding
reoxidation from ambient air, slags, and re-
fractory materials. Steelmakers are continu-
ously focused on reducing nonmetallic inclu-
sions using various methods. In the follow-
ing sections, current refractory solutions
Fig. 3 Steel flow characteristics in the a) cylindrical
and b) conical tap holes. Abbreviations include effec-
tive diameter (D
eff
)
Fig. 2 Comparison of various slag retaining systems used in BOFs [4]
Fig. 4 Turbulences in the EAF tapping stream using a) cylindrical and
b) conical tap holes
a)
b)
a) b)
cylindrical
tap hole design
conical
tap hole design
S
p
e
c
.

a
m
o
u
n
t

o
f

c
a
r
r
y
o
v
e
r

s
l
a
g

[
k
g
/
t
]
Moreover, switching from a cylindrical to
conical tap hole design provides two add-
itional advantages: A reduction of slag carry-
over and less oxygen pick-up during tapping.
The reason for the reduced slag carryover is
the conical tap hole inlet delays the vortex
effect. Typically, with cylindrical tap holes the
slag is entrained with the melt at the end of
tapping when the steel level above the tap
hole becomes low. The slag is sucked in with
the melt due to a vortex that builds up in the
tap hole. According to CFD simulations, the
vortex starts at a later stage with the conical
tap hole design, and therefore slag carryover
is decreased.
A second advantage of the conical tap hole is
the potential reduction of oxygen pick-up dur-
ing steel transfer to the ladle. The flow profiles
of steel as it streamed from either a cylindrical
or conical tap hole during one of the trials
held at a North American steel plant are
shown in Fig. 4. It is clear that a higher turbu-
lence occurs in the case of the cylindrical tap
hole compared to the conical design. The
lower turbulence and more uniform stream
result in a reduced air-melt interface and the
associated oxygen pick-up is decreased,
thereby enhancing clean steel production.
3.2 Tundish management
An optimized tundish operation is very im-
portant during the clean steelmaking
process. Therefore, over the years RHI has
developed a wide, comprehensive, and state
of the art range of products for the tundish,
which are recommended according to the
customers requirements (Fig. 5). The main
functions of the tundish are to receive the
steel poured from the ladle, distribute the
steel to the different continuous casting ma-
chine strands, maintain an appropriate steel
temperature for casting, and inclusion re-
moval. However, there are many parameters
that have to be optimized during the tundish
operation to achieve the best results, includ-
ing the following key points:
Increasing residence time
Preventing short circuits
Minimizing dead volumes
Optimizing flow pattern during ladle ex-
changes
Improving temperature distribution and
concentration homogenization
Promoting inclusion removal
Maximizing steel yield
Reducing clogging and reoxidation.
3.3 Steel shrouding
The teeming steel stream from the ladle to
the tundish can be protected from atmos-
pheric reoxidation by enclosing it in a refrac-
tory tube (i.e., ladle shroud) to provide phys-
ical shrouding (Fig. 6). A good free ladle
opening rate and sufficient space for ladle
shroud manipulation are also prerequisites
for optimal operation. The reduction of inclu-
sions at this stage not only results in a bet-
ter overall cast quality but also decreases the
subsequent clogging in the submerged
nozzles (i.e., submerged entry nozzle (SEN),
submerged entry shroud, or exchangeable
monotube), for example in the case of alu-
minium killed steels.
3.4 Argon shielding
Nitrogen pick-up (a measure of reoxidation
potential) can be reduced using the RHI Zero
Air Aspiration Gate (ZAAG) system (Fig. 7),
developed in cooperation with FC Technik
AG/CH. The system provides reliable preven-
tion of air aspiration at the joint between the
ladle nozzle and ladle shroud by the con-
trolled supply and maintenance of a positive
argon pressure over the entire nozzle/shroud
sealing interface surface. A satisfactory re-
duction of nitrogen pick-up levels down to
<5 ppm has been achieved with the ZAAG.
3.5 Tundish wear lining
Typical tundish wear lining is performed with
MgO mixes, and RHI has developed an ap-
proach based on its own raw material
Fig. 5 Tundish refractory solutions for clean steel production
Fig. 6 Ladle shroud to protect the melt against reoxi-
dation during transfer from the ladle to the tundish
Fig. 7 Argon shielding ZAAG system used to reduce
air ingress during shrouded transfer between the
ladle and tundish
sources and a state of the art binding tech-
nology for this application. Furthermore, RHI
also offers an exhaustive study of customer
operating conditions and tailor-made solu-
tions for the working lining based on the slag
type, tundish powder, steel cleanliness, and
sequence length analysis in addition to other
approaches to optimize lining performance.
3.6 Tundish furniture
Conventional tundish furniture solutions to
improve steel cleanliness include dams,
weirs, and baffles. They are used to help
direct inclusions up into the tundish slag.
Dams are barriers placed on the tundish bot-
tom and as a result of the steel flow being
driven over these refractories, inclusions are
forced to float to the top. Weirs are refracto-
ry plates fixed across the tundish, with a gap
left at the tundish bottom, to prevent ladle
slag carried over from reaching the tundish
nozzles. A third type of furniture is termed
the baffle. They can be installed all over the
tundish, from top to bottom, and contain a
series of angled holes to produce directional
flow of the steel, which helps prevent slag-
metal mixing during ladle exchanges when
Fig. 10 Various monoblock stopper designs [6]
Fig. 9 Influence of argon rinsing in the tundish on the number of
defects in cast steel [6]. Abbreviations include casting speed (vc)
Fig. 8 Tundish with purging beam [6]
the tundish level drops. An additional type of
furniture is the impact pad. It is inserted on
the tundish bottom below the ladle shroud
and is used to reduce the impact stream en-
ergy, optimize the flow characteristics, and
protect against steel penetration into the
permanent lining.
RHI provides customized solutions for
tundish furniture using specific designs de-
veloped with the know-how acquired over
many years of research and development.
The value added resulting from tundish fur-
niture (also known as flow modifying de-
vices) [5], is illustrated in the section de-
scribing CFD modelling.
3.7 Tundish stirring
The cross-sectional layout of a tundish with
a purging beam installed on the floor is
shown in Fig. 8. The argon pipe is mounted
within the refractory sidewall for protection
and connected to the porous purging beam.
Argon gas purging is a well-established
measure to improve the floatation of inclu-
sions in the ladle and now this technology is
also implemented in the tundish. It is clear
from the results of a plant trial using argon
rinsing in a tundish (Fig. 9) that the number
of defects (measured using an inclusion de-
tection system termed Mannesmann inclu-
sion detection by analysing surfboards or the
MIDAS method) can be significantly reduced,
especially at a lower casting speed [6, 7].
3.8 Monoblock stopper
The monoblock stopper group of products,
when used in conjunction with a SEN or the
combined tundish nozzle/submerged entry
shroud arrangement, control the startup and
subsequently provide continuous regulation
of the steel flow between the tundish and
casting mould. Through a range of geomet-
rical design and inert gas purging options
(Fig. 10), the achievable casting sequence
may be maximized in such applications
where alumina clogging may represent an
overall limiting factor to the cast duration. It
should also be noted that tundish nozzle or
SEN clogging can be detrimental to steel
cleanliness as it changes the steel flow char-
acteristics within the submerged nozzle and
disrupts the flow behaviour in the mould,
leading to slag entrainment and surface de-
fects. Fig. 11 shows an example of non-uni-
form inclusion distribution, where the inclu-
sion number is much higher on the left side
where the flow rate is higher.
4 Inclusion reduction using
computational fluid dynamics
For years CFD simulations have provided a
powerful tool to investigate the melt flow in
a tundish and improve the removal of non-
metallic inclusions. Since a sufficiently long
steel melt residence time in the tundish is
necessary to enable the nonmetallic particles
to float to the melt covering slag layer, short-
cut flow patterns as shown at the bottom of
a 16-t tundish without any furniture
(Fig. 12) should be minimized as macro-
inclusions can flow directly to the mould.
Even more detrimental to steel cleanliness,
slag droplets may become entrained in the
melt if vortices develop at the steel-slag in-
terface, for example near the shroud (pos-
ition 1 in Figs. 12, 13a) or where two recir-
culation zones impinge in the tundish (pos-
ition 2 in Figs. 12, 13a). The effect of differ-
ent tundish furniture, such as impact pads,
dams, weirs, and weirs with holes, on the
flow pattern can be visualized with CFD
simulations (Fig. 13b) and/or measurements
can be made using water models.
4.1 Tundish residence time
distribution
A widely used method to evaluate the com-
plex steel flow pattern in a tundish is deter-
mining the active and dead volume fractions
from the calculated residence time distri-
bution (RTD). The RTD is a probability distri-
bution function that describes the amount of
time a fluid element is present in the
tundish. In water models and CFD simu-
lations the RTD can be determined by moni-
toring an input signal at the ladle shroud, for
example a tracer. The normalized concentra-
SEN) (Fig. 14) and is determined by the min-
imum residence time,
min
[9], up to = 2.
To maximize particle floatation and separ-
ation in the tundish, a long
min
, (i.e., mini-
mum plug volume) and a minimum dead
volume are both beneficial and are the tar-
gets of sophisticated tundish furniture de-
sign.
A comparison between the measured and
computed RTD values for a 16-t single strand
tundish water model are depicted in Fig. 14
[8]. The calculated RTD shows good agree-
ment with concentration measurements of
the water model and indicates a very ac-
ceptable prediction of the flow pattern de-
termined with CFD methods. The calculated
RTD curves of a 30-t 4-strand tundish for
slab casting without furniture and with an
optimized design comprising a TUNFLOW
RHI turbulence reducing and flow optimi-
zation impact pot, and a weir-dam combin-
tion of the tracer at the SEN outlet is plotted
versus the normalized residence time,
= t/t*, where the mean residence time in
the tundish, t*, (equation 1) is calculated
from the tundish volume, V
tundish
, and steel
volume flow rate, V
steel
.
t* =
V
tundish
(1)
V
steel
The dead volume in the tundish indicates
flow regions with very long retention times
and reduced mass and heat exchange with
the rest of the bath, which may even lead to
unwanted high thermal and chemical gradi-
ents or under-cooled melt. The dead volume
contains all steel volumes that remain for
longer than 2 in the tundish [9].
In contrast, the active volume describes the
regions with direct steel flow from the
tundish inlet (i.e., shroud) to the outlet (i.e.,
Fig. 13 Calculated flow lines in a 30-t single strand tundish a)
without and b) with furniture (i.e., TUNFLOW impact pot, weir,
and dam) that results in decreased turbulence and directed
steel flow to the upper tundish volume for increased inclusion
separation
Fig. 11 Influence of SEN clogging on slag entrainment and
surface defects [6]. Abbreviations include inclusion number (N)
Fig. 12 Calculated relative turbulence distribution in the centre
plane of a 16-t single strand tundish [8]
a)
b)
ation are also shown in Fig. 14, indicating a
significantly increased
min
plug volume and
a decreased dead volume for the optimized
design, namely a higher mix volume and a
higher probability of inclusion floatation and
separation to the top cover slag in the opti-
mized tundish.
4.2 Particle separation
The relative particle concentration at the
outlet, c
pSEN
/c
pshroud
, calculated from the par-
ticle concentration transported in the steel
flow from the shroud (c
pshroud
) to the SEN
(c
pSEN
) of a 16-t 1-strand tundish (Fig. 12)
was calculated by multiple simulation
groups using CFD and is plotted as a func-
tion of the particle terminal rising velocity,
u
p
, in Fig. 15 [10]. The corresponding particle
diameter, d
p
, for the five particle sizes exam-
ined is also indicated.
The theoretical plot describing c
pSEN
/c
pshroud
in
the case of an optimal particle separation ac-
cording to Kaufmann et al. [11] is also
shown in Fig. 15. Kaufmanns findings imply
that the relative particle concentration in the
SEN becomes 100 % if the particle size ap-
proaches zero, because very small particles
cannot be separated by the fluid flow since
the rising velocity approaches zero. While ex-
perimental results performed on tundish
water models agree with this theory, only
certain CFD simulations demonstrate this ef-
fect for very small particles [10]. However, for
particles larger than 50 m, the CFD predict-
ed separation rates are acceptable to esti-
mate the floatation and separation in a
tundish. In Fig. 16 the calculated separation
rates of Al
2
O
3
particles with 100 m and
200 m diameters are shown for the original
and optimized design (i.e., TUNFLOW and
2 baffles) of a 4-strand tundish for bloom
casting, indicating an increased steel clean-
ness with the optimized tundish with furni-
ture.
As a consequence of the incomplete separ-
ation of very fine particles in the tundish,
additional efforts must be focused on flow
control in the SEN and mould to avoid clog-
Fig. 14 Measured and CFD simulated RTD in a 16-t single strand tundish water model [8] and calculated RTD curves for a 30-t 4-strand
tundish without furniture (original) and with a TUNFLOW and weir-dam combination (optimized)
Fig. 16 Relative particle removal rate of 2 particle classes
(i.e., 100 m and 200 m diameter) in the top slag of a 4-strand
tundish for bloom casting with an original and optimized
tundish furniture design (i.e., TUNFLOW and 2 baffles)
Fig. 15 Calculated relative particle concentration, c
pSEN
/c
pshroud
,
at the outlet (i.e., SEN) of a 16-t tundish as a function of particle
rising velocity and the corresponding particle diameter [10]
ging and to realize a homogeneous and
noncritical distribution of fine nonmetallic
inclusions in the cast products. SEN design
and the resulting flow control of the melt in
the mould are also supported by CFD simu-
lations performed for RHIs isostatically
pressed product development group.
5 Thermochemical simulations of
inclusion formation
Besides optimizing steel flow in the tundish
to maximize floatation and removal of inclu-
sions, the formation mechanisms of non-
metallic inclusions are the subject of thermo-
chemical investigations. In addition to Al
2
O
3
,
inclusions are formed by for example nitrides,
carbides, calcium aluminates, calcium sul-
phide (CaS), and magnesium aluminate (MA)
spinel, depending on the steel composition
and treatment.
However, the formation of inclusion precur-
sors requires specific temperature, pressure,
and chemical composition conditions in the
steel melt, slag, or refractory material.
An example of a thermochemical simulation
of the stable phases in the tundish cover slag
of a customer is shown in Fig. 17. The stable
phase assemblages were calculated using
the FactSage software package [12]. As the
customer faced problems with inclusions of a
chemical composition near MA spinel, it was
suggested to modify the top slag composi-
tion from 40 mass-% Al
2
O
3
to 35 mass-%
Al
2
O
3
. This modification resulted in a de-
steel production. Singapore 2007
[4] Badr, K.; Kirschen, M.; Rahm, C.; Cappel, J.: Im-
provements in EAF by using a smart refractory
system: Conical tap holes. Presented at Innov-
ation in EAF and in Steelmaking Processes, Mi-
lan, Italy, 2728 May 2009
[5] Cramb, A.: The making, shaping and treating of
steel (11
th
Ed.). Casting volume. Pittsburgh,
2003
[6] Wnnenberg, K.; Cappel, J.: Measures to im-
prove oxide cleanliness in continuous casting.
Presented at AISTech 2009, St. Louis, USA, 47
May 2009
[7] Wnnenberg, K.: Oxide cleanliness a strong
challenge for high quality steel products. Pres-
ented at 2008 Int. Symposium on Clean Steel,
Anshan, China, 1719 Sept. 2008
[8] Odenthal, H.; Javurek, M.; Kirschen, M.: CFD
benchmark for a single strand tundish (part I).
Steel Research Int. 80 (2009) [4] 264274
[9] Sahai, Y.; Emi, T.: Criteria for water modeling of
melt ow and inclusion removal in continuous
casting tundishes. ISIJ Int. 36 (1996) [9] 1166
1173
[10] Odenthal, H.; Javurek, M.; Kirschen, M.; Vogl, J.:
CFD benchmark for a single strand tundish
(Part II). Steel Research Int. 81 (2010) [7] 529
541
[11] Kaufmann, B.; et al.: A separation of nonmetal-
lic particles in tundishes. Steel Research 64
(1993) [4] 203209
[12] Bale, C.; et al.: FactSage thermochemical soft-
ware and databases. Calphad 26 (2002) [2]
189228
crease of the MA spinel stability field to tem-
peratures below the steel solidus tempera-
ture.
Similar and even more complex analyses can
be provided by RHI with respect to inclusion
sources from tundish linings and for inter-
actions between Si or Al killed steel melts
and top slags, refractory materials, or filling
sands.
6 Summary
Macroinclusions (> 50 m and primarily re-
sponsible for defects) are usually formed
during melt transfer by reoxidation of the re-
fined steel through contact with air or oxi-
dizing slag. However, they can also be
formed due to the entrainment of reoxida-
tion products, slag, and refractory fragments.
Multiple refractory solutions are provided by
RHI to assist in reducing the number of in-
clusions from the tapping stage through to
the mould. In addition, specific computer
modelling capabilities in the field of tundish
management provide RHI with additional
optimization tools for inclusion control.
References
[1] Zhang, L.; Wang, X.: Evaluation and control of
steel cleanliness review. 85
th
Steelmaking
Conf. Proceedings, ISS-AIME. Warrendale, USA,
2002, pp. 431452
[2] Stolte, G.: Secondary metallurgy. Fundamentals,
processes, applications. Dsseldorf 2002
[3] Sahai, Y.; Emi, T.: Tundish technology for clean
Fig. 17 Calculated stable phase assemblage of tundish top slag with a) 40 mass-% Al
2
O
3
and b) 35 mass-% Al
2
O
3
, which decreased MA
spinel as a possible source of MA spinel-type inclusions
a) b)
1 Introduction
This paper presents the latest technology
used in our furnaces concerning: material
quality, furnace brickwork or execution
work, repair, diagnosis, demolition, and re-
cycling, and reports on pin-pointed technical
initiatives for boosting and maintaining the
global competitiveness in refractories tech-
nologies.
2.2 Increased needs for steel
requiring higher quality and
better functionality
Stricter needs demanded for steel quality
has greatly changed steel refining processes.
As a typical example of process operation in-
dices, degassing treatment ratios in Nippon
Steel Corporation are shown in Fig. 2. The in-
dices have been increased by approximately
15 % in the last two decades, and most re-
cently, in particular, steel quality has become
stricter, forcing the company to face an ex-
tremely big issue to overcome technological-
ly concerning refractories.
2 Environmental changes in iron
and steel production surrounding
refractories technology
2.1 Adaptation toward
upper/lower resiliency in
crude steel production
Transitions of crude steel production in Nip-
pon Steel Corporation, both in Japan and
overseas, and the outlines of the production
lines concerning major refractories, as well
as the line profiles, are shown in Fig. 1 and
Tab. 1 respectively.
In the last couple of years, worldwide
crude steel production has grown at a rate
of 1400 Mt/a, owing to the vigorous de-
mand in the BRICs; however, the Lehman
Shock, triggered by the subprime loan
crisis, which occurred in the United States
the year before last, and which showed
its effect globally, instantly turned the
global economic situation into a worldwide
simultaneous recession. Therefore, the in-
dustry was rapidly and largely driven into
sluggish status in which the ever-expanding
policy hitherto was compelled to be re-
viewed.
The Latest Trends in Refractories Technology for Iron
and Steel Production at Nippon Steel Corporation
T. Matsui
In this report, the trends in re-
fractories technologies for iron
and steel production at Nippon
Steel Corporation in the last few
decades are outlined. Amid dra-
matic changes in crude steel
production accompanying in-
creased ratios in higher quality
of steel and sophisticated refin-
ing methods, in the companys
refractory ceramics R & D
Division, actual machines have
been realized by practicing de-
veloped outcomes with tech-
nologies for every production
process relating to: refractory
materials quality, furnace build-
ing or execution, repairs,
diagnosis, demolition, and recy-
cling. Thus, continuing reduction
in the specific consumption of
refractories has been steadily
performed. Additionally, techni-
cal issues are reduced to further
enhance and maintain our inter-
national competitiveness in re-
fractories technologies.
Taijiro Matsui
Nippon Steel Corporation
293-8511 Chiba, Japan
Corresponding author: Taijiro Matsui
E-mail: matsui.taijiroh@nsc.co.jp
Keywords: refractories, monolithics, carbon
block, lavaflame, microwave, recycling,
ceramic fibres
C
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[
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/
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]
Fig. 1 Trends in crude steel production in the world, Japan and at Nippon Steel
Corporation
3 Trends in refractories
production, specific refractories
consumption, and furnace
brickwork costs
3.1 Refractories production
In contrast to steel production, the domestic
production of refractories has been declining
year by year, as shown in Fig. 3 [2], and re-
fractories materials burning clay, high-alu-
mina bricks and non-burning magne-
sia/graphite bricks, and so forth have been
replaced with bricks imported from various
foreign countries, represented by China, as
shown in Fig. 4 [2]. In Japan, refractory ma-
terials have transformed their structure into
one focused on functional refractories, based
on nozzles for continuous casting, which
could even be said to command steel qual-
ity and monolithic refractories having high
productivity.
3.2 Trends in the specific
consumption of refractories
and utilized ratios of monolithic
refractories
While it has been said that the iron and steel
industry is an industry consuming large-scale
refractories, the general specific consump-
tion of refractories in Nippon Steel Corpor-
ation, from ironmaking processes through
rolling mill processes, has been reduced by
approximately 2 kg/t steel, from a level of
approximately 9,5 kg/t steel to that of ap-
proximately 7,5 kg/t steel, in the last
20 years, as shown in Fig. 5.
It was the switching over from bricks to
monolithic refractories that gave the im-
petus for motivation and greatly contributed
toward the reduction.
Fig. 6 shows the transition of the ratios oc-
cupied by the monolithic refractories; those
ratios have rapidly grown, owing to the evo-
lution of execution/materials technologies
since 1985, from the standpoint of mecha-
nization/labor-saving of furnace brickwork
and due to the lack of skilled workers. Thus,
they reached an advanced stage close to
around 70 %, remain invariable to the pres-
ent.
3.3 Trends in brickwork costs at
Nippon Steel Corporation
On the other hand, brickwork costs have
been largely diminished, as shown in Fig. 7,
owing to the machines actualized by mech-
anization/labor-saving developments for
Items
Number of
production line
Remarks
Works 9
Number of employees: 13 402
(excluding those seconded to subsidiaries and
other organizations)
Crude steel Production 28 613 For the year ended March 31, 2009
Major production equipment
Blast furnaces 9 5775 ~ 2902 m
3
Basic-Oxygen furnaces 22 397 ~ 120 t/heat
Electric furnaces 1 100 t / heat
Continuous casters 16
Section mills 4
- Spiral mills: 3
- Hot extrusion mill: 1
Bar/wire rod mills 4
- Wire rod mills: 3
- Bar mill: 1
Pipe and tube mills 10
- Spiral mills: 3
- Medium-diameter ERW mills: 2
- Small-diameter ERW mill: 1
- ERW mill: 1
- Butt-weld mill: 1
- UO mill: 1
- Seamless mill: 1
Plate/sheet mills 20
- Hot-rolling mills: 5
- Cold-rolling mills: 9
- Electrical sheet mills: 3
- Plate mills: 3
Coating lines 31
- Tinining lines: 5
- Tin-free steel lines: 2
- Hot-dip galvanizing lines: 14
- Electrogalvanizing lines: 6
- Terne-coating line: 1
- Film-laminating lines: 2
- Coil-coating line: 1
Ordinary steel products:
Bars / wire rods / pipe and tubes/heavy and medium plates / hot-rolled sheets
and coils / cold-rolled sheets and coils / electrical sheets / coated sheets and
coils / electrolytic tin plates / galvanized sheets
Specialty steel products:
Stainless steel / heat-resistant steel
Tab. 1 Outline of production lines at Nippon Steel Corporation [1]
D
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t
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a
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m
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r
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t
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a
t

N
S
C

[
%
]
Fig. 2 Trends in the degassing treatment ratios at Nippon Steel Corporation
Year
each brickwork operation [3] and the flexible
mobilization of brick workers pooled
through integrating dispersed repairing sta-
tions. While skilled and qualified brick work-
ers necessary for actual brickwork had de-
creased, staff involved in the maintenance of
machinery and tools for repairs and secur-
ities are in demand.
However, diversification and sophistication
of work details and the spontaneous in-
crease in older brick workers is underway;
thus, such a structure of workers urges to
transfer skills and techniques from veteran
skilled workers to middle-aged and younger
workers, training them to obtain a certain
number of workers [4].
4 Principal development of
refractory technologies for each
iron & steel production process
at Nippon Steel Corporation
4.1 Ironmaking process
The blast furnaces of Nippon Steel Corpor-
ation have increased in their furnace volume
after every relining and have become thus
dominated by large-scale blast furnaces sur-
passing 5000 m
3
[5] and carbon blocks lo-
cated in the furnace bottom have become
highly evaluated as a refractories technology
tolerable against high productivity coeffi-
cients. Carbon blocks with high corrosion re-
sistance and high heat conductivity have
been developed to facilitate the formation of
protection layers according to cooling,
through which molten metal is prevented
from pervasion.
In recent years, active protection layer for-
mation on interfaces has enabled carbon
blocks to be designed with higher corrosion
resistance than ever before [6]. The develop-
ment progress and typical quality of carbon
blocks for the furnace bottoms of blast fur-
naces are shown in Fig. 8 and Tab. 2, re-
spectively. Meanwhile, coke ovens have
aged, with some surpassing approximately
40 years, as shown in Fig. 9, which results in
reduced productivity, due to troubles such as
hard pushing and hole formations in the
bricks of coke oven chambers.
At present, development of repair and diag-
nosis equipment [7] shown in Fig. 10, as a
means to prolong the life cycle of coke
ovens, and overseas mass procurement,
from the standpoint of securing stability in
terms of quality and the balance between
demand and supply of silica stone bricks, for
ladle cars, and LD-oxygen upper bottom
blowing [10] (LD-OB) have started operating
at every facility since around 1979; thus, the
almost-complete present process flow of the
steelmaking process has been finished.
However, it is not exaggerated to say that in
refractories technologies, unburned bricks of
the purpose of creating next-generation
coke ovens, such as SCOPE21 model [8]/
pad-up rebuilding, are being promoted.
4.2 Steelmaking process
Casthouse desiliconization, optimization of
the refining process [9] (ORP) in torpedo
D
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p
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[

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0
3
t
/
a
]
Fig. 3 Trends in domestic refractories production
I
m
p
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t
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d

b
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k
s

[

1
0
3
t
/
a
]
Fig. 4 Trends in imported refractories
S
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o
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y

c
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[
k
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/
t

s
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l
]
Fig. 5 Trends in specific refractories consumption at NSC
magnesia-graphite [11] using composite
materials as raw materials have been
evolved concomitantly with these refining
processes. Most recently, development re-
garding unburned magnesia-graphite bricks
applying carbon nano-particles is underway
[12] without using graphite materials, such
as squamation, as a countermeasure against
the appreciation of natural squamation-like
graphite materials and for lower heat
conductivity.
Meanwhile, as for secondary refining, vari-
ous treatment processes have been created
according to sophisticated/diversified steel
quality needs [13] bricks, such as electro-
cast bricks of magnesia-chrome, rebonded
bricks [14], semi-rebonded bricks, and dir-
ect-bonded bricks [15] have been applied
to the created processes.
In continuous casting, development of novel
equipment, such as twin-belt or twin-dram
strip casters [16], has also been promoted.
Refractories for continuous casting have
come not only to merely serve as functions
dispensing molten steel, shielding air from
molten steel, or preventing molten steel
from sputtering at the time of molding, but
also play a role as vital components for con-
tinuous casting machines, in order to fulfill
stable molding and retain high quality.
Refractory technologies have been consider-
ably evolved together with these refining
processes and new continuous molding ma-
chines. In the last two decades, it can be said
that the major subjects concerning refrac-
tory materials alone unburned bricks of
magnesia-graphite or alumina-silicon-car-
bide-graphite [17], monolithic pouring ma-
terials of alumina-spinel [18], alumina-
graphite nozzles burned in a reducing at-
mosphere, and so forth have shown fruit-
ful results. However, it can be said that, iron-
ically, variable cost reduction according to
imported raw materials/imported refracto-
ries has largely contributed to the outcome
seen during around 1994 to 2002, when
production was at a very low level.
Development progress of alumina-silicon-
carbide-graphite unburned bricks in torpedo
ladle cars, in which operation processes and
employed refractory material quality have re-
markably changed, is shown in Fig. 11 [19],
as an example. Mass volume lavaflame [20],
monolithic refractories and microwave dry-
ing [21], brickwork devices [22] in convert-
ers, and separated converter bottoms and
R
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[
%
]
Fig. 6 Trends in monolithic refractory ratios at NSC
C
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i
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x

o
f

b
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k
w
o
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k

[
%
]
Fig. 7 Trends in brickworks cost indices at NSC
Corrosion resistance index
T
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c
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d
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i
v
i
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y

[
W
/
m

K
]
Fig. 8 Progress in carbon block development for blast furnaces at NSC
N
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c
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k
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o
v
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c
h
a
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b
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s
Age of coke batteries [years]
Fig. 9 Age distribution of coke batteries ad NSC
the like are given as examples of furnace
brickwork/mechanization technologies. Dry
spraying and the rotary shotcrete method
[23] and the like are given as examples of
repair/diagnosis technologies.
Among others, the profile of a RH degasser
lined with monolithic refractories a typical
example among cases to which the
microwave drying technology, which enor-
mously contributed to the development of
thick monolithic lining was applied and
the main specification of the microwave de-
vices introduced into each facility, are shown
in Fig. 12 and Tab. 3 [24], respectively. Tech-
nologies, such as high-efficiency chipping
machines [25] and crushing, magnetic
Sorting, grade-classifying, blending tech-
nologies, play an important role as refracto-
ries recycling technologies. A typical recyc-
ling flow of refractories and overall recycling
effects [26] in Nippon Steel Corporation is
presented in Figs. 13 and 14, respectively.
4.3 Rolling mill processes
As for rolling mill furnaces, from the view-
point of energy conservation, the employ-
ment of regenerative burners and ceramic fi-
bres [27], as shown in Fig. 15, was rapidly
diffused in each facility, and ceramic fibre
lining was implemented, also in the event of
the supplemental installation of CGL lines,
having reflected adaptation for steel sheet
supply for automobiles.
At present, furnaces issues, such as the dam-
age of ceramics fibres due to oxidized scales
scattering within furnaces, operation moni-
toring technology in order to diagnosis
soundness, and concerns regarding the envi-
ronment/human safety, in relation to ceram-
ic fibres arising from asbestos problems and
Keys A B C D E F
Developed in 1965 1975 1981 1985 1994 2001
Bulk density [g/cm
3
] 1,56 1,58 1,59 1,71 1,76 1,96
Porosity [%] 18,7 17,3 18,5 19 23,1 19,7
Compression strength [MPa] 40,5 43 45,1 66,9 63 76,2
Bending strength [MPa] 11,7 11,9 12,3 15 15,2 21,4
Thermal conductivity [W/m K] 17,1 13,2 13,8 23,3 33,3 37
Porosity >1 m [%] 16 11 2,7 1 0,2 0,15
Corrosion resistance index 100 140 140 170 250 500
Tab. 2 Typical properties of the developed carbon blocks
Fig. 10 Schematic diagram of diagnosis and repair equipment for coking chamber walls
L
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l
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[
h
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a
t
s
]
Fig. 11 Methodological changes in oper-
ation, furnace relining materials and
repair methods, and trends in relining
lifepans
so forth, are emerging as new issues to be
tackled [28].
5 Major trends in refractories
technologies at Nippon Steel
Corporation
Trends concerning numerous presentation
papers regarding substantial new technol-
ogies in the last two decades at Nippon
Steel Corporation are shown in Fig. 16. As a
recent technical trend, technical reports
regarding execution technology, including
recycling, and evaluation/analysis technol-
ogies, such as brick structure analysis [29]
using rigid spring models and calculation
state diagrams, have increased in number
rather than those limited to the sole mater-
ial quality technology of refractories, and
thus, have extravagantly contributed to basic
designs conducted for the prolongation of
lifespans.
When speaking about refractory technol-
ogies, it is easy to become focused only on
refractories material technologies without
accompanying plant and equipment invest-
ment; however, these material technologies
alone have limitations. Thus, it can be said
that techniques, such as furnace building
structure design, execution, repair/diagnosis,
recycling and evaluation/analysis, even all
together, cannot contribute to the stable
operation of iron and steel furnace facilities
nor support high-quality steel unless they
are synthetically exploited.
6 Conclusion
The progress of refractory technologies at
Nippon Steel Corporation for the last two
decades has been reviewed at a glance.
Works Plant Frequency Power Tube Total Power
Muroran Precast blocks 2,45 GHz Magnetron 21 kW
Kimitsu 1SMP Ladle 2,45 GHz Magnetron 80 kW
Kimitsu 2SMP Ladle 2,45 GHz Magnetron 100 kW
Kimitsu RH 915 MHz Magnetron 150 kW
Nagoya Ladle 2,45 GHz Klystron 120 kW
Nagoya Precast blocks 915 MHz Magnetron 50 kW
Hirohata Ladle 2,45 GHz Klystron 45 kW
Yawata Precast blocks 2,45 GHz Klystron 120 kW
Yawata Topedo car ladle 2,45 GHz Klystron 120 kW
Oita Ladle 2,45 GHz Magnetron 100 kW
Oita RH 2,45 GHz Magnetron 30 kW
Tab. 3 Microwave drying equipment at Nippon Steel Corporation
Fig. 12 Profile of equipment for mono-
lithic lining and microwave drying of
RH lower vessels
Fig. 13 Recycle and reuse flow of used refractories
R
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a
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o
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i
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s

[
%
]
Fig. 14 Effect on recycling and reuse of used refractories at NSC
Against its current backdrop, in which refin-
ing methods and crude steel production dra-
matically change due to the growing ratio of
high-quality steel at Nippon Steel Corpor-
ation, the developed technical outcomes for
each production process relating to refrac-
tory materials quality, furnace build-
ing/execution, repair/diagnosis, and demoli-
tion/recycling have been put into practice to
surely diminish specific refractory consump-
tion. Henceforth, the following technical as-
signments have to be overcome step-by-step
to furthermore improve/preserve the com-
panys international competitiveness in re-
fractory technologies [30]:
Conversion from supplying consuming
materials into offering proposals to lead
the renovation of production processes
Counter measures for reducing depend-
ence on raw materials from China
(graphite, magnesia, alumina, SiC, etc.)
Creation of measures for environmen-
tal/energy conservation concerns (particu-
larly, heat insulation, middle/low-tempera-
ture heat recuperation)
Capacity to secure technically skilled brick
workers and work simplification /
mechanization (automation)
Accurate improvement of lifespan estima-
tion through systematization of diagnosis
skills and planned maintenance.
References
[1] Nippon Steel Guidebook (2009) 4147
[2] Bull. Techn. Ass. Refr. of Japan 709 (2009)
[5] 6
[3] Asou, S., et al: Taikabutsu 48 (1996) [6] 301
[4] Ishimatsu, H., et al.: Taikabutsu 61 (2009) [2]
60
[5] Miwa, T.: Proc. Internat. Congr. on Sci. & Tech-
nol. of Ironmaking (2009) 14
[6] Nitta, M., et al.: Nippon Steel Technical Report
388 (2008) 48
[7] Outcome Report Commemorating 55
th
Okouchi
Commemoration Foundation Winner (2009) 98
[8] Katou, K.: Bull. Japan Inst. Energy 89 (2010)
[1] 9
[9] Sasaki, K., et al.: Tetsu to Hagane 69 (1983)
[15] 1818
[10] Moritama, N.: Taikabutsu 37 (1985) [9] 496
[11] Shimada, Y., et al.: Taikabutsu 40 (1988 [9] 550
[12] Ochiai, T., et al.: Nippon Steel Technical Report
388 (2008) 18
[13] Matsuno, H.: Feramu 10 (2005) [4] 32
[23] Ikemoto, T., et al.: Nippon Steel Technical Re-
port 388 (2008) 87
[24] Taira, H., et al.: Nippon Steel Technical Report
388 (2008) 69
[25] Uchida, T., et al.: Taikabutsu 57 (2005) [3] 116
[26] Matsui, T., et al.: Ceramic data book. In: Indus-
try and Product 91 (2009) [10] 145, edited by
the Industrial Product Technology Association
[27] Kifune, I., et al.: Seitetsu Kenkyu 331 (1988) 34
[28] Development of ceramic bers and heat insula-
tion technology. Nippon Steel Technical Report
388 (2008) 110
[29] Yamamura, K., et al.: Proc. UNITECR 2003,
Osaka, Japan, p. 384
[30] Matsui, T., et al.: Nippon Steel Technical Report
388 (2008) 41
[14] Ishikawa, H., et al.: Taikabutsu 48 (1996)
[8] 436
[15] Asano, K., et al.: Taikabutsu 42 (1990) [11]
705
[16] Nakajima, H.; et al.: CAMP-ISIJ 15 (2002)
208
[17] Shimada, K., et al.: Seitetsu Kenkyu 331 (1988)
20
[18] Shimada, K., et al.: Tetsu to Hagane 71 (1985)
[4] 230
[19] Ito, S., et al.: Nippon Steel Technical Report 388
(2008) 62
[20] Maeda, K., et al.: Taikabutsu 46 (1994) [11]
577
[21] Taira, H., et al.: Taikabutsu 55 (2003) [1] 19
[22] Tsutsui, N., et al.: CAMP-ISIJ 7 (1994) 238
Fig. 15 Typical ceramic fiber linings in reheating furnaces
Fig. 16 Trends in the number of technical papers presented on refractories at NSC
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Either as an academic or a professional in
the industry, one might wonder how to at-
tract bright and young people to the refrac-
tory area. General and quick answers may
arise such as: there are so many profession-
al choices nowadays and bio or electronic
ceramics are much more appealing.
But, what does the new generation expect
as a professional life in the industry or at
university?
Recent international surveys involving thou-
sands of people around the world ranging
from 18 to 24 years old, interviewed in pubs,
parks and universities concluded that 90 %
of them want a job that could help the soci-
ety.
Besides this, only 4 out of 10 considered
salary as an important factor when a new
job is chosen. As a matter of fact, salary was
only the seventh most important item listed.
Growing fast up the hierarchy ladder and
earning high wages are no longer the prior-
ity for the present generation. For them, the
size and history of an organization is not a
key issue when choosing a job.
The main driving aspects are the values and
the ability to make them dream, either carry-
ing out a project or research. Without
present them with the refractory area in a
way that they can be attracted!
For example, why not thinking and showing
the challenges of refractory energy saving
issues from an integrated point of view?
High emissivity paints, slag foaming, ad-
vanced foaming spray insulating, novel cer-
amic burner designs made by 3D printing,
etc., can be part of a holistic view of refrac-
tory subjects that will help the environment,
the society and make us feel useful! How
about the courses that are taught?
Are we concerned with the importance of
the transversality of the knowledge? Phil-
osophy, nanotechnology, sciences of nature,
anthropology, etc., they must all be part of
the package for the global professional.
How could we understand and teach ethics
in a broad sense, if our cosmos is limited to
a nut shell? We have arguments and history
to change the old and current Dirty-Messy-
Polluting image of the refractory area for a
Clean-Green-Challenging one.
The problem is that we are expecting the
young generation to see the importance of
refractory on their own, whereas the other
professionals are marketing their area better.
By the way, if you are not convinced by the
statements above and still think that the
present generation is unique and compli-
cated, a quotation by Roger Allen, a con-
temporary American writer, can explain this
issue better:
In case youre worried about whats going
to become of the younger generation, its
going to grow up and start worrying about
the younger generation.
dreams, without a purpose, the targets are
worse than unattainable they dont make
sense!!
Satisfaction is the most important aspect in
the job and if they are convinced by the val-
ues, they will put their heart and soul into it.
Based on these surveys, almost 50 % of
young people change their jobs due to the
lack of challenges.
But, what can we do to seduce the young
generation? Antoine de Saint-Exupry, per-
haps shed some light on this issue: If you
want to build a ship, do not gather people to
collect timber and dont assign them tasks
and work, but rather teach them to long for
the endless immensity of the sea.
Previous generations need to be creative in
order to convince present students. Creativi-
ty is related to original ideas that have value
and involves using imagination to work and
come up with something new, leading to
new solutions for everyday problems. Cre-
ativity is applied imagination as a result of
keeping our eyes wide open to see the sur-
roundings and make the right connections.
These statements are clear and valid, but
dont we do and study what the new gener-
ation is seduced by? In general, the answer
is yes, but if refractory does not attract as
many young people, we should ask our-
selves whether we are using the right
methods to market the area?
Refractory is a mature field regarding im-
portance but also in terms of the average
age of professionals working in the area.
Perhaps the most difficult aspect is not for
the young generation to see the refractory
area with our eyes, but the opposite. As
mature people we are more reluctant to
changes, whereas the present generation
with their energy and dreams want to be
convinced and to do things their way.
Were we any different? Do I need to recall
what happened in the sixties and seventies
of the last century? The problem is not trying
to understand young people, because it is
clear what they want! The battle is for us to
New Challenges and Old Tools:
the Refractory Dilemma
The promotion of young people
for the refractories sector is an
important issue. Not only the re-
fractories industry has difficulties
in finding young talents. Other
sectors like glass, carbon and
technical ceramics are facing the
same problems. Therefore these
thoughts are of interest on a
much broader range for the in-
dustries and institutes, who
need experts in material science
and process engineering.
V.C. Pandolfelli
Federal University of So Carlos (UFSCar)
Materials Engineering Department
13565-905 So Carlos, SP
Brazil
E-mail: vicpando@power.ufscar.br
1 Introduction
The development of cracks in refractories in
service has long been and remains a major
concern along with refractory corrosion. To-
gether, the two determine the campaign life-
times of refractory linings in service. Al-
though many engineers and scientists have
focused on the mechanical loading aspects
of the fracture phenomenon, thermal shock
cracking is probably more important today
as the excellent finite element stress analysis
of refractory linings insures against fracture
from mechanical overload. Thermal shock
cracks may occur during the initial heat up of
refractory linings, during their process vessel
thermal cycling or during unexpected ther-
mal events, such as overheating or rapid
cooling. Thermal shock damage has created
a continuing interest in refractory fracture
for more than a half century after the classic-
al energy balance thermal shock damage
theory of Hasselman [1] and the fracture en-
ergy measurements by Nakayama [2]. The
problems have not been completely solved,
but remain an important technical area of
ongoing study and interest for the events
that cause thermal stress fracture probably
will never be eliminated from refractory ap-
plications. This is because the utilization of
refractories is in severe thermal environ-
ments where thermal stress damage is to be
expected.
2 Fracture resistance and
strength
Historically, as reviewed by Bradt [3] the first
efforts to study the fracture of refractories
were the simple strength measurements of
the modulus of rupture and the cold crush-
ing strength. These served as quality control
tests for the refractory manufacturing
processes. Unfortunately, this testing often
The Fracture Resistance of Refractories
R.C. Bradt, H. Harmuth
The crack growth resistance or the fracture resistance of refractories
is considered from the perspectives of fracture mechanics (LEFM) and
the global energy required for crack growth. It encompasses the size
from the cleavage of individual crystals to the total work of fracture.
Consideration of the energy consumption by crack extension leads to
the conclusion that most of the energy dissipation during fracture in
refractories occurs in the following wake region behind the primary
crack tip, not in front of the advancing crack as many have accepted
in the past. Micro-mechanisms of friction, grain bridging and inter-
locking or wedging are active behind the crack tip. However, frontal
process zone phenomena such as microcracking may contribute to
an inelastic character of refractory fracture which limits the applica-
tion of LEFM. Investigation of the crack paths reveal several import-
ant aspects of crack propagation relevant to refractory brittleness. A
decrease of brittleness often relates to a reduction of transgranular
fracture in favor of greater grain/matrix interfacial fracture. It is also
noted that the size of the total crack process zone is important for
brittleness, for it may be quite large relative to the refractory micro-
structure, approaching or exceeding the refractory structure itself.
Richard C. Bradt
The University of Alabama
Metallurgical and Materials Engineering
Tuscaloosa, AL 354870202
USA
Harald Harmuth
The University of Leoben
Department Mineral Resources
& Petroleum Engineering
8700 Leoben
Austria
Corresponding author: R.C. Bradt
E-mail: rcbradt@eng.ua.edu
Keywords: refractories, fracture mechanics
(LEFM), microscopic studies, brittleness
Received: 12.05.2011
Revised: 22.06.2011
Accepted: 28.06.2011
created the mindset that stronger is bet-
ter. That concept persists to this day, even
though studies of the extension or growth of
individual cracks have gradually dispelled
the notion, as higher strengths are associ-
ated with greater stored elastic strain en-
ergy in the refractory at the instant of frac-
ture. It is this elastic strain energy that is the
driving force for crack growth in the refrac-
tory microstructure.
The application of the LEFM form of the Grif-
fith equation specifies the relationship of the
strength
f
, to the crack size C, and a par-
ameter that is known as the fracture tough-
ness K
IC
. It is the critical value of the opening
mode stress intensity K
I
at the instant of ca-
tastrophic fracture K
IC
. Sakai and Bradt [4]
have summarized the measurement tech-
niques for the fracture toughness K
IC
. The
two most popular methods for the fracture
of refractories have been the single edge
notched beam and the chevron specimen as
illustrated in Fig. 1. Both are simple modulus
of rupture specimens with special shaped ar-
tificial cracks at their midpoints.
From either of the above two specimen con-
figurations it is possible to experimentally
determine the fracture toughness, the K
IC
value. The fracture toughness K
IC
, the
strength
f
, and the flaw size C, are related
by the Griffith Equation as:
f
= K
IC
(Y C)
-1/2
(1)
where Y is a geometric factor equal to for
a Griffith crack, so that if one plots the
strength
f
of a series of a class of related
refractories versus their measured fracture
toughness K
IC
values, one should as long
as the flaw size is similar observe a
straight line if indeed the concept of LEFM
has any applicability to refractories. Fig. 2
below, after Larson, et al. [5] nearly a half
century ago, summarizes the measurements
for a series of aluminosilicate refractories
from a superduty fireclay to an alumina re-
fractory, with many others between the
45 % refractory and beyond the 99 % alu-
mina compositions.
This nearly straight line trend in agreement
with the above equation confirms the appli-
cation of LEFM to these aluminosilicate re-
fractories. It suggests that fracture mechan-
ics concepts can be applied to refractories in
general, similar to their application to
metals. Whereas metals have a limited dis-
location generated plastic zone at the crack
tip creating their non-perfect linear elastic
behavior, refractories generally do not exhib-
it dislocation plastic flow, but rather will ex-
perience inelastic microcrack formation in
the crack tip region. One must also conclude
that many of the design applications of
LEFM as described by Anderson [6] and that
have been applied to metals are equally ap-
plicable to the design of the refractory lin-
ings of processing vessels as well. This will
be discussed in more detail.
3 An energy approach to the
fracture of refractories
The application of pure LEFM concepts to re-
fractories leaves one with a bit of concern,
for refractories are not perfectly elastic ma-
terials when loaded to fracture. Sakai [7]
notes that it is desirable to complement the
LEFM concepts with an energy approach.
Energy applications to fracture are not al-
ways subject to the mathematical assump-
tions of LEFM and consequently have much
wider general applicability.
Nakayama [2] was the first to measure the
energy requirement or expenditure for a
crack to propagate through a refractory
microstructure, the total work of fracture. At
the time, it was a revelation that this energy
exceeded the thermodynamic surface free
energy by several orders of magnitude. Many
other measurements have followed in the
nearly half-century since Nakayimas seminal
work. These energy measurements enable a
comparison of the energy requirements for
crack growth in refractories at three different
size levels. When these are examined close-
ly, they suggest several important aspects of
the energy dissipation phenomenon during
crack extension in refractory materials. The
three size levels of interest are:
that of an individual crystal grain cleavage
plane,
that of a critical strength controlling crack
in a refractory aggregate microstructure and
that of a very large crack such as those
generated by thermal shock and whose en-
ergy is the total work of fracture.
When these three energies are compared, it
is concluded that larger, that is longer
cracks, dissipate more energy during their
growth or extension. This appears to be a
universal aspect of the crack growth resist-
ance of all refractories and many other ce-
ramics as well. It is probably a basic charac-
teristic of all materials with rising R-curves.
Since the aforementioned fracture tough-
ness approach utilized data for aluminosili-
cates, the energy approach will consider
magnesia refractories. These two types are a
good balance for the understanding of all re-
fractories as a general class of materials. The
cleavage energies of MgO single crystals
have been measured on the {100} planes,
Fig. 1 The single edge notched beam specimen, above, and the chevron specimen, below
Fig. 2 The flexural strength, MOR, versus the fracture toughness of a series of
aluminosilicate refractories. Note the straight line trend as predicted by the
LEFM form of the Griffith Equation [5]
the natural cleavage plane of the rock salt
structure of MgO. Westwood and Goldheim
[8] reported a cleavage surface energy of
1150 ergs/cm
2
and Gutshall and Gross [9]
measured a value of 1280 ergs/cm
2
, both in
the 1960s. Bradt [10] has reviewed and
summarized the cleavage surface energies of
many mineral crystals and they generally are
~10
2
10
3
ergs/cm
2
(~ 0,1 1 J/m
2
) for vir-
tually all mineral crystal structures. MgO is
no exception, as neither are alumina and sil-
ica, although the crystallography of the
cleavage does differ substantially.
The fracture surface energy for the initiation
of crack growth in magnesia refractory
bricks consisting of an aggregate grain
structure has been reported by Uchno, et al.
[11]. These measurements were by the sin-
gle edge notched beam specimen as shown
in Fig. 1. They observed that the values typ-
ically were ~ 4000 15 000 ergs/cm
2
or
~ 4 15 10
3
ergs/cm
2
(~ 4 15 J/m
2
). The
energy consumption for propagation of a
crack only approximately a millimetre in
length within an aggregate refractory micro-
structure is ~ 10 that for the cleavage
fracture of a single grain only several mi-
crons in size. It appears that as the size of
the crack increases so does the energy per
unit area of fracture surface for its propaga-
tion.
For crack propagation at an even larger
crack size, either the chevron notch work of
fracture specimen in Fig. 1, or the wedge
splitting specimen shown below in Fig. 3,
originally introduced by Tschegg [12, 13],
has been used. The much larger wedge-split-
ting specimen yields a better averaging en-
ergy value for the newly formed crack area is
much larger. The crack lengths measured in
these specimens range from several cen-
timeter to tens of centimeter in size, another
order of magnitude of crack size. The total
work of fracture values measured from large
cracks often exceed 100 000 ergs/cm
2
(> 100 J/m
2
), yet another order or two in
magnitude greater that the previous fracture
initiation cracks as measured by Uchno, et
al. [11]. The increasing energy with size
trend is a clear one. Larger cracks require
more energy per unit area for their growth or
propagation.
Interestingly, when total work of fracture
specimens are measured by the chevron
notch and the wedge splitting specimens,
even though the crack has proceeded com-
Fig. 3 The wedge splitting specimen according to Tschegg [12, 13]
pletely through the sample, the two halves
will remain attached to one another, that is
they do not fall apart. There remains some
attraction between the two fracture sur-
faces. The significance of this point with
regard to the interaction of the new crack
surfaces, after the main crack has passed
cannot be over emphasized. It is absolutely
critical to the crack growth resistance.
These consistent increases of fracture sur-
face energies with increasing crack length
are summarized for comparison below in the
order of their increasing crack sizes.
MgO cleavage of single crystal:
~ 10
2
ergs/cm
2
(~ 0,1 J/m
2
)
Crack initiation in a refractory:
~ 10
4
ergs/cm
2
(~ 10 J/m
2
)
Total work of fracture:
> 10
5
ergs/cm
2
(> 100 J/m
2
)
These energies lead one to the conclusion
that larger cracks are more energetically dif-
ficult to propagate in refractories. Large
cracks require more energy per unit area of
fracture surface area created.
As the primary feature of larger cracks is the
larger following wake region behind the pri-
mary crack front, it is evident that the fol-
lowing wake region of a crack is very impor-
tant to the energy consumption in the ex-
tension or propagation of cracks in refracto-
ries.
The following wake region appears to total-
ly dominate the crack growth resistance in
some refractory microstructures.
Of course, this is analogous to the experi-
ment result that has been reported by Sakai
and co-workers [14]. It is exactly a manifest-
ation of the rising R-curve behaviour that is
observed for crack propagation in refractory
microstructures during fracture. A typical
rising R-curve on a crack growth rate plot
of (G, R), the standard form of crack growth
or extension plot vs C is schematically
shown in Fig. 4.
As shown in this diagramme, a rising R-curve
is one of increasing energy consumption for
further crack growth until a plateau is
reached. The C value denoted as C
NL
is
where the derivative of the strain energy re-
lease rate is exactly equal to the energy de-
mand from the extending crack for a non-
linear refractory, as described in Anderson
[6]. It is the point of fracture. However, for all
values of C less than C
NL
the energy de-
mands of the extending crack system are
continually increasing with the crack length,
C.
This rising R-curve illustrates why the meas-
ured and previously discussed energy per
unit area of crack growth increases with
crack length, C in refractory microstructures.
It is simply a manifestation of the energy re-
quirement for rising R-curve behaviour. The
lengths or C values for the previous crack
lengths are all located on the increasing por-
tion of the rising R-curve, occurring at C val-
ues that are less than that denoted as C
NL
.
These all occur at C values that are less than
the actual crack length C that is they occur
behind the crack front, in the following wake
region of the crack. This indicates that the
energy consuming processes during crack
growth in refractories occur by mechanisms
which are predominantly behind the crack
front or the crack tip, in the following wake
region. They are not ahead of the crack tip as
is the process of dislocation generation in
metals.
It is appropriate to consider the energy con-
suming mechanisms which are expected to
occur and to dominate the energy consump-
tion of the rising R-curve of refractories. Their
individual contributions have not been inde-
pendently studied, but they can nevertheless
Fig. 4 Illustration of the G,R vs C for a flat R-curve brittle material such as glass and a
rising R-curve for refractories
Fig. 5 Schematic depiction of energy dissipation mechanisms about the crack tip in a
refractory microstructure. Microcracking and crack branching occur in front of the crack
tip in the frontal process zone. However, aggregate effects and the bridging of viscous
silicate fibers occurs behind the crack front in the following wake region behind the
advancing crack tip, after Bradt [15]
be appreciated. A number of these are illus-
trated schematically in Fig. 5. Some are de-
picted in the frontal process zone of the pri-
mary crack and some in the following wake
region of the primary crack. These locations
are for illustration for those mechanisms de-
picted in the frontal process must also per-
sist and would also be present in the follow-
ing wake region for the frontal process zone
becomes the following wake region as the
crack advances.
It is, at first, difficult to imagine any effects
across the crack faces behind the extending
crack front in the following wake region.
However, if one applies a simple Dugdale
model to estimate the crack opening dis-
placement and also to the crack mouth
opening displacement, shown by the two ar-
rows on the left in the diagramme, then it
can be understood [6]. Estimated crack
opening dimensions are in the micron range,
10
6
m while refractory aggregate diameters
are in the millimeter size range, 10
3
m. With
these dimensions, it is easy to visualize ag-
gregate effects extending across the crack
faces in the following wake region. Of
course, there may be other mechanisms ac-
tive as well for other materials, such as
phase transformations in the frontal zone for
the unique class of TT-materials.
4 Microscopic / microstructural
studies of the crack path
Microscopic studies of crack paths after frac-
ture have been performed to investigate in-
teraction of crack propagation with refracto-
ry microstructure and its influence on mater-
ial properties. For these purposes wedge
splitting tests have been completed as
shown in Fig. 3. Polished sections of the
specimens after testing served for investiga-
tion of the crack path. The preparation tech-
nique was applied which is only briefly out-
lined here and is described in detail else-
where [16]. Sections of the specimens per-
pendicular to the crack face have been in-
vestigated by scanning electron microscopy.
The microstructure along the entire crack
path was photographically documented,
then different portions of the crack path
were colored and evaluated digitally. The
crack lengths along the grain/matrix inter-
face, the crack length within the matrix and
the transgranular crack length propagating
through grains were measured. The exten-
sions of these three portions were expressed
as percentages of the whole crack length.
Basic and non-basic fired and basic carbon
bonded materials were included in this in-
vestigation. An example for a magnesia car-
bon brick with 15 mass-% residual carbon
may be seen in Fig. 6.
As Fig. 6 shows for this material the primary
crack propagates mainly along the grain/
matrix interface (63,7 %) and also through
the matrix (31,6 %), but only 4,7 % of the
crack propagates in a transgranular manner.
It is interesting to consider how crack propa-
gation influences brittleness related fracture
mechanics material properties. One way to
define brittleness is by the ratio of the elas-
tically stored strain energy at the moment of
crack initiation relative to the fracture en-
ergy necessary for total failure of the speci-
men. This concept is applied in the following
definition of a brittleness number, B:
(2)
Here f
t
is the tensile strength, L a significant
specimen dimension, G
F
the specific fracture
energy as determined by the wedge splitting
test (i.e. the fracture energy divided by the
projection of the fracture surface area) and E
is Youngs elastic modulus. Obviously B is
proportional to the specimen size. To possess
a measure for material brittleness alone a so
called characteristic length l
ch
inversely pro-
portional to B can be applied. It is specified
as:
(3)
According to Eq. (3) a refractory material
brittleness increases with increasing B and
decreasing l
ch
.
How does crack propagation influence the
refractory material brittleness? The afore-
mentioned investigations revealed structure /
property relations which help to answer this
question. From a microstructural point of
view, brittleness reduced materials show a
decrease of transgranular crack propagation
with an increase of the amount of crack
propagation along the grain / matrix inter-
face. The structural features and interfacial
bonding favour a more tortuous crack path
in the microstructure. As for the mechanical
properties, these materials develop a higher
characteristic length mainly because of a de-
crease of their strengths while the specific
fracture energy is practically unaffected. That
means that the characteristic length accord-
ing to Eq. (3) is increased by a large decrease
of the denominator because of the second
power of the strength, while the
numerator is reduced to a lesser extent by
the decrement of Youngs elastic modulus.
Stronger is not always better. It can easily be
imagined how a strength decrease is linked
with a lower amount of transgranular crack
propagation: usually the grains are the struc-
tural elements with the highest strengths,
while the grain / matrix interface is expected
2
t
F
ch
f
E G
l

=

E G
L f
B
F
t
=
2

applied for coarse ceramic refractories out of
two reasons. On the one hand consider-
ations explicated above show that refractory
brittleness is rather dependent on the micro-
structure than on the kind of its com-
ponents. On the other hand processes occur-
ring in the following wake region necessitate
a sufficiently high crack length (at least
several centimeters) to yield representative
results.
5 Refractory brittleness
Why is the brittleness of refractories such an
important quantity? Why is an energy re-
lated approach to fracture mechanical be-
haviour of materials reasonable, and why is
a K
IC
approach not always sufficient? An
answer to this question should help to de-
cide which materials are to be applied in de-
pendence of their applications. To illustrate
this the very simple example of strength de-
termination by a three-point bending test is
considered. It can be shown that for con-
stant tensile strength f
t
the three-point
bending strength f
tpb
depends on the brittle-
ness number B. The ratio of the three-point
bending strength to the tensile strength as-
ymptotically approaches unity for large val-
ues of B, and to three for B approaching
zero. This is schematically shown in Fig. 7. A
detailed explanation can be found in [18].
Here it is only mentioned that the flexural
strength increase with decreasing brittleness
is not caused by Weibull statistics as crack
initiation is not followed by brittle fracture.
Bending tests (modulus of rupture determin-
ation) are common for refractories since a
reliable determination of tensile strength is a
challenging task.
Therefore it is interesting to recognize e.g.
the specimen size dependence of f
tpb
accord-
ing to Eq. (2) and Fig. 7.
to have the lowest strength. Another ques-
tion may be why the specific fracture energy
is not significantly affected by a strength de-
crease. Of course, it would be the case if
pure LEFM were valid. Contrary to these, the
processes in the following wake region play
an important role in maintaining the level of
the specific fracture energy. In case of re-
duced brittleness, a higher amount of crack
propagation along the grain / matrix inter-
face forces the crack path to partially orbit or
bypass individual grains to a greater extent.
Thus the crack path experiences a more tor-
tuous journey through the refractory micro-
structure. This only serves to enhance pro-
cesses in the following wake region. Crack
tortuosity contributes to a greater amount of
friction between the crack faces in the
following wake region. Also more crack
bridging occurs. These microprocesses in the
following wake region contribute to the con-
sumption of energy.
From this reasoning it follows that the de-
sign of the grain / matrix bond strength is
one approach to tailor the refractory brittle-
ness. It may be the most important feature
of the refractory structure design. Different
ways have been developed to influence it.
The choice of the firing intensity in case of
ceramically bonded materials, or the selec-
tion of a suitable binder in case of other ma-
terials is of some influence.
However, usually additionally measures are
necessary for a large brittleness reduction.
Among them is the application of pre-fabri-
cated micro-cracks into the structure, mainly
along the grain / matrix interface as it is the
case for e.g. magnesia-spinel bricks.
The approach to brittleness explicated here
differs from others applied for engineering
fine ceramics. For the latter also indentation
techniques are common [17]. These are not
Fig. 6 Micrograph showing crack formation in a magnesia carbon brick with 15 mass-%
residual carbon
From this it follows that depending on the
value of B three different concepts may be
necessary to define a refractory material be-
haviour. In the most brittle case (region 1 in
Fig. 7) behaviour according to LEFM may be
assumed. To assess possible material failure
a strength criterion or the K-concept is ap-
plicable and will be sufficient. Additional
fracture energy determinations are not ne-
cessary.
For very low brittleness values (region 3
in Fig. 7), the material will exhibit a plastic-
like behaviour, such that a plastic yield crite-
rion can be applied. In both cases of regions
1 and 3 further material dependence on
brittleness is negligible, and therefore
fracture energy determination is not neces-
sary once these behaviours have been iden-
tified.
This differs from region 2 in Fig. 7. Here ma-
terial behaviour is significantly influenced by
the brittleness. Deviations from LEFM behav-
iour are important. A relation for the three-
point bending strength in this region can be
found in [19].
On what does it depend whether a refracto-
ry or a lining component behaves according
to region 1, 2 or 3 of Fig. 7? As can be seen
from Eq. (2) not only material properties, but
especially the size of the refractory or the
component are of decisive importance. High
brittleness numbers justifying the applica-
tion of LEFM may occur for the case of large
sizes of refractories. This should be specified
more in detail: a ratio of the specimen size to
the length of the process zone comprising
the following wake region and the frontal
process zone is highly significant. This ex-
plains why deviations from pure LEFM are so
important for refractories: process zone sizes
are relatively large, cover at least several
centimeters and may even be as large as the
edge lengths of a brick.
A general application of Eq. (2) or similar re-
lations is even more complicated as the
characteristic dimension L does not only de-
pend on the refractory size, but also depends
on the loading. To give an example, for a bar
under tension, L could be chosen as equal to
its length.
A different consideration would be neces-
sary for the case of thermal shock. Here L
would be significant for the size of the re-
gion which is unloaded by formation of a
single crack. In the case of the thermal shock
of a plate this would be independent of its
length and width. It would be of the same
order of magnitude as the final length of the
possible crack. This loading case is expected
to cause relatively small brittleness numbers
that are independent of the refractory size.
This again shows why deviations from pure
LEFM are so important for some refractory
applications.
As for material testing it should be men-
tioned that the apparent brittleness may be
even further increased by the compliance of
the testing machine. Therefore especially in
the case of large testing loads like for cold
crushing strength, a determination of brittle
fracture must be expected. For industrial re-
fractory applications a similar effect might
be caused by the strain energy that is elas-
tically stored within the steel shell of the
processing vessel.
6 Practical applications and
observations
There are a number of applications of these
following wake region concepts in commer-
cial use today. It has long been appreciated
that adding coarse aggregates of crushed
bats to the mix creates a more thermal
shock damage resistant brick, as noted by
Dulberg [20]. Today this concept is being ex-
tended to increase the mix content or pro-
portion of larger stronger aggregates. From
the previous discussions it should be evident
that larger aggregates will more readily
bridge the crack opening and also more
easily create friction effects between the
fracture surfaces in the following wake re-
gion of the advancing crack.
Another application example is the addition
of metal fibres to castables to bridge the
crack opening and create more energy dissi-
pation as the crack front has passed, all
while holding the refractory together. This is
somewhat analogous to the steel reinforcing
rods in structural concretes and to the strong
continuous fibres in high-tech fibre compos-
ites.
It is evident that the following wake region
of a crack is extremely important for the
crackgrowth resistance of refractories. This
has been recognized by Harmuth and his co-
workers [21] who have pursued the
study of the crack path in the following
wake region obviously realizing its import-
ance.
They have taken wedge splitting speci-mens
of refractories and closely examined the mi-
crostructures of the crack pathes.
The angling crack pathes are anything but
planar, being quite tortuous consist of a
number of different types of interfaces
participating in the fracture process. These
types of observations are undeniably import-
ant in understanding crack growth in refrac-
tories.
Fig. 7 Schematic representation of the ratio of the three point bending strength f
tpb
to the
tensile strength f
t
in dependence of the brittleness number B. Regions 1 to 3 are
explained in the text
7 Summary and conclusions
The crack growth resistance of refractories
has been examined from the stress intensity
approach of fracture mechanics and also by
energy considerations. The two are comple-
mentary, revealing that LEFM concepts are
at least partially applicable to refractories in
the manner which they are applied to metal
system designs. The energy approach in-
forms us that larger cracks are more energy
consuming leading to the concept that the
most important energy dissipation processes
occur in the following wake region behind
the crack front in refractory materials. In
terms of a brittleness ratio, there may be
situations where both are necessary, as
neither is sufficient on its own.
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[4] Sakai, M.; Bradt, R.C.: Fracture toughness tes-
ting of brittle materials. Int. Mat. Rev. 38
(1993) [2] 5378
[5] Larson, D.R.; Coppola, J.A.; Hasselman, D.P.H.;
Bradt, R.C.: Fracture toughness and spalling
behaviour of high-Al
2
O
3
refractories. J. Am. Cer-
am. Soc. 57 (1974) [10] 417421
[6] Anderson, T.L.: Fracture mechanics. Boca Ra-
ton, Fla., 2005
[7] Sakai, M.: Fracture mechanics of refractory ma-
terials. Taikabutsu 39 (1987) [11] 604613
[8] Westwood, A.R.C.; Goldheim, N.: Cleavage sur-
face energy of {100} magnesium oxide. J. Appl.
Physics 34 (1963) 33353339
[9] Gutshall, P.; Gross, G.: Cleavage surface energy
of NaCl and MgO in vacuum. J. Appl. Physics 36
(1965) 24592460
[10] Bradt, R.C.: Cleavage of ceramic and mineral
single crystals. In: Chan, K.S. (ed.): George R.
Irwin symposium on cleavage and fracture. The
Minerals, Metals and Materials Society (1997)
355365
[11] Uchno, J.J.; Bradt, R.C.; Hasselman, D.P.H.: Frac-
ture surface energies of magnesite refractories.
Am. Ceram. Soc. Bull. 55 (1976) [7] 665668
[12] Tschegg, E.K.: New equipments for fracture
tests on concrete. Materialprfung 33 (1991)
338342
[13] Rieder, K.A.; Tschegg, E.K.; Harmuth, H.: Notch
sensitivity of ordinary ceramic refractory mater-
1 Introduction
The described experiments and results
are part of the primary investigations within
the CRC 799 TRIP-Matrix-Composites at
the TU Bergakademie Freiberg / DE. The
aim of that research project is the design
of transformation-strengthened composites
based on the Fe ZrO
2
system. Besides
a powder metallurgical route the compos-
ites are produced in a casting route by
infiltration of macro porous ZrO
2
ceramics
with molten steel. The steel is mainly
alloyed with chromium, manganese and
nickel and developed at the Institute of
Iron and Steel Technology, Freiberg / DE
[1, 2].
To understand and quantify the influences of
different moulding systems on the casting
process and the solidification of the steel
and the interactions between them funda-
mental experiments were necessary. Rele-
vant results are the solidification time to
have an effect on the feeding, possible
changes of the chemical composition as well
as the stability of the moulds during pour-
ing, solidification and cooling, as started in
[4] with the interactions between steel and
crucible materials.
2 Experimental
For the infiltration of macro porous ceramics
a mould based on top pouring was devel-
oped and is shown in Fig. 1. Three different
raw materials were used for the ester hard-
ened sodium silicate bond: H32 (silica sand,
Haltern), chromite sand (chrome concentrate
foundry grade, Possehl Erzkontor), Cera-
beads 650 (Httenes-Albertus). Silica sand
and Cerabeads contain 3,5 mass-% and
chromite sand due to its higher density
2 mass-% binder. The pattern consists of an
infiltration zone ( 55 mm 100 mm) and a
conic feeder. The height of the feeder is lim-
ited by an attached part to adjust the vol-
ume and the ratio of modulus between feed-
er and infiltration zone respectively. The tem-
peratures of the steel are measured in the
centre of the infiltration zone using Pt-Rh /
Pt-elements and in the moulds using four Ni-
Cr / Ni-elements respectively. All measuring
points are placed in the same plain at
the centre of the infiltration zone, those
Thermal Interactions between Casted High-alloyed
TRIP Steel and Sodium Silicate Bonded Moulding Systems
M. Weider, H. Polzin, K. Eigenfeld, W. Schrfl
High alloyed TRIP-steel was casted in sodium silicate bonded sand
moulds to analyse the cooling and solidification of the steel as well
as the chemical and thermal reactions of the sand moulds and binder
respectively. Silica sand, chromite sand and Cerabeads were used. To
compare the moulding systems temperatures within the steel and at
defined positions in the moulds were measured, so specific zones in
the moulds could be allocated. The different solidification times due
to the thermo physical properties of the sands are important for fur-
ther works in the subproject of the CRC 799 TRIP-Matrix-Compos-
ites. Characteristic samples of the moulding systems were investi-
gated by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) to analyse the state of
the sands as well as the binder bridges. The residual strength of the
different moulding systems were measured as a function of the tem-
perature.
M. Weider, H. Polzin, K. Eigenfeld
Institute of Foundry Technology
TU Bergakademie Freiberg
09596 Freiberg
Germany
W. Schrfl
Dalmond Feuerfest Siegburg
53894 Mechernich-Satzvey
Germany
Corresponding author: M. Weider
E-mail: Marco.Weider@gi.tu-freiberg.de
Keywords: TRIP steel, solidification time,
silica sand, chromite sand, Cerabeads,
sodium silicate
Received: 17.01.2011
Accepted: 14.06.2011
in the mould with a single distance of 1 cm
between the elements and the steel and the
first one. Due to this alignment it is possible
to conclude the thermal load of the mould-
ing sand as a function of the distance to the
casting. The samples for the SEM and the
chemical composition are extracted from the

Fig. 1 Drawing of the used mould,
measures in [mm]
same sections in the mould. The residual
strength was tested with separate samples
50 mm 50 mm after heating.
3 Results
3.1 Solidification time
As shown in Fig. 2 the used moulding
sands have a strong effect on the cooling
of the casting as well as the solidification
time. As expected the castings solidify
and cool faster in chromite sand than in
silica sand or in Cerabeads. Due to these
results it is possible to solve feeding prob-
lems by using insulating material as Cera-
beads for the feeder as well as to quantify
the maximum reaction time of the molten
metal with the mould and the infiltrated cer-
amics.
The explanation of the different solidification
and cooling times is shown in Fig. 3. The
measured thermal conductivities of the dif-
ferent bonded basic mould materials were
linear approximated with R
2
of 0,913 (Cera-
beads), 0,972 (silica sand) and 0,985
(chromite sand) respectively. The low ther-
mal conductivity of Cerabeads effects a very
slow cooling of the molten steel and a long
solidification time, so the isolating point of
this material is evidenced. Chromite sand ac-
counts above about 625 C a higher thermal
conductivity than silica sand. Due to the
heating of the layers in the mould near the
casting above this critical point the better
heat flow causes a shorter solidification time
in the chromite sand.
3.2 Chemical interactions
The typical chemical composition of the TRIP
steel experiments is given in Tab. 1.
Due to the contact of the molten steel with
the moulds a chemical interaction and a loss
or increment of alloying elements in the melt
or the sand is not to be excluded. To answer
this question samples of the different sands
and of different layers / states were wet
chemically analysed. The results are given in
Tab. 2.
The content of carbon in the bonded sands
is the result of organic additives in the so-
dium silicate binder to improve the thermal
decay after casting. As shown these com-
ponents are volatile in the thermal effected
layers of the mould, a small increment of
carbon in the steel is possible and measur-
able because of an increasing carbon con-
tents in multiple recycled steel.
An increment of alloying elements of the
steel in the sands is only noticed in the thin
sintered layer. A general conclusion about
the volatility of the elements is not possible;
it depends on the used basic material. In
silica sand an increment of manganese,
chromium and iron is observed, so the melt
lost a small content of its alloying elements.
Because of the high contents of these elem-
ents the silica concentration decreases auto-
matically, and so no conclusion about an ex-
change is possible. In chromite sand only sili-
con and manganese enrich in the sintered
layer, because of the high content of chro-
mium and iron in the sand no exchange is
measurable. Cerabeads seem to form a very
dense sintered layer, because only small en-
richments of chromium and iron are de-
tectable. There is no manganese diffusion
into the sand. A small increment of silicon in
the melt is possible because of the decreas-
ing content in the sintered layer.
3.3 Thermal load of the moulding
sand and its effects
After the casting process the moulding sand
has a characteristic appearance as a function
of the distance to the casting, as shown in
Fig. 2 Characteristic cooling curves of the TRIP-steel-cylinder depending on the
moulding systems
Fig. 3 Thermal conductivities of the moulding sands [3]
C Si Mn Cr Ni Fe
0,05 1,06 7,1 16,2 5,94 Bal.
Tab. 1 Chemical composition of the used steel [mass-%]
Fig. 4. In direct contact with the molten
metal the grains are bonded together and
form the so called sintered layer, shown in
the first row of the SEM pictures. With in-
creasing distance to the casting the sand
grains are remained, but the colour and the
strength of the different layers are changing.
The layer structure is an effect of the temper-
atures due to the heat flow while the casting
is cooling down from pouring temperature. In
Fig. 5 a typical distribution of the tempera-
ture as a function of time and distance to the
casting is given for silica sand.
For a better overview the maximal tempera-
tures in the different distances to the casting
and their corresponding times of the differ-
ent moulding systems are shown in Fig. 6.
As expected Cerabeads are heating up very
slowly, so the isolating effect is verified
again. The silica sand reaches higher tem-
peratures in shorter times than chromite
sand and Cerabeads. This seems to be in-
consistent to Fig. 2, where the casting cools
faster in chromite sand than in the other
moulding sands, due to its higher heat cap-
acity (c
p
). Also the better thermal conductiv-
ity of chromite sand at temperatures higher
than 600 C as shown in Fig. 3 is given as
result in Fig. 6. But the heating of the
moulds because of the cooling of the molten
steel is an unsteady thermal process, and the
conductibility of temperature of the mould-
ing sands affects the measured results. This
property is defined as
The density of chromite sand is nearly twice
the number of the density () of silica sand,
so the conductibility of temperature of
chromite sand is lower than of silica sand in
spite of the better thermal conductivity () at
higher temperatures, so the temperatures to
be measured decrease and the correspon-
ding times increase.
3.4 Residual strength of the
moulding systems
The shown thermal effects and changes of
the binder bridges affect the residual
strength of the moulding materials. To inves-
tigate these influences test samples were
formed and heated in a resistance heated
furnace up to 1000 C in steps of 100 K. The
results are shown in Fig. 7.
=
p
c
a
Sort and location of the samples C SiO
2
Al
2
O
3
MnO Cr
2
O
3
Fe
2
O
3
Na
2
O
Silica sand
Basic material 0,038 > 99,0 < 0,1 < 0,1 < 0,1 0,01
Sintered layer 0,046 88,2 14,0 2,1 0,2 0,41
Thermal affected 0,047 > 99,0 < 0,1 < 0,1 < 0,1 0,41
Thermal unaffected 0,19 > 99,0 < 0,1 < 0,1 < 0,1 0,42
Chromite
sand
Basic material 0,021 < 0,1 0,1 30,6 26,2 0,014
Sintered layer 0,024 2,2 3,6 30,8 25,4 0,19
Thermal affected 0,035 0,1 0,15 30,6 26,0 0,22
Thermal unaffected 0,115 0,1 0,1 30,5 26,0 0,23
Cera beads
Basic material 0,038 35,4 < 0,1 < 0,1 1,1 0,49
Sintered layer 0,044 34,4 < 0,1 1,9 2,0 0,88
Thermal affected 0,06 36,7 < 0,1 < 0,1 1,2 0,9
Thermal unaffected 0,158 36,3 < 0,1 < 0,1 1,2 0,92
Tab. 2 Chemical compositions of the moulding sands before (basic material without
binder) and after the casting process (sodium silicate bonded) [mass-%]

Sintered layer
about 1200 C
Thermal affected
about 800 C
Thermal unaffected
about 400 C

Cera-
beads

Chro-
mite

Silica
sand
Fig. 4 Stereomicroscopic view of the sodium silicate bonded moulding sand and
SEM micrographs of the binder bridges of Cerabeads, chromite sand and silica sand
In general the compared moulding systems
have a similar trend of the residual strength.
After a small increase at about 100 C be-
cause of a loss of water, which is not de-
tectable for Cerabeads, the strengths de-
crease up to 600 C. This weakening is
caused by the loss of crystal water, which
generates the shown porous binder bridges
in the right column in Fig. 4 and increases
the brittleness of the bridges.
The bonding of silica sand is additionally
weakened at 600 C because of the change
of modification at 573 C, where the specif-
ic volume of the material rapidly increases.
These generated stresses additionally dam-
age the binder bridges. As shown in Tab. 2,
Cerabeads consist of about 35 % silica, so
the same effect could be responsible for the
high loss of residual strength between
500 C and 600 C. The curve of chromite
sand only shows the thermal effects and
changes of the binder bridges without add-
itional influences, but an amount of the
higher strengths at 600 C could be a result
of the higher initial strength at room tem-
perature.
The residual strengths generally increase at
higher temperatures of 600 C because of
sintering and remelting processes of the
binder bridges as well as the sand grains, as
shown in the middle column in Fig. 4. The
constant level of chromite sands above
900 C is a sign of its bad sintering behav-
iour, what is known in the foundries, where
overheated chromite sand cores are hard to
remove.
4 Conclusion
With the choice of the basic moulding ma-
terial the solidification time of casted
TRIP-steel can be affected and controlled.
Casting experiments with sodium silicate
bonded silica sand, chromite sand and Cera-
beads show the significant influences of the
moulding material. Chromite sand acceler-
ates the solidification and cooling of the
casting material, while Cerabeads appear
isolating.
Due to the basic composition of the steel and
the used different silica, chromite
and Cerabeads sands there are specific chem-
ical interactions in the sintered layer, which
can be measured in the sand or in
the metal. The exchange of elements depends
on the composition of the moulding material
and their behaviour under thermal load.
Fig. 5 Heating and cooling of a silica mould in different distances to the casting
Fig. 6 Maximal temperatures and the corresponding times depending of the distances
to the casting
Fig. 7 Residual strength of the sodium silicate bonded moulding systems as a function
of temperature
The heating up of the mould sands while the
casting solidifies and cools down is a func-
tion of their thermo physical properties and
varies widely. Due to the different tempera-
tures the sodium silicate binder bridges
show different morphologic states. There
exist close connections between the con-
ditions of the binder bridges and the meas-
urable residual strengths.
The residual strength depends on the tem-
perature, the resulting state of the binder
bridges and the refractibility of the moulding
material. Generally the strengths decrease
with an increasing temperature up to a min-
imum at 600 C because of cumulative
porosities in the binder bridges. At higher
temperatures the residual strengths in-
crease because of remelting processes of the
binder bridges as well as sintering processes
of the moulding material, e.g. the chromite
sand.
5 Outlook
The steel composition after melting and
casting differs especially in the contents of
manganese and chromium. During melting
especially under vacuum the manganese is
vaporized and therefore the chemical com-
position of the steel changes [4]. The high
vapour pressure of manganese is in arrange-
ment with technological experiences. It con-
denses typically as a red-brown deposit on
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the German
Science Foundation (DFG) for supporting
these investigations in terms of the Collab-
orative Research Centre TRIP-Matrix Com-
posites (SFB 799).
References
[1] Wei, A.; Lehnert, W.: Patent Number DE
0000100 52 744 A1
[2] Wei, A.; Gutte H., Scheller P.R.: The deforma-
tion-induced martensite formation and its in-
uence on the transformation-induced plasticity.
Steel Research Int. 77 (2006) [910] 727732
[3] Tilch, W.; Martin, M.: Properties and application
of alternative moulding sands for the manufac-
ture of light-weight castings. Gieereiforschung
58 (2006) 215
[4] Schr, W.; Weider, M.; Jahn, A.; Aneziris, C.G.:
Refractory materials for casting manganese al-
loyed TRIP-steels. Refractories WORLDFORUM
2 (2010) [3] 8186
[5] Knacke O.; Kubaschewski, O.; Hesselmann, K.:
Thermochemical properties of inorganic sub-
stances. 2
nd
ed., Berlin 1991
[6] Richardson, F.D.; Jeffes, J.H.E.: The thermody-
namics of substances of interest in iron and
steel making from 0 C to 2400 C: I-Oxides. J.
Iron and Steel Inst. (1948) 160261
[7] Chipman, J.; Chang, L. C.: The ionic nature of
metallurgical slags: simple oxide systems. Trans.
AIME 105 (1949) 191197
cooled system parts. The reason for this be-
haviour is its high vapour pressure. The
vapour pressure of manganese in compari-
son to chromium is two orders of magni-
tude, in comparison to iron three orders of
magnitude higher [5].
The reactivity of manganese is caused by the
combination of the high vapour pressure
and oxygen affinity. The oxygen affinity of
manganese is higher than that of chromium,
iron and nickel [6]. Manganese offers a
range of oxidation states from +2 to +4. Im-
portant for the refractory reaction is
Manganosite (MnO) which appears only at
low oxygen partial pressure. Bixbyite Mn
2
O
3
is stable in air. As shown in Fig. 8 in the
contact zone of TRIP-steel and sand mould
an uphill diffusion Mn was verified by EDX.
The enrichment of Mn in the magnified
binder bride (right) is the result of an evapo-
ration and condensation process.
In refractory materials metal oxides can be
lined with increasing strength of the metal
oxide bond: B
2
O
3
, SiO
2
, P
2
O
5
, Al
2
O
3
, TiO
2
,
FeO, MgO, MnO and CaO [7]. So it can be
concluded that MnO reacts as a strong base.
The high basicity in combination with high
vapour pressure of manganese results in a
high degradation of acid and amphoteric re-
fractory materials. The next paper will dis-
cuss reactions of Mn
(2+;3+)
with basic refrac-
tory materials.
Fig. 8 BSE micrograph of the contact zone of the ceramic sand mould and magnified binder bride (right) with EDX analysis [mass-%]
Na
2
O Al
2
O
3
SiO
2
MnO Fe
2
O
3
Contact 4,2 0,0 7,8 18,7 69,3
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this from the team.
You will be in contact with works managers, purchasers, technici-
ans, owners, and company directors, and these may be also from
other countries and cultures. You will conclude discussions with
clients by successfully closing the deal. You keep a track of offers,
projects, and deadlines consistently with the back-up team in Aa-
chen/Germany, and are up to speed with modern IT and software
such as MS Office a.o.
We work with target clients in Europe, Asia, India, America and
other regions, and support clients and partners, including at natio-
nal and international trade fairs and in online sales.

2. As an assistant to the Head of Technology/Technical
Director, you will have studied ceramics, PM (CIM, MIM), materi-
als engineering or industrial kiln/furnace technology. You may also
be a graduate. Practical previous training in fields such as mechat-
ronics, electrical engineering, process engineering or similar would
be advantageous. A good command of AutoCAD or comparable
software would be of benefit. You enjoy QA, development, produc-
tion, and engineering projects for clients.

M.E.SCHUPP
: Income in line with performance, select benefits, a

modern job with opportunities. A human approach at a high perfor-
mance level. Specialist markets with tradition, a future and healthy
growth! The City of Aachen, located at the Germany-Belgium-
Netherlands triangle, is an attractive place to live and work, and the
RWTH is an internationally leading technical top university.
Please submit your application complete with relevant application
documents, your salary expectations and an indication of the ear-
liest time when you could begin working. We look forward to recei-
ving your application.

M.E.SCHUPP
Industriekeramik GmbH & Co. KG

Neuhausstrae 4-10
52078 Aachen / Germany
E-Mail : michael@schupp-ceramics.com
www.schupp-ceramics.com

PREVIEW & INDEX TO ADVERTISERS
Company Profiles/Interviews
CIVES/IT - MAGNEZIT/RU - VGH/DE - Mnstermann/DE - Gouda Feuerfest/NL - Capital Refractories/UK - Momentive/DE
Economy & Markets
Bauxite and Alumina for Refractories
Refractory Raw Materials Developments, Trends, Availability
Reports
UNITECR 2011
International Colloquium Aachen 2011/DE
4
th
DGFS Conference/DE
Technology Trends
The Influence of Different Matrix Components on Rheological and Mechanical Properties of High-alumina LC Castables
(Zschimmer&Schwarz/DE)
Physico-chemical Behaviour of Southern Indian Graphite Used for Refractory Manufacture (SAIL/IN)
Refractory Solutions in a Phosphoric Acid Plant (Steuler/DE)
Laser Refractory Lining Thickness Measurement Systems (Process Metrix/US)
Stationary Furnace Chamber Monitoring System (Franke Industrieofenservice/DE)
Scientific Papers (refereed):
EIRICH Awards 2011
Refractories Initiative to Reduce Emissions (Priority Programme SPP 1418 of the German Research Foundation DFG)
Deadlines
Technical Reports 17.11.2011 Advertising Deadline 14.12.2011
- This preview is maybe subjected to alterations -
Preliminary Preview Contents 4 (2012) [1] Publication Date: 09.01.2012
Almatis GmbH, D-Frankfurt, www.almatis.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Inside Cover
Automazioni Cismac S.r.l., I-Sassuolo (MO), www.cismac.it . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .83
Bernd Mnstermann GmbH & Co.KG, D-Telgte-Westbevern,
www.muenstermann.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84
Blastcrete Equipment Company, USA-Aniston, www.blastcrete.com . . . . . . . . . . . .51
CB Feuerfest GmbH, A-Traboch, www.cb-feuerfest.at . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Cover
CE-Minerals, USA-King of Prussia, www.ceminerals.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
Cremer Thermoprozessanlagen-GmbH, D-Dren (Konzendorf),
www.cremer-furnace.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
Damrec, F-Paris, www.damrec.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65
ELFUSA Geral de Electrofusao Ltda., BRA-So Joo da Boa Vista,
www.elfusa.com.br . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63
Elkem ASA Materials, N-Kristiansand, www.refractories.elkem.com . . . . . . . . . . . .105
Esk SIC GmbH, D-Frechen, www.esk-sic.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61
European Powder Metallurgy Association EPMA, GB-Shrewsbury,
www.epma.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .127
Group Magnezit, RU-Moskau, www.magnezit.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41
Gustav Eirich GmbH & Co. KG Maschinenfabrik, D-Hardheim, www.eirich.com . . . .53
Hannover Messe Ankiros; TR- Cankaya Ankara, www.ankiros.com . . . . . . . . .118
Haver & Boecker OHG, D-Oelde, www.haverboecker.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55
IRMA IREFCON 2012, IND- Kolkata, www.irmaindia.org . . . . . . .Inside Back Cover
Keller HCW GmbH, D-Ibenbren, www.keller-hcw.de . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70
Kerneos S.A., F-Neuilly sur Seine Cedex, www.secar.net . . . . . . . . . .142, Back Cover
Knllinger GmbH, D-Hillscheid, www.knoellinger-gmbh.de . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48
Lachenmeier A/S, DK-Sonderborg, www.lachenmeier.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29
Laeis GmbH, L-Wecker, www.laeis-gmbh.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .85
Luoyang Refsource Industry, CHN- Luoyang, Henan, www.refsource.net.cn . . . . . . .78
M. E. SCHUPP Industriekeramik, D-Aachen, www.schupp-ceramics.com . . . . . . . .143
Mayerton Refractories Group, GB- Hockley Heath, Solihull, www.mayerton.com . . .75
Messe Mnchen, Ceramitec, D-Mnchen, www.ceramitec.de . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
M-Tec Mathis Technik GmbH, D-Neuenburg, www.m-tec-gmbh.de . . . . . . . . . . . . .18
Nedmag Industries Mining & Manufacturing B.V., NL-AE Veendam,
www.nedmag.nl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57
OGIS GmbH, Glasglobal, D-Dsseldorf, www.glassglobal.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125
P-D Refractories, CZ-Velk Opatovice, www.feuerfest-wetro.de . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59
Pro Publications International Ltd., GB-Epsom, Surrey,
www.propubs.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .94, 98, 100
Putzmeister America, Inc., USA-Sturtevant, www.putzmeister.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43
Pyrotek, US-Spokane, www.pyrotek.info . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
Qindao Asian Minerals Co.Ltd., CHN- Jiaozhou,Qingdao,
www.dralonrefractory.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69
Refmin China Ltd., CHN-Nanjing, www.refmin.com.cn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42
Refrasil s.r.o., CZ- Trinec-Konsk, www.refrasil.cz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36
RHI AG, A-Wien, www.rhi-ag.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71
Riedhammer GmbH, D-Nrnberg, www.riedhammer.de . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45
Rio Tinto Alcan, F- Gardanne Cedex, www.specialty-aluminas.riotintoalcan.com . . .32
Servicios Administrativos Penoles S.A. DE C.V., MEX- Torreon, Coahuila . . . . . . . . . .34
Silicon RAS B.V., NL-PB Wateringen, www.silicon-tif.nl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37
Steuler Industrieller Korrosionsschutz GmbH, D-Hhr-Grenzhausen,
www.steuler.de . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91
Sd-Chemie AG, D-Mnchen, www.sud-chemie.de . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .92
Superates Atee Mukavim Malzeme, TR-Maslak Istanbul, www.superates.com . . . .35
TARJ UNITECR, JPN- Chuo-ku, Tokyo, www.unitecr2011.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .99
Velco GmbH, D-Velbert, www.velco.de . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
VGH Viktoria Garten AG, D-Schwelm, www.vgh-ag.de . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46
Zschimmer & Schwarz GmbH & Co.KG, D-Lahnstein,
www.zschimmer-schwarz.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77
Index to Advertisers

Delivering
time stable
performance
Kerneos S.A.: 8, rue des Graviers 92521 Neuilly-sur-Seine Cedex Phone: +33 (0)1 46 37 90 00 Fax: +33 (0)1 46 37 92 00
I Embedded anti-ageing technology
I Increased shelf life of dry mix reduced cement castables
I Easy to use, pure cement equivalent to SECAR
71
I Cement shelf life in excess of 12 months
Visit the SECAR

website
www.secar.net
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What are calcium hexaluminate-based aggregates used for?

What are calcium hexaluminate-based aggregates used for?

What issues have gained importance for refractories?

What issues have gained importance for refractories?

s

heating system developed by Uhde and the

single-chamber pressure control

20) which has both a larger hopper and mix-

also saves re-

has the potential of replacing

daily. "This will be another

environmentally compatible cement developed by

will require only half of the energy for produc-

is a new type of silicon nitride

0,5 (< 0,3)

0,5 (< 0,2)

methodology to the design of new

design concept is to improve the quali-

method of production is in direct contrast to

712 ensures resistance of the dry con-

71. While using the new cement

linings is a usual practice at Chinese plants. Linings with ap-

urik, iaromat as, Kalinovo/SK, reported

SioxX-Quick are registered trademarks and belong to Elkem AS.

, founded in 1996, now 36 dedicated employees

with all the opportunities we

: Income in line with performance, select benefits, a

Industriekeramik GmbH & Co. KG

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