TAKE NOTES ON QUADRATIC EQUATIONS FROM ALGEBRA FOR THE PRACTICAL MAN AND FROM EL

EMENTS OF ALGEBRA EULER,

BOTH OF THESE BOOKS DISTINGUISH BETWEEN PURE QUADRATIC EQUATIONS AND WHAT ARE CA
LLED MIXED QUADRATIC EQUATIONS.
FURTHER EULER ALSO STATES WHY THE GENERAL FORM IS AX^2 + BX = C....
BOTH OF THESE COVER QUADRATICS BETTER THAN CHRYSTAL, HOWEVER SOME MOTIVATION FOR
QUADRATICS, ESPECIALLY MIXED QUADRATICS, AND THE IDEA BEHIND IT AND OF NO
OTHER METHODS SEEM TO BE LACKING....
ALSO BE SURE TO TAKE NOTES WHERE EULER SAYS IN ax^2 = bx we could divide both by
x, but we should not forget the possibility that
x = 0 and why this is so.
ALSO TAKE NOTES ON SECTION 2-8 MANIPULATING ALGEBRAIC EQUATIONS FROM ELEMENTS OF
MODERN MATHEMATICS IN WHICH KENNETH O MAY DISCUSSES THE LOGIC BEHIND ALGEBRAIC
MANIPULATIONS AND GIVES
EXAMPLES ILLUSTRATING THE LGIC BEHIND THESE MANIPULATIONS. HE COVERS QUADRATIC
EQUATIONS HERE.
HE ALSO COVERS ELEMENTARY ALGEBRA IN CHAPTER 1, BUT LOGIC IN CHAPTER 2 AND THUS
HIS MANIPULATION OF ALGEBRAIC EQUATIONS, SEEMS TO BE BASED ON LOGIC.
THIS IS VERY GOOD AND MAYBE SHOULD READ ALL OF CHAPTER 1 AND ALL OF CHAPTER 2 IN
STEAD OF JUST SKIPPING TO SECTION 2-8.
HE ALSO DISCUSSES THAT EQUIVALENT MEANS A CERTAIN ASPECT OF EQUIVALENCE AND FOR
EXAMPLE 2/3 = 4/6 WE ACTUALLY ARE TALKING ABOUT NOT THEM BEING
IDENTICAL, BUT OF THEM BEING NUMERICALLY THE SAME, THOUGH THEIR FORM IS DIFFEREN
T.
ALSO TAKE NOTES ON THE IDEAS OF MANIPULATING ALGEBRAIC EQUATIONS IN GENERAL, ALS
O INCLUDE THE IDEA OF LEAVING IN A DIFFERENT FORM, FROM THE
BOOK FROM ARCHIVE THAT INTRODUCED ALGEBRA WITH FRACTIONS WHERE IN PREFACE SAYS O
RDER OF TOPICS MAY SEEM ODD (SHOULD BE IN ARCHIVE.ORG IN GOOGLE CHROME BROWSER S
TILL).
THE BOOK FROM ARCHIVE IS CALLED BEGINNERS ALGEBRA BY SYKES COMSTOCK AND ALREADY
HAVE ON DESKTOP, JUST NEED TO COPY TO ONE OF USB'S
ALSO NOTICE THOUGH THE FUNDAMENTAL LAWS OF ALGEBRA ARE ASSOCIATIVE, DISTRIBUTIVE
,COMMUTATIVE, ETC, THESE ARE NOT THE ONLY IDEAS
WE USE WHEN MANIPULATING ALGEBRAIC EQUATIONS.....
ALSO SECTION 2-9 ON FUNCTIONAL NOTATION KENNETH O MAY ELEMENTS OF MODERN MATHEMA
TICS DISCUSSES THE IDEA BEHIND FUNCTIONS AND HOW
IT'S REALLY AN IDENTITY, BUT WE MUST SUBSTITUTE VALUES.....
where we used the distributive property. The same result can be obtained by incr
easing the
terms, in particular by making use of the identity element of addition, as illus
trated below:
~x + x~y = ~x (1 + ~y) + x~y = ~x + ~x~y + x~y = ~x + ~y (x + ~x) = ~x + ~y.
NOTES ON UNDERSTANDING THIS LAST COMPLICATED RESULTS AND IMPLICATION ABOUT EXPAN
DING BEFORE SIMPLIFYING:
1.1 Thus the very first step shows how a single variable may need to be expanded
into several. Thus in the first step ~x is expanded to become ~x(1+ ~y). Later
on this allows us to multiply out to get ~x + ~x~y + x~y, after which we then g
roup the last two terms to get ~x + ~y (x + ~x), and finally ~x + ~y.
1.2 Thus the reason we expanded ~x to become ~x(1+ ~y), is so that we can regro
up it with another term later on. In fact any single variable x at all can be e
xpanded to become x(1 + y), because of combining the absorption property, with t
he elemento absorbant 2.16. 1.2.1 ON WHY THIS IS SO POWERFUL EXPLAINED DEF 13!:
The power of this lies in the fact that since any variable x can be written as
x*1, and taken together with the fact that 1 can be written as (1 + y), where y
is any varaible, we can strategically choose our variable "y", such that we plan
to re-group it with other terms in the expression and use another simplifying p
roperty we may know (ie the distributive property)
1.3 DEF 13! ON IMPLICATION IN ALGEBRA AS WRITING ANY VARIABLE X AS X*1 AND USING
ANOTHER PROPERTY AND REGROUPING AS A STRATEGY IN ALGEBRA: ....Thus another "op
eration" or stragegy in algebra is writing any variable x as x*1 instead, and if
we have an expression equal to 1, we can subtitute that into x*1 and then expan
d as we may need. 1.3.1 Thus parentheses can also be seen as an "operation" inst
ead of just grouping symbols. 1.3.2 This finding equivalent expression to 1 and
substituting it into x*1 is likely to be used mostly with the allowing of regr
ouping and then the distributive property (rather than some other property) to h
elp simplify. Identities such as trig identities are likely to be used with thi
s method as well. 1.3.3 One could also use the additive identity x + 0 and fin
d an expression equivalent to 0 and do the same thing.
p viii 8/462
In the first place, I have kept the fundamental principles
of the subject well to the front from the very beginning
; I may instance the treatment of the derivation of
equations in Chapter VI., a subject usually dealt with as if
it were a separate science.
NOTE: Thus says deals with the fundametnal principles in the very beginning.
o 11/462
A word regarding the first steps in teaching Algebra.
I hold, in common, I believe, with most teachers of Mathematics
who have deeply considered their business, that
the teaching of Algebrathat is, of the science of arithmetical
operationsshould commence with the teaching of
Arithmetic itself.
NOTE IMPORTANT: Thus says that algebra is the science of arithmetical operation
s.
For example, the beginner should not
be allowed simply to learn that 3 and 5 together make up
8, and to write mechanically the scheme
3
5
Ans, 8
and the like ; but ought as well to be made to write
3-1-5 = 8, or even -f- 3 -f 5 = -f 8. It should also be
pointed out to him that 3 + 5 = 8 = 5 + 3; that 3 + (3 - 2)
= 3 + 3 - 2 ; and so on. The laws herein involved need
not be named to him at first by their long forbidding
names ; but they should be illustrated by means of concrete
instances, and especially by geometric figures. After
a course of this kind, extended over the earlier years of his
arithmetical training, the learner should be made to state
the solutions of the little problems which he works as
concatenations of numerical operands and operating symbols.
The next stage is to learn to generalise a problem
by substituting letters or hypothetical operands for the
actual numbers of earlier essays. Then, and not till then.
NOTE IMPORTANT: Thus implies that the first step in learning algebra should be
experimentin with
concrete arithmetic problems and those equalities >before< even thinknig about s
ubstituting in letters.
Also certain results should be observed and illustrated without necessarily givi
ng them names. (Comenius things before names).
p 4 22/462
tion to be stated presently ; and the former of these two,
owincj to the readiness with which it can be either written or
printed, is now coming much into use. The fractional notation
- has certain advantages, but it is difficult to print and takes up
b
more room than the others. We shall have occasion to remark
later on that the fractional notation is not in all cases exactly
equivalent to -^ or to / ; it has in some cases the effect of a
bracket, e.g. is not the same thing as a-^h + c or ajb + c,
h + c
but is really equivalent to a-^{b + c) or aj{b + c).
NOTE ON FRACTIONAL AND DIVISION NOTAITON 12!: Thus says fractional and division
notation is >almost< equivalent, but not in all cases.
Such as a/b+c , in this case it is not the same thing as a divided by b+ c but r
ather is
the same thing as a divided by (b+c), and thus parentheses must be included.
The fact that when the dividend and divisor are integral
numbers, as in |^, the fractional and divisional notation are not
distinguishable is of no consequence, because in Algebra, whenever
we regard ^ not as a whole, but with respect to 3 and 4
separately, we regard it as a quotient, and, on the other hand,
when ^ is regarded as a whole, i.e. as an operand, it has the
same abstract properties whether we consider it as " threefourths
" or as three divided by four : e.g. from either point of
view I X 4 = 3 ; and this may be regarded as the fundamental
or defining property of ^.
NOTE 12!: Says whether we regard it as a quotient with 3 and 4 separate, or if
we regard it as a whole as an operand, it has the
same abstract properties both ways whether we consider it as "three-fourths" or
as three divided by four.
Says from either point of view 3/4 * 4 = 3.
4. Whatever concrete or other meaning the learner may
have hitherto attached to addition and subtraction, he will
see that the two operations are mutually Inverse in the sense
that, if we first add any quantity and then subtract the same,
or first subtract any quantity and then add the same, the result
is the same as if we had not operated at all ; that is to say

rt-f-6 5 = a, a b + b = a.
Multiplication and division are inverse to each other in
exactly the same sense, viz. we have
axb-^b = a, a-7-b xb = a.
Rightly considered, the above remark leads us to see that
when addition and multiplication are fully defined by concrete
interpretation or otherwise, the nature and laws of their inverses,
subtraction and division, are determined (see A. Ch. I.).*
NOTE IMPLCTN ON ADD/SUB MULT/DIV INVERSE OPERATIONS 11.75!: Says adidtion and s
ubtraction are inverse in the sense that they undo each other's operation.
Thus if you subtract and add by the same quantity it's as if you had not operate
d at all.
The same thing goes with multiplication and division.
P 13 31/462
CHAPTER II
FUNDAMENTAL LAWS OF ALGEBRA LAWS OF COMMUTATION
AND ASSOCIATION FOR ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION
11. It will be advisable for our present purposes that the
learner should attach some convenient concrete meaniugs to
addition and subtraction. In the first instance, we shall use
the notion of credit and debit ; later we shall employ a more
important but perhaps less familiar illustration.
We shall suppose that + a means a pounds to be paid by
some debtor to a merchant A, and that - h means 6 j)o^^^^s to
be paid by A to some creditor of his. It will facilitate matters
if we suppose that A collects his debts and pays his creditors
through an agent B, who may be supposed to have a certain
amount of spare cash of his own, in case it may happen on his
rounds that he may either have more to pay out than to collect,
or that he may, in the first instance, have to pay out some
money before the money he has to collect for A has come in to
cover his outlay.
The chain of additions and subtractions +a-\-h - c-\- d c -f
will then represent a collected, b collected, c paid out, d
collected, etc., in a particular order on a certain round.
+ h + a-ird - c - e -f will evidently, so far as A is concerned,
represent the same final result ; it might indeed represent
simply a different way of arranging B's round of business
calls. There is, in fact, from our present point of view, no
reason why any or all of the creditors should not be visited
first, B in the meantime paying out of his own cash, and
then we should have fur the symbolic representation of B's
round c e-f+a-\-h-\-d.
NOTE IMPORTANT ON THINKING OF ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION AS CREDIT AND DEBIT 12!:
Thus not only thinking of negative numbers as debit, but thinking
of the >operations< of addition and subtraction as credti and debit.
1.1 Says there is no reason why any or all of the creditors should not be visite
d first. Thus this reasoning is the law of
commutation.
"We are thus led to see that in a chain of additions and
p 14 32/462
subtractions the order of the oi^erations is indifferent^ ijrovided each
ajperand carry ivith it the ojjerating symbol + or originally
attached to it.
It will be immediately perceived that, although in what
precedes we have not gone beyond the limits of common sense,
we have already transcended the boundaries of Arithmetic as
ordinarily understood ; for, although +1 + 4-3 is at every
step a perfectly intelligible arithmetical sequence, +1-3 + 4,
which from the ]3oint of view above explained is the same
thing, directs that 3 shall be subtracted from 1, and 3 + 1+4,
according to the ordinary arithmetical notions, has no meaning
at all. To this point we shall return hereafter ; all that
we need note at present is that the notion of debit and
credit has led us to a generalisation of the operation of
subtraction.
NOTE: Thus says it's the notion of debit and credit that has led us to a genera
lization of the operation of subtraction.
12. Since two separate debts of cl each, both supposed
good, are from the merchant's point of view the same thing as
a single debt of <2, we may associate +1 + 1 into +(+1 + 1),
the bracket indicating that the two separate debts are regarded
as one, and the + before the bracket meaning " payable to A,"
as before. We have therefore
+ 1 + 1= +(+l + l)= +2;
and in like manner
+ 1 + 1 + 1= +(+1+1 + 1)=: +3 ;
and so on.
These results might, in fact, be regarded as the definitions of
+ 2 and + 3 from the algebraic point of view. It is, however,
more important to note that we have here the simplest case of
the Law of Association for addition, viz. a chain of additions
associated into a single addition by means of a bracket may be
dissociated into the comjjonent additions by merely removing the
bracket; and conversely.
NOTE: Thus says association is essentially regarding a chain of additions as a
single addition. Thus for a
creditor it makes no difference if he gets 1 dollar from 2 different sources to
make the 2 dollars he's owed.
A chain of additions associated inot a single addition by means of a bracket may
also be dissociated into the component additions by merley removing hte bracket
.
p 15 33/462
The familiar process of adding two integral numbers is a
case of the law of association, ejj. we have
+ 2 + 3= +(+1 + 1) + (+1 + 1 + 1),
by the definitions of + 2 and + 3 ;
= +1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1,
= +(+1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1),
by the law of association ; = + 5 by the definition of + 5.
NOTE: Thus says normal addition of two whole numbers is a case and illustration
of the law of association
because 2 + 3 is (1 + 1) + (1+1+1).
Combining
the two results just arrived at with the original way of looking
at each debit and credit separately, we have the following
equalities :

+ a h c= +( + -& c);
+ a & c= (-ft+i + c).
The last two equations exhibit fully the Law of Association
for Addition and Subtraction which we may state as
follows :

An algebraic sum associated into a single operation by means of

a bracket may be dissociated into component additions and subtractions
by removing the bracket, leaving all the signs + or unchanged
if the bracket is preceded by + , reversing each sign if the
bracket is preceded by ; and conversely.
NOTE: Thus says this is the law of asociation stated fully for either a positiv
e in front of brackets or for a negative in front of brackets.
p 17 34/462
16. If we consider any two quantities which differ by cc, say
a and a + X, we have
-\- (a + x) a= +x,
+ a {a + x)= X.
If now we make x smaller and smaller, a + x becomes more
and more nearly a ; and therefore if, as is usual in aritlimetic,
we denote a quantity which is smaller than any assignable quaiitity
by 0, we have
+ a-a= +0 ;
+ a - a= - 0.
These two equations may be taken as the definition of as
an operand in Algebra (so far as it is admissible in that capacity).
We see at once that has the special property possessed by no
other operand, that
+ = - 0.
This agrees perfectly w4th arithmetical notions ; for we have
h + = b = b-0 ;
and this again is consistent with our algebraical notion of the
mutually inverse character of addition and subtraction ; for if
4- stand for + a a, we have b + = b + a a = b (see 4).
NOTE: Thus in algebra, 0 has this special property emphasized, the additive ide
ntity property.
In the first place, they lead us to the idea of the cumulation
of operative symbols with the law that the concurrence of two like
symbols, i.e. + ( + a) or ( a), gives the direct symbol, viz. in
each case +a, wliile the concurrence of two unlike symbols, i.e.
- ( + a) or + ( - a), gives the inverse symbol, viz. in each case
- a.
NOTE: Thus two like symbols give addition and two unlike symbols give subtracti
on.
p 18 36/462
two parts, viz. the removal of the bracket and the determination
of the sign. Thus we may first write
- ( - a + & 4- c) = - ( - ft) - ( + 6) - ( + c)
;
then apply the " law of signs," which gives
- ( - ft) = + ft, -( + &)=-&, - ( + c) = - c.
The cmuiilation of the signs + and - thus suggested may be
carried to any extent by repeated appUcations of the four fundamental
cases, +{ + a)= +a, +{-a)= -a, -{ + a)= -a, -(-)=+.
we have
+ =+( + )= +( + ( + a))=+( + (- (-ft)));
-a=+{-a)=+i-{ + a))=+{-{-{-a)));
and so on ; the rule for reduction to a single operation being obviously
that the reduced sign is + , if there be no - or an even number of -
signs in the sequence ; and - , if there be an odd number of - signs
in the sequence.
NOTE IMPLCTN FR FASTER DETERMINATION IF RESULT IS POSITIVE OR NEGATIVE 12.25!:
Thus says the cumulation of signs can be carried to any extent by repeated appli
cation
of hte four fundamental cases.
1.1 Says that it's reduced to plus if there is no "-" or if there is an even num
ber of "-". It is reduced
to "-" if there is an odd number of "-" signs in the sequence.
p 23 41/462
CHAPTER III
fundamental laws of algebra
The Laws of Commutation and Association for Multiplication
AND DivisionLaws of Indices
22. The reader who has been rationally taught the fundamental
principles of Arithmetic is already aware that in a chain
of multiplications and divisions, unbroken by additions or subtractions,
the order in which these operations are performed is
indifferent.
Thus, for example

x3x2x6= X3x6x2=x6x2x3, etc.

xl6-r2x8= xl6x8-^2= x8-^2xl6
= -=-2 X 8 X 16, etc.
'v^J2-'v^l4-^l-l-l vJL-^-JLvl-i-l fife 3 "5'~2 3'^4-"5~ ''^'
and, in general

= X c X a-^d-^b,
= -i-h X ax c-^d, etc.
It will be observed that we have here a law formally identical
with the Law of Commutation already stated for an algebraic
sum : it is called the Law of Commutation for Multiplication
and Division, and may be verbally stated as follows :

In any chain of tnultvplications and divisions the order of the

constituents is indifferent, provided the proffer sign he attached to
each operand and move with it.
Just as in an algebraic sum, when the first operation is the
direct one, in this case multiplication, the sign is usually
omitted : thus w^e write axh-=rc instead of xa xb-=rc.
NOTE IMPLCTN FR UNDRSTNDNG ALGBRA ND CLCLTNG 12.5!: Thus just like with additio
n and subtraction the "+" and "-" signs
follow wherever they go and we have the metaphor of credit and debit, so with mu
ltiplication and division we can rearrange the order to whatever we like
as long as the "*" and "/" signs follow their original numbers, though the credi
t debit metaphor doesn't make this as easy to see.
1.1 Also that helps to verify it's truth is if we remember that multiplication a
nd division are inverse operations and dividing is equivalent to multiplying by
the reciprocal, and so in these terms
the division sign "following it's original number" is akin to saying making sure
all the reciprocals remain that way. Not only is this sometimes easier to thin
k about than "keeping the multiplicaiton and division signs in front of the corr
esponding number"
it is also almost necessary to view it as reciprocals in order to avoid confusio
n in calculating. For example if 6/3/3 = 2/3 and we rearrange it to 3/3/6 would
be incorrect. Remember if it's not a reciprocal, we must treat the correspondin
g sign as "*", and so
it would be correct to have 6/3/3 = 2/3 and /3/3*6 = (1/3)/3/*6 = 2/3.
1.2 Thus a chain of multiplactions and divisions, >unbroken by additions or subt
ractions<, the order in which they're performed is indifferent, just as with add
ition and subtractions unbroken by multiplication or division.
1.3 Point 1.2 directly above gives more reasoning for the order of operations an
d why multiplication and division are at the same level in terms of order (thoug
h PEMDAS mnemonic conceals this), and why addition and subtraction are the
same level in terms of order as well, and why "from left to right" rule doesn't
really matter and is also concealing and doesn't take into account the laws of c
ommutation and association, and is more for arithmetic students who haven't lear
ned algebra yet.
1.4 The multiplication symbol on the leading term may seem wierd, but it just me
ans that if there were another number before the leading term, we would want to
multiply that number by the leading term. In terms of my reciprocal interpretat
ion, it means that we would not make
the leading term a reciprocal. This would be the opposite were the leading term
preceded by a division symbol.
p 24 42/462
Arithmetic the learner is familiar with the following truths :

To multiply by 8, i.e. by 4 x 2, is the same as to multiply first

by 4 and then multiply the product by 2, i.e. in symbols

X(x4x2)=x4x2 . . (1).
Again to multiply by 4, i.e. by 8^2, is the same as first to
multiply by 8 and then divide by 2 ; that is
x(x8-^2)=x8^2 . . (2).
Also to divide by 8, i.e. by 4 x 2, is the same as to divide
by 4 and then divide by 2 ; that is

^(x4x2)= ^4-f-2 . . (3).

Finally, to divide by 4, i.e. by 8 -f 2, is the same as to
divide by 8 and then multiply by 2 ; that is

-^(x8-=-2)=-^8x2 . . (4).
For simplicity we have chosen integers for operands ; but it
will be recognised as an arithmetical truth that the same results
hold when the operands are fractions.
The equivalences (1), (2), (3), (4) are examples of the Law of
Association for multiplication and division, which may be stated
thus :

A chain of multi'plications and divisions associated into a single

operand hy means of a bracket may he dissociated into the constituent
operations by removi7ig the bracket, leaving all the signs
unchanged if the bracket is preceded by x , reversing each sign if the
bracket is preceded by -^
.
Or, in symbols

X {x a^b-^cxd)= X a-^b-^cx d . (5);

-^{xa-^b-^cxd)=-^axbxc-^d . (6).
NOTE IMPLCTN FR UNDERSTNDNG ALGEBRA AND CALCULATION ON LAW OF ASSOCIATION FOR MU
LTIPLICATION AND DIVISION 12.25!: Thus a chain of mulitiplications and division
s associated into a single operand
by means of a bracket, can be dissociated into the constituent operations by rem
oving the bracket, and just like in the addition case (in which we inverse the s
igns inside if the parentheses is to be subtracted), if the
expression in the parentheses is to be divided (preceded by a division symbol),
we reverse each sign.
1.1 This can be seen as making everything inside the parentheses a reciprocal as
well.
1.2
24. As in the case of the Law of Association for addition
and subtraction, we may resolve the process of dissociation for
multiplication and division into two partsthe removal of
the bracket and the determination of the signs. Thus (5) and
(6) could be written
x(xa-^6-^cxf?)=x(xa)x(-^&)x(^c)x(xf?);
-^ ( X a -^ 6 -^ c X d) = ^ ( X a) -f ( -f 6) -^ ( -^ c) -f- ( X cQ :
with the following Law of Signs :

X ( X rt) = X a, X ( -^ ft) = -^ a,
-7- { X a) = -7- a, ~{-^a)= X a:
NOTE: Thus as with addition and subtraction, two like signs make a multiplcatio
n and two different signs make a division.
p 25 42/462
that is to say, the concurrence of like signs gives the direct
sign ( X ), the concurrence of unlike signs the inverse sign ( -i- ).
This dissection of the Law of Association is of less importance
in the present case ; because there is in ordinary algebra, at least
as yet, no important development of multiplicative and divisive
quantity as there is of additive and subtractive quantity, which
gave us the notion of so-called algebraic quantity.
NOTE: Thus says the law of association (but doesn't mention law of commutivity)
is less important in the multipicative and divisive case
because no important development of these types of quantities have been made on
this notion.
25. In the association of multiplications and divisions we
may have brackets within brackets, which may be resolved
successively or simultaneously, exactly as in the case of additions
and subtractions (see 14). There is, however, for the beginner
an element of iperplexity in the variety of notations for multiplication
and division.
Ex. 1.
3 X [4-^ {3^(6 x8)j]
= 3 x4-^ {3-^(6x8)},
= 3 X 4 ^ 3 X (6 X 8),
= 3x4-^3x6x8.
Ex. 2.
3 -r 4/6-^8/3x2
= 3 ^ 4 ^ 6 X 8 X (3 X 2),
= 3-1-4-^6x8x3x2.
Ex. 3. ^= 3--4-(6-8)x(3x2),
3x2
= 3-f4-f-6x8x3x2.
The bracketing effect of the " solidus " and of the " fraction
line" should be observed in Examples 2 and 3. When it is
desired to suspend this bracketing effect, a thicker fraction line
is sometimes used. Thus while
3^4* /6-^8\
3x2
= 3-^4-^6x8x3x2.
4 3-4
is sometimes written for the sake of emphasis ; but this
6-H8 6^8
3x2 3x2
is unuecessary.
NOTE IMPORTANT FOR UNDERSTANDING COMPLEX FRACTIONS AND CALCULATING THEM 12.5!:
Thus says that the bracketing effect of the
"solidus" and of the "fraction line" should bobserved as they're noteworthy.
1.1 Thus with complex fractions always see the numerator and denominator as bein
g
enclosed by parentheses as this is what that notation means. This "bracketing e
ffect" is not a matter of inherent mathematics, but is rather
one of agreed upon notation and that the notation implies brackets.
1.2 Also with complex fractions it seems easier to apply appropriate parentheses
and calculate from bottom to top, rather than from top to bottom, just like
in horizontal expressions it's easier to work your way from innermost parenthese
s toward the outermost parentheses.
P 26 44/462
26. If a be any quantity differing from 0, we denote
X a-^a by 1. This is perfectly in accordance with arithmetical
notation ; and is analogous to our operational definition of by
the equation + a - a = 0, except that we restrict the a in a ~ a to
be different from 0.
From the definition of 1 just given, and the laws of
association and commutation for multiplication and division,
and the mutual relation between multiplication and division,
we have
6x l=hx{xa-^a) = bxa-^a = b.
b-^l=b-i-(xa-ra)==b-^axa=:b.
Also
xl=x(x-ra) = xa-^a = -r-axa =-^(xc^-^a);
that is to say, x 1 = 4-1, which is analogous to + = - 0.
NOTE IMPORTANT IMPLCTN FR ALGEBRAIC OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF "1" ANALOGOUS TO A
LGEBRAIC OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF "0" 12.5!: Thus when we said +a -a = 0. We
were >operationally defining< 0 by this property. Similarly with multiplication
and division we >operationally define< 1 to be *a/a, except the only difference
is that we restrict the a in a/a to be >different from< 0.
1.1 Thus using the associative property any (*a/a) can be treated as a 1.
1.2 In addition we also have the result that *1 = /1, just like we had +0 = -0.
27. It is interesting at this stage to notice that the laws
for the transformation of fractions by multiplying or dividing
numerator and denominator by the same quantity, and for
multiplying and dividing fractions, are instances of the two
laws which we have just been discussing. Thus
3x 5_3
4 X 5 ~ 4
may be established as follows. We have
|^ = (3X5)-(4X6),
since from the algebraical point of view the two sides of
this equation are only different notations for the same function.
Next, by the law of association
(3x5)4-(4x5) = 3x54-44-5;
and, by the law of commutation
3x54-44-5 = 3-^4x54-5.
NOTE ON WHY MULTIPLYING THE TOP AND BOTTOM OF FRACTIONS BY THE SAME THING LEAVES
THE FRACTION EQUIVALENT: Thus this section shows through the law of associatio
n and commutation for multiplication and division >why< when we multiply the top
and the bottom of fractions by the same thing, we get the same thing.
P 27 45/462
27 OPERATIONS WITH FRACTIONS 27
Finally, from the definition of multiplication and division as
mutually inverse operations
3-^4x5^5 = 3-^4,
whicli establishes our result, since 3 -^ 4 and | are the same
thing.
In like manner, we could deduce in general the followitig
results :
ax m a
b X m b '
a-T-'m a
b-^m b '
(1)
(2)
Take, for example, the second part of (4)
\t) "^ ( ^ ) = (* "^ ^) ^ (^ -^ ^)j ^y tb^ meaning of the symbols ;
= a-^b-^cx d, by the lavp- of association ;
= axd-i-b-^c, by the law of commutation ;
= (axd)-^{b X c), by the law of association ;
axd ^ ^
= T ) by the meaning of the symbols.
NOTE IMPLCTN FR UNDERSTNDNG ALGEBRA ON >WHY< AND HOW THE RULES ARE DERIVED FOR T
HE MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION OF TWO FRACTIONS 12.5!: Thus through the meaning
of the fraction bar, and changing that notation into the normal division symbol
s with parentheses, and also by using the laws of commutation and association fo
r
multiplication and division, it can be derived the rules for multiplication and
division of two fractions.
Since the process we are engaged in is an analysis of the
operations of arithmetic, whose laws we take for granted, into a
few simple laws which are to be the laws of Algebra, it would
not be logically consistent, from our present point of view, to
regard the above deduction of certain rules of operation with
arithmetical fractions from the laws of commutation and associa-
tion as a demonstration of these rules. It is none the less
interesting and important to see that these rules, in appearance
so distinct, are really consequences of two very simple general
principles. .
It is, however, very important to note that, since (1), (2), (3),
and (4) are deducible from the fundamental laws of Algebra,
they will hold, not merely for arithmetical operands, but for
p 28
any algebraic operands whatsoever, simple or complex. Thus,
for example
a X ( 1) a . a a
6x(-l)^6' '^'^' ~^^1)
{x-l){x+2) _x-\
^^ (a; + 3)(x+2)~x + 3
are cases of (1) ; and
x-l^x+2_x-\ a;-2_(a;- l)(-2)
a; + 3~cc-2~a; + 3 a + 2 ~ (x + 3)(x + 2)
is a case of (4).
EXERCISES IV.
Simplify each of the following as much as you can :
NOTE IMPORTANT ON WHY TWO NEGATIVES IN A FRACTION ARE A POSITIVE AND BASIC CANCE
LING 12!: Thus shows that a negative in both the numerator and denominator is a
positive because
they are divided by each other and by the law of signs seem to "cancel" and have
a positive.
Monomial Integral FunctionsLaws of Indices for
Integral Exponents
28. Technical Use of the Word Term.The word term
is often used in Algebra in a technical sense, which it will be
convenient here to define. A function, or 'part of a function of
any operands which involves only multiplication and division, and
not addition and subtraction, is called a term. Thus 3x4,
axh-^c, arffi Sa^ are called terms. On the other hand, a^ + b'^,
ab c'^ja are not in themselves terms ; but + a^ and + 6^ are the
terms of a^ _]_ 52 . g^j^^i _j_ ^^j ^j^^i _ ^2^^^ ^]^g terms of ab c-ja. A
function which consists of a single term is called a Monomial ;
a function which is the algebraic sum of two terms a Binomial
;
and so on.
NOTE IMPORTANT IMPLCTN ON "TERM" MEANS OPERANDS INVOLVING >BOTH< MULTIPLICATION
OR DIVISION ONLY 12.5!: Thus says a term in algebra means any operands which in
volves only multiplication and division and not
addition and subtraction. Thus in ab - c^2/a, ab is a term, and c^2/a >taken as
a whole including the division< is one term as well.
p 29 46/462
29. In dealing with rational terms (rational monomial
functions), such as
(3(1^) X (2a)3 ^ {ahcf x (a2)3 x ( _
j
(1),
it is found convenient to arrange so that all the multiplications
or divisions by merely numerical ojDerands shall be brought together
and, usually, condensed into a single number ; and, in
like manner, all the multiplications and divisions by the same
letter brought together and replaced by a multiplication or
division ])y a single power of that letter.
Thus we shall presently show that the monomial (1) can be
reduced to 24(1^"^ -^h'' -^c^ or 2-ia^^/h~c\
NOTE IMPLCTN ON EVEN IF A STRING OF MULTIPLICATIOSN AND DIVISIONS LOOK LIKE SEPA
RATE TERMS THEY ARE STILL ONE TERM AND CONDENSED TO BE THAT 12.5!: Thus in this
example the entire thing is one term, but to see this it may be necessary to si
mplify all of the multiplications and divisions. To do this it's convenient to
arrange by the law of commutation so that all the multiplications or divisions
by merely numerical operands shall be brought together usually condensed into a
single number. Likewise all the multiplications and divisions by the same lette
r are brought together and replaced by a multiplication or division by a single
power of that letter. Thus don't view it as multiplying the operands out, think
of it as condensing all of the multiplications by the same letter into a single
letter.
1.1 Thus the result is 24a^19/b^7c^3 which is indeed a single term all condense
d to it's simplest form.
This reduction is greatly facilitated by the establishment of
rules

1. For expressing the product of any powers of one and

the same base, or the quotient of two powers of one and the
same base, by means of a single power of that base.
2. For expressing any power of a power of one base as a
single power of that base.
3. For expressing a power of the product of any bases, or a
power of the quotient of two bases, as a product or quotient of
single powers of those bases.
These rules, commonly spoken of as the Laws of Indices,
are as follows :

I. (a) a"^ X rt^^ X rt2' X . . .=a"^+^^+i'+ * '

{/3) a"' -^ a'' = '-, if m > 7i
;
= 1 4- a^* ~ "^, if m < n.
11. (a*)" = a'
III. (a) (a X 6 X c X . . .)' = iO"- xh'*^xc'^x. . .
;
or, in words

I. (a) TJie jirodud of any iiowers of one and the same base is a ijower
of that base v:hose irule.c is the sum of the indices of the given j^owers.
(f3) The quotient of two different 2)owers of the same base is a
'power of the base ivhich is tlie absolute difference of the two powers^
or unity divided by the same^ according as the index of the dividend
is greater or less than the index of the divisor.
NOTE IMPLCTN ON THE USE OF AND MOTIVATION FOR USING POWERS AND EXPONENTS 12.5!:
Thus if we didn't have exponents, all of the separate multiplications would hav
e to be written out. For example a^19 as part of the previously mentioned term
would have to be
written out a multiplied and so we would be writing 19 "a's". This would make a
very long expression and so exponents help us alot in condesning our writing.
p 30 48/462
II. The nth power of the mth power of a base is the lanth power
of that base.
III. (a) The mth power of a product of bases is the product of
the mth poivers of those bases.
(fS) The mth power of the quotient of two bases is the quotient
of the mth powers of those bases.*
The proof of these laws depends merely on the definition of
an integral power, viz. that
a^ = axaxa'X. . . m factors,
and on the laws of association and commutation for multiplication
and division.
To prove I. (a), let us consider first a special case, say
a^ X a^ X a^. By the definitions of a^, a^, a^ we have
a^ xa^ xa^ = (axa)x(axaxa)x{ax a),
by the law of association
==axaxaxaxaxaxa,
where there are 2 + 3 + 2 factors ; hence, finally, by the definition
of a power

The general proof may be stated thus

a'^xa^xai^x. . .
by the definitions of a'"-, etc.
= {ax ax . . . m factors)
x(ax ax . . . n factors)
x{ax ax . . . p factors)
/N
J
by the law of association

= axax . .
xaxax...v_^^^_^^^^_ factors ; xax ax . . '
Pn
by the definition of a power

__ jm+?i+2>+ . '^
* The beginner may be cautioned against the freqiient error of confusing
these laws with one another ;
NOTE ON PROOF OF LAW I OF EXPONENT ADDITION BY USING THE LAW OF ASSOCIAITON: Th
us by using the law of association for mutlipclation this law can be proved.
p 31 48/462
To prove I. (/3), consider first a particular case, say a^-^a^.
We have
a^ -r a-.
by tlie definitions of a^ and a^
= (axax ax ax a)-^{axa) i
by the law of association
= a X a X a X a X a-^a-^a ',
by the law of commutation

= a X ax ax a-^ax a-^a ;
by the mutual inverseness of multiplication and division

= ax ax a X {5 2 factors)
;
bv the definition of an index

In general, by definition of a power

a"^-7-a"' = {ax a X . . . m factors)

-^{ax ax . . . 7i factors)
;
by law of association

= ax a X . . . m factors
-^ -^ a -r . . . n divisions.
If now m>n, we have, by law of commutation

a'" -^a'^ = a X a X . . . m n factors

X a-^a X a-^ax . . . n pairs ;
by the mutual inverseness of multi23lication and division
= a X a X . . . m n factors ;
by the definition of a power

If TYKUj there are more divisions than multiplications, and

we have
(jin -^a^i = a-^a X a-^ax . . . m pairs
-^ rt -f- rt . . . n m divisions
= \-^a-^a . . . n - m divisions ;
by the law of association

= 1 -^ ((t X a X . . . 11 -m factors) j
NOTE ON PROOF OF THE LAW FOR DIVIDING FACTORS AND SUBTRACTING EXPONENTS 12!: ...
...
P 32 50/46
by the definition of a power

= 1 -^a-.
To prove II., consider the special case (a^)^ Since (a^)^ by
the definition of a power means a^ x a^, we have
(a3)2 = a^ X a^,
= (a X a X a) X (a X X a) ;
by law of association
= ax axa . . . 3x2 factors ;
by definition of a power
In general

by definition of a power

= a"* X a'" X . . . n factors ;

by definition of a power
= (a X rt X . . . m factors) \
x{a X ax . . . m factors) > n rows
;
X . . . j
by law of association

= a X a X . . . mn factors ;
by definition of a power
As the reader has probably now grasped the simple principles
involved, we give the general proof of III. (a) and III. (^) at
once.
We have, by the definition of a power

{axbxc . . .)"* = (axhx ex . . .))

X {a xb X c X . . .) >m rows ;
X . . . j
by the laws of association and commutation

= {ax ax . . . m factors)
X (6 X 6 X . . . m factors)
X (c X c X . . . ??. factors)
NOTE ON PROOF OF RASING A POWER TO ANOTHER POWER BY MUTLIPLYING THE EXPONENTS 12
!:...
P 33 50/462
where we have in effect turned the columns of tlie first scheme
into rows in the second. Hence, fiucilly, by the definition of a
power

{axbxcx . . .)" = a"^ x Z/'" x c'" x . . .

Again, by the definition of a power

(a -^ 6)'" = {a-^b)x{a-r-h) X . . . m pairs

;
by the huv of association
= a-^h X a-^hx . . . m pairs ;
by the law of commutation

= a X rt X . . . m factors
-i- 6 -r i -^ . . . m divisions ;
by the law of association

= {a X ax . . . m factors) -^-Qjxhx . . . m factors) ;

by the definition of a power

30. Let us now return to the monomial

(3a9) X i2af ^ {ahcf x {tC-f x (~ V.

Using the laws of indices, we have
by IIL (a), {2af = 2^a^ = Sa^ ;
by IIL (a), {abcf = a%h^]
by II, (a2)3 = a6.
by IIL (ft (^y = (a - hf =a4 -f- h\
Hence
(3a9) X {2cif^{ahcf x {a^f x f^Y
= (3 X a9) X (8 X a3)-j-(a3 xPx c^) x a^ x {a^-^) ;
by the law of association
= 3 X a^ X 8 X a^ -^ cr -^h^-^c^x a^ xa^~h^ \
by the law of commutation
= 3 X 8 X a^ X a^ X a<5 X a* -r a^ -^ 6^ -^- 6-^ ^ c^ ;
by the law of association
= 24 X (a^ xa^x of' x a^)-^a^~{h'^ x ) ^ c^ ;
NOTE ON DEMONSTRATION OF HOW EXPONENTS "DISTRIBUTE" OVER MULTIPLICATION AND DIVI
SION 12!:...
P 34 52/462
by tlie laws of indices (I. (a))

= 24 X a'^2 -r a^ -^ }? -^c^ ;
by th.e law of association

= 24x(a22-Ia3)-h(67xc3);
and finally, since, by I. (/?), a^^ -^ a^ = a^^ ~ ^ = a^^,
The above calculation has been written at considerable length in
order to show clearly how it depends on fundamental principles. This
model should be followed by the beginner in every piece of work that
is new to him and whenever he has fallen into doubt or perplexity.
After the fundamental principles have become perfectly familiar, much
of the work can be safely carried out mentally and the written
calculation much shortened ; but the learner should never fall into
the bad habit of quoting formulae or rules whose connection with
fundamental principles lie does not perfectly understand ; by so doing
he will strain his memory and retard his ultimate progress.
NOTE IMPORTANT IMPLCTN FR SLF STDY ON REVIEW FUNDAMENTAL PURPOSES IF FALL INTO D
OUBT OR PERPLEXITY 12.5!: Thus says
if ever fallen into doubt or perplexity, this model of deriving everything from
the fundamental principles should
be followed. After the fundamental principles have become familiar, much of the
work can be shortened.
1.1 However do not fall into the bad habit of quoting formulae or rules whose co
nnection with fundamental principlies is not
perfectly understood, else will strain memory and retard ultimate progress.
35 52/462
in reckoning,' the de<^ree are often called the Variable Letters
or the Variables. In contradistinction, the reniainin<^f letter!^,
including the numerical factor, are spoken of as the Constant
Letters or the Constants. These definitions seem at first sight
to involve a strain on the meaning of the words "variable" and
" constant," but the convenience of the phraseology will be
appreciated later on.
When it is necessary throughout a calculation of any length
to distinguish the variables from the constants, the former are
usually denoted by letters near the end of the alphabetx, y, z,
u, V, u\ etc. ; and the latter by letters near the beginning

a, h, c,
dj e, etc.
When a monomial is thus for any purpose looked at as a
function of constants on the one hand and variables on the
other, the product of all the variables is spoken of as the
variable part and the rest is called the coefficient. Thus, a, h, c
being constants, and x, i/, z variables in the monomial Sab^cx^yh\
we call x^yh^ the variable part, and Sah'^c the coefficient.
The beginner must not forget that the above distinctions, like
other matters of algebraic form, depend on an arbitrary classification
of the operands which may be made in one way for one
purpose and in another way for another.
NOTE ON VARIABLES AND CONSTANTS AND VARIABLE PARTS AND LETTERS USUALLY USED 12.5
!: Thus letters at the beginning of the alphabet (ie a, b, c) are usually used
for
constants and letters at the end of the alphabet usually used for variables. Th
us even in one term there may be a mix of both. Thus 3ab^2cx^2y^3z^4 has variab
le part of x^2y^3z^4, and the rest is called the coefficient.
32. Since the multiplication of two powers of the same
base is effected by adding the indices, and division of one power
by another by subtracting the indices, we have immediately the
two following Laws of Degree.
The degree of the product of two integral monomials in any given
set of letters is the sum of the degrees of the two factors in those
letters.
If the quotient of one integral monomial hy another he integral,
the degree of the quotient in any given set of letters is the difference
between the degrees of the divisor and dividend in those lettei'S.
Ex. The degree of lahx^y^z' in x, y, z is 9, and the degree of
Sab-x^y^z in x, y, z is 6 ; the degree of the product, viz. Qa%^x^y~:^ in
ir, 2/, 2 is 15 = 9 + 6 ; the quotient, viz. ( ^ J
xyz, is integral so far as
x, y, z is concerned, and its degree in these letters is 3 = 9-6.
The theory of degree is of great importance in Algebra ; in
fact, degree will be found in many respects to play the same
part in Algebra as absolute magnitude does in Arithmetic.
NOTE MYBE IMPORTANT FOR UNDERSTANDING ALGBRA 12!: Says the notion and theory of
degree is of great importance in Algebra and wil be found in many respects to p
lay the same part in Algebra as absolute magnitude (abolsute value I think) does
in arithmetic.
p 38 djvu p 62
CHAPTER IV
fundamental laws of algebra
The Law of Distribution
33. The primitive meaning of multiplication is repeated
addition. Thus 8 x 3 is a contraction for 8 + 8 + 8.
In our discussion of the laws of commutation and association
for multiplication and division we considered only the case
where the operands are absolute, i.e. merely arithmetical
quantities. The further points that arise when the operands
are algebraical quantities that is to say, absolute quantities with
the signs + or - attached are most conveniently considered
in connection with the Law of Distribution, which is the last of
the three fundamental laws of algebraical operation.
NOTE: Thus says before we considered the commutative and associative laws witho
ut having to worry to much about the algebraic notion of the + and - signs being
attached to the numerical quantities. However when considering the law of distr
ibution, we have to consider them algebraic quantities with the + and - signs at
tached.
Reverting to 8x3, let us write the product more fully as
( + 8) X ( + 3), and notice that we mayalsowrite8 + 8 + 8 more fully
in the form + 8 + 8 + 8, or if we choose +8x1 + 8x1 + 8x1.
NOTE ON CONSIDERING MULTIPLICATION REPEATED ADDITION DO NOT THINK COMMUTATIVE LA
W 12!: Thus yes the commutative law holds for multiplication, but when thinking
of multiplication as
repeated addition, it's best to remember the terms multiplicand and multiplier.
1.1 In this instance we have (+8) * (+3). The only way to interpret this in ter
ms of repeated addition is 8 + 8 + 8, and NOT 3 + 3..., because we're taking
8 first (multiplicand) and adding it 3 times (multiplier).
1.2 One of the main reasons for this distinction becomes apparent when regarding
multiplying by negative numbers as repeated subtraction.
Remembering that + 3 is a contraction for + 1 + 1 + 1, we may
therefore write the equation 8x3 = 8 + 8 + 8 in the forms
( + 8)x( + 3)=+( + 8) + ( + 8) + (+8)
= +8 + 8 + 8=+24 (1);
or ( + 8) x(+l + l + l) =+8x1+8x1+8x1 (2).
We thus look upon multiplication by a positive multiplier
as a contraction for repeated addition.
NOTE ON BY REMEMBERING ASSOCIATIVE LAW WE EASILY GET TO DISTRIBUTIVE LAW 13!: T
hus remembering that 3 >is< a contraction for (1+ 1+ 1), we easily get that
8*3 = ( + 8) x (+l + l + l) = +8x1+8x1+8x1. Thus this is a very good arithmetic
al demonstration of the distributive law.
In like manner, it is
natural to regard multiplication by a negative multiplier as a
contraction for repeated subtraction. Taking this view, we have
(+8)x(-3)=-(+8)-(+8)-( + 8),
= -8-8-8= -24 (3);
or ( + 8)( -1-1-1) =-8x1-8x1-8x1 (4).
p 34 djvu p 63
Also ( - 8) X ( + 3) = + ( - 8) + ( - 8) + ( - 8),
= _8.-8-8= -24 (5);
or (-8X +1 + 1 + 1) =-8x1-8x1-8x1 (6).
(-8)x(-3)=-(-8)-(-8)-(-8),
= +8 + 8 + 8=+ 24 (7);
or (-8)(-l -1-1)= +8x 1 + 8x1+8x1 (8).
NOTE ON MULTIPLICATION BY A NEGATIVE NUMBER AS A CONTRACTION FOR REPEATED SUBTRA
CTION AND WHY MULTIPLICATION OF TWO NEGATIVE NUMBERS EQUALS A POSITIVE 13!: Thu
s we see if the multiplier (the second number in the multiplication), is negativ
e, then
we take repeated subtractions. However if the multiplicand (the first number in
the multiplication expression) is negative, then it is repeated addition of tha
t negative quantity.
1.1 IMPORTANT ON WHY A NEGATIVE MULTIPLIED BY A NEGATIVE IS POSITIVE 13!: The e
xpression (-8)x(-3) shows cleary by the distributive property why a negative mul
tiplied by a negative is positive.
Thus we see that it is equal to -(-8)-(-8)-(-8) which is equal to +8 + 8 + 8 bec
ause we're subtracting negatives.
34. Consider now the case wliere the multiplier is an
algebraic sum, say +8-5. To multiply + 8 by +8-5 may,
according to our present view, be taken to mean : add + 8 eight
times and subtract + 8 five times that is to say, using multipli-
cation -by positive and negative multipliers as before to denote
repeated additions and subtractions respectively, we have
( + 8)x(+8-5)=+8x8-8x5 (9).
In like manner
(-8)x(+8-5)=-8x8 + 8x5 (10).
The equations (1), (3), (5), and (7) suggest the laws for the
sign of the product of two algebraic quantities, viz. the product
is positive if the factors have the same signs, negative if they have
opposite signs.
NOTE ON WHEN INSTEAD OF A SINGLE NUMBER THE MULTIPLIER IS AN ALGEBRAIC SUM 13!:
Thus says
since the multiplier positive is repeated addition, and egative is repeated subr
action, in the case of +8 * +8-5, this would mean add
+8 eight times, and subtract 8 five times.
IMPORTANT ON WHY A NEGATIVE MULTIPLIED BY A NEGATIVE IS POSITIVE 13!: The expre
ssion (-8)x(-3) shows cleary by the distributive property why a negative multipl
ied by a negative is positive.
Thus we see that it is equal to -(-8)-(-8)-(-8) which is equal to +8 + 8 + 8 bec
ause we're subtracting negatives.
1.1 DEF 13!: Notice that this rule of signs was illustrated with single numbers
. In the case of the multiplier being an algebraic sum then, we would have to d
etermine if the result of the algebraic sum is positive or negative depending on
which
of the numbers is larger. This can be done with numbers, but when we move to le
tters we can't finally determine this.
The equations (2), (4), (6), (8), (9), and (10) suggest the follow-
ing rule for multiplying any algebraic quantity by an algebraic
sum. TFrite down all the partial products formed by multiplying
the multiplicand hy each term of the multiplier, and determine the
sign of each partial product hy the law of signs just given. Or, in
general symbols
{ + A)( + a-h-c + d)= +Aa-Ah-Ac + Ad;
(-A)( + a-6-c + rf)= -Aa + Ab + Ac-Ad (11).
This process we call Distributing the Multiplier.
NOTE ON DISTRIBUTIVE LAW STATED AND THE LOGIC OF HOW AND WHY IT WORKS 12.5!: Th
us this is simply saying the distributive law and how it works.
Basically if the multiplier is an algebraic sum, we take one of the multipliers
at a time and multiply it with the multiplicand and
determine each partial product by the law of signs taking into account each mult
iplier as a separate case.
1.1 Thus this is the logic of how the distributive law works with arithmetic.
The order of ideas which we are now following suggests that
the multiplicand may also be distributed. For we have, by the
meanings attached to positive and negative multipliers
( + 7-5)x( + 3)=+(+7-5) + ( + 7-5) + ( + 7-5),
= +7-5 + 7-5 + 7-5,
= +7 + 7 + 7-5-5-5,
by the laws of association and commutation for algebraic sums.
Hence, finally, by the primitive signification of multiplication
(+7-5)x( + 3)= +7 x3-5 x3
P 40 DJVU P 64
In like manner
( +7- 5) x(- 3)= -7x3 + 5x3 (13).
Hence to multi^ily an algebraic sum by an algebraic quantity
write down all the partial ^products obtained by multiplying each
term of the multiplicand by the multiplier, and determine the sign
of each piartial product by the law for the sign of the product of two
algebraic quantities. Or, in general symbols
( + A-B + C-D)( + a)= +Aa-Ba + Ca-I)a;
(-|-A-B + C-D)(-a)= -Aa + Ba-Ca + Ba (14).
NOTE ON THE MULTIPLICAND MAY ALSO BE DISTRIBUTED 11.5!:......
35. Consider finally the product of two algebraic sums,
say ( + A - B + C) X ( + a - 6). We may, in the first instance,
consider + A - B + C as associated into a single operand
+ ( + A B + C). If we distribute the multiplier, we have
{+( + A-B + C)}( + a-&)=+( + A-B + C)a
-( + A-B + C)?;.
Since we may also distribute the multiplicand, we have,
reading (4-A-B + C)a as ( + A- B + C)( + a),
( + A-B + C)a= +Aa-Ba+Ca.
Also ( + A-B + G)6= +A6-B6 + C6;
and -( + A-B + C)6= -Ab + Bb-Ck
Hence, finally
( + A-B + C)( + a-&)= i- Aa -Ba + Ca - Ab + Bb - Cb (15).
This last result suggests the Law of Distribution in its full
form, viz. to multiply one algebraic sum by another write down
the algebraic sum of all the partial products obtained by multiplying
each term of the multiplicand by each term of the multiplier, deter-
mining the sign of each partial -product by the law that the product
of two terms having the same sign is to have the sign
product of two terms having opposite signs the sign .
NOTE ON THE LAW OF DISTRIBUTION FOR TWO ALGEBRAIC SUMS AND STATED IN ITS FULL FO
RM 13!:.......
P 37 DJVU P 65
It will be observed that in the product of an algebraic sum
of m terms into an algebraic sum of n terms there are mn partial
products, if they are all written down directly in accordance
with the law, without any collection of like or suppression of
mutually destructive terms. This rule will sometimes enable the
beginner to correct a mistake in his calculations.
NOTE ON THE AMOUNT OF TERMS IN AN ALGEBRAIC SUM IS MN AND CAN HELP CORRECT MISTA
KES IN CALCULATIONS FOR GEBINNERS 12!:.....
....

36. It will be seen that the law of distribution for
multiplication has been suggested to us by the consideration of
arithmetical operations with integral numbers. A little thought
will convince the learner that the law holds whether the operands
be integral or fractional. Thus, for example, the arithmetical
truth of the following equations
(i-|)x(|-J)=(4-|)x|-(f-l)xi
5w6 3 K/ 5 5wl I 3 w 1
as arithmetical statements will be readily seen ; and they are
simply particular applications of the law of distribution. We
therefore lay down this law as one of the fundamental principles
of Algebra in the assurance that it agrees with the fundamental
principles of ordinary arithmetic ; beyond this, all we have to
consider is merely the mutual consistency or non-contradiction
of the various laws we adopt and of the consequences that
follow therefrom. On this latter point the learner will gradually
acquire conviction as he jjroceeds witli the study of the subject
and of its applications.
NOTE ON CONVICTION OF MUTUAL CONSISTENCY OF THE LAWS WILL COME WITH FURTHER STUD
Y 12!.....
In the meantime we remark that, as in the case of the other
laws, and in Algebra generally, we shall not confine the operands
to be arithmetical or even algebraic quantities in a reduced
form, the operands may be complex functions of other quantities.
Thus
/x-l X \ /x+l\
V^T2 ~ ^^ly ^ \x'+i)
- \x+2) "" \x^+i) \x-ij "" W+i;'
where x is not specifically assigned, is a particular case of the
law of distribution.
37. Law of Distribution for Division. The law of
distribution has a limited application to division.
P 42 DJVU P 66
In the first place, we may point out that the laws of signs
for the division of algebraic quantities follow from the corre-
sponding laws for multiplication. For example, since
+ {a-^h)x{-b)= - {{a^b)xh],hy law of signs for multiplica-
tion,
= - a,hj the mutual inverseness of multiplica-
tion and division,
it follows, if b be any finite quantity differing from 0, that
+ (a^b)x(-b)^(-h) = (-a)-^{-h).
Hence, suppressing the mutually destructive operations
X ( 6) -^ ( 6) on the left, and interchanging the two sides of
the equation, we get
{-a)^{-b)=+{a^by
In like manner we establish all the four cases
{ + a)^i + b)= +{a^b), ( + a)-^{-b)= -(a-6),
(_,)^( + 6)=-(a--6), (_a)-^(-6)=+(^6) (i).
NOTE ON THE LAW OF DISTRIBUTION HAS LIMITED APPLICATION TO DIVISION 13!: Thus s
ays the law of distribution has limited application to
division.
1.1 However the law of signs for division is the same for multiplicaiton and fol
lows from multiplication.
Again, by the law of distribution for multiplication, if A
be any finite quantity or operand diff"ering from 0, we have
(a-^A-&-^A-f-c^A-(^^A)x(-l-A)
= -|-{(a^A)xA}-{(6^A)xA} + {(c^A)xA}
-{{d^A)xA}
= +a-hi-c-d. (2).
If now we divide both sides of (2) by -f A, and suppress the
mutually destructive operations x (-f A)-f-(-f A) on the left, we
get, after interchanging the two sides of the equation
{ + a-b + c-d)^{ + A)
= +(a-^A)-(6-^A) + (c^A)-((Z-^A) (3).
And we could in the same way deduce that
{ + a-h + c-d)-^{-A)
= -{a^A) + (b^A)-{c-^A) + (d---A) (4).
Equations (3) and (4) are evidently particular cases of the
following general law.
To divide an algebraic sum by any algebraic quantity write
down all the ^partial quotients obtained by dividing each term of the
dividend by the divisor, attaching the sign + if the term and the
divisor have like signs, the sign if they have opjjosite signs.
p 39 djvu p 67
We may express this result briefly by saying that the
dividend may be distributed. The same is not true of the
divisor, at least not as a general rule of algebraic operation ;
and it is only with such rules that we are now concerned. To
establish this it is sufficient to advance a single arithmetical
exception. If the divisor could be distributed, then we should
have 3-^(2 + l) = 3-^2 + 3-rl; in other words, 1 = 4 J, which is
false.
NOTE IMPORTANT ON THE DIVIDEND CAN BE DISTRIBUTED BUT THE DIVISOR CANNOT BE DIST
RIBUTED 13!: Thus when using the distributive rule for division,
the divisor has to be a single whole number, however the dividend can be an alge
braic sum. The divisor cannot be an algebraic sum.
1.1 Remember this counterexample of 3/(2+1) is not equal to 3/2 + 3/1.
38. Distributive Properties of 0. If a be any finite
quantity, and h any finite quantity or 0, then we have, by the
laws already established
( + a-a)x6= + (a&) - (a&) ;
that is to say
0x6 = (1);
and, in particular
0x0 = (2).
Again, if h be any finite quantity, excluding 0, we also have
( + a - a) -^ 6 = + (a 4- 6) - (a -f 6) ;
in other words
-^ 6 = (3).
The equations (1), (2), and (3) may be called the distributive
properties of zero.
NOTE ON THE DISTRIBUTIVE PROPERTY IN THE CASES OF "0" 11!:...
39. Excepted Operands. In laying down the laws of
Algebra we have assumed throughout that all operands are
finite definite quantities. Otherwise the operands so far may
have any finite value in the series of real quantity, except only
that may not be a divisor. It may be of interest to satisfy
the reader that the admission of division by as a general
algebraic operation would lead to contradiction. Let us
suppose that a is any finite quantity whatever ; then, if division
by is to be admissible as an algebraic operation, a-^0 must
have some finite value, h say. We should then have
a-^0 = 6 (1).
Again, we should deduce from (1) that
a-^ 0x0 = 6x0 (2).
If is to be admitted as an ordinary operand, a -^ x is, by
the mutual relation of multiplication and division, simply a.
On the other hand, 6 x 0, since 6 is finite, is 0. Hence (2)
P 44 DJVU P 68
asserts that a=0, wliicli contradicts our hypothesis that a is
any finite quantity whatever.
NOTE ON JUSTIFICATION OF DIVISION BY "0" LEADS TO INCONSISTENCY OF ALGEBRAIC RUL
ES INSTEAD OF TYPICAL REASON THAT "IT DOESN'T MAKE SENSE" 13!: Thus says that
if we allowed division by 0, then by mutual relation of division and multiplicat
ion a * 0 / 0 would equal "a", which would lead to contradictions.
1.1 These contradictions are important because if we want to generalize to lette
rs, we have to make sure for certain that these things make sense with concrete
arithmetical quantiites and are consistent.
It is a very common beginner's mistake to suppose that -^
is an admissible algebraic operation, and that its value is 1.
No such operation can be admitted as we have seen ; but it is
perhaps well that it should be seen that, even were it to be
admitted, it could not be asserted that the result is 1 in all
cases. This will be seen from the consideration of the three
quotients, x^-^x^ 2x-^x,x-i- x^. If it were the case that -^ is
admissible and equivalent to 1 in all cases, it would follow
that as x is made smaller and smaller each of these quotients
should approach more and more nearly to 1 ; whereas it is
obvious that the first becomes more and more nearly ; the
second is 2 ; and the third becomes greater and greater, and
can be made to exceed any given quantity whatever.
NOTE ON WHY 0/0 IS NOT "1" AND PRELUDE ON SHOWING THIS THROUGH AN UNNAMED PRELUD
E TO CALCULUS 12.5!: Thus
shows logically how making these approach 0, that tey approach different quantit
ies.
40. As we have now discussed all the fundamental laws
of Algebra, it will be convenient to give a synoptic table of
them for convenience of reference.
For the sake of brevity we have condensed the statements
by the use of double signs. Thus, instead of writing all
the different cases +( + a + &)=+( + a) + ( + &), +( + a-6) =
+ ( + a) + ( - 6), etc., we have written (a + h)= + ( a) ( 6),
the understanding being that the signs are to be taken from
corresponding places on both sides.
p 46 djvu p 70
41. Meaning of the Sign =, Identical and Conditional
Equations. The reader should here mark the exact significa-
tion of the sign = as hitherto used. It means " is transform-
abla.into by applying the laws of Algebra and the definitions of
the symbols or functions involved, without any assumption
regarding the operands in\ rived."
Any " equation " which i.: true in this sense is called an
"Identical Equation," or an "Identity" ; and must, in the first
p 47 djvu p 71
instance at least, Le carefully distinguished from an equation
the one side of which can be transformed into the other by
means of the laws of Algebra only when the operands involved have
particular values or satisfy some particular condition.
For example, {x+l){x - l) = oc^ - 1, and 3x2 + 2x2 = 5x2 are iden-
tities ; but 2a;- 3 = 03 + 1, and x + y=x^ + y^ are conditional equations.
Some writers constantly use the sign = for the former kind
of equation, and the sign = for the latter. There is much to
be said for this practice, and teachers will find it useful with
beginners. We have, however, for a variety of reasons,"^ adhered,
in general, to the old usage ; and have only introduced the
sign = occasionally in order to emphasise the distinction in
cases where confusion might be feared.
Chief among them is the view which will be found to pervade this
book, that all algebraic equality (which is not approximate) is, at bottom,
identity. The same is true of arithmetic equality. Algebra is, in short,
"The Calculus of Identity."
NOTE VERY VERY IMPORTANT ON THE MEANING OF THE "=" SIGN AND DIFFERENCE BETWEEN I
DENTITIES AND CONDITIONAL EQUATIONS 13!: Thus in general and both cases of iden
tity and conditional equation, "=" means
" is transformable into by applying the laws of Algebra and the definitions of t
he symbols or functions involved."
1.1 In the case fo identities it can be added " without any assumption regarding
the operands involved."
1.2 In case of conditional equations it means "an equation the one side of which
can be transformed into the other by
means of the laws of Algebra only when the operands involved have particular val
ues or satisfy some particular condition. "
1.3 Thus notice that in the case of identities there is an example with algebrai
c quantities, and the other example is with arithmetical quantities only. In bo
th cases
they are transformable to each other using the laws of algebra without any assum
ptions of the operands because essentially they are the opposite side, just in a
different form, maybe less, more, or equally complicated/reduced.
1.4 Thus says using the triple bar may be helpful for beginners, but this book o
nly occasionally uses it where there is likely to be confusion.
1.5 Says the main reason they didn't use the triple bar is because of the author
's point of view that at bottom,
all algebraic equality (which isn't approximate) is, at bottom, identity, and th
e same is true of arithmetic.
CONT TAKING NOTES ON THIS PAGE AT PART 42
Elementary Applications of the Laws of Algebra, more
PARTICULARLY OF THE LaW OF DISTRIBUTION
P 72 DJVU P 96
60. It will contribute to clearness if we study the genesis
and solution of a conditional equation in a simple concrete
instance. Consider the following problem : A man had a
certain number of shillings in his purse. He found that, if he
were to give each of six beggars a certain sum, he would have
five shillings left, but that if he were to give each of three
beggars the same sum he would have fourteen shillings left.
What sum did he propose to give to each beggar ?
Let X denote the number of shillings which he proposed to
give to each beggar ; then on the first supposition the number
of shillings in his purse is 6a; + 5 ; on the second supposition
the number is 3a; + 1 4 ; we must therefore have
6a;+5 = 3x+14 (1).
By the equation (l) taken in the abstract we mean that if
X be replaced by a certain number (in this case the number of
shillings proposed to be given to each beggar), then the left-
hand side of (1) can be transformed into the right by means
of the laws of Arithmetic, which are of course included in the
laws of Algebra. In short, we mean that, if a; have a certain
numerical value, (1) will be an identity. Our object, therefore,
is to find the value of x which vnll render (1) an identity ; this we
call solving tlie equation. The particular value of x thus found
we call the solution of the equation (or, in the case of equations
in a single variable, the root of the equation).
Although we do not as yet know the value (or values) of x
which makes (1) an identity, we may proceed to transform
the equation on the hypothesis that x has such a value. To
emphasise the fact that we make this hypothesis, we use in
what follows the distinctive sign of identity, viz. = .
^'^"^^ 6a; + 5 = 3a; + 14 (2),
we have
(6a; + 5) - (3a; + 5) = (3x + 1 4) - (3x + 5) (3).
Hence, by the laws of Algebra and the definition of the numerical
Bymbols, we liave .g^^g ^^^_
From (4) we have g^^g^g^j (5).
whence, by the laws of Algebra and the definition of the symbol
^'^^g-^* xs3 (6).
SKIPPED SOME
P 73 DJVU P 97
61. A study of the example of last paragraph leads us to
the following conclusions regarding a conditional equation in
general :
(1) Every conditional equation is a hypothetical identity; and
the process of solving it consists in finding a set of values for the
variable or variables, in terms of given or consta?it quantities* such
as will make the equation an actual identity.
This value or set of values is said to satisfy the equation.
(2) In every transformation of the equation we suppose the
variable or variables to have values such that the equation is an
identity. Every such transformation is therefore merely an aj>plica-
tion of one or more of the laws of Algebra.
(3) In each step of the process of solution we deduce from a
previous equation (A) another (B), which has all the solution or
solutions of (A).
An equation (B) which. has all the solutions that (A) has is
said to be a derivative of (A).
If all the solutions of (B) are also solutions of (A), the deriva-
tion is said to be reversible ; and the two equations, which then
have exactly the same solutions, are said to be ecLuivalent.
NOTE VERY VERY IMPORTANT ON WHAT IT MEANS TO "SOLVE" AND THE "SOLUTION" OF A CON
DITIONAL EQUATION 13!: ......
1.1 Thus the case of identities, one side is transformable to the other, withou
t any assumptions regarding the operands. However in conditional equations
one side is transformable to the other only when the operands have particular va
lues or satisfy some particular condition. Thus the "solution" to a conditiona
l equation means to
find these values or conditions that would make one side transformable to the ot
her and thus render it an identity.
1.2 We don't know beforehand the value (or values) of x which would make the con
ditional equation an identity, however we may proceed to transform the equation
on the hypothesis that x has such a value.
The author also tries and thinks it's important to emphasize this fact that we m
ake this hypothesis.
1.3 Notice that throughout the author says "by the laws of Algebra" and also
"by the definition of the numerical symbols", or "definition of the symbol".
Thus the author seems to see no need for a metaphor of a scale. By simply remem
bering hte laws of Algebra >and< the meaning and definition of the symbols (incl
uding the meaning
and definition of the symbols we use to represent numbers such as "9", and the m
eaning of number as well) we logically see the sense of how we go about to find
the "solution" in Algebra.
1.4 Thus an important phrase is "(1) Every conditional equation is a hypothetica
l identity; and
the process of solving it consists in finding a set of values for the
variable or variables, in terms of given or consta?it quantities* such
as will make the equation an actual identity."
1.5 Points (2) and (3) of section 61 are also important.