Philosophies of Education

Within the epistemological frame that focuses on the nature of

knowledge and how we come to know, there are four major educational
philosophies, each related to one or more of the general or world philosophies
just discussed. These educational philosophical approaches are currently used in
classrooms the world over. They are Perennialism, Essentialism, Progressivism, and
Reconstructionism. These educational philosophies focus heavily on WHAT we
should teach, the curriculum aspect.
Perennialism
For Perennialists, the aim of education is to ensure that students acquire
understandings about the great ideas of Western civilization. These ideas have
the potential for solving problems in any era. The focus is to teach ideas that are
everlasting, to seek enduring truths which are constant, not changing, as the
natural and human worlds at their most essential level, do not change. Teaching
these unchanging principles is critical. Humans are rational beings, and their
minds need to be developed. Thus, cultivation of the intellect is the highest
priority in a worthwhile education. The demanding curriculum focuses on
attaining cultural literacy, stressing students' growth in enduring disciplines. The
loftiest accomplishments of humankind are emphasized the great works of
literature and art, the laws or principles of science. Advocates of this
educational philosophy are Robert Maynard Hutchins who developed a Great

Books program in 1963 and Mortimer Adler, who further developed this
curriculum based on 100 great books of western civilization.
Essentialism
Essentialists believe that there is a common core of knowledge that needs to be
transmitted to students in a systematic, disciplined way. The emphasis in this
conservative perspective is on intellectual and moral standards that schools
should teach. The core of the curriculum is essential knowledge and skills and
academic rigor. Although this educational philosophy is similar in some ways to
Perennialism, Essentialists accept the idea that this core curriculum may change.
Schooling should be practical, preparing students to become valuable
members of society. It should focus on facts-the objective reality out there--and
"the basics," training students to read, write, speak, and compute clearly and
logically. Schools should not try to set or influence policies. Students should be
taught hard work, respect for authority, and discipline. Teachers are to help
students keep their non-productive instincts in check, such as aggression or
mindlessness. This approach was in reaction to progressivist approaches
prevalent in the 1920s and 30s. William Bagley, took progressivist approaches to
task in the journal he formed in 1934. Other proponents of Essentialism are:
James D. Koerner (1959), H. G. Rickover (1959), Paul Copperman (1978), and
Theodore Sizer (1985).

Progressivism
Progressivists believe that education should focus on the whole child, rather
than on the content or the teacher. This educational philosophy stresses that
students should test ideas by active experimentation. Learning is rooted in the
questions of learners that arise through experiencing the world. It is active, not
passive. The learner is a problem solver and thinker who makes meaning through
his or her individual experience in the physical and cultural context. Effective
teachers provide experiences so that students can learn by doing. Curriculum
content is derived from student interests and questions. The scientific method is
used by progressivist educators so that students can study matter and events
systematically and first hand. The emphasis is on process-how one comes to
know. The Progressive education philosophy was established in America from
the mid 1920s through the mid 1950s. John Dewey was its foremost proponent.
One of his tenets was that the school should improve the way of life of our
citizens through experiencing freedom and democracy in schools. Shared
decision making, planning of teachers with students, student-selected topics are
all aspects. Books are tools, rather than authority.
Reconstructionism/Critical Theory
Social reconstructionism is a philosophy that emphasizes the addressing of social
questions and a quest to create a better society and worldwide democracy.
Reconstructionist educators focus on a curriculum that highlights social reform as
the aim of education. Theodore Brameld (1904-1987) was the founder of social

reconstructionism, in reaction against the realities of World War II. He recognized
the potential for either human annihilation through technology and human
cruelty or the capacity to create a beneficent society using technology and
human compassion. George Counts (1889-1974) recognized that education was
the means of preparing people for creating this new social order.
Critical theorists, like social reconstructionists, believe that systems must be
changed to overcome oppression and improve human conditions. Paulo Freire
(1921-1997) was a Brazilian whose experiences living in poverty led him to
champion education and literacy as the vehicle for social change. In his view,
humans must learn to resist oppression and not become its victims, nor oppress
others. To do so requires dialog and critical consciousness, the development of
awareness to overcome domination and oppression. Rather than "teaching as
banking," in which the educator deposits information into students' heads, Freire
saw teaching and learning as a process of inquiry in which the child must invent
and reinvent the world.
For social reconstructionists and critical theorists, curriculum focuses on student
experience and taking social action on real problems, such as violence, hunger,
international terrorism, inflation, and inequality. Strategies for dealing with
controversial issues (particularly in social studies and literature), inquiry, dialogue,
and multiple perspectives are the focus. Community-based learning and
bringing the world into the classroom are also strategies.

Statement of Teaching Responsibilities
Assign students to appropriate clients or preceptors in clinical settings.
Post student clinical assignments the day before clinical experience when
it is possible to assign clients in advance.
Orient clinical students to the clinical facility as appropriate.
Complete agency specific orientation requirements and return validation
of that orientation to clinical facility as appropriate.
Represent College of Nursing to the affiliating agency in a positive
manner.
Identify and/or reserve a conference area to be used for pre- and post-
conference in the clinical area as needed.
Communicate to faculty and students in a timely manner any specific
requirements of clinical sites (i.e., special immunizations, parking
requirements, restrictions, orientations, etc.).
Establish and distribute to student, Associate Dean for the Undergraduate
Program, and RN-BSN Coordinator a communication tree should clinical
experience(s) need to be changed. Information should include agency,
unit number, and unit telephone number.
Orient all students to the clinical evaluation tool and evaluation process
at the beginning of the semester.
Evaluate students written work related to clinical assignments and return
to students in a timely manner.

Complete a clinical evaluation for each student based upon clinical
outcomes/objectives.
Keep each clinical student apprised of any clinical outcomes/objectives
not being met.
Notify Associate Dean for the Undergraduate Program and RN-BSN
Coordinator as soon as possible of any student who is at risk for clinical failure.
Distribute student evaluations of the clinical experience for all students to
complete at the conclusion of the semester.
Submit requests for clinical evaluation materials with date needed to the
Associate Dean for the Undergraduate Program in a timely manner.
Schedule appointments with each student to discuss the students clinical
evaluation for the semester.
Evaluate the appropriateness of the clinical setting regarding student
experiences and make recommendations about future utilization to the
Associate Dean for the Undergraduate Program.
Submit all completed faculty-initiated student evaluations to the Associate
Dean for the Undergraduate Program at the end of each semester by the
designated deadline.

Provide copies of the agency clinical evaluation form to clinical staff
members before the conclusion of each semester.
Actively participate in all course and/or level meetings as scheduled.
Collaborate with other faculty to support accomplishments of
course/clinical outcomes.
Recommend potential new agencies to the Clinical Coordinator and
evaluate them for their appropriateness using the College form provided by the
Clinical Coordinator.











Learning Goals
As subject matter experts in their field, faculty knows almost intuitively
what the most important things are that students must master. In order to
develop learning goals, faculty should answer the question, What do I want my
students to know or be able to do by the end of this course?
Developing a set of learning goals for a course takes what faculty know
but dont always state and puts it into a short list of real concepts that can
guide students and add clarity to teaching and learning. The overall goal for
teaching should be learning. When students know what they should be able to
do by the end of a course it will be less of a challenge for them to meet that
goal.
How can learning goals add value to teaching and learning?
Clearly defined learning goals contribute to a structure that surrounds a course
and can aid in selecting appropriate graded and ungraded assessments,
selecting relevant content for the course, and enhancing the assessment or
grading practices.
Remember that learning goals do not place limits on what you can teach in a
course. Instead, goals provide a map or signposts that tell students where the
course is going.

Learning goals can add to students sense of ownership in the learning
process helping them feel like they are on the inside logic of the course instead
of the outside.
Learning goals can be a useful communication tool. Faculty can describe
their course to colleagues and students by beginning with their goals.
Departments can gain a sense of curricular cohesiveness if multiple
courses have learning goals.
How do I begin developing learning goals for my course?
You are the expert in this process. Begin by relying on what you know
about the subject, what you know you can realistically teach in the course, and
what your students can realistically learn. As you begin developing learning
goals think of concepts, topics, important skills, and vital areas of learning
connected to your course. Make a list and dont worry about developing full
goal statements. That will come later. The list you develop is perhaps the most
important step in this exercise; it will form the basis for goals, assessments, and
the overall teaching and learning process. Share your list with colleagues. Let
them help you critique it. Keep returning to what can you realistically teach
and what can your students learn as a way of editing the list to something that
is manageable. Your list should help you answer the question, What do I want
my students to know or be able to do by the end of this course?

Consider the following points as you develop learning goals:
o Dont get trapped into thinking that you will only be able to teach to the
goals. Youre learning goals point out the high points and learners always
need to know all of the supporting content, theory, data, different points
of view, and relevant facts that support the high points.
o Keep the number of learning goals - manageable and realistic. The first
time you go through this exercise opt for a shorter list knowing that you
can edit it as needed. Five or six goals might be a good starting point.
o Write goal statements that begin with action verbs. By using verbs that
specify action, the outcome is more likely to be measurable. Actions help
identify what needs to be assessed (did this student develop a plan,
facilitate a process, establish a relationship, present a solution?)
o Use language that is discipline-specific and appropriate to your field.
o Think about goals that are valuable to you and your students. Consider
how discipline specific goals map to broader skills attainment (e.g., critical
thinking, analytical resasoning and written/oral communication.
o Think about your teaching experience. What evidence tells you that
students have met your expectations? How would you know that they are
getting it? In other words, learning goals should be measurable; you will
need evidence that the goal was or was not achieved.
o Several examples of learning goals taken from UC Berkeley
undergraduate courses

By the end of this course students will be able to:
o Identify major figures and ideas in peace movements from around the
world.
o Formulate a well-organized argument supported by evidence.
o Communicate effectively in the language of the target country and read
appropriate vernacular materials in our field.
o Practice ethical behavior while engaging in service learning.
o Demonstrate the ability to read, evaluate and interpret general
economic information.
o Apply the necessary mathematical tools to solving complex design
problems.
o Apply scientific principles to analyze mechanical systems of importance
to society.
o Analyze media images and narratives.
o Apply research methods in psychology, including design, data analysis,
and interpretation to a research project.
Communicate effectively in an oral presentation.
List of Action Verbs
Knowledge Comprehension Application Analysis Synthesis Evaluation
define choose act analyze adapt appraise

describe
examine
identify
indicate
know
label
list
match
name
outline
recall
recognize
record
relate
reproduce
restate
select
show
state
cite
convert
defend
describe
detect
discuss
distinguish
estimate
explain
extend
generalize
give examples
identify
infer
locate
paraphrase
predict
recognize
rephrase
report
restate
administer
apply
change
collect
compute
construct
control
convert
demonstrate
derive
develop
diagram
discover
employ
estimate
facilitate
generalize
help
illustrate
implement
interpret
appraise
assess
break down
calculate
categorize
classify
compare
contrast
debate
deduce
describe
detect
diagram
differentiate
discriminate
distinguish
elicit
examine
extrapolate
identify
illustrate
arrange
articulate
assemble
collaborate
combine
communicate
compose
consolidate
construct
create
design
develop
devise
establish
explain
formulate
generate
incorporate
initiate
integrate
intervene
assess
collaborate
compare
conclude
contrast
criticize
critique
describe
discriminate
estimate
evaluate
explain
interpret
judge
justify
measure
rate
reconsider
reflect
relate
summarize

select
summarize
manipulate
modify
operate
perform
practice
predict
prepare
present
produce
provide
regulate
schedule
share
show
solve
use
infer
inspect
question
recognize
reflect
relate
select
solve
sort
systematize
tabulate
test
justify
manage
modify
organize
plan
predict
prepare
propose
reflect
relate
revise
summarize
synthesize
tell
write
support
validate
verify
Linking Learning Goals to Course Assignments
Once you have developed a set of course learning goals, its time to begin
thinking about linking them to the rest of your course and to assignments, in
particular.

Begin by answering the question: What evidence do I need to know that my
students have met the goals for this course?
The primary source of evidence of learning will come from the course
assignments that students produce.
The work each student produces is the direct evidence of learning. This is likely
the best way to evaluate learning in most courses.
Indirect evidence of learning is seen in things like course evaluations in which
students might comment that they learned a lot.
The evidence you will be looking for will be familiar (papers, exams,
presentations) but now you want to connect the course goals to these
assignments
When selecting assessments consider the constraints of your course (class size,
expertise of the students, workload for faculty, students, GSIs).
Can your students successfully meet a goal through one assessment?
Can multiple goals be included in a single, more complex assessment?
Designing assignments linked to goals
As you begin the process of designing course assignments, answer these
questions:
What goal or goals are associated with the assignment?

What are the components of the goal?
If you have a course goal that states that students should be able to
Formulate a well-organized argument supported by evidence the
components of that goal might be that students need to:
Demonstrate depth and breadth of understanding
Present information in a clear and organized way
Incorporate a variety of sources of evidence
Use accurate grammar and mechanics
This is a vital step in the process of linking goals with assessments. By
identifying the components of a learning goal, you begin to make the
teaching and learning process more transparent. Knowing what the
components of a goal are will help in writing the assignment description
and will be very valuable in the grading process.








What is the function of teaching? What is its objective be?
Broadly speaking, the function of teachers is to help students learn by
imparting knowledge to them and by setting up a situation in which students
can and will learn effectively. But teachers fill a complex set of roles, which vary
from one society to another and from one educational level to another. Some
of these roles are performed in the school, some in the community.
Roles in the school or university
Mediator of learning
Disciplinarian or controller of student behaviour
Parent substitute
Confidant to students
Judge of achievement
Organizer of curriculum
Bureaucrat
Scholar and research specialist
Member of teachers organization
Roles in the community
Public servant

Surrogate of middle-class morality
Expert in some area of knowledge or skills
Community leader
Agent of social change
In those areas in which teaching has not yet become a profession, the teacher
may fill fewer of these roles. The primary-school teacher in a simple agricultural
society, for example, will fill only the first five of the school roles and the first and
possibly the second of the community roles.











Which student learning goals are fundamental to good teaching?
There are several ways to identify the goals you think most important from
among the many you have for the course. Wiggins and McTighe (Backward
Design) suggest that you begin this sorting process by distinguishing three
different categories of things that students might learn in a particular course:
o What is merely worth being familiar with?
o What is important for students to know and/or do?
o What enduring understanding or lasting impact do you want students to
gain?
What is merely worth being familiar with? To put something in this category is not
to say that it's unimportant. Instead, it is to say that students don't need to learn
these things in intricate detail at this level of study so that they will remember
them years later. For example, when preparing an introductory course you
might decide that even though students don't need to remember after
completing the course all of the details of the debate between two influential
scholars in the field, you could still expect students to be able to explain what is
at stake in such debates. Demonstrating this ability in an examination or paper
in the course might require knowing details of this particular debate, but what is
crucial over the long term is the ability to tease these things out in other
situations rather than the ability to memorize names and statements.
What is important for students to know and/or do? Items in this category include
content knowledge that you expect students to understand in some depth and

skills that you expect students to master. This knowledge and these skills are
crucial to the subject of the course, and students simply must develop their
understanding of the concepts and develop the skills. They are worth knowing in
themselves, and they are particularly valuable in that they enable one to
unpack and express the even more crucial understandings that you identify as
enduring.
What enduring understanding or lasting impact do you want students to gain?
The enduring understanding includes the central themes that hold everything
together for the course and the material being studied. These are the
understandings that you hope students will remember several years after
completing the course. Your course-level student learning goals will likely be built
primarily out of these enduring understandings. This last reference to "course-
level student learning goals" introduces an important point. While we have
focused here on developing student learning goals for an entire course, it is also
a good discipline to develop learning goals for each particular class sessions
and assignments. Each of these lower-level goals would be directed to the
meeting of one or more of the course-level goals, and all of them together
should align with and support the structure of the course as a whole.
Note that student learning goals are different from teaching strategies and
content. As noted above, student learning goals focus on student outputs. In
contrast, teaching strategies specify inputs such as content, instructional
materials and delivery, readings/text, and guest speakers. We discuss teaching

strategies in another section of this guide; they are an important aspect of
course development, but they are not the same thing as learning goals!
Work toward precision and specificity in your learning goals. Clear,well-
articulated learning goals will work to the advantage of both professor and
student as the course plays out. Use verbs that clearly state actions that are
observable and measurable. The advantage of goals stated in such language is
that they indicate clearly just how the student will be expected to demonstrate
his or her understanding. For example, instead of saying more generally that a
student will be able to think like a biologist (or historian, or psychologist), push
harder to define the particular tasks in the field of biology that a student who
completes your class successfully should be able to do. What are the steps
involved in these tasks, and how will you determine that a student is actually
completing each of these tasks? Frame your goal (e.g., that a student will be
able to think like a biologist) in terms of the behaviors that will demonstrate to
you that the student has met the goal.