Steam Jet Ejectors in Pilot and Production Plants

Sincepilot plant work ison a small scale, thetypesof steamjet ejectors

that areused arenot necessarily scaled-down versionsof production
plant ejectors. Economy of steamand water isnot thegoverningfactor;
first cost isof moreinterest.
W. D. MAINS R. E. RICHENBERG
GRAHAM MANUFACTURING CO., INC., GREAT NECK, NY GRAHAM MANUFACTURING CO., INC., BATAVIA, NY
S
TEAM JET EJECTORSARE EMPLOYED in the chemical
process industries and refineries in numerous and very often
unusual ways. They provide, in most cases, the best way to pro-
duce a vacuum in these process plants because they are rugged
and of simple constructiontherefore, easily maintained. Their
capacities can be varied from the very smallest to enormous quan-
tities. Because of their simplicity and the manner of their
construction, difficulties are unusual under the most extreme con-
ditions. They are simple to operate. Ejectors which are properly
designed for a given situation are very forgiving of errors in esti-
mated quantities to be handled and of upsets in operation and are
found to be easily changed to give the exact results required.
In pilot plant operations all of these are important functions,
because in a pilot plant a great deal of information is usually
unknown, and something must be selected which will operate
over a very wide range.
Therefore, this article will outline the differences between ejectors
for a pilot plant and those for a production plant, pointing out
that pilot plant ejectors are not just small editions of production
plant ejectors.
In order to become fully versed in the essential elements that
make up a steam jet ejector, the principle of operation will be
considered first.
In reference to Figure 1, there are the following parts:
1. The steam chest through which the propelling steam is
admitted
2. The steam nozzle through which the propelling steam
expands and converts its pressure energy into kinetic energy
3. The air chamber through which the air, gas, or vapor to be
evacuated enters and distributes itself around the steam noz-
zle
4. The diffuser through which the steam and entrained load is
compressed and discharged at some pressure higher than the
suction
All steam ejectors, no matter how many stages and whether they
are condensing or noncondensing, operate on this principle, each
stage being another compressor.
TYPES OF EJECTORS
Ejectors may, in one sense, be put into two categories: condensing
and noncondensing. Figure 2 illustrates a three-stage condensing
air ejector and a three-stage noncondensing air ejector.
The condensing type utilizes condensers between ejector stages to
remove condensable vapor and, therefore, require a source of
cooling water. The noncondensing ejector has its stages connected
directly together, with succeeding stages handling the motive
steam from preceding stages. This type requires no cooling water.
However, it uses considerably more steam than the condensing
type to handle a given load.
Ejectors for pilot plants differ from production plant units inas-
much as noncondensing~type units are normally recommended
wherever possible. However, they may be, and sometimes are,
similar. Of course, pilot plant ejectors are smaller, since they are
designed to handle a smaller load than handled by full-size pro-
duction plant ejectors.
In Figure3, notetheplot of ejectorswhich havebeen selected for
standard-sizeplants. To makeup thisfamily of curves, steam and
water consumption havebeen considered, and theejector typeshown
isonethat hasa reasonablesteam consumption with a reasonable
first cost. Usually, higher first cost meanslower steam consumption
and better economy in the long run.
Chemical EngineeringProcess, March 1967 1
Figure1. Conversion of steampressureinto velocityin thesteam
nozzleand conversion of velocityinto pressurein thediffuser.
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Steam Jet Ejectors
Bulletin 5E-H
Introduction
Schutte & Koerting has a century of experience in
designing and building efficient jet vacuum ejectors. This
vast experience allows S & K to handle virtually any jet
ejector applicationno matter how complex.
Steam Jet Ejectors are based on the ejector-venturi
principle. In operation, steam issuing through an
expanding nozzle has its pressure energy converted to
velocity energy. A vacuum is created, air or gas is
entrained and the mixture of gas and steam enters the
venturi diffuser where its velocity energy is converted into
pressure sufficient to discharge against a predetermined
back pressure.
Jet vacuum ejectors are readily available in ductile iron,
steel, stainless steel and, on special order, in many more
Index
Description Page
Introduction 1
Advantages 2
Performance Characteristics 3
SINGLE STAGE EJECTORS
Fig. 556 (Standard Construction) 4
Fig. 555H (Haveg) 5
Fig. 562/555G (Graphite) 6
Fig. 557/542 (Flanged) 7
MULTI-STAGE EJECTORS
Condensing and Non-Condensing Types 9
Two Stage 10
Three Stage 11
Four, Five, and Six Stage 12
Ejectors with Surface Condensers 13
Non-Condensing Types 13
Low Level Vacuum Units 14
Corrosion Resistant Units 14
Vacuum Boosters 15
Application Considerations 16
Measurement of Low Absolute Pressures 16
Quotation Information 17
Applications 18
materials such as Monel, Alloy 20, Hastelloy, Silicon
Carbide, Titanium, Bronze and others. They can also be
made from a variety of nonmetals such as Haveg,
Graphite and Teflon.
Steam jet ejectors are used in the process, food, steel
and allied industries in connection with such operations
as filtration, distillation, absorption, mixing, vacuum
packaging, freeze drying, dehydrating and degassing.
They will handle both condensable and non-condensable
gases and vapors as well as mixtures of the two. Small
amounts of solids or liquids will not cause operating
problems. Accidental entrainment of liquid slugs can
cause momentary interruption in pumping, but no
damage to equipment.
All S & K ejectors are computer designed and type-tested
to insure reliability.
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Steam Jet Ejectors
Bulletin 5E-H
Advantages
The principal advantages of steam jet ejectors over other
types of vacuum producing units are...
LOW COST. Pumps of the ejector type are small in relation
to the work they do and their cost is low in comparison
with other types of equipment.
No MOVING PARTS. These units have no moving parts to
adjust or repair.
SIMPLE, COMPACT CONSTRUCTION. Nothing could be
simpler than a jet vacuum ejector. It consists of an
expanding nozzle, a body, and a venturi (or diffuser).
RELIABILITY. Because of their inherent simplicity, these
pumps are reliable. Maintenance requirements are
simple and are easily accomplished.
CORROSION/EROSION RESISTANCE. Units can be made in
practically any workable material to provide utmost
resistance to corrosion and erosion. Standard models are
supplied in a choice of materials as indicated in this
bulletin.
EASY INSTALLATION. Relatively light in weight, jet ejectors
are easy to install, require no foundations. Even multi-
stage units are readily adaptable to existing conditions.
HIGH VACUUM PERFORMANCE. Steam jet ejectors can
handle air or other gases at suction pressures as low as
three microns Hg. abs.
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Bulletin 5E-H
Steam Jet Ejectors
Fig. 3. Suction Pressure Ranges of Single and Multi-Stage Steam Jet Ejectors.
Fig. 4. Suction Pressure Ranges of Single-Stage Ejectors.
Performance Characteristics
The graph, Fig. 3, shows the relative suction
pressure capabilities of S & K Steam Jet
Ejectors from single-stage through six-stage
types. It can be seen that in some cases units
overlap. When this occurs, a detailed
comparison of initial costs and steam
consumption should be made before making a
decision as to the exact type required to meet
specific requirements. S & K engineers should
be consulted for their recommendations based
on experience in many applications. Single-
Stage Ejectors are made in several models to
meet various suction pressure requirements.
Fig. 4 shows the range of suction pressure
offered by each model.
A feature of the standard S & K line is that users
can select a size ideally suited for individual
requirements. In addition, a new and carefully
tested design provides far greater capacities
than ever before available. The smallest size
unit now covers a range that previously required
two ejectors of earlier design.
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1000 MM
100 MM
100 MICRON
10 MICRON
1 MICRON
10 MM
1 MM
1 2 3 4 5 6
810 M Normal Design Discharge Pressure
Lower End Indicates
Zero Suction Capacity
Stages
S
u
c
t
i
o
n

P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

H
g
.

A
b
s
.
O
N
E
T
W
O
T
H
R
E
E
F
I
V
E
F
O
U
R
S
I
X
Relative Suction Capacity - PPH Dry Air
S
u
c
t
i
o
n

P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

-

I
n
.

H
g
.

A
b
s
.
0
1 1000
30
S-8
S-7
S-6
S-5
S-4
S-3
S-2
S-1
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Steam Jet Ejectors
Bulletin 5E-H
SINGLE-STAGE EJECTORS
FIG. 556 STANDARD CONSTRUCTION
Application
S & K Single Stage Ejectors are designed to cover a suction pressure
range from 1" to 30 " Hg Absolute utilizing eight specific internals as
shown in Fig. 4, page 3 and are used in application of the type noted on
page 4.
Each of the "S" types indicated will produce the most economical
performance in its specific suction pressure range.
Construction
The standard Fig. 556 Single Stage Ejector comprises a converging-
diverging steam nozzle, a body or suction chamber, and a venturi tail
(diffuser).
Sizes 1" through 4" are cast in ductile iron with Type 316 stainless steel
Fig. 5. Fig. 556 Steam Jet Ejector.
Fig. 6. Fig. 556 Steam jet Ejector. This
design is standard for models with
1, 1 1/2, 2, 2 1/2, 3 and 4 suction
connections.
Fig. 7. Fig. 556 design for models
with 5 and 6 suction connections.
Size
in
Inches
Unit Dimensions Connections
Net
Weight
(Lbs.)
A B C D E F G
1 11 19/64 8 7/8 2 27/64 2 7/8 1 1 3/4 14
1 1/2 16 7/16 13 1/4 3 3/16 3 3/8 1 1/2 1 1/2 1 18
2 21 9/16 17 11/16 3 7/8 3 5/8 2 2 1 1/4 36
2 1/2 26 41/64 22 1/16 4 37/64 3 7/8 2 1/2 2 1/2 1 1/2 65
3 31 43/64 26 7/16 5 15/64 4 5/8 3 3 2 104
4 42 27/64 35 5/16 7 7/64 5 7/8 4 4 2 1/2 203
5 53 55/64 45 7/8 7 63/64 7 1/2 6 5 3 300
6 64 21/64 54 1/2 9 53/64 7 1/2 6 6 3 450
steam nozzle. Sizes 5 " and 6" still have the ductile iron body but tails
fabricated from steel. Details of construction and dimensions are shown
in Figures 6, and 7. The standard primary stage of a two-stage ejector
system (page 9), designated as Fig. 541, is constructed in the same
manner and externally follows the dimension in Table 1.
Sizes above 6" are made to special order and are generally 100%
fabricated.
Ductile iron has strength characteristics similar to steel while retaining
many desirable features of cast iron. It is often used as a substitute for
steel. Units, however, can be supplied in steel, stainless steel and other
alloy utilizing barstock diffusers (see page 1).
S & K maintains sufficient parts inventory to assure component
availability in all standard sizes in ductile iron and stainless steel for fast
turnaround.
On special orders, ejectors can be supplied in Steel, Monel, Alloy 20,
Hastelloy, Titanium, Teflon, Haveg, Graphite (pages 5 and 6) and many
other materials.
Table 1. Sizes and Dimensions of Fig. 556 Ejectors (Standard Construction)
Note: Suction and discharge flanges are 150 Ib. ANSI.
D
G
E
C
B A
F
Pressure
Connection
(Steam)
Suction
Connection
(air or other gases)
Discharge
Connection
(Mixture)
Pressure
Connection
(Steam)
Suction
Connection
(air or other gases)
Discharge
Connection
(Mixture)
Pipe Plug
Body
Removable
Nozzle
Removable
Venturi
Tail
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Bulletin 5E-H
Steam Jet Ejectors
SINGLE-STAGE EJECTORS
FIG. 555H HAVEG CONSTRUCTION
Application
Designed for handling many solvents, as well
as acids and corrosive vapors, Fig. 555H
Steam Jet Ejectors are made from Haveg of
various types. Haveg resists rapid temperature
change and can be used continuously with
temperatures as high as 265 F. It is durable
and has excellent resistance to corrosion.
Construction
The standard unit is constructed of Haveg 61
with a graphite nozzle. Haveg 61 is a furfuryl
alcohol-formaldehyde resin with a non-
asbestos silicate filler and is used for body and
diffuser. A high grade of impervious Graphite is
used for the steam nozzle. Special applications
may require a different grade of Haveg
material.
The Fig. 555H Ejector has a one-piece molded
Haveg body and diffuser - eliminating a joint
between these parts, a steel steam chest and
a steam nozzle of Graphite. The bolts holding
the steam chest extend the full length of the
exhauster and fasten to the exhaust pipe. This
holds the body and diffuser in compression and
eliminates any tendency of the diffuser to break
away from the body.
Dimensions and sizes of 1 to 4 Fig. 555H
Haveg Ejectors are shown below. Haveg is a
plastic material which has been subjected to
thermal processing and pressure. Jet ejectors
made from this material in the grades available
are tough and durable and are resistant to
many acids, bases, and salts.
Fig. 9. Fig. 555H Haveg Ejector.
Fig. 10. Fig. 555H Steam Jet Ejector made of
Haveg. Nozzles are interchangeable with
those used in the Type 562 Ejector
described on page 6.
Table 2. Sizes and Dimensions of Fig. 555H Ejector (Haveg Construction)
Size
No.
(Inches)
Connections Dimensions Approx.
Shipping
Wgt. (Lbs.)
Suction Discharge
Steam
Inlet
E F G H
1 1 1/2 1 1/2 1/2 17 1/4 4 13 1/4 4 18
1 1/2 1 1/2 2 1/2 17 1/4 2 1/2 13 1/4 4 18
2 2 2 1/2 3/4 22 5/16 3 17 11/16 4 1/2 27
2 1/2 2 1/2 3 3/4 27 5/16 3 1/2 22 1/16 5 38
3 3 3 1 32 4 1/4 26 7/16 5 1/2 51
4 4 3 1 1/4 43 7/16 5 1/4 35 5/16 6 1/2 76
5 5 4 1 1/4
ON APPLICATION 6 6 5 3
8 8 6 3
G
E
F
H
Pressure
Connection
(steam)
Suction
Connection
(air or
other gases)
Tie Bolts
Removable
Nozzle
Body and
Venturi
Tail Piece
(one piece
construction)
Discharge
Connection
(mixture)
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Steam Jet Ejectors
Bulletin 5E-H
SINGLE-STAGE EJECTORS
FIG. 562/555G GRAPHITE CONSTRUCTION
Application
This type Steam Jet Ejector is designed to resist the corrosive
effects of vapors from a large number of acid and salt solutions.
Construction
Specially constructed to make it non-porous and immune to the
effects of the vapors mentioned above, this Single-Stage
Ejector has a bronze steam chest, an impervious Graphite body,
nozzle, and tail bushing. External fiberglass armoring (Fig.
555G), which will add strength and assist in withstanding the
effects of corrosion, is provided in 4", 5 ", 6", and 8" sizes. (See
Fig. 13.)
Fig. 12. Fig. 562 Steam Jet Ejector, constructed
of impervious Graphite. Ejectors with 4" and
above suction and pressure connections have
fiberglass armoring. Nozzles are
interchangeable with those used in the Fig.
555H Pump described on page 5.
Fig. 13. Sectional drawing showing design
and components of the fiberglass-armored
Fig. 555G Graphite Ejector (4 and above).
Fig. 14. Fig. 562 Ejectors with suction and
discharge connections of less than 4 are
metal armored as shown here.
Table 3. Sizes and Dimensions of Fig. 562/555G Ejectors (Graphite Construction)
Size
No.
(Inches)
Connections Dimensions Approx.
Shipping
Wgt. (Lbs.)
Suction Discharge
Steam
Inlet
J K L M
1 1/2 1 1/2 1 1/2 1/2 19 13/16 4 7/8 12 3/4 3 60
2 2 2 3/4 22 5/8 5 1/2 14 3/4 3 1/4 75
2 1/2 2 1/2 2 1/2 3/4 26 7/16 6 18 1/16 3 3/8 89
3 3 2 1/2 1 30 7/16 6 1/8 21 13/16 3 3/4 122
4 4 3 1 1/4 40 7/8 5 5/8 35 1/4 6 1/4 260
5 6 5 3 52 3/8 6 1/2 45 7/8 8 320
6 6 6 3 61 6 1/2 54 1/2 8 400
8 8 6 3 ON APPLICATION
M
K
L
J
Pressure
Connection
(Steam)
Body
Suction
Connection
(Air or Other Gases)
Venturi
Removable
Tail Piece
Discharge
Connection
(Mixture)
Pressure
Connection
(Steam)
Suction
Connection
(Air or Other Gases)
Body
Removable
Nozzle
Venturi
Removable
Tail Piece
Discharge
Connection
(Mixture)
A number of features make the design of this ejector
noteworthy. In addition, the Graphite is specially impregnated to
avoid leakage.
The steam chest is equipped with a stainless steel steam
strainer basket which is retained in place by a strainer plug. The
strainer plug is fitted with a pipe plug for easy inspection of
nozzle and strainer without removing steam lines or strainer
assembly. This plug may also be used to connect a steam
pressure gauge.
The diffuser and steam nozzle are accurately machined for
maximum steam economy. Dimensions and sizes from 1 1/2" to
6" are shown below.
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Bulletin 5E-H
Steam Jet Ejectors
SINGLE-STAGE EJECTORS
FIG. 557/542 SINGLE-STAGE EJECTOR
RELIABLE VACUUM PERFORMANCE
Application
Designed to cover a suction pressure range from 1 to
29 Hg absolute
Unit re-designed to offer integral cast motive flange
Standard components in stock to allow for fast
turnaround
Units can be placed in series to attain high vacuum
levels
Construction
Body: Investment cast in SST 316
Tail: Investment cast or fab with choice of SST 316 or
carbon steel
Motive connection available with 150# or 300# flanges
FIG. 557/542
5 3 5 1 6 4 2 7
Mark
No.
Description
1 Body
2 Tail
3 Nozzle
4 Capscrews
5 Pipe Plug
6 Gasket
7 Backing Flange (when needed)
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Steam Jet Ejectors
Bulletin 5E-H
UNIT
SIZE
UNIT DIMENSIONS
E F
MOTIVE
SIZE
NET
WT
LBS
A B C D G
1 14 1/2 8 7/8 5 5/8 2 7/8 1 1 3/4 23
1 1/2 20 13 1/4 6 3/4 3 3/8 1 1/2 1 1/2 1 27
2 25 1/4 17 11/16 7 9/16 3 5/8 2 2 1 1/2 54
2 1/2 30 1/4 22 1/16 8 3/16 3 7/8 2 1/2 2 1/2 1 1/2 83
3 36 3/4 26 7/16 10 5/16 4 5/8 3 3 2 126
4 47 5/16 35 5/16 12 5 7/8 4 4 2 1/2 222
5 59 45 7/8 12 7 1/2 6 5 3 343
6 69 1/2 54 1/2 12 7 1/2 6 6 3 493
Fig. 557/542 150# RF Motive Connection
Fig. 557/542 300# RF Motive Connection
D
E
C
DISCHARGE150#RF
SUCTION 150 # RF
MOTIVE 150 # RF
F
G
B
A
D
E
C
DISCHARGE150#RF
SUCTION 150 # RF
MOTIVE 300 # RF
F
G
B
A
UNIT
SIZE
UNIT DIMENSIONS
E F
MOTIVE
SIZE
NET
WT
LBS
A B C D G
1 14 1/2 8 7/8 5 5/8 2 7/8 1 1 3/4 23
1 1/2 20 13 1/4 6 3/4 3 3/8 1 1/2 1 1/2 1 27
2 25 1/4 17 11/16 7 9/16 3 5/8 2 2 1 1/2 54
2 1/2 30 1/4 22 1/16 8 3/16 3 7/8 2 1/2 2 1/2 1 1/2 83
3 36 3/4 26 7/16 10 5/16 4 5/8 3 3 2 126
4 47 5/16 35 5/16 12 5 7/8 4 4 2 1/2 222
5 57 7/8 45 7/8 12 7 1/2 6 5 3 343
6 66 1/2 54 1/2 12 7 1/2 6 6 3 493
SINGLE-STAGE EJECTORS
FIG. 557/542 SINGLE-STAGE EJECTOR
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Bulletin 5E-H
Steam Jet Ejectors
MULTI-STAGE EJECTORS
Staging of ejectors becomes necessary for economical
operation as the required absolute suction pressure
decreases (see Fig. 3, page 3).
Based upon the use of auxiliary equipment, two and
three-stage ejectors can be either condensing or non-
condensing types. Four, five and six-stage units can also
be non-condensing, but usually are condensing types.
Condensing Type Ejectors (Fig. 16) have an
intercondenser between ejectors that reduces steam
consumption in later stages by (1) condensing first stage
operating steam and condensable vapors; and (2)
cooling the air and other non-condensables. The
intercondenser may be direct-contact or surface type,
arranged barometrically or low-level. Pages 10, 11 and 12
contain additional details on the Condensing Type
Ejector.
When the condenser is mounted at barometric elevation,
drainage is by gravity through a sealed tail leg so
condenser and suction lines will not flood if steam service
is interrupted or loss of vacuum occurs.
A ground-level arrangement suitable for many
applications is shown on page 14, Fig. 26. This type of
Fig. 16. Condensing Type.
Fig. 17. Non-Condensing Type.
steam jet ejector is ideal for use when service conditions
prohibit locating condensers at barometric height and
direct contact condensing is permitted.
Non-Condensing Type Ejectors (Fig. 17) have the first
stage ejector discharging directly into the suction of the
second stage ejector and so on, using no condensers.
Compared to the Condensing Type Ejector, this
arrangement imposes a greater load on subsequent
stages, requiring more operating steam and larger units
following. Non-Condensing Type Ejectors are used where
condensers are not feasible, where initial cost is more
important than operating cost, or when service is to be
intermittent making operating cost a secondary
consideration.
Both Condensing Type Ejectors and Non-Condensing
Type Ejectors can be supplied with after-condensers. The
aftercondenser condenses the operating steam and any
condensable vapors before the non-condensables are
discharged to atmosphere.
Except for units of low capacity or those used for
intermittent service, condensing units are more
economical in operation than non-condensing types,
although initial cost may be higher. For photos of Multi-
Stage Non-Condensing Ejectors, refer to page 13.
Steam Inlet
Suction
H.V. Ejector
Tail Pipe
Water Inlet Steam Inlet
L.V.
Ejector
Tail Pipe
Water Inlet
Discharge
After
Cond.
Inter
Cond.
Steam Inlet
Suction
H.V. Ejector
Steam Inlet
L.V.
Ejector
Tail Pipe
Water Inlet
Discharge
After
Cond.
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Steam Jet Ejectors
Bulletin 5E-H
MULTI-STAGE EJECTORS
TWO-STAGE EJECTORS
Application
Two-Stage Steam Jet Ejectors have the same general
field of application as the single stage units. They handle
both condensable and non-condensable gases or vapors,
as well as mixtures of the two. The general operating
range is between 5" Hg. abs. and 3 mm Hg. abs.
Depending on conditions, however, a single-stage unit
may be more economical at the top of the range and a
three-stage unit near the bottom.
Operation
In the two-stage assemblies, the suction mixture enters
the body of the primary stage, or High Vacuum (H.V.)
Ejector, Fig. 541, and is compressed from the required
suction to an intermediate pressure less than
atmospheric. The secondary stage or Low Vacuum (L.V.)
Ejector, Fig. 556 compresses from this point to
atmosphere, or to a point where it is desired to utilize the
ejector discharge.
Exact value of the intermediate pressure varies with the
operating conditions and the type of two-stage assembly.
The units have been designed for optimum inter-stage
pressure.
In condensing units, the inter-condenser functions as
previously described. This reduces the load on the low
vacuum ejector and reduces steam consumption. The
intercondenser may be a direct-contact barometric type,
a low level type, or surface type. These are discussed in
more detail on pages 12, 13 and 14.
In small size units, and where cooling water is not
economically available, the intercondenser may be
eliminated, resulting in a two-stage non-condensing unit.
When the suction load contains a large amount of
condensable vapors, it is sometimes possible to use a
surface or direct-contact pre-condenser, or pre-cooler to
reduce the load on the first stage ejector (Fig. 18). Also, if
it is objectionable to discharge the low vacuum exhauster
directly to atmosphere, an aftercondenser can be used to
condense the steam and other condensables, as well as
Iower the noise level. Direct-Contact Condensers for this
function are described in Bulletin 5AA.
Non-condensing two-stage units can be used when
conditions warrant this type of arrangement. A typical
arrangement is shown on page 13.
FIg. 18. Five Two-Stage Steam Jet Ejectors equipped with pre-condensers
are shown installed on the roof of a chemical plant. Tailpipes on
condensers are offset downward at a 45 degree angle to allow free flow of
discharge water.
Fig. 19. The Two-Stage Non-Condensing
Ejectors shown here are made of Haveg. The
piston-operated shut-off valve shown in the
suction line permits operation of the pump
from a central control panel.
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Bulletin 5E-H
Steam Jet Ejectors
MULTI-STAGE EJECTORS
THREE-STAGE EJECTORS
Application
Three-Stage Ejectors are recommended for
applications where a two-stage unit will not provide low
enough suction pressure economically. Applicable
range is from 26 mm Hg. abs. to 0.8 mm Hg. abs. but
economics might dictate use of a Two-Stage Ejector at
the upper part of the range and a Four-Stage Ejector at
the lower end.
Operation
Three-Stage Condensing Steam Jet Ejectors consist of
a booster ejector, a booster condenser, and a Two-
Stage Ejector consisting of a high-vacuum ejector,
intercondenser, and low vacuum ejector. In some
applications another condenser (after-condenser) can
be used at the low vacuum ejector discharge.
The type condensers can be direct contact or surface
type arranged barometrically or low level. (See pages
10, 13 and 14).
The most economical type of three-stage ejector
system uses direct-contact, barometric, countercurrent
condensers which permit gravity drainage of the
condensate and condensing water and eliminate the
need for removal pumps. In cases where it is not
possible to install the unit at barometric height (about
34 feet), the low-level arrangement (Fig. 26, page 14)
can be used. In instances where contaminants are
introduced into the condensers and cannot be
discharged directly into drains, surface condensers are
used to prevent discharge to drains and permit
recovery or treatment of the contaminants.
In condensing units, the booster ejector operates at
very high vacuum and discharges into a booster
condenser. Process and booster ejector steam is
condensed and the air and non-condensables are
cooled and pass over to the second stage ejector. This
continues through to the last stage (low vacuum
ejector) where they are compressed to atmosphere or,
if desired, into an aftercondenser. Cooling of non-
condensables reduces the load on succeeding
ejectors and minimizes steam consumption.
In general, units with direct-contact condensers require
less steam and cooling water than do those with
surface condensers.
Three-Stage Ejectors can also be of the non-
condensing type. They consist of a booster ejector,
high-vacuum ejector, and low-vacuum ejector, each
connected to the other by piping. From the third stage,
discharge is made to atmosphere or to a point where it
is desired to utilize the ejector discharge.
Fig. 20. Typical Three-
Stage Steam Jet
Ejector. This unit is
used in processing
vegetable oils.
Fig. 21. Three-Stage Steam Jet Ejector. The booster ejector diffuser should normally
be steam jacketed when design suction pressure is less than 4.6 mm Hg. abs.
B
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o
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t
r
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c
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e
r
B
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o
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r
i
c
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e
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High
Vacuum
Ejector
Low
Vacuum
Ejector
S
t
e
a
m
S
e
p
a
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a
t
o
r
Booster
Ejector
Steam
Water Water
Discharge
Discharge
Steam
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Steam Jet Ejectors
Bulletin 5E-H
MULTI-STAGE EJECTORS
FOUR, FIVE, AND SIX-STAGE EJECTORS
Application
Multi-Stage Ejectors have applications similar to those
described on page 1 of this bulletin. These units are used
for applications where required suction pressures are
beyond the range of the ejectors previously described.
Generally, suction pressure ranges are as follows (note
overlap in bar chart. Fig. 3, page 3):
Four-Stage Ejectors4 mm Hg. abs.
to 75 microns Hg. abs.
Five-Stage Ejectors0.4 mm Hg. abs.
to 10 microns Hg. abs.
Six-Stage Ejectors100 microns Hg. abs.
to 3 microns Hg. abs.
FOUR-STAGE EJECTORS
The four-stage unit consists of (1) a primary booster
ejector; (2) a secondary booster ejector; (3) a high
vacuum ejector; (4) a low vacuum ejector; and (5) usually
two condensersone after the secondary booster ejector
and the other between the high vacuum and low vacuum
ejectors. The condenser between the high and low
vacuum ejectors is sometimes omitted, depending upon
application requirements. Direct contact or surface
condensers, arranged barometrically or at ground level,
can be used. The four-stage is similar to the three-stage
unit except that another booster ejector is added. In the
four-stage, the primary booster is steam-jacketed to
prevent build-up of ice on the diffuser internal bore.
In operation, the booster ejectors operate in series and
discharge into a booster condenser, which removes the
operating steam and condensable gases. From this point
operation is similar to the two-stage ejector.
Final selection and arrangement of four-stage units will
depend upon specific requirements.
FIVE AND SIX-STAGE EJECTORS
A typical Five-Stage Ejector is shown in Fig. 22. The five
and six-stage units are similar in appearance to the four-
stage ejector except that additional booster ejectors are
added. Suction pressure ranges are as indicated under
"application." The first two stages of these units are
usually steam-jacketed.
While four, five, and six-stage ejectors are usually
condensing types for reasons of efficiency and operating
economy, it is possible to employ non-condensing types.
Refer to S & K for information on operating characteristics
of such units.
Fig. 22. Five-Stage Steam Jet Ejector.
High
Vacuum
Ejector
Low
Vacuum
Ejector
Tertiary
Booster
Primary
Booster
Secondary
Booster
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Bulletin 5E-H
Steam Jet Ejectors
MULTI-STAGE EJECTORS
EJECTORS WITH SURFACE CONDENSERS
Disposal of contaminated water is of growing concern in
process operations, particularly in the chemical industry. Where
an ejector system is drawing in contaminants, a condenser that
discharges directly to the drain may not be used. In these
applications, ejectors using surface condensers are being
utilized more. The surface condenser prevents discharge to the
drain and permits recovery or treatment of undesirable wastes.
A steam jet system with surface condensers normally requires
more motive steam and condensing water than one with direct-
contact condensers. This is the most expensive type of multi-
NON-CONDENSING EJECTORS
Shown are several examples of multi-stage non-
condensing ejectors. This arrangement is generally
utilized in situations where a barometric leg or cooling
water is not readily available for an inter-condenser. They
also can be furnished in Haveg or Graphite construction
for corrosive applications. Non-condensing ejectors
provide the lowest initial capital equipment investment for
multi-stage systems.
Fig. 23. Two-Stage Steam
Jet Ejector System with
twin ejectors for each stage
and a surface type inter-and
aftercondenser.
Fig. 24. Two-Stage
Non-Condensing Ejector.
Fig. 25. Three-Stage
Non-Condensing Ejector.
Steam Inlet
Strainer
High Vacuum Ejectors
Isolating Valves
Inter-Condenser
After-Condenser
Isolating Valves
Condensing Water Outlet
Condensing Water Inlet
Low Vacuum Ejectors
Steam Valves
Isolating Valves
Air Inlet
Steam Valves
stage ejector. It can be mounted at barometric elevation, but
does not require this type of installation.
A typical multi-stage unit with twin ejectors for each stage and
surface type inter - and aftercondenser is shown in Fig. 23. The
purpose of the twin ejectors is to provide a spare set of ejectors
that can be brought into service in case repairs are necessary
on the other set. Isolating valves are used to allow removal of
an ejector without breaking vacuum.
In certain applications, the twin ejectors are selected to provide
more flexibility of operation under varying load conditions. In
this case, each ejector for each stage would be sized to handle
only half the load, so that the unit could operate at half-load with
only one ejector operating in each stage.
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Steam Jet Ejectors
Bulletin 5E-H
MULTI-STAGE EJECTORS
LOW-LEVEL EJECTOR SYSTEMS
Application
Low-Level Ejector Systems have applications
similar to those described on page 13. In cases
where it is not possible to install the condensing
portion at barometric height (34 feet), special
designs can be used for "direct-contact" (Fig.
26) and "shell and tube" (Fig. 27) type low-level
units. These units can be supplied as two-stage
through four-stage systems ready for operation
at job site simply by providing steam, water and
electrical connections.
Operation
DIRECT CONTACT LOW-LEVEL ARRANGEMENT
This type uses a direct contact condenser with
an integral reservoir and a float-operated water
control valve to maintain a constant operating
head above the condensate removal pump.
Since heat is introduced by the process, it is
necessary to maintain proper condensing water
temperature by providing appropriate bleed and
make-up water.
SHELL AND TUBE LOW-LEVEL ARRANGEMENT
Standard shell and tube heat exchanger and a
pump operated water jet ejector are installed
below the exchanger to remove condensate.
The condensate removal system does not need
make-up cooling water after initial operation.
The steam jets supplied on both low-level types
are the same as supplied for barometric
installations.
Fig. 26. Four-Stage Low-Level Steam Jet
Ejector with an integral reservoir, a water
removal pump and level control.
Fig. 27. Two-Stage Low-Level arrangement
with shell and tube heat exchanger.
Fig. 28. With available head room at an
absolute minimum, S & K engineered this
three-stage low-level, condensing unit to
eliminate the need for a barometric leg.
Fig. 29. Standard Haveg Construction
with interconnecting tee and target
plate to take steam impingement.
CORROSION RESISTANT MULTI-STAGE
EJECTORS
Selection of suitable materials for the
specific pumping application is an
important consideration. To insure
minimum maintenance and replacement
costs, Multi-Stage Steam Jet Ejectors are
available in many corrosion resistant
materials. Figures 29 and 30 show units
made of Haveg and Graphite. See page 2
for other special materials. Condensers are
frequently made of polyester fiberglass or
steel with neoprene lining.
Fig. 30. Standard Graphite Construction
(Haveg Intercondenser).
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Bulletin 5E-H
Steam Jet Ejectors
MULTI-STAGE EJECTORS
STEAM JET VACUUM BOOSTERS
Application
If large condensable vapor loads must be handled, such as
those from an evaporator or crystallizer, it is normally done with
a condenser followed by a single-stage or two-stage ejector.
The condenser condenses the vapor and the secondary unit
removes the saturated non-condensables and maintains the
vacuum.
The vacuum obtainable in a condenser is limited by the vapor
pressure of the injection water. If a higher vacuum is desired, a
Steam Jet Booster is provided to increase the vacuum to the
desired point. Boosters like this are used in multi-stage units.
The booster ejectors are large in proportion to the other ejectors
because of the magnitude of the vapor load they handle.
The function of the Steam Jet Vacuum Booster is to compress
the condensable and non-condensable vapors from the suction
vacuum to the intermediate vacuum maintained in the
condenser.
Fig. 31 shows a typical Steam Jet Vacuum Booster and its
construction. The vacuum booster is made of fabricated steel
Fig. 31. 30-inch vacuum
booster with carbon steel
body and stainless steel
diffuser.
Fig. 32. Typical
arrangement of a Three-
Stage Steam Jet Ejector
with a Steam Jet Booster.
and has a nozzle which can be easily removed for examination
or cleaning without dismantling the booster body or pipe
connections. The nozzle can be cast or fabricated of special
materials if necessary.
The Fig. 533 Vacuum Booster is designed to handle large
quantities of condensable vapors plus relatively small quantities
of non-condensables in a pressure range of 5 to 25 mm Hg.
abs.
Fig. 32 shows a three-stage unit with a Steam Jet Booster
exhausting into a barometric condenser. Similar arrangements
are used extensively for vacuum distillation in oil refineries and
for other chemical processes, as well as for concentrating and
crystallizing liquids. Such an arrangement is also used to
remove vapors from a flash evaporator of a steam jet
refrigeration system.
Operation
The Jet Vacuum Booster is designed to operate with steam
pressures as low as 5 psig. In operation, the steam issues from
the nozzle and creates a vacuum in the booster body. Suction
steam and vapors are drawn into the booster and entrained by
the operating pressure steam then discharged into the booster
condenser where steam and condensable vapors are
condensed.
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Steam Jet Ejectors
Bulletin 5E-H
APPLICATION CONSIDERATIONS
Operating Steam Pressure
All ejector nozzles are designed for a specific
steam flow and pressure. This pressure must be
maintained to insure stable and satisfactory
operation. Should the steam pressure drop below
the design pressure, the vacuum will drop and the
stability of performance will be upset. It is,
therefore, of the utmost importance when ordering
an ejector to specify the minimum steam pressure
available at any time at which the apparatus may
have to operate.
Should the steam pressure be increased above
the design pressure, the ejector will operate
satisfactorily with only a slight decrease in
capacity and with an increase in steam
consumption in direct proportion to the increase in
the absolute pressure. Where the operating steam
pressure is likely to vary over a wide range, we
recommend the installation of a suitable pressure
regulating valve in the steam line. Since moisture
in the steam will cause excess wear and erratic
operation, a steam separator is recommended.
Back Pressure
Standard ejectors are designed to operate against
a back pressure not exceeding 1 psig. It is
possible, however, to design them to operate
against higher back pressures, depending on the
vacuum to be maintained and the available
operating steam pressure. However, ejectors
should not be operated against a back pressure
higher than that for which they are designed.
MEASUREMENT OF LOW ABSOLUTE PRESSURES
Following are precautions to use in connection with
steam jet ejectors:
1. Do not depend upon spring type vacuum gauges or
absolute pressure gauges involving one sealed leg
when perfect vacuum is assumed.
2. Gauge tubes should be clean and free of
contamination.
3. Gauge liquid should be clean and free of
contamination.
4. Barometer should be located near mercury
manometers.
5. If the operating point is 0.04 in. (1 mm) Hg. abs. or
less, rubber tubing should not be used. Copper
tubing or plastic tubing with a minimum bore of 3/8
should be used in this case.
The following gauges are recommended for use with the
vacuum pressures noted:
1. Absolute pressure of 4 in. Hg. to 0.5 in. Hg. Use a
mercury column or manometer using straight tube
with scale graduated to 0.1 in. and a vernier reading
to 0.01 in.
2. Absolute pressures of 12.7 mm Hg. to 1.0 mm Hg.
Use a Butyl Phthalate or similar differential oil
manometer.
3. Absolute pressures of less than 1.0 mm Hg. Use the
following:
a. A suitable McLeod gauge or oil manometer. The
McLeod gauge should be used without freezing trap
or mechanical dryer. The gauge and mercury must be
clean and the system tested to make certain there
are no leaks.
b. A suitable indicating vacuum gauge to be
connected in parallel with the McLeod gauge. This
indicating gauge can be a differential oil manometer
if the pressure is above 0.5 mm. Between 1 micron
and 1 mm, an ionization gauge or Piranni gauge may
be used. The purpose of the indicating gauge is to
show the observer when the pressure is steady
enough to take a reading with the more accurate
McLeod gauge.
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Bulletin 5E-H
Steam Jet Ejectors
DATA REQUIRED FOR QUOTATION
In order to select the type, size, and capacity of exhauster to meet
specific requirements, the following information should be supplied
with inquiries:
1. If multi-stage unit, specify type of unit desired (condensing
or non-condensing).
2. Fluid to be handled in Ib. per hour or standard cfm. If other
than air or water vapor, the molecular weight and specific
heat should be given. Vapor pressure of condensables
other than water vapor is also required.
3. Materials of construction required. If this is in doubt, an
analysis of the suction fluid should be presented to aid in
making the proper selection.
4. Temperature of suction fluid at exhauster inlet.
5. Pressure desired at ejector suction, in inches, millimeters,
or microns of mercury absolute.
6. Minimum pressure of operating steam stating whether
steam is dry, saturated or superheated, giving degree of
superheat, if any.
7. Maximum temperature of water available and minimum
pressure of condenser inlet.
8. State whether final stage ejector is to operate against
atmospheric pressure or a higher back pressure, and if
so, what pressure.
9. Normal barometer reading at installation.
10. Type of condenser desireddirect contact or surface type
(if required).
11. Type of installation desired-barometric or low level. If low
level, state electrical code the removal pump must meet.
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Steam Jet Ejectors
Bulletin 5E-H
Fig. 33. These two steam jet ejectors serve as part of the pressure recovery system at the U.S. Army's
high energy laser system test facility in White Sands, New Mexico. They are each 97 feet long with 96
inch diameter end-suction connections, and are among the largest ever manufactured anywhere.
Each ejector handles a large quantity of low molecular weight gas at 120 Torr using the equivalent of
1.044 million pounds of steam per hour at 150 psig during the 14-second cycle.
Fig. 34. This compact, twin-element, two-stage steam jet ejector saves space in a nuclear power
station. Each first-stage ejector discharges into a separate intercondenser, while both second-
stage ejectors discharge into a common after condenser. Twin element designs of the type
shown provide uninterrupted service. Either element can be taken out of service for periodic
inspection and cleaning while the other continues to function.
ISO
9001:2000
Certified
022707
CATALOGO GENERAL DE EYECTORES
? EYVA
P RESION V VACIO
EL EYECTOR





El eyector es una bomba esttica, sin partes mecnicas en movimiento, caracterizado
por:

- seguridad de funcionamiento

- fiabilidad de funcionamiento con el tiempo

- amplia gama de ejecuciones

- libre de mantenimiento

- sin partes elctricas

- fcil instalacin incluso en sitios de difcil acceso


El eyector es una bomba esttica, constituido principalmente por una tobera y un
difusor de seccin cnica.




Entrada
Fluido motor
Salida mezcla



Entrada fluido aspirado

El eyector utiliza la energa del fluido primario en presin, llamado tambin fluido
motor, que puede ser agua, aire, vapor u otro tipo de fluido, para aspirar, mezclar y
comprimir el fluido secundario, tambin llamado fluido aspirado, por ejemplo agua,
aire, vapor u otros fluidos, segn el principio de Bernoulli.


Ecuacin de Bernoulli:
v p
z const
2
2
+ + =

EYECTORES CON FLUIDO MOTOR AGUA
u otro lquido



Para elevacin de lquidos
Para mezclas de lquidos
Para disolucin de cidos o bases
Para procesos de vaco en continuo
Para cebado de bombas y sifones
Para la compresin de gases
Para el transporte de slidos




Para la aspiracin de
lquidos
Para hacer vaco Para la compresin de gas Para el transporte de
slidos


Datos a facilitar para la elaboracin de una oferta:
Caractersticas del fluido aspirado
- tipo de fluido, peso molecular, peso especfico, etc.
- caudal a aspirar
- presin de aspiracin
- temperatura de aspiracin
- presin de descarga o altura de elevacin
Caractersticas del fluido motor
- tipo de fluido, peso molecular, peso especfico, etc.
- presin motriz disponible
- temperatura del fluido motor
En el caso de eyectores de arranque:
- volumen a evacuar
- presin inicial
- presin final
- tiempo de arranque

Para fluidos corrosivos

EYECTORES CON FLUIDO MOTOR AIRE
u otro gas



Para la realizacin de vaco en continuo
Para la realizacin de vaco de cebado
Para ventilacin
Para la compresin de gas
Para aumentar el grado de vaco de una bomba de anillo lquido





Para vaco Fluido motor aire atmosfrico En un sistema de vaco con bomba


Datos a facilitar para la elaboracin de una oferta:
Caractersticas del fluido aspirado
- tipo de fluido, peso molecular, peso especfico etc.
- caudal a aspirar
- presin de aspiracin
- temperatura de aspiracin
- presin de descarga
Caractersticas del fluido motor
- tipo de fluido, peso molecular, peso especfico, etc.
- presin motriz disponible
- temperatura del fluido motor
En el caso de eyectores de arranque:
- volumen a evacuar
- presin inicial
- presin final
- tiempo de arranque

Para cebado mediante vaco


EYECTORES CON CHORRO DE VAPOR DE AGUA
u otro vapor



Para la realizacin de vaco en continuo
Para la realizacin de cebado mediante vaco
Para ventilacin
Para la compresin de gas
Para la elevacin de lquidos



Para vaco Para un rpido cebado Para vaco Con difusor
calefaccionado


Datos a facilitar para la elaboracin de una oferta:
Caractersticas del fluido aspirado
- tipo de fluido, peso molecular, peso especfico etc.
- caudal a aspirar
- presin de aspiracin
- temperatura de aspiracin
- presin de descarga o altura de elevacin
Caractersticas del fluido motor
- tipo de fluido, peso molecular, peso especfico, etc.
- presin motriz disponible
- temperatura del fluido motor
En el caso de eyectores de arranque:
- volumen a evacuar
- presin inicial
- presin final
- tiempo de arranque

Para la elevacin de lquidos


CALENTADORES
de lquido con mezcla directa de vapor


Para instalaciones en lnea
Para instalaciones fuera del depsito
Para instalaciones en el interior del depsito




Datos a facilitar para la elaboracin de una oferta:
Caractersticas del fluido a calentar
- tipo de fluido, peso molecular, peso especfico etc.
- caudal a calentar
- temperatura a la entrada
- temperatura a la salida
- presin a la entrada
-presin a la salida
Caractersticas del fluido calefactor
- tipo de fluido, peso molecular, peso especfico, etc.
- presin del fluido calefactor
- temperatura del fluido calefactor
En el caso de calentamiento de tanques:
- volumen a calentar
- temperatura inicial
- temperatura final
- tiempo de calentamiento



DESOBRECALENTADORES
de vapor con mezcla directa de lquido


Para instalaciones en lnea

Datos a facilitar para la elaboracin de una oferta:
Caractersticas del fluido a desobrecalentar
- tipo de fluido, peso molecular, peso especfico etc.
- caudal a calentar
- temperatura a la entrada
- temperatura a la salida
- presin a la entrada
Caractersticas del fluido de refrigeracin
- tipo de fluido, peso molecular, peso especfico, etc.
- temperatura disponible a la entrada
- presin disponible a la entrada


GRUPOS DE VACO
con eyectores de vapor de varias etapas




Totalmente con eyectores
Sistema mixto con bomba final de anillo lquido
Con condensadores de mezcla
Con condensadores de superficies


De cuatro etapas con termocompresor
e intercambiadores de mezcla


De dos etapas con bombas de vacio e
intercambiador de superficie
Datos a facilitar para la elaboracin de una oferta:
Caractersticas del fluido aspirado
- tipo de fluido, peso molecular, peso especfico etc.
- caudal a aspirar
- presin de aspiracin
- temperatura de aspiracin
- presin de descarga
Caractersticas del fluido motor
- tipo de fluido, peso molecular, peso especfico, etc.
- presin motriz disponible
- temperatura del fluido motor
Caractersticas del fluido de refrigeracin
- tipo de fluido, peso molecular, peso especfico, etc.
- presin de entrada
- temperatura de entrada
En el caso de eyectores de arranque:
- volumen a evacuar
- presin inicial
- presin final
- tiempo de arranque
De dos etapas con condensador
de mezcla
De tres etapas con
condensadores de mezcla

Chemical Engineering and Processing 41 (2002) 551561
Evaluation of steam jet ejectors
Hisham El-Dessouky *, Hisham Ettouney, Imad Alatiqi, Ghada Al-Nuwaibit
Department of Chemical Engineering, College of Engineering and Petroleum, Kuwait Uni6ersity, P.O. Box 5969, Safat 13060, Kuwait
Received 4 April 2001; received in revised form 26 September 2001; accepted 27 September 2001
Abstract
Steam jet ejectors are an essential part in refrigeration and air conditioning, desalination, petroleum rening, petrochemical and
chemical industries. The ejectors form an integral part of distillation columns, condensers and other heat exchange processes. In
this study, semi-empirical models are developed for design and rating of steam jet ejectors. The model gives the entrainment ratio
as a function of the expansion ratio and the pressures of the entrained vapor, motive steam and compressed vapor. Also,
correlations are developed for the motive steam pressure at the nozzle exit as a function of the evaporator and condenser pressures
and the area ratios as a function of the entrainment ratio and the stream pressures. This allows for full design of the ejector, where
dening the ejector load and the pressures of the motive steam, evaporator and condenser gives the entrainment ratio, the motive
steam pressure at the nozzle outlet and the cross section areas of the diffuser and the nozzle. The developed correlations are based
on large database that includes manufacturer design data and experimental data. The model includes correlations for the choked
ow with compression ratios above 1.8. In addition, a correlation is provided for the non-choked ow with compression ratios
below 1.8. The values of the coefcient of determination (R
2
) are 0.85 and 0.78 for the choked and non-choked ow correlations,
respectively. As for the correlations for the motive steam pressure at the nozzle outlet and the area ratios, all have R
2
values above
0.99. 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Steam jet ejectors; Choked ow; Heat pumps; Thermal vapor compression
www.elsevier.com/locate/cep
1. Introduction
Currently, most of the conventional cooling and re-
frigeration systems are based on mechanical vapor
compression (MVC). These cycles are powered by a
high quality form of energy, electrical energy. The
inefcient use of the energy required to operate such a
process can be generated by the combustion of fossil
fuels and thus contributes to an increase in greenhouse
gases and the generation of air pollutants, such as NOx,
SOx, particulates and ozone. These pollutants have
adverse effects on human health and the environment.
In addition, MVC refrigeration and cooling cycles use
unfriendly chloro-oro-carbon compounds (CFCs),
which, upon release, contributes to the destruction of
the protective ozone layer in the upper atmosphere.
Environmental considerations and the need for efcient
use of available energy call for the development of
processes based on the use of low grade heat. These
processes adopt entrainment and compression of low
pressure vapor to higher pressures suitable for different
systems. The compression process takes place in ab-
sorption, adsorption, chemical or jet ejector vapor com-
pression cycles. Jet ejectors have the simplest
conguration among various vapor compression cycles.
In contrast to other processes, ejectors are formed of a
single unit connected to tubing of motive, entrained
and mixture streams. Also, ejectors do not include
valves, rotors or other moving parts and are available
commercially in various sizes and for different applica-
tions. Jet ejectors have lower capital and maintenance
cost than the other congurations. On the other hand,
the main drawbacks of jet ejectors include the
following:
Ejectors are designed to operate at a single optimum
point. Deviation from this optimum results in dra-
matic deterioration of the ejector performance.
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +965-4811188x5613; fax: +965-
4839498.
E-mail address: eldessouky@kuc01.kuniv.edu.kw (H. El-Desso-
uky).
0255-2701/02/$ - see front matter 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S0255- 2701( 01) 00176- 3
H. El -Dessouky et al. / Chemical Engineering and Processing 41 (2002) 551561 552
Ejectors have very low thermal efciency.
Applications of jet ejectors include refrigeration, air
conditioning, removal of non-condensable gases, trans-
port of solids and gas recovery. The function of the jet
ejector differs considerably in these processes. For ex-
ample, in refrigeration and air conditioning cycles, the
ejector compresses the entrained vapor to higher pres-
sure, which allows for condensation at a higher temper-
ature. Also, the ejector entrainment process sustains the
low pressure on the evaporator side, which allows
evaporation at low temperature. As a result, the cold
evaporator uid can be used for refrigeration and cool-
ing functions. As for the removal of non-condensable
gases in heat transfer units, the ejector entrainment
process prevents their accumulation within condensers
or evaporators. The presence of non-condensable gases
in heat exchange units reduces the heat transfer ef-
ciency and increases the condensation temperature be-
cause of their low thermal conductivity. Also, the
presence of these gases enhances corrosion reactions.
However, the ejector cycle for cooling and refrigeration
has lower efciency than the MVC units, but their
merits are manifested upon the use of low grade energy
that has limited effect on the environment and lower
cooling and heating unit cost.
Although the construction and operation principles
of jet ejectors are well known, the following sections
provide a brief summary of the major features of
ejectors. This is necessary in order to follow the discus-
sion and analysis that follow. The conventional steam
jet ejector has three main parts: (1) the nozzle; (2) the
suction chamber; and (3) the diffuser (Fig. 1). The
nozzle and the diffuser have the geometry of converg-
ing/diverging venturi. The diameters and lengths of
various parts forming the nozzle, the diffuser and the
suction chamber, together with the stream ow rate and
properties, dene the ejector capacity and performance.
The ejector capacity is dened in terms of the ow rates
of the motive steam and the entrained vapor. The sum
of the motive and entrained vapor mass ow rates gives
the mass ow rate of the compressed vapor. As for the
ejector performance, it is dened in terms of entrain-
ment, expansion and compression ratios. The entrain-
ment ratio (w) is the ow rate of the entrained vapor
Fig. 1. Variation in stream pressure and velocity as a function of location along the ejector.
H. El -Dessouky et al. / Chemical Engineering and Processing 41 (2002) 551561 553
divided by the flow rate of the motive steam. As for the
expansion ratio (Er), it is dened as the ratio of the
motive steam pressure to the entrained vapor pressure.
The compression ratio (Cr) gives the pressure ratio of
the compressed vapor to the entrained vapor.
Variations in the stream velocity and pressure as a
function of location inside the ejector, which are shown
in Fig. 1, are explained below:
The motive steam enters the ejector at point (p) with
a subsonic velocity.
As the stream ows in the converging part of the
ejector, its pressure is reduced and its velocity in-
creases. The stream reaches sonic velocity at the
nozzle throat, where its Mach number is equal to one.
The increase in the cross section area in the diverging
part of the nozzle results in a decrease of the shock
wave pressure and an increase in its velocity to
supersonic conditions.
At the nozzle outlet plane, point (2), the motive steam
pressure becomes lower than the entrained vapor
pressure and its velocity ranges between 900 and 1200
m/s.
The entrained vapor at point (e) enters the ejector,
where its velocity increases and its pressure decreases
to that of point (3).
The motive steam and entrained vapor streams may
mix within the suction chamber and the converging
section of the diffuser or it may ow as two separate
streams as it enters the constant cross section area of
the diffuser, where mixing occurs.
In either case, the mixture goes through a shock
inside the constant cross section area of the diffuser.
The shock is associated with an increase in the
mixture pressure and reduction of the mixture veloc-
ity to subsonic conditions, point (4). The shock
occurs because of the back pressure resistance of the
condenser.
As the subsonic mixture emerges from the constant
cross section area of the diffuser, further pressure
increase occurs in the diverging section of the dif-
fuser, where part of the kinetic energy of the mixture
is converted into pressure. The pressure of the emerg-
ing uid is slightly higher than the condenser pres-
sure, point (c).
Summary for a number of literature studies on ejector
design and performance evaluation is shown in Table 1.
The following outlines the main ndings of these studies:
Optimum ejector operation occurs at the critical
condition. The condenser pressure controls the loca-
tion of the shock wave, where an increase in the
condenser pressure above the critical point results in
a rapid decline of the ejector entrainment ratio, since
the shock wave moves towards the nozzle exit. Oper-
ating at pressures below the critical points has negli-
gible effect on the ejector entrainment ratio.
At the critical condition, the ejector entrainment ratio
increases at lower pressure for the boiler and con-
denser. Also, higher temperature for the evaporator
increases the entrainment ratio.
Use of a variable position nozzle can maintain the
optimum conditions for ejector operation. As a re-
sult, the ejector can be maintained at critical condi-
tions even if the operating conditions are varied.
Multi-ejector system increases the operating range
and improves the overall system efciency.
Ejector modeling is essential for better understanding
of the compression process, system design and perfor-
mance evaluation. Models include empirical correla-
tions, such as those by Ludwig [1], Power [2] and
El-Dessouky and Ettouney [3]. Such models are lim-
ited to the range over which it was developed, which
limits their use in investigating the performance of
new ejector uids, designs or operating conditions.
Semi-empirical models give more exibility in ejector
design and performance evaluation [4,5]. Other ejec-
tor models are based on fundamental balance equa-
tions [6].
This study is motivated by the need for a simple
empirical model that can be used to design and evaluate
the performance of steam jet ejectors. The model
is based on a large database extracted from several
ejector manufacturers and a number of experimental
literature studies. As will be discussed later, the model
is simple to use and it eliminates the need for iterative
procedures.
2. Mathematical model
The review by Sun and Eames [7] outlined the devel-
opments in mathematical modeling and design of jet
ejectors. The review shows that there are two basic
approaches for ejector analysis. These include mixing of
the motive steam and entrained vapor, either at constant
pressure or at constant area. Design models of stream
mixing at constant pressure are more common in litera-
ture because the performance of the ejectors designed by
this method is more superior to the constant area
method and it compares favorably against experimental
data. The basis for modeling the constant pressure
design procedure was initially developed by Keenan [6].
Subsequently, several investigators have used the model
for design and performance evaluation of various types
of jet ejectors. This involved a number of modications
in the model, especially losses within the ejector and
mixing of the primary and secondary streams. In this
section, the constant pressure ejector model is devel-
oped. The developed model is based on a number of
literature studies [811].
The constant pressure model is based on the following
assumptions:
H. El -Dessouky et al. / Chemical Engineering and Processing 41 (2002) 551561 554
Table 1
Summary of literature studies on ejector design and performance
Boiler, evaporator and condenser Fluid Reference Conclusion
temperature (C)
60100; 518; 4050 [19] Basis for refrigerant selection for solar system, system performance R-113
increased with increasing boiler and evaporator temperatures and
decreasing condenser temperature.
R-113; R-114; [20] 8095; 513; 2545 Comparison of ejector and refrigerant performance. Dry, wet and
isentropic uids. Wet uid damage ejectors due phase change during R-142b; R-718
isentropic expansion. R-113 (dry) has the best performance and
R142b (wet) has the poorest performance.
86; 8; 30 [21,22] Increase in ejector performance using mechanical compression R-114
booster.
120140; 510; 3065 Water Choking of the entrained uid in the mixing chamber affects system [8]
performance. Maximum COP is obtained at the critical ow
condition.
120140; 510; 3060 [13] Effect of varying the nozzle position to meet operating condition. Water
Increase in COP and cooling capacity by 100%.
70100; 625; 4250 [23] Entrainment ratio is highly affected by the condenser temperature R-113
especially at low evaporator temperature.
82.2182.2; 10; 43.3 Entrainment ratio is proportional to boiler temperature. R-11 [24]
R-114 90; 4; 30 Combined solar generator and ejector air conditioner. More efcient [25,26]
system requires multi-ejector and cold energy storage (cold storage in
either phase changing materials, cold water or ice).
[27] 15; 30 Modeling the effect of motive nozzle on system performance, in R-134A
which the ejector is used to recover part of the work that would be
lost in the expansion valve using high-pressure motive liquid.
[28] 100165; 10; 3045 Combined solar collector, refrigeration and seawater desalination Water
system. Performance depends on steam pressure, cooling water
temperature and suction pressure.
Water [4] Developed a new ejector theory in which the entrained uid is
choked, the plant scale results agree with this theory. Steam jet
refrigeration should be designed for the most often prevailing
conditions rather than the most severe to achieve greater overall
efciency.
Water [29] Model of multistage steam ejector refrigeration system using annular
ejector in which the primary uid enters the second stage at annular
nozzle on the sidewall. This will increase static pressure for
low-pressure stream and mixture and reduce the velocity of the
motive stream and reduce jet mixing losses shock wave formation
losses.
R11; R113; [24] 93.3; 10; 43.3 Measure and calculate ejector entrainment ratio as a function of
boiler, condenser and evaporator temperatures. Entrainment ratio R114
decreases for off design operation and increases for the two stage
ejectors.
[30] R113; R114; 120140; 6580 Effect of throat area, location of main nozzle and length of the
R142b constant area section on backpressure, entrainment ratio and
compression ratio.
Mathematical model use empirical parameters that depend solely on [5]
geometry. The parameters are obtained experimentally for various
types of ejectors.
5; 12, 18; 40 [31] Combined ejector and mechanical compressor for operation of R134a
domestic refrigerator-freezer increases entrainment ratio from 7 to
12.4%. The optimum throat diameter depends on the freezer
temperature
80; 5; 30 [9] Performance of HR-123 is similar to R-11 in ejector refrigeration. R11; HR-123
Optimum performance is achieved by the use of variable geometry
ejector when operation conditions change.
H. El -Dessouky et al. / Chemical Engineering and Processing 41 (2002) 551561 555
1. The motive steam expands isentropically in the
nozzle. Also, the mixture of the motive steam and
the entrained vapor compresses isentropically in the
diffuser.
2. The motive steam and the entrained vapor are
saturated and their velocities are negligible.
3. Velocity of the compressed mixture leaving the ejec-
tor is insignicant.
4. Constant isentropic expansion exponent and the
ideal gas behavior.
5. The mixing of motive steam and the entrained
vapor takes place in the suction chamber.
6. The ow is adiabatic.
7. Friction losses are dened in terms of the isentropic
efciencies in the nozzle, diffuser and mixing
chamber.
8. The motive steam and the entrained vapor have the
same molecular weight and specic heat ratio.
9. The ejector ow is one-dimensional and at steady
state conditions.
The model equations include the following:
Overall material balance
m
p
+m
e
=m
c
(1)
where m is the mass ow rate and the subscripts c, e
and p, dene the compressed vapor mixture, the
entrained vapor and the motive steam or primary
stream.
Entrainment ratio
w=m
e
/m
p
(2)
Compression ratio
Cr=P
c
/P
e
(3)
Expansion ratio
Er=P
p
/P
e
(4)
Isentropic expansion of the primary uid in the
nozzle is expressed in terms of the Mach number of
the primary uid at the nozzle outlet plane
M
p
2
=
' 2p
n
k1
P
p
P
2

(k1/k)
1
n
(5)
where M is the Mach number, P is the pressure and
k is the isentropic expansion coefcient. In the above
equation, p
n
is the nozzle efciency and is dened as
the ratio between the actual enthalpy change and the
enthalpy change undergone during an isentropic
process.
Isentropic expansion of the entrained uid in the
suction chamber is expressed in terms of the Mach
number of the entrained uid at the nozzle exit plane
M
e
2
=
' 2
k1
P
e
P
2

(k1/k)
1
n
(6)
The mixing process is modeled by one-dimensional
continuity, momentum and energy equations. These
equations are combined to dene the critical Mach
number of the mixture at point 5 in terms of the
critical Mach number for the primary and entrained
uids at point 2
M
4
*=
M
p
2
* +wM
e
2
* T
e
/T
p
(1+w)(1+wT
e
/T
p
)
(7)
where w is the entrainment ratio and M* is the ratio
between the local uid velocity to the velocity of
sound at critical conditions.
The relationship between M and M* at any point in
the ejector is given by this equation
M*=
' M
2
(k+1)
M
2
(k1) +2
(8)
Eq. (8) is used to calculate M
e
2
* , M
p
2
* , M
4
Mach number of the mixed ow after the shock
wave
M
5
=
M
4
2
+
2
(k1)
2k
(k1)
M
4
2
1
(9)
Pressure increase across the shock wave at point 4
P
5
P
4
=
1+kM
4
2
1+kM
5
2
(10)
In Eq. (10) the constant pressure assumption implies
that the pressure between points 2 and 4 remains
constant. Therefore, the following equality con-
straint applies P
2
=P
3
=P
4
.
Pressure lift in the diffuser
P
c
P
5
=
p
d
(k1)
2
M
5
2
+1
n
(k/k1)
(11)
where p
d
is the diffuser efciency.
The area of the nozzle throat
A
1
=
m
p
P
p
'RT
p
kp
n
k+1
2

(k+1)/(k1)
(12)
The area ratio of the nozzle throat and diffuser
constant area
A
1
A
3
=
P
c
P
p
1
(1+w)(1+w(T
e
/T
p
))

1/2
P
2
P
c

1/k

1
P
2
P
c

(k1)/k

1/2
2
k+1

1/(k1)

1
2
k+1

1/2
(13)
H. El -Dessouky et al. / Chemical Engineering and Processing 41 (2002) 551561 556
The area ratio of the nozzle throat and the nozzle
outlet
A
2
A
1
=
' 1
M
p
2
2
2
(k+1

1+
(k1)
2
M
p
2
2

(k+1)/(k1)
(14)
3. Solution procedure
Two solution procedures for the above model are
shown in Fig. 2. Either procedure requires iterative
calculations. The rst procedure is used for system
design, where the system pressures and the entrainment
ratio is dened. Iterations are made to determine the
pressure of the motive steam at the nozzle outlet (P
2
) that
gives the same back pressure (P
c
). The iteration sequence
for this procedure is shown in Fig. 2(a) and it includes
the following steps:
Dene the design parameters, which include the en-
trainment ratio (w), the ow rate of the compressed
vapor (m
c
) and the pressures of the entrained vapor,
compressed vapor and motive steam (P
e
, P
p
, P
c
).
Dene the efciencies of the nozzle and diffuser (p
n
,
p
d
).
Calculate the saturation temperatures for the com-
pressed vapor, entrained vapor and motive steam,
which include T
c
, T
p
, T
e
, using the saturation temper-
ature correlation given in the appendix.
As for the universal gas constant and the specic heat
ratio for steam, their values are taken as 0.462 and 1.3.
The ow rates of the entrained vapor (m
e
) and motive
steam (m
p
) are calculated from Eqs. (1) and (2).
A value for the pressure at point 2 (P
2
) is estimated
and Eqs. (5)(11) are solved sequentially to obtain the
pressure of the compressed vapor (P
c
).
The calculated pressure of the compressed vapor is
compared to the design value.
A new value for P
2
is estimated and the previous step
is repeated until the desired value for the pressure of
the compressed vapor is reached.
Fig. 2. Solution algorithms of the mathematical model. (a) Design procedure to calculate area ratios. (b) Performance evaluation to calculate w.
H. El -Dessouky et al. / Chemical Engineering and Processing 41 (2002) 551561 557
The ejector cross section areas (A
1
, A
2
, A
3
) and the
area ratios (A
1
/A
3
and A
2
/A
1
) are calculated from
Eqs. (12)(14).
The second solution procedure is used for perfor-
mance evaluation, where the cross section areas and the
entrainment and motive steam pressures are dened.
Iterations are made to determine the entrainment ratio
that denes the ejector capacity. The iteration sequence
for this procedure is shown in Fig. 2(b) and it includes
the following steps:
Dene the performance parameters, which include
the cross section areas (A
1
, A
2
, A
3
), the pressures of
the entrained vapor (P
e
) and the pressure of the
primary stream (P
p
).
Dene the efciencies of the nozzle and diffuser (p
n
,
p
d
).
Calculate the saturation temperatures of the primary
and entrained streams, T
p
and T
e
, using the satura-
tion temperature correlation given in the appendix.
As for the universal gas constant and the specic
heat ratio for steam, their values are taken as 0.462
and 1.3.
Calculate the ow rate of the motive steam and the
properties at the nozzle outlet, which include m
p
, P
2
,
M
e2
, M
p2
. These are obtained by solving Eqs. (5),
(6), (12) and (14).
An estimate is made for the entrainment ratio, w.
This value is used to calculate other system parame-
ters dened in Eqs. (7)(11), which includes M
e
2
* ,
M
p
2
* , M
4
*, M
4
, M
5
, P
5
, P
c
.
A new estimate for w is obtained from Eq. (13).
The error in w is determined and a new iteration is
made if necessary.
The ow rates of the compressed and entrained
vapor are calculated from Eqs. (1) and (2).
4. Semi-empirical model
Development of the semi-empirical model is thought
to provide a simple method for designing or rating of
steam jet ejectors. As shown above, solution of the
mathematical model requires an iterative procedure.
Also, it is necessary to dene values of p
n
and p
d
. The
values of these efciencies widely differ from one study
to another, as shown in Table 2. The semi-empirical
model for the steam jet ejector is developed over a wide
range of operating conditions. This is achieved by using
three sets of design data acquired from major ejector
manufacturers, which includes Croll Reynolds, Graham
and SchutteKoerting. Also, several sets of experimen-
tal data are extracted from the literature and are used
in the development of the empirical model. The semi-
empirical model includes a number of correlations to
calculate the entrainment ratio (w), the pressure at the
nozzle outlet (P
2
) and the area ratios in the ejector
Table 2
Examples of ejector efciencies used in literature studies
p
n
Reference p
m
p
d
0.9 [27] 0.75
[32] 0.8 0.8
[33] 0.85 0.85
0.71 0.71 [31]
[10] 0.81 0.81
0.850.98 [24] 0.650.85
0.95 0.85 0.85 [8]
0.75 [34] 0.9
(A
2
/A
1
) and (A
1
/A
3
). The correlation for the entrain-
ment ratio is developed as a function of the expansion
ratio and the pressures of the motive steam, the en-
trained vapor and the compressed vapor. The correla-
tion for the pressure at the nozzle outlet is developed as
a function of the evaporator and condenser pressures.
The correlations for the ejector area ratios are dened
in terms of the system pressures and the entrainment
ratio. Table 3 shows a summary of the ranges of the
experimental and the design data. The table also in-
cludes the ranges for the data reported by Power [12].
A summary of the experimental data, which is used
to develop the semi-empirical model is shown in Table
4. The data includes measurements by the following
investigators:
Eames et al. [8] obtained the data for a compression
ratio of 36, expansion ratio 160415 and entrain-
ment ratio of 0.170.58. The measurements are ob-
tained for an area ratio of 90 for the diffuser and the
nozzle throat.
Munday and Bagster [4] obtained the data for a
compression ratio of 1.82, expansion ratio of 356
522 and entrainment ratio of 0.570.905. The mea-
surements are obtained for an area ratio of 200 for
the diffuser and the nozzle throat.
Aphornratana and Eames [13] obtained the data for
a compression ratio of 4.65.3, expansion ratio of
309.4 and entrainment ratio of 0.110.22. The mea-
surements are obtained for an area ratio of 81 for
the diffuser and the nozzle throat.
Bagster and Bresnahan [14] obtained the data for a
compression ratio of 2.43.4, expansion ratio of
165426 and entrainment ratio of 0.2680.42. The
measurements are obtained for an area ratio of 145
for the diffuser and the nozzle throat.
Sun [15] obtained the data for a compression ratio of
2.063.86, expansion ratio of 116220 and entrain-
ment ratio of 0.280.59. The measurements are ob-
tained for an area ratio of 81 for the diffuser and the
nozzle throat.
Chen and Sun [16] obtained the data for a compres-
sion ratio of 1.772.76, expansion ratio of 1.72.9
and entrainment ratio of 0.370.62. The measure-
H. El -Dessouky et al. / Chemical Engineering and Processing 41 (2002) 551561 558
ments are obtained for an area ratio of 79.21 for the
diffuser and the nozzle throat.
Arnold et al. [17] obtained the data for a compres-
sion ratio of 2.473.86, expansion ratio of 29.7
46.5, and entrainment ratio of 0.270.5.
Everitt and Riffat [18] obtained the data for a com-
pression ratio of 1.372.3, expansion ratio of 22.6
56.9 and entrainment ratio of 0.57.
The correlation for the entrainment ratio of choked
ow or compression ratios above 1.8 is given by
W=aEr
b
P
e
c
P
c
d
(e+fP
p
g
)
(h+iP
c
j
)
(15)
Similarly, the correlation for the entrainment ratio of
un-choked ow with compression ratios below 1.8 is
given by
W=aEr
b
P
e
c
P
c
d
(e+f ln(P
p
))
(g+h ln(P
c
))
(16)
The constants in Eqs. (15) and (16) are given as
follows
Entrainment ratio Entrainment ratio
correlation choked correlation non-choked
ow (Eq. (15); Fig. 3) ow (Eq. (16), Fig. 4)
a 0.65 1.8910
5
1.54 b 5.32
c 1.72 5.04
9.0510
2
6.79v10
2
d
22.82 e 22.09
f 4.2110
4
6.13
0.82 g 1.34
h 3.3710
5
9.32
1.2810
1
j
j 1.14
R
2
0.85 0.79
Fitting results against the design and experimental
data are shown in Figs. 3 and 4, respectively. The
results shown in Fig. 3 cover the most commonly used
range for steam jet ejectors, especially in vacuum and
vapor compression applications. As shown in Fig. 3,
the tting result is very satisfactory for entrainment
ratios between 0.2 and 1. This is because the major part
of the data is found between entrainment ratios clus-
tered over a range of 0.20.8. Examining the experi-
mental data t shows that the major part of the data t
is well within the correlation predictions, except for a
small number of points, where the predictions have
large deviations.
The correlations for the motive steam pressure at the
nozzle outlet and the area ratios are obtained semi-em-
pirically. In this regard, the design and experimental
data for the entrainment ratio and system pressures are
used to solve the mathematical model and to calculate
the area ratios and motive steam pressure at the nozzle
outlet. The results are obtained for efciencies of 100%
for the diffuser, nozzle and mixing and a value of 1.3
for k. The results are then correlated as a function of
the system variables. The following relations give the
correlations for the choked ow:
P
2
=0.13 P
e
0.33
P
c
0.73
(17)
A
1
/A
3
=0.34 P
c
1.09
P
p
1.12
w
0.16
(18)
A
2
/A
1
=1.04 P
c
0.83
P
p
0.86
w
0.12
(19)
The R
2
for each of the above correlations is above 0.99.
Similarly, the following relations give the correlations
for the un-choked ow:
P
2
=1.02 P
e
0.000762
P
c
0.99
(20)
A
1
/A
3
=0.32 P
c
1.11
P
p
1.13
w
0.36
(21)
A
2
/A
1
=1.22 P
c
0.81
P
p
0.81
w
0.0739
(22)
The R
2
values for the above three correlations are
above 0.99.
The semi-empirical ejector design procedure involves
sequential solution of Eqs. (1)(14) together with Eq.
(17) or Eq. (20) (depending on the ow type, choked or
non-choked). This procedure is not iterative in contrast
with the procedure given for the mathematical model in
the previous section. As for the semi-empirical perfor-
mance evaluation model, it involves non-iterative solu-
tion of Eqs. (1) (14) together with Eq. (15) or Eq. (16)
for choked or non-choked ow, respectively. It should
be stressed that both solution procedures are indepen-
Table 3
Range of design and experimental data used in model development
Er Source Cr P
e
(kPa) P
c
(kPa) P
p
(kPa) w
1.6526.1 0.872121.3 Experimental 2.3224.1 1.46.19 38.61720 0.111.132
1.0083.73 0.14 84.092132.27 790.82859.22 66.852100.8 1.3632.45 SchutteKoerting
1.254.24 4.3429.4 3.447124.1 CrollRynolds 446.061480.27 6.2248.2 0.18182.5
1.1744.04 4.64453.7 27.58170.27 790.81480.27 34.47301.27 Graham 0.183.23
1.0475.018 21000 2.76172.37 3.72510.2 344.742757.9 Power 0.24
H. El -Dessouky et al. / Chemical Engineering and Processing 41 (2002) 551561 559
Table 4
Summary of literature experimental data for steam jet ejectors
P
e
(kPa) P
c
(kPa) P
p
/P
e
P
c
/P
e
P
p
(kPa) w A
d
/A
t
Reference
1.23 90 3.8 198.7 161.8 3.09 0.59 [8]
1.23 4.2 189.1 232.3 3.42 0.54 [8]
270.3 1.23 4.7 220.1 3.83 0.47 [8]
1.23 5.3 255.1 4.31 0.39 [8] 313.3
1.23 6 294.4 4.89 361.6 0.31 [8]
1.04 3.6 191.6 90 3.47 198.7 0.5 [8]
1.04 4.1 223.9 232.3 3.95 0.42 [8]
270.3 1.04 4.6 260.7 4.44 0.36 [8]
1.04 5.1 302.1 313.3 4.91 0.29 [8]
361.6 1.04 5.7 348.7 5.49 0.23 [8]
0.87 3.4 227.7 3.89 0.4 90 [8] 198.7
0.87 3.7 266.2 232.3 4.24 0.34 [8]
0.87 4.4 309.8 5.04 270.3 0.28 [8]
0.87 5.1 359 313.3 5.85 0.25 [8]
361.6 0.87 5.4 414.4 6.19 0.18 [8]
1.59 3.2 521.7 200 2.0 834 0.58 [4]
400 1.59 3.07 250.2 1.92 1.13 [4]
1.71 3.67 392.3 2.15 669 0.58 [4]
1.59 3.51 526.1 841 2.19 0.51 [4]
1.94 3.38 356 1.74 0.86 690 [4]
1.94 3.51 356 1.81 690 0.91 [4]
81 270 0.87 4.1 309.5 4.7 0.22 [13]
0.87 4.2 309.5 270 4.8 0.19 [13]
270 0.87 4.4 309.5 5.04 0.16 [13]
0.87 4.5 309.5 5.16 0.14 270 [13]
0.87 4.7 309.5 5.39 270 0.11 [13]
1.55 5.3 426.5 145 3.42 660 0.27 [14]
1.55 5.3 373.5 578 3.42 0.31 [14]
516 1.58 5.3 326.9 3.36 0.35 [14]
1.57 5.03 280.6 440 3.21 0.38 [14]
381 1.59 4.77 239.9 3 0.42 [14]
1.62 4.23 192.6 2.61 0.46 312 [14]
1.68 4.1 165.1 2.44 278 0.42 [14]
1.23 2.53 116.8 81 2.06 143.4 0.59 [15]
1.23 2.67 137.8 169.2 2.17 0.51 [15]
198.7 1.23 3.15 161.8 2.56 0.43 [15]
1.23 4 189.1 232.3 3.26 0.35 [15]
270.3 1.23 4.75 220.1 3.87 0.29 [15]
57.7 143 1720 29.7 2.47 0.5 [17]
51.4 143 33.5 1720 2.78 0.4 [17]
45.5 143 37.8 3.14 0.3 1720 [17]
37.01 143 46.5 3.86 1720 0.27 [17]
79.21 116 67.6 119.9 1.7 1.8 0.62 [16]
67.6 151.7 2.3 153 2.2 0.49 [16]
270 67.6 224.1 3.9 3.3 0.34 [16]
121.3 195.1 1.6 198 1.6 0.78 [16]
99.9 195.1 1.9 198 1.9 0.64 [16]
198 67.6 186.2 2.9 2.8 0.37 [16]
1.02 2.3 56.9 2.3 0.57 [18] 57.9
1.2 2.3 38.6 47.4 1.9 0.56 [18]
1.7 2.3 22.6 38.6 1.4 0.57 [18]
H. El -Dessouky et al. / Chemical Engineering and Processing 41 (2002) 551561 560
Fig. 3. Fitting of the entrainment ratio for compression ratios higher
than 1.8.
wide range of compression, expansion and entrain-
ment ratios, especially those used in industrial appli-
cations. The developed correlations are simple and
very useful for design and rating calculations, since it
can be used to determine the entrainment ratio,
which, upon specication of the system load, can be
used to determine the motive steam ow rate and the
cross section areas of the ejector.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge funding
support of the Kuwait University Research Adminis-
tration, Project No. EC084 entitled Multiple Effect
Evaporation and Absorption/Adsorption Heat
Pumps.
Appendix A. Nomenclature
A cross section area (m
2
)
coefcient of performance, dimensionless COP
Cr compression ratio dened as pressure of com-
pressed vapor to pressure of entrained vapor
Er expansion ratio dened as pressure of com-
pressed vapor to pressure of entrained vapor
m mass ow rate (kg/s)
M Mach number, ratio of uid velocity to speed
of sound
M* critical Mach number, ratio of uid velocity
to speed of sound
P pressure (kPa)
DP pressure drop (kPa)
universal gas constant (kJ/kg C) R
Rs load ratio, mass ow rate of motive steam to
mass ow rate of entrained vapor
T temperature (K)
w entrainment ratio, mass ow rate of en-
trained vapor to mass ow rate of motive
steam
Greek symbols
k compressibility ratio
ejector efciency p
Subscripts
locations inside the ejector 17
b boiler
c condenser
diffuser d
e evaporator or entrained vapor
m mixing
n nozzle
p primary stream or motive steam
throat of the nozzle t
Fig. 4. Fitting of the entrainment ratio for compression ratios lower
than 1.8.
dent of the nozzle and diffuser efciencies, which
varies over a wide range, as shown in Table 2.
5. Conclusions
A semi-empirical model is developed for design and
performance evaluation of steam jet ejector. The
model includes correlations for the entrainment ratio
in choked and non-choked ow, the motive steam
pressure at the nozzle outlet and the area ratios of
the ejector. The correlations for the entrainment ratio
are obtained by tting against a large set of design
data and experimental measurements. In addition, the
correlations for the motive steam pressure at the noz-
zle outlet and the area ratios are obtained semi-em-
pirically by solving the mathematical model using the
design and experimental data for the entrainment ra-
tio and system pressures. The correlations cover a
H. El -Dessouky et al. / Chemical Engineering and Processing 41 (2002) 551561 561
Appendix B
B.1. Correlations of saturation pressure and temperature
The saturation temperature correlation is given by
T=

42.6776
3892.7
(ln(P/1000) 9.48654)

273.15
where P is in kPa and T is in C. The above correlation
is valid for the calculated saturation temperature over a
pressure range of 101750 kPa. The percentage errors for
the calculated versus the steam table values are B0.1%.
The correlation for the water vapor saturation pressure
is given by
ln(P/P
c
)
=
T
c
T+273.15
1

%
8
i =1
f
i
(0.01(T+273.15338.15))
(i 1)
where T
c
=647.286 K and P
c
=22089 kPa and the values
of f
i
are given in the following table
f
3
f
1
f
4
f
2
0.1155286 7.419242 0.008685635 0.29721
f
7
f
8
f
6
f
5
0.002520658 0.000521868 0.001094098 0.00439993
where P and T are in kPa and C. The above correlation
is valid over a temperature range of 5200 C with a
percentage error of B0.05% for the corresponding
values in the steam tables.
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Ejector systems for fats,
oils, oleochemicals
Essential processes in the production of
natural fats and oils and derivative
oleochemicals are performed under
vacuum, i.e., at a pressure below
atmospheric. Such processes, including
solvent extraction, degumming, bleaching,
interesterification, fractionation,
winterization and deodorization, are
supported by ejector systems (Figure 1.).
Ejector systems are employed to produce
and maintain proper vacuum. The
complexity of the various processes
necessitates an integrated ejector system
for an optimized unit operation. An
integrated system will ensure that a proper
balance of operating and evaluated cost is
maintained while satisfying demands of
the process itself. Even though ejector
systems are an integral part of the
process, many users and operators of
these systems do not understand their
operational characteristics or what
influences their performance.
Ejectors
An ejector is a static piece of equipment
with no moving parts (Figure 2). The major
components of an ejector are the motive
nozzle, motive chest, suction chamber, and
diffuser. An ejector converts pressure
energy of motive steam into velocity.
Thermodynamically, high velocity is
achieved through adiabatic expansion of
motive steam through a conver-
Figure 1. Ejector System for soybean oil deodorizer
This article was prepared by J. R.
Lines, Vice President of Marketing for
Graham Corporation, 20 Florence
Ave., Batavia, NY 14020
gent/divergent steam nozzle. This
expansion of steam from the motive
pressure to the suction fluid operating
pressure results in supersonic
velocities at the exit of the steam
nozzle. Actually. the motive steam
expands to a pressure below the
suction fluid pressure. This creates the
driving force to bring suction fluid into
an ejector. Typically, velocity exiting a
motive steam nozzle is in the range of
3,0004,000 ft./s.
High-velocity motive steam entrains
and mixes with the suction fluid. The
resultant mixture is still supersonic. As
the mixture passes through the
convergent, throat, and divergent
sections of a diffuser, high velocity is
converted back to pressure. The
convergent section of a diffuser
reduces velocity of the supersonic
flow as cross-sectional area is
reduced. This statement may appear to
contradict intuition but a
thermodynamic characteristic of gases
at supersonic conditions is that
velocity is decreased as cross-
sectional area is reduced. The diffuser
throat is designed to create a shock
wave. It is the shock wave that
produces a dramatic increase in
pressure as the flow goes from
supersonic to subsonic across the
shock wave. In the divergent section
of the diffuser, cross-sectional flow
area is increased and subsonic
velocity further reduced and
converted to pressure.
Ejector performance is summarized on
a performance curve (Figure 3). A
performance curve describes how a
given ejector will perform as a function
of water vapor equivalent loading.
Other important information noted on
an ejector performance curve is the
minimum motive steam pressure,
maximum permissible steam
temperature, and maximum discharge
pressure (MDP).
Equivalent load is used to represent a
process stream, which may be made up
of many different components, such as
air, water vapor, free fatty acids (FFA)
or various organics, in terms of an
equivalent amount of water vapor
(Figures 4,5). Heat Exchange Institute
(Cleveland, Ohio) Standards for Steam
Jet Ejectors describe the method used
to convert to water vapor-equivalent
or an air equivalent load. Water vapor
equivalent loading is often selected
because most factory performance
testing of an ejector is done with a
water vapor load (Table 1).
The performance curve may be used in
two ways. First, if suction pressure is
known for an ejector, the equivalent
water vapor load it handles is easily
determined. Second, if the loading to
an ejector is known, then it is possible
to estimate the expected suction
pressure for the ejector. If field
measurements differ from a
performance curve, then there may be
a problem with either the process,
utilities, or the ejector itself.
Condensers
Condensers may be categorized as
direct contact or surface type. Here we
will focus solely on surface-type
condensers, otherwise known as shell-
and-tube condensers. Direct-contact
condensers are still in use but because
of pollution concerns, they are not
often currently specified.
Condensers are manufactured in three
basic configurations: fixed tubesheet,
U tube, or floating head bundle
(Figure 6). The basic configurations
differ only in ease of maintenance and
capital cost, but thermodynamically
will perform similarly.
The primary purpose of a condenser in
an ejector system is to reduce the
amount of vapor load that a
downstream ejector must handle. This
will greatly improve the efficiency of
an ejector system. Although vacuum
condensers are constructed like
process shell-and-tube heat
exchangers, their internal design
differs significantly owing to the
presence of two-phase flow,
noncondensible gas, and vacuum
operation.
Vacuum condensers for fats, oils, and
oleochemical applications generally
have the cooling water running
through the tubes. Condensation of
water vapor and organics takes place
on the shell-side the outside surface
area of the tubes. Generally, the inlet
stream enters through the top of the
condenser. Once the inlet stream
enters the shell, it spreads out along
the shell and penetrates the tube
bundle. A major portion of the
condensibles contained in the inlet
stream will change phase from vapor to
liquid. The liquid falls by gravity, runs
out of the bottom of the condenser
and down the tail leg. The remainder of
the condensibles and the
noncondensible gases are collected
and removed from the condenser
through a vapor outlet connection. An
exception to the general rule is the first
intercondenser of a deodorizer ejector
system, where process vapors are on
the tube-side the inside surface of the
tubes.
There are two basic types of vacuum
condensers typically offered. For
larger units approximately 30 in
diameter and larger a long air-baffle
design is used. A long air-baffle runs
virtually the full length of the shell and
is sealed to the shell to prevent
bypassing of the inlet stream directly
to the vapor outlet. This forces vapors
to go through the entire tube bundle
before exiting at the vapor outlet.
Similarly, smaller units use an up-and-
over baffle arrangement to maximize
vapor distribution in the bundle. In
this configuration, the exiting vapor
leaves the condenser at one end only.
The vapors are forced through a series
of baffles in order to reach the vapor
outlet.
As mentioned previously, a condenser
is designed to limit the load to a
downstream ejector. In many cases,
the inlet load to a condenser is many
times greater than the load to a
downstream ejector. Consequently,
any loss in condenser performance will
have a dramatic effect on a
downstream ejector. This makes
the performance of an ejector extremely
dependent on the upstream condenser.
Inter and aftercondensers of an ejector
system are designed to condense steam
and condensible organics and coal
noncondensible gases (Figure 7). This
condensation will occur at a pressure
corresponding to the discharge pressure
of a preceding ejector and the suction
pressure of a downstream ejector.
Intercondensers are positioned between
two ejector stages and must operate
satisfactorily in order for the entire system
to perform correctly.
Precondensers
A precondenser, which is positioned
ahead of an ejector system, is a highly
specialized condenser and should be
considered part of the ejector system. The
operating pressure of a precondenser in
fats and oils processing is typically 10 mm
Hg absolute (abs) or less.
Process load from a distillation column or
still consists of large quantities of
condensible vapors, such as glycerin,
methyl esters or fatty alcohols, plus
noncondensible gases. The low pressure
condition will result in extremely high
volumetric flow rates. It becomes a
challenge to effectively manage a large
volumetric flow rate at low pressure drop
while still accomplishing necessary heat
transfer. The tube field layout and
shellside baffling are quite special and
often unique to each application.
The tube pitch may be variable, with an
open pitch at the inlet and tighter pitches
at the outlet where volumetric flow is
considerably less than at the inlet
conditions. Location of a precondenser is
important for an optimized system. It is
key to locate a precondenser as close as
possible to the process vessel.
Attachment of a precondenser directly to
the vacuum vessel is preferred. This will
minimize pressure loss so as to reduce
utility consumption and maximize
condensation. Note that a precondenser is
part of an ejector system. Often specifiers
and purchasers separate a precondenser
from the ejector system. This will result in
more costly systems, with increased
operating costs. When properly designed
and integrated in an ejector system,
precondenser performance is optimized to
match the performance characteristics of
the ejector systems. The following
example highlights the importance of
maintaining lower pressure drop across a
precondenser (Table 2). As pressure drop
increases, condensation decreases.
Utilities
Motive steam pressure, quality, and
temperature are critical variables. Cooling
water flow rate and inlet temperature are
important as well. Often, actual utility
supply conditions differ from those used
to design an ejector system. When this
occurs, system performance may or may
not be affected.
Steam
Motive steam supply condition is one of
the most important variables affecting
ejector operation. If motive supply
pressure falls below design pressure, then
the motive nozzle will pass less steam. If
this occurs, an ejector is not provided with
sufficient energy to entrain and compress
a suction load to the design discharge
pressure of the ejector. Similarly, if motive
steam supply temperature is appreciably
above the design value. then again,
insufficient steam passes through the
motive nozzle. With either lower than
design steam pressure or higher than
design steam temperature. the specific
volume of the motive steam is increased
and less steam will pass through a motive
nozzle. Less steam passing through a
motive nozzle results in less energy
available to do the necessary work (Table
3).
Any ejector may operate unstably if it is
not supplied with sufficient energy to
entrain and compress a suction load to the
design discharge pressure. In certain
cases, it is possible to rebore an ejector
motive nozzle to a larger diameter if actual
supply steam pressure is below design or
its temperature above design. This larger
steam nozzle will permit the passage of
more steam through the nozzle, thereby
increasing the energy available to entrain
and compress the suction load.
If motive steam pressure is greater than
20% above design steam pressure, then
too much steam expands across the
nozzle. This has a tendency to choke the
diffuser throat of an ejector. When this
occurs, less suction load is handled by an
ejector and vacuum vessel pressure will
rise. If an increase in vessel pressure is
undesirable, then new ejector nozzles with
smaller throat diameters are required.
Steam quality is important. Any ejector is
designed to operate with dry steam
conditions. Wet steam is damaging to an
ejector system. Moisture droplets in
motive steam lines are rapidly accelerated
as steam expands across a motive nozzle.
High-velocity moisture droplets are
erosive. Moisture in motive steam lines is
noticeable when inspecting ejector
nozzles. The rapidly accelerated moisture
droplets erode nozzle internals. There is an
etched striated pattern on the diverging
section of a motive nozzle, and the nozzle
mouth may actually have signs of wear.
Also, the inlet diffuser section of an
ejector will show signs of erosion due to
direct impingement of moisture droplets. It
is also possible to measure the exhaust
temperature from the ejector to determine
if wet steam conditions are present.
Typical ejector exhaust temperatures are in
the range of 250-300F. If moisture is
present, a substantially lower ejector
exhaust temperature will exist.
To solve wet steam problems, all lines up
to an ejector should be well insulated. A
steam separator and trap should be
installed immediately before the motive
steam inlet connection of each ejector.
It is possible to have performance
problems due to wet steam. When
moisture droplets pass through an ejector
nozzle, they decrease the energy available
for compression. This will reduce the
suction load-handling capability of an
ejector. Also, the moisture droplets may
vaporize within the diffuser section of the
ejector. Upon vaporization, the volumetric
flow rate within the ejector will increase.
Here again, this reduces the suction load-
handling capability of an ejector. It is
recommended that supply steam be dry or
above 99% quality. With extremely wet
steam, any ejector will perform poorly.
Water
When cooling water supply temperature
rises above the design, ejector system
performance is penalized. A rise in cooling
water temperature lowers the available log
mean temperature difference (LMTD) of a
condenser. Should this occur, that
condenser will not condense enough
steam or condensible organics, and
therefore there will be an increased vapor
load to a downstream ejector. Because of
inadequate condensation
there also will be an increase in pressure
drop across that condenser. The operating
pressure of the condenser will rise. If an
ejector preceding this condenser cannot
discharge to the higher pressure, then the
system will break performance. Broken
ejector system performance is
characterized by a higher than design
vacuum vessel pressure, and actually, the
pressure may be unstable, characterized
by fluctuations.
This may also occur if the cooling water
flow rate is below design. At lower-than-
design cooling water flow rate, there is a
greater water temperature rise across a
condenser. Here again, this will lower the
available LMTD and a similar situation to
what was described previously will occur.
Furthermore, lower cooling water flow rate
translates into lower velocities through
the condenser. Reduced velocities result
in a reduction in the heat transfer
coefficient, which reduces condensation
capability of a condenser.
Problems with cooling water normally
occur during summer months. This is
when the water is at its warmest and
demands on heat exchange equipment are
highest.
If cooling water flow rate or temperature is
off design, then new ejectors or
condensers may be required to provide
satisfactory operation.
Corrosion and erosion
Corrosion is the result of improperly
selected metallurgy. Corrosion may occur
in ejectors, condensers, or vacuum piping.
Extreme corrosion may cause holes and
subsequently result in air leakage into the
vacuum system. Air leakage into a vacuum
system will deteriorate performance and
may result in broken ejector operation.
The presence of air also adds to the
noncondensible load a system must
handle. The amount of vapor carryover
from a condenser is proportional to the
amount of noncondensible gas. As
noncondensible gas increases, so does
condensible carryover from a condenser.
Poor steam quality and high velocities
may cause erosion of the diffuser and
motive nozzle internals. Ejector
manufacturers will provide certified
information that defines the motive nozzle
and diffuser thrust diameters. If a routine
inspection of these parts indicates an
increase in cross-sectional area over 7%,
then performance may be compromised
and replacement parts are necessary.
Fouling
Pre-, inter-, and aftercondensers are
subject to fouling as are all other heat
exchangers. Such fouling may occur on
the tubeside, shellside or both. Fouling
deters heat transfer and, at some point,
may negatively affect system performance.
Cooling tower water is most often used as
the cooling fluid for vacuum condensers.
This water is normally on the tubeside.
Fouling deposits on tubing internals
cause a resistance to heat transfer.
Over a prolonged period, actual fouling
may exceed the design value and
condenser performance becomes
inadequate. Vacuum vessel overhead
gases, vapors, and motive steam are
normally on the shellside of a condenser.
Depending on the type of process, an
organic film may develop on the outside
surface of the tubing. This film is a
resistance to heat transfer, and over time
will exceed design. If fatty acids are
present, they may solidify on cold tube
surfaces. The solidified fatty acids deter
heat transfer. In deodorizer systems, the
tubes are continually washed with alkali-
dosed (NaOH) condensate. This removes
fatty acid buildup.
When actual unit fouling exceeds design
values used, then a condenser performs
inadequately. Once fouled, a condenser is
unable to condense sufficient quantities
of organic vapors and motive steam. This
results in a discontinuity in the what a
preceding ejector is able to discharge to
and the suction pressure maintained by a
downstream ejector at higher vapor load.
Routine maintenance procedures should
include periodic cleaning of condenser
bundles. Cleaning procedures must be for
both tubeside and shellside of a
condenser.
Process conditions
Process conditions used in the design
stage are rarely experienced during
operation but are very important for
reliable vacuum system performance.
Vacuum system performance may be
affected by the following process
variables that may act independently or
concurrently:
Noncondensible gas loading
Condensible organics
Vacuum system backpressure
Ejector systems are susceptible to poor
performance when noncondensible
loading increases above design.
Noncondensible loading to an ejector
system consists of air that has leaked into
the system, nitrogen, and/or light
organics. The impact of higher-than-
design noncondensible loading is severe.
As noncondensible loading increases, the
amounts of saturated vapors discharging
from a condenser increase
proportionately. The ejector following a
condenser may not be able to handle
increased loading at the operating
pressure of that condenser. The ejector
before that condenser is unable to
compress to a higher discharge pressure.
This discontinuity in pressure causes the
preceding ejector to break operation,
When this occurs, the system will operate
unstably, and vessel pressure rises above
design. Noncondensible loading must be
accurately stated. If not, any ejector
system is subject to performance
shortcomings. If noncondensible loading
is consistently above design, then new
ejectors are required. Depending on the
severity of noncondensible overloading,
new condensers may be required as well.
Condensible organic loading is important,
particularly for a precondenser. Organic
load below design is rarely a problem. A
problem arises when the load is above
design or the compositional makeup of the
load varies significantly.
If condensable organic load is above
design, then the precondenser will be
short on surface area for the increased
thermal duty. Therefore, less organics will
condense and the pressure drop across
the condenser will rise. Ultimately, this will
translate into an increase in vessel
pressure, which may be stable or unstable.
Vacuum system back pressure may have
an overwhelming influence on satisfactory
performance. Ejectors are designed to
compress to a design discharge pressure.
If the actual dis-
charge pressure rises above design, an
ejector will not have enough energy to
reach that higher pressure. When this
occurs the ejector breaks operation and
there is an increase in vacuum vessel
pressure. When back pressure is above
design, possible corrective actions are to
lower the system back pressure, rebore the
steam nozzle to permit the use of more
motive steam that enables the ejector to
discharge to a higher pressure, or install
completely new ejectors. System back
pressure is the most common cause of
inadequate vacuum. Failing to make
adequate allowance for the back pressure
due to the pressure drop in the vent line or
tail leg, for the submergence of the tail leg
in a condensate receiver, or for site
barometric pressure will negatively affect
system performance.
Some ejector and condenser problems,
their effects, and possible corrective
actions are shown in Table 4.
Glycerin plants
Glycerin production is done at an
extremely high vacuum, very low absolute
pressure. Typically the operating pressure
of a glycerin vacuum flash still is below 10
mm Hg abs. Overhead load from the flash
still consists of glycerin, water vapor, and
air at temperatures approaching 400F. In
one glycerin process, different glycerin
product qualities are produced via
fractional condensation. Overhead
glycerin vapors from the vacuum flash still
are fractionally condensed by three
vacuum precondensers ahead of a four-
stage ejector system (Figure 8). The three
glycerin condensates produced by
fractional condensation have varied
commercial value.
The primary vacuum precondenser
fractionally condenses overhead load so
as to produce commercially pure
glycerin. Tight control of the
condensation profile is necessary to
maintain high purity levels. To maintain
control of product quality, vaporizable
water on the condenser tubeside is used.
By controlling tubeside operating
pressure, the boiling temperature is varied
to maintain the outlet vapor temperature of
the condensing glycerin above the point
where impurities began to condense,
thereby ensuring contaminant free
condensate.
The secondary precondenser uses water
vaporization as the cooling medium as
well; however, the operating pressure of
the tubeside is lower. This condenser
produces glycerin condensate marketed as
high gravity. Again, the outlet vapor
temperature of the glycerin is maintained
so as to limit impurities in the condensate.
The final precondenser makes use of
tower water to condense and recover
remaining glycerin vapors exiting the
secondary condenser. The condensate is
recycled back to the process.
With three precondensers in series
operating at such low absolute
pressure, pressure drop across each
precondenser is extremely important. High
differential pressure drop not only results
in added utilities necessary for the ejector
system which backs up the condensers
but also reduces the amount of glycerin
recovered. The highest value
commercially pure glycerin production
is reduced when pressure drop is high,
Furthermore, high pressure drop increases
glycerin carryover to the ejector system
and as a consequence, increases product
loss.
Glycerin plant condensers often have
open tube pitches and large distribution
areas above and through the tube field.
Typical spacing between tubes in a
general heat exchanger would be 1.25
times the tube diameter. In vacuum
condensers operating at the low pressures
necessary to support glycerin production,
spacing between tubes increases to 1.5 to
2.0 times tube diameter. This is necessary
to enable vapors to distribute above the
tube field and flow through the tube
bundle at velocities suitable for low
pressure drop, Target pressure drop is 1O
- l5% of the operating pressure.
Boiling water vacuum condensers are
rather sophisticated. The thermal and
hydraulic design warrants careful
consideration. To enable an optimized
design to be achieved, the precondenser
requirements should be discussed with
the ejector system manufacturer, Often
manufacturers with experience have
proprietary designs for this type of
service.
The foregoing is typical of one glycerin
process. Another process utilizes a
packed column with direct condensation
inside the column and a water-cooled
precondenser after the column for
reclamation of remaining glycerin.
Edible oil plants
Edible oil deodorization is done under
vacuum at very low absolute pressures.
Early systems operated at 5 to 6 mm Hg
abs and had direct-contact condensers.
Todays plants operate at 1.5 to 3 mm Hg
abs and have surface-type
intercondensers. This lower operating
pressure reduces stripping steam
consumption within the deodorizer, and
energy consumption is lower. Stripping
steam is used within the deodorizer to
lower fatty acid partial pressure, thereby
allowing the fatty acid to vaporize from the
oil. Therefore, the deodorizer overhead
load to the vacuum system is steam, free
fatty acid, fatty matter, volatile organic
compounds, and air. Normally, two
ejectors in series compress deodorizer
overhead load to the first intercondenser.
Fatty acids solidify upon contact with
cold surfaces. The first intercondenser is
designed to handle fatty acid loading
without special provisions, the fatty acid
would rapidly solidify in the condenser.
This first intercondenser is designed for
tubeside vacuum condensation, with
cooling water on the shellside. The fatty
acid solidified as it contacts the cold
surface of the tubesheet and tubes. If
provisions for removing solidified fatty
acid are not included, tube holes in the
tubesheet will plug. This reduces
performance and ultimately results in a rise
in deodorizer operating pressure. An
increase in deodorizer operating pressure
reduces the amount of fatty acid removal
from the oil; less will vaporize due to a
higher operating pressure. This degrades
product quality and marketability of the
oil.
The top head of the first intercondenser
has a nozzle that sprays caustic flush
solution on the inlet tubesheet to remove
fatty acid deposits (Figure 9). This is a
continuous washing operation, as fatty
acid buildup is rapid. Must of the fatty
acid is removed in the first intercondenser,
and secondary condensers do not require
this feature.
An interesting concept that offered
appreciable savings in operating costs
was employed at an edible oil refinery in
Canada. In regions where cooling water
temperature varies significantly between
summer and winter months, it is possible
to control motive steam consumption to
optimize operating costs. In any
deodorizer ejector system,
the second stage ejector uses most of the motive steam required by
the ejector system. Steam consumption for this ejector may be
controlled as a function of cooling water temperature.
The principle at work in this arrangement is that as cooling water
supply temperature decreases, the operating pressure of the first
intercondenser decreases as well. This occurs because colder cooling
water will increase the available LMTD, thus enabling that condenser
to operate at a lower pressure. As operating pressure of the first
intercondenser is reduced, less energy is required to entrain and
compress the second stage ejector load to the operating pressure of
the condenser. A savings in motive steam usage is possible due to a
reduction in actual discharge pressure for the second stage ejector
(Figure 10).
An exacting test procedure must be followed by the ejector
manufacturer to assess operating characteristics of the second-stage
ejector as a function of motive steam supply pressure. Motive steam
supply pressure to the second ejector is reduced as cooling water inlet
temperature is below design, Actually if water temperature is cold
enough, the second-stage ejector may be bypassed entirely, thus
tremendous savings in steam consumption may be realized during
winter months. It is also important to design the secondary equipment
those items downstream of the first intercondenser to follow the
performance of the first intercondenser. A caveat to bear in mind is
that processing of certain oils may result in increased fatty acid
fouling in the first intercondenser when cooling water is permitted to
drop below 75-80F. Common operating practice is to control cooling
tower fan speed so as not to permit water temperature falling below
75F.
Fatty alcohols/methyl esters
Fatty alcohol and methyl ester distillation plants will
use precondensers and three and four-stage ejector
systems. Once again, the precondenser should be
married to the ejector system. Operating pressure of
the distillation column is less than 10 mm Hg and will
have 10,000 to 30,000 pounds per hour (pph) C
l2
load
or greater. A precondenser should be mounted
directly atop the vacuum column, as shown in Figure
11. This keeps pressure drop to a minimum but will
require a special layout for optimal performance.
Either tempered water or boiling water is used on the
tubeside to effect organic condensation on the
shellside of the condenser. Here the temperature of
the tubeside fluid is important so as to maintain the
metal temperature above the point where methyl
esters will solidify. An added benefit from boiling
water is that the large enthalpy change associated
with boiling water permits less water to be used as
opposed to the amount required if tempered water is
used. The figure depicts a horizontal condenser
mounted directly on the distillation column, which is
typical of tempered water-cooled precondensers.
Summary
Complexity of ejector systems in fats, oils, and
oleochemical production requires that careful
consideration be given to their design, installation,
and performance troubleshooting. An ejector system
is truly an integral part of the process. If properly
designed, an ejector system will provide problem free
performance. When precondensers are involved, it is
important to integrate the precondenser into the
ejector system design. This will ensure a unitized
design that minimizes capital cost and operating
expenses.
LESSONS FROM THE FIELD
- EJECTOR SYSTEMS
J ames R. Li nes, Gr aham Cor por at i on,
USA, pr esent s t he pr obl ems assoc i at ed
w i t h ej ec t or syst em per f or manc e and
subsequent sol ut i ons.
Figure 1. Ejector cross-sectional drawing
Hydrocarbon Engineering has previously reported on ejector system
fundamentals, operating characteristics, and guides for
troubleshooting
1
. Moving on from that stage, the current article provides
real world ejector system performance limitations uncovered during
routine performance surveys. Corrective action undertaken to improve
performance is documented and discussed in detail. Principles from the
initial article are used as the tools to define the cause of a particular
limitation and the eventual solution. It should be noted that the corrective
actions described were unique to the particular problems discussed. It
will not always be possible to apply the same procedure to a
comparable performance problem. A review of general corrective
techniques is discussed where applicable. Ejector system
manufacturers should be consulted as a first course of action, and
guide fixes are often possible.
Survey 1 - nylon intermediate production
facility
Nitrogen gas bleed for pressure control
A North American petrochemical company manufacturing nylon
intermediates was operating a vacuum flasher supported by a
precondenser and two stage ejector system. Overhead load from the
vacuum flasher consisted of 160 000 pph (72 600 kg/hr) of mixed
nitriles at a pressure of approximately 35 torr.
The precondenser produced adequate vacuum, but the two stage
ejector system that extracted non-condensibles from the precondenser
was performing in an unstable manner. Suction pressure of the first
stage ejector was cycling between the design 35 torr and up to as high
as 75 - 80 torr.
Vacuum flasher pressure was unaffected by the ejector instability,
however, plant personnel had concerns that poor ejector performance
may at some point have a negative impact on vacuum flasher operating
pressure.
Both precondenser and vacuum system were supplied by the ejector
system manufacturer. The manufacturer dispatched a service engineer
to the site to survey the equipment and its performance. Figure 3
depicts the pressure profile of the equipment.
The service engineer initially inspected vapor piping and condensate
drain legs to ensure equipment layout was satisfactory. Attention was
then focused on the utilities. Motive steam pressure was measured at
the inlet to each ejector, and actual motive steam supply pressure to the
ejectors was 140 psig (9.7 barg). The ejector motive steam nozzles
were designed to pass the required steam at 125 psig (8.6 barg).
Although the motive steam pressure was above design and,
consequently, more steam was being consumed by the ejectors, the
excessive steam consumption was not enough to cause poor
performance.
The cooling water inlet temperature to the condensers was below
design, and temperature rise across each condenser was less than
the design. Inlet cooling water was designed for 89.6 F (32 C) and the
water flowed in series from the first intercondenser to the
aftercondenser. The actual inlet water was at 85 F (29.4 C). The total
temperature rise across both condensers at design was 29 F (16.1
C). The actual temperature rise was 13 F (7.2 C). The lower
temperature rise would suggest greater cooling water usage or lower
condensible vapor discharge from the precondenser, neither of which
would cause poor ejector system performance.
An ejector system experiencing unstable suction pressure is typically
operating in a broken mode. Broken ejector performance is often
caused by low motive steam pressure, which has already been ruled
out, a fouled intercondenser, high cooling water temperature or water
flow, both of which have been ruled out, non-condensible loading.
While inspecting the ejector system, the service engineer noticed a
periodic audible change in ejector operation. This audible change plus
an unstable suction and discharge pressure first stage ejector
confirmed that this particular ejector was the trouble
The service engineer noticed plant personnel had installed a
pneumatically controlled control valve that bled nitrogen to the suction
of the first stage ejector. Plant personnel installed a nitrogen bleed as a
means of controlling suction pressure to allow the vacuum flasher to
operate at a consistent pressure even at reduced charge rates.
Pressure in the top of the vacuum flasher was sensed and a signal
sent to the control valve to bleed nitrogen to the first stage ejector if the
Figure 2. Precondenser to left of vacuum flasher
vacuum flasher pressure fell below design. Bleeding nitrogen, which is
non-condensible, to the suction of a multi-stage condensing ejector
system will result in unstable performance.
An ejector system is designed to handle non-condensible loading
associated with the process. Ejectors downstream of the first
intercondenser are designed to handle process related non-
condensibles and associated vapors of saturation. Bleeding in nitrogen
to act as an artificial load for the first stage ejector and to elevate
suction pressure resulted in non-condensible overloading of the
downstream ejector, which is the ejector that is downstream of the
first intercondenser.
34 torr
40 torr
33-75 torr
36 torr
N2 Suppl y
2
n d
Stage Ej ector
Af t ercondenser
1
st
I nt ercondenser
1
st
Stage Ej ector
Act ual Val ues
Desi gn Val ues
PI C
Precondenser
Vacuum Fl asher
279 torr
240 torr
200-262 torr
228 torr
773 torr
940 torr
Figure 3. Survey 1 pressure profile
8-13 torr
10 torr
50-70 torr
65 torr
3
r d
Stage Ejector
2
n d
Stage Ejector
Aftercondenser
2
n d
Intercondenser
1
st
Intercondenser
1
st
Stage Ejector
Actual Values
Design Values
Vacuum
Distillation
Unit
46-60 torr
62 torr
230 torr
215 torr
800 torr
Figure 4. Survey 2 pressure profile
Once the first stage ejector began to handle more non-condensible
loading than it was designed for, the down-stream ejector could not
handle that increased non-condensibles, plus the proportionate
increase in vapors of saturation, at the achievable discharge pressure
of the first stage ejector. This discontinuity in the achievable discharge
pressure of the first stage ejector and suction pressure maintained by
the second stage ejector based on higher non-condensible loading
resulted in the first stage ejector breaking operation.
The service engineer instructed plant personnel to dis-assemble the
nitrogen bleed arrangement and to install recycle control piping around
the first stage ejector. For any multi-stage condensing ejector system,
the preferred way to maintain performance and suction pressure is to
recycle discharge from an ejector immediately preceding the first
intercondenser back to the suction of the system. In this way, non-
condensible loading is never allowed to increase above design, thus
ensuring broken ejector operation will not occur. Again, vacuum flasher
pressure is sensed and a signal sent to the recycle control valve,
which will modulate and permit the recycle of vapor flow back to the
suction of the first stage ejector. Once the plant installed this form of
recycle control, stable ejector operation was maintained.
A caveat for this correction is that the most practical method of
controlling operating pressure of a precondenser/ejector system is to
control cooling water flowrate. Cooling water flowrate may be reduced
when process charge rate is below design. By lowering water
flowrate, the water temperature rise across the precondenser will
increase, which has the effect of lowering the Imtd. Controlling lmtd will
control operating pressure of the precondenser.
The recycle control arrangement suggested and used to correct first
stage ejector instability will not work if the operating pressure of a
precondenser permits condensation of steam. The composition of
recycle flow around an ejector consists of non-condensibles plus
steam. As the recycle flow is brought around to the suction of the first
stage ejector, the recycled steam will be drawn to the precondenser if
the operating pressure permits condensation of steam. When this
occurs and recycled flow goes to the precondenser rather than
through the first stage ejector, control of suction pressure is not
possible.
Survey 2 - West Coast fuels refinery
Improper replacement intercondenser
A West Coast refiner was operating a fuels vacuum distillation unit that
experienced erratic performance after replacing an intercondenser
supplied by the original ejector system manufacturer with one designed
and built by a local heat exchanger fabrication shop. The as sold
system was designed to provide performance described in Figure 4.
The service engineer had no prior knowledge that the user installed a
replacement intercondenser.
The first stage ejector was operating in a broken mode, with both
suction and discharge pressure remaining unstable. Furthermore,
shellside pressure drop across the first intercondenser was almost
three times the design pressure drop.
Motive steam supply condition was approximately at the design value,
so the service engineer ruled out inadequate steam pressure. High
pressure drop across the first intercondenser would suggest a fouling
problem, cooling water flowrate limitation, high inlet water temperature,
high noncondensible loading, or excessive hydrocarbon loading. Prior
to detailing a method to determine the actual cause, the service
engineer discussed general performance characteristics with unit
operators. At that time, it was discovered that the first intercondenser
was replaced.
2
nd
Stage Ejector
1
st
Stage Ejector
Turbi ne
Surface Condenser
Combi ned
Inter/Aftercondenser
Actual Val ues
Desi gn Val ues
Excessi ve
Vapor Plume
113 t orr
75 t orr
250 t orr
156 t orr
113 t orr
50 t orr
Figure 5. Survey 3 pressure profile.
24-25 torr
10 t orr
114-124 torr
100 torr
3
rd
Stage Ej ector
2
nd
Stage Ej ector
P Tubesi de
Aftercondenser
2
nd
Intercondenser
1
st
Intercondenser Isol ated
1
st
Intercondenser
1
st
Stage Ej ector
Actual Val ues
Desi gn Val ues
Vacuum
Distillation
Unit
105-115 torr
105 torr
248-252 torr
249-253 torr
864 torr
95 t orr
292 torr
104 torr
280 torr
890 torr
105-115 torr
95 t orr
86 t orr
90 t orr
25 psi
5 psi
114-124 torr
100 torr
Figure 6. Pressure and temperature profile.
Upon visual inspection of the installed unit and its name-plate, the
service engineer realized it was the design of another vendor. That
vendor did match the original intercondensers tube count and external
dimensions, but after a thorough review of fabrication drawings, it was
evident the vendor failed to design the shellside baffling properly to
manage hydraulic and thermal requirements. Vacuum condensers have
special shell side baffling to ensure minimal pressure drop, non-
condensible gas cooling, and separation of non-condensibles and
condensate. It is typical to have different baffle spacing at strategic
locations within the shell of a vacuum condenser or to incorporate a
long air baffle design. The vendor who replaced the intercondenser
used conventional software to model the performance. This in turn
resulted in a design having fully baffled flow, and consequently,
excessive pressure drop on the vapor side.
In this particular instance, high pressure drop across the shellside
caused the system to break performance. The first stage ejector could
not overcome the added pressure drop and reach a discharge
pressure where the second stage ejector would operate. This
discontinuity resulted in the first stage ejector breaking operation,
which was characterized by unsteady suction pressure and back-
streaming of motive steam into the vacuum distillation tower. Both
performance conditions were unsatisfactory to the refiner.
Although the plant engineers were reluctant to accept that the
condenser was the problem, they did agree to install a new condenser
designed by the ejector system manufacturer. Once the properly
designed condenser was installed and the system restarted,
performance returned to a satisfactory level.
Survey 3 - Canadian ammonia/urea fertilizer
complex
An ammonia plant syngas compressor provided less than design
horsepower due to high back pressure from a condensing turbine
steam surface condenser. The turbine exhaust condenser maintained
113 torr back pressure, but based on the cooling water temperature,
the expected back pressure should have been 75 torr. A service
engineer was dispatched to the site to evaluate the steam surface
condenser and exhauster performance to determine the cause of the
elevated back pressure.
The steam surface condenser was supported by a two stage ejector
system condenser exhauster (Figure 5). The service engineer noticed
a substantial exhaust plume from the aftercondenser vent.
Normally, steam surface condenser and exhauster systems are
vacuum tight, with air inleakage less than Heat Exchange Institute
design values, with typical air inleakage of 5 Ibs/hr or less. An
excessive exhaust plume from an aftercondenser does suggest high
air inleakage. There was an air leakage meter installed on the vacuum
system, and when activated, the measurement was off the scale.
The service engineer elected to isolate the surface condenser from the
ejector system. By isolating the surface condenser, it would be
possible to determine if excessive air leakage was from the surface
condenser or upstream piping, or if it was within the exhauster itself.
Once a surface condenser is isolated from a vacuum system and the
operating pressure of the condenser does not appreciably increase
over time, the air inleakage must be downstream of the surface
condenser.
The condenser was isolated from the vacuum system and pressure
stayed fairly constant. This confirmed the air inleakage was
downstream of the condenser and that it was in the exhauster system.
A closer look at the installation determined that a l/4 in. instrument
connection was left open and was not plugged. Evidently, a pressure
gauge was damaged and plant personnel removed it but failed to
replace it. The open connection permitted substantial quantities of air to
leak into the ejector system and cause poor operation. The condenser
was then brought on line once the connection was plugged and after
the system was allowed to stabilize, steam surface condenser
operating pressure reached 80 torr, which was in the range of what
was expected. The syngas compressor returned to full power once
this correction was made.
Survey 4 - Gulf Coast refinery
Fouled intercondenser
A Gulf Coast refiner was operating a damp crude
vacuum distillation tower that was designed for 10
torr tower top pressure but was maintaining only 24
-25 torr. The first stage ejector was surging and
back-streaming into the vacuum distillation unit. A
factory service engineer was dispatched to the site
to perform a system survey and evaluate causes of
the poor performance.
Figure 6 documents as sold performance and what
was measured in the field.
Broken first stage ejector performance may be
caused by improper motive steam pressure, elevated
inlet cooling water temperature, lower than design
cooling water flowrate, a fouled first intercondenser, or poor operation
of a downstream ejector. The performance survey indicated motive
steam supply conditions were satisfactory. Cooling water temperature
rise and pressure drop across the first intercondenser suggested the
problem was here.
Design cooling water temperature rise across the first intercondenser
was 14 F (7.8 C), however, the actual temperature rise was 19 F
(10.6 C). Possible causes for an elevated temperature rise would be
lower than designed cooling water flow or an increase in condensible
load to the condenser. Pressure drop across the tubeside of the con-
denser gave an indication that something was wrong. The actual
tubeside pressure drop was 25 psi (1.7 bar) while the design was only
5 psi (0.35 bar).
The tubeside of the condenser was fouled and the increased pressure
drop across the condenser caused the recirculating pumps to circulate
less water. Tubeside fouling to produce such an elevated pressure
drop would be severe and actual tube blockage must have occurred.
Tubeside fouling deterred heat transfer and did not permit proper
condensation of shell side vapors. This increased the pressure drop on
the shell side of the condenser and elevated its operating pressure. By
not permitting proper condensation of shellside vapors, the increased
outlet flow of vapors caused an increase in pressure drop.
The first stage ejector could not overcome the elevated shell side
pressure drop and, consequently, broke operation. The broken
operation resulted in unstable suction pressure, surging and back-
streaming of motive steam into the vacuum distillation unit. The first
intercondenser was pulled from the platform and taken down to grade.
At grade, the bundle was removed to inspect the shell side for fouling
and to rod out the tubes. The shell side did not experience excessive
fouling, but the tubeside had tubes blocked with solidified calcium
carbonate and other inverse solubility salts.
Once the tubeside was cleaned and returned to acceptable condition,
the bundle was reinstalled in the condenser, and the condenser taken
up to the vacuum unit for re-hook up. When the system was brought in
service, the tower top pressure was maintained at approximately 10
torr and system performance was stable.
Conclusion
Ejector systems provide extremely reliable performance, but they do
require periodic maintenance. It is recommended that routine surveys
be performed to document actual behavior and performance of the
ejector system. An ejector system may be performing at less than
optimal conditions for a variety of reasons,
such as improper utilities, fouled
condensers, mechanical damage,
excessive process load, excessive non-
condensible load or improper installation.
A skilled vacuum technician, most often
from the ejector system manufacturer,
should conduct the routine surveys and
issue performance reports. The
performance surveys may be conducted
on line without affecting the process. The
performance reports will document actual
performance at a point in time, discuss
corrective action where applicable and
offer preventative maintenance
suggestions.
If performance problems arise, the original
supplier of the vacuum system should be
consulted. If necessary, a request should be made for a service
engineer to be dispatched to offer support on site. Actual corrective
action to take is situation dependent and requires a thorough
understanding of variables that influence ejector system performance.
References
1 LINES J R and SMITH R T, Ejector system troubleshooting,
Hydrocarbon Engineering, Part 1 January/February 1997 pp. 69 - 78 ,
Part 2 March/April 1997 pp 35 - 40
Palladian Publications 1999
For More Information
Please Contact:
Graham Corporation
20 Florence Avenue
Batavia, New York 14020
USA
Telephone: 716 343 2216 Fax: 716 343 1097
Website: http/www.graham-mfg.com

Figure 7. First stage ejectors for
CVDU.
TECHNOLOGY
Understanding ejector
systems necessary
to troubleshoot vacuum distillation
James R. Lines Graham Corp. Batavia, NY
.
A complete understanding of ejector
system performance characteristics can
reduce the time and expense associated
with troubleshooting poor crude
vacuum distillation unit (CVDU)
performance.
Variables that may negatively impact
the ejector-system performance of
vacuum-crude distillation units include
utilities supply, corrosion and erosion,
fouling, and process conditions.
Fig 1. Fig. 2
Tables 1 and 2 are troubleshooting guides to
ejector and condenser problems in vacuum
ejector systems. Fig. 1 is a photo of an
installed ejector at a CVDU.
Two actual case studies conducted by service
engineers on CVDU-ejector systems show
how to troubleshoot ejector problems. The
first problem was a result of improper
replacement of an intercondenser, and the
second was a result of underestimation of
noncondensible loading during design, which
has recently become a common problem.
Ejectors
An ejector converts pressure energy of
motive steam into velocity. It has no moving
parts. Major components of an ejector
consist of the
motive nozzle, motive chest, suction
chamber, and diffuser (Fig. 2).
High velocity is achieved through adiabatic
expansion of motive steam across a
convergent/divergent steam nozzle. This
expansion of steam from the motive pressure
to the suction fluid operating pressure results
in supersonic velocities at the exit of the
steam nozzle.
The motive steam actually expands to a
pressure below the suction fluid pressure.
This expansion creates a low-pressure region,
which draws suction fluid into an ejector.
Typically, velocity exiting a motive steam
nozzle is in the range of 3,000-4,000 fps. This
high-velocity motive steam then entrains and
mixes with the suction fluid. The resultant
mixture is still supersonic. As the mixture
passes through the convergent, throat, and
divergent sections of a diffuser, high velocity
is converted back to pressure.
The convergent section of a diffuser reduces
velocity as cross sectional area is reduced.
Intuitively, one normally thinks that as flow
area is reduced, velocity is increased. But a
unique thermodynamic phenomenon occurs
with gases at supersonic conditions: As
cross-sectional flow area is reduced, the
velocity is reduced.
The diffuser throat is designed to create a
shock wave. The shock wave produces a
dramatic increase in pressure as the flow goes
from supersonic to subsonic across it. In the
divergent section of the diffuser, cross-
sectional flow area is increased and velocity is
further reduced and converted to pressure. A
shock wave occurs in the diffuser throat when
the compression ratio of an ejector is 2:l or
greater, which is the case with CVDU ejector
systems.
An ejector-performance curve gives the
expected suction pressure as a function of
water-vapor equivalent loading (Fig. 3). Heat
Exchange Institute Standards for Steam Jet
Ejectors describes the method to convert the
mixture (air, water vapor, and various
hydrocarbons) to a water-vapor equivalent or
an air-equivalent load.
Other important information noted on an
ejector performance curve includes the
minimum motive steam pressure, the
maximum motive steam temperature, and
Fig. 5
the maximum discharge pressure.
If field measurements differ from a
performance curve, then there may be a
problem with the process, utility supply,
or the ejector itself.
Condensers
A condenser in an ejector system reduces
the amount of vapor load that a
downstream ejector must handle.
Condensers of an ejector system are
designed to condense steam and
condensible hydrocarbons and cool
noncondensible gases.
In many cases, the inlet load to a
condenser is many times greater than
the load to a downstream ejector.
Consequently, any loss in condenser
performance will have a dramatic ef-fect
on a downstream ejector.
Although vacuum condensers are
constructed like process shell-and-tube
heat exchangers, their internal designs
differ significantly due to the presence
of two-phase flow, noncon-densible gas,
and vacuum operation.
Vacuum condensers for crude-tower
applications have cooling water on the
tube side. Condensation of water vapor
and hydrocarbons takes place on the
shellside. A major portion of the
condensibles contained in the inlet
stream (shell side) change from a vapor
to liquid phase. The remaining
condensibles and the noncondensible
gases are removed from the condenser
through a vapor-outlet connection by a
downstream ejector.
Intercondensers are positioned be-
tween two ejector stages. Condensation
of intercondensers occurs at a pressure
corresponding to the dis-charge pressure
of a preceding ejector and the suction
pressure of a downstream ejector.
Steam pressure and temperature
The temperature and pressure of
motive-steam supply is one of the most
important variables affecting ejector
operation. If the pressure falls below
design pressure, then the motive nozzle
will pass less steam. If this occurs, an
ejector does not have enough energy to
entrain and compress a suction load to
the design discharge pressure.
Similarly, if the motive-steam supply
temperature is appreciably above the
design value, insufficient steam passes
through the motive nozzle. Both lower-
than-design steam pressure and higher-
than-design steam temperature increase
the specific volume of the motive steam
and reduces the amount of steam
through a motive nozzle.
In certain cases, it is possible to re-bore
an ejector-motive nozzle to permit the
passage of more steam through the
nozzle, thereby increasing the energy
available to entrain and compress the
suction load.
If motive-steam pressure is more than
20% above design, too much steam
expands across the nozzle. This often
chokes the diffuser throat of an ejector.
When this occurs, less suction load is
handled by an ejector, and the CVD-
column pressure rises. If an increase in
column pressure is undesirable, then
new ejector nozzles with smaller throat
diameters are required.
Steam quality
Wet steam is very damaging to an
ejector system because high-velocity
moisture droplets are erosive. These
droplets are rapidly accelerated as steam
expands across a motive nozzle.
Erosion of nozzle internals caused by
wet motive-steam is noticeable when
inspecting ejector nozzles or diffuser
internals. There is an etched striated
pattern on the diverging section of a
motive nozzle, and the nozzle mouth
may actually wear out. Also, the inlet
diffuser section of an ejector will show
signs of erosion as a result of direct
impingement of moisture droplets (Fig.
4a).
Fig. 4b depicts an ejector cutaway
showing severe damage caused by wet
steam. The inlet diffuser shows
Table 1
Table 3
substantial metal loss. Metal-scale buildup
can be seen in the outlet diffuser section.
The exhaust temperature from the ejector can
determine if the steam conditions are present.
Typical ejector exhaust temperatures are in
the range of 250 to 300 F. If moisture is
present, a substantially lower exhaust
temperature will exist.
To solve wet-steam problems, all lines up to
an ejector should be well insulated. A steam
separator and trap should be installed
immediately before the motive-steam inlet
connection of each ejector. In some instances,
a steam superheater may be required.
Wet steam can also cause performance
problems. Moisture droplets through an
ejector nozzle decrease the energy available
for compression. This reduces the suction-
load handling capacity of an ejector.
Also, the moisture droplets may vaporize
within the diffuser section of the ejector.
Upon vaporization, the volumetric flow rate
within the ejector increases. Here again, this
reduces the suction-load capacity of an
ejector.
Cooling water conditions
A rise in cooling-water temperature lowers
the available log mean temperature difference
(LMTD) of a condenser. Should this occur,
the condenser will not condense enough steam
and condensible hydrocarbons. This will
increase the vapor load to the downstream
ejector.
As a result of inadequate condensation, there
also is an increase in pressure drop across the
condenser. If an ejector following this
condenser cannot handle an increased vapor
load at the operating pressure of a condenser,
the operating pressure of the condenser will
rise and the system will break performance.
Broken ejector system performance is
characterized by a higher-than-design CVDU
tower-top pressure. The tower-top pressure
may become unstable.
This may also occur if the cooling-water flow
rate is below design. At lower-than-design
flow rates, there is a greater water-
temperature rise across a condenser. Here
again, this will lower the available LMTD.
Poor performance is further exacerbated as a
result of a lower heat transfer coefficient
resulting from low-water flow rate.
Problems with cooling water normally occur
during summer months. During the summer,
the water is at its warmest, and demands on
refinery equipment are highest. If cooling-
water flow rate or temperature are off design,
new ejectors or condensers may be required
to provide satisfactory operation.
Corrosion and erosion
Corrosion may occur in ejectors, condensers,
or Vacuum piping. Extreme corrosion may
cause holes and allow a system. Air leakage
into the vacuum system. Air leakage into a
vacuum system will deteriorate performance
and can result in broken ejector operation.
A common corrosion problem occurs when
carbon-steel tubing is used in condensers.
Although carbon steel may be suitable for the
crude feed-stock, it is not always the best
choice for an ejector system. Although carbon
steel has a lower capital cost, operating
problems can outweigh modest up-front
savings.
During extended periods of shutdowns for
maintenance or revamps, a condenser with
carbon-steel tubing will be exposed to air,
oxidize, and develop a scale buildup. When an
ejector system starts up, this buildup can
severely foul the condensers and prevent
proper operation of the vacuum system.
Poor steam quality and high velocities may
also cause erosion of the diffuser and motive-
nozzle internals. Ejector manufacturers will
provide certified information that defines the
motive nozzle and diffuser throat diameters.
If a routine inspection of these parts indicates
an increase in cross sectional area over 7%,
then performance may be compromised, and
replacement parts are necessary.
Threaded steam connections may experience a
phenomenon termed wire drawing, or wire
cutting. Loose threads provide a leak path for
the steam. Over time, the steam will destroy
the threaded joint or even put a hole in the
piece. A hole leads to a steam leak within the
ejector, which will act like a suction load,
thereby reducing the systems performance.
Fouling
Intercondensers and aftercondensers are
subject to fouling on both the tube side and
the shell side. Fouling deters heat transfer.
Cooling-tower water, often used as the
cooling fluid for vacuum condensers, is
normally on the tube side. Over a prolonged
period of time, actual fouling may exceed the
design value, and condenser performance
becomes inadequate.
Vacuum-tower overhead gases, vapors, and
motive steam are normally on the shell side of
a condenser. Depending on fractionation and
the type of crude processed, a hydrocarbon
film may develop on the outside surface of
the tubing. This film deters heat transfer.
Fig. 5 illustrates how severely a condenser
may be fouled. In this example, not only did
the tubing have a hydrocarbon film, but
solidified hydrocarbon product adhered to the
tubing. The solidified material blocked the
flow, resulting in poor performance and an
elevated pressure drop.
When actual unit fouling exceeds design
values, a condenser performs inadequately.
Once fouled, a condenser is unable to
condense sufficient quantities of hydrocarbon
vapors and motive steam. The result of
condenser fouling is an increase in vapor load
to a downstream ejector and an increase in
condenser-operating pressure. Ultimately, a
preceding ejector will break operation.
Routine refinery procedures should include
periodic cleaning of the tube side and the shell
side of condenser bundles.
Process conditions
Vacuum system performance may be affected
by several process variables: non-condensible
gas loading, condensible hydrocarbons, and
vacuum system back pressure.
Ejector systems are susceptible to poor
performance when noncondensible loading
increases above design. Noncondensible
loading to an ejector system can be caused by
air leakage into the system, the presence of
light hydrocarbons, or the existence of
cracked gases from a fired heater.
The impact of higher-than-design
noncondensible loading is severe. As
noncondensible loading increases, the amount
of saturated vapors discharging from a
condenser increases proportionately.
The ejector following a condenser may
not be able to handle increased loading
at that operating pressure of the
condenser. The ejector preceding that
condenser is unable to compress to a
higher discharge pressure. This
discontinuity in pressure causes the
preceding ejector to break operation. I
When actual noncondensible loading is
consistently above design, new ejectors
are required. Depending on the severity
of noncondensible overloading, new
condensers may be required as well.
Recently, several CVDU revamps in the
U.S. Gulf Coast experienced startup
difficulties due to inaccurate estimates of
actual noncondensible loading.
As different crude oils are processed, or
as refinery operations change, the
composition and amount of condensible
hydrocarbons handled by an ejector
system vary. Condensable hydrocarbon
loading may become so much greater
than design that condenser or ejector
performance is adversely affected.
Another possible affect of increased
condensible hydrocarbon loading is an
increased oil-condensate film on the
tubing, and consequently, a reduction in
the heat transfer rate. This situation may
result in increased vapor discharge from
a condenser. Unstable operation of the
entire ejector system may result. To
overcome this type of performance
limitation, new condensers or ejectors
may be required.
Vacuum system back pressure may have
an overwhelming influence on
satisfactory performance. If the actual
discharge pressure rises above design,
an ejector will not have enough energy
to reach that higher pressure. When this
occurs, the ejector breaks operation, and
there is an increase in CVDU tower-top
pressure.
When back pressure is above design,
possible corrective actions include
lowering the system back pressure,
reboring the steam nozzle to permit the
use of more motive steam, or installing
new ejectors.
Case 1:
Improper intercondenser
A West Coast refiner experienced erratic
system performance after replacing an
intercondenser supplied by the ejector
system manufacturer with one designed
and built by a local heat exchanger
fabrication shop. The ejector system
vendor dispatched a service engineer to
investigate the cause of the problem
without knowing about the replacement
intercondenser.
The actual performance of the system
differed from the as sold system (Fig.
6). The first-stage ejector was operating
in a broken mode with both suction and
discharge pressure remaining unstable.
Pressure drop across the first
intercondenser was excessive -at 8.5 mm
Hg instead of 3 mm Hg.
Broken first-stage ejector performance
and high-pressure drop across the first
intercondenser suggested one of the
following problems: fouling, cooling-
water flow rate limitation, high inlet
water temperature, or excessive
hydrocarbon loading.
Prior to detailing a method to determine
the actual cause, the service engineer
discussed general performance
characteristics with unit operators. At
that time, he discovered that the first
intercondenser had been replaced by
another vendor.
The vendor had matched the original
units tube count and external
dimensions, but failed to properly
design the shellside side baffling to
effectively manage hydraulic and
thermal requirements.
Vacuum condensers have special
shellside baffling to ensure minimal
pressure drop, noncondensible gas
cooling, and separation of
noncondensibles and condensate. It is
typical to have different baffle spacing at
strategic locations within the shell.
The vendor of the replacement
condenser used conventional software to
model the performance. The new
condenser design had a fully baffled
flow, and consequently a high-pressure
drop.
In this instance, the high-pressure drop
across the intercondenser caused the
system to break performance. The first-
stage ejector could not overcome the
added pressure drop and reach a
discharge pressure in which the second-
stage ejector would operate.
Once the replacement unit was pulled
out and a properly designed condenser
put in, system performance was
satisfactory.
Case 2:
Underestimated loading
A U.S. Gulf Coast refiner grossly
underestimated its noncondensible
loading when it modernized a CVDU to
process sour South American crude. The
modernization effort involved an
entirely new ejector system.
Upon startup of the CVDU, the ejector
system was not performing properly.
Tower-top pressure was significantly
above design, and it was unstable.
Initial investigation verified utility
conditions. The ejector system was
designed for 140 psig motive steam, and
the actual supply pressure varied
between 138 and 144 psig.
Next, the cooling water was evaluated.
Design inlet temperature was 88 F., and
the actual supply temperature was at
72.3 F. Temperature rise and pressure
drop across each condenser did not
suggest an abnormality. The equipment
was new, so fouling was ruled out.
A detailed analysis of the sour South
American crude oil was in order.
The design and actual vacuum tower
overhead compositions are shown in
Table 3.
The actual simulation was too different
from design conditions. Significant
equipment modifications were needed
to achieve the desired charge rate and
vacuum level.
The steam equivalent loads were
calculated to be about 17,500 lb/ hr and
23,000 lb/ hr for design and actual
loading, respectively. According to the
performance curve, at the higher load,
the first-stage ejector would maintain
about 19 mm Hg absolute pressure in
lieu of the design 14 mm Hg. The refiner
agreed to accept the higher pressure.
Because the noncondensible loading
values were drastically different (more
than twice as much as design) new
equipment was necessary.
The refiner added redundant ejectors
and condensers after the first
intercondensers to handle the additional
noncondensible load. The system
stabilized after two parallel trains of
secondary equipment were installed.
Tower-top pressure was still above
design but within an acceptable range.
Figs. 7a and 7b depict the as sold
performance and the revamped
operation.
Air Ejectors Cheaper Than Steam
When all the cost factors are considered, the
air-operated ejector often proves to be the superior method
for producing vacuum. Here are figures you can use.
F. Duncan Berkeley
For many years the air-operated ejector
has been a neglected child in the field of
vacuum producing apparatus. It has
been greatly overshadowed by its highly
successful, fully reliable and popular kin,
the steam ejector. The popularity of the
steam ejector has been somewhat
justified because air-operated ejectors
have been limited in their use by a
relatively expensive and somewhat
scarce supply of high-pressure motive
air. Major reasons for selecting steam
rather than air to operate ejectors have
been the unavailability of air
compressors and the relatively high cost
of compressed air in most localities.
Improvements in air compressors have
greatly reduced the cost of compressed
air as compared to 20 years ago; and
the greater availability of compressed air
in process plants today makes the air
ejector a reasonable and in some
instances a preferred means of
producing a vacuum.
The fact that air is a non-condensible
gas under common conditions of
temperature and pressure, limits its use
as a propelling material for ejectors to
two or three stages. In a steam ejector
the steam from each stage of multistage
units can usually be condensed in an
intercondenser and the successive
stage need handle only the non-
condensible gases plus a relatively
small saturation component from all
previous stages. By condensing the
motive steam from previous stages, it is
both economical and practical to use as
many as five or more stages.
CONSIDER ALL THE FACTORS
Recent tests and studies on air-
operated ejectors have brought to light
some rather interesting and useful facts
concerning these units. The results,
although neither highly revolutionary nor
startling, prove that the air jet has the
same desirable feature as the steam jet;
and in some instances can prove to be
very economical and more desirable
than the steam jet.
All factors of cost should be carefully
considered for a specific application.
They are:
Initial cost of the equipment used to
produce the compressed air or steam.
Versatility of employing steam or air
generating equipment for other uses in a
plant or process.
Relative costs of compressed air and
steam for a particular locality.
Operating requirements for the ejector,
both vacuum and load. With all of these
factors in mind, using the air-operated
ejector often proves to be quite superior
to other methods of producing vacuum.
HOW THEY WORK
All ejectors operate on a common
principle. They entrain air or other fluids
in a high velocity jet of propelling air,
steam, water or other fluid. And they
use the kinetic energy in the high
velocity stream of that fluid to push back
the atmosphere from the discharge of
the ejector.
This would suggest that the higher the
velocity of the jet from the nozzle of the
ejector, the greater the pressure against
which the ejector can exhaust. Or if the
exhaust pressure remains constant, the
higher the vacuum produced by the
ejector. This is true and for any
particular velocity of the jet there is, of
course, a limit to the vacuum that can
be produced.
Fig. I illustrates approximately the
conversion of air pressure into velocity in
the nozzle of the ejector and the
conversion of velocity into pressure in
the diffuser.
Air, under the same conditions of
temperature and pressure, has less
internal energy in its molecules than
steam. And theoretically air cannot
produce as high a vacuum as can
steam. However, the inefficiencies of the
expansion and compression processes
in an ejector when the ejector is
operating over its maximum range of
compression obscure the differences in
ultimate vacuum produced.
For most practical purposes a one or
two stage air ejector will produce as
high an ultimate vacuum as will a one or
two stage steam ejector. The steam jet,
however, requires fewer lbs. of motive
fluid to evacuate a closed vessel than
the air jet and fewer lb./hr. of motive fluid
to exhaust a constant load at a
particular vacuum as compared to an air
jet. Therefore we need to know some
additional comparative characteristics to
base our cost estimates on.
BASIS OF COMPARISON
Because 100 psig. is a very common
pressure for both compressed air and
steam in industrial plants, it is a good
pressure on which to base a comparison
between air-operated and steam
operated ejectors.
200 F. is approximately the maximum
air temperature at which 100 psig. single
stage air compressors will deliver air
without requiring the compressor to run
excessively hot. The hotter the air to the
ejector, the less air is required by the
ejector for any particular condition of
vacuum and load.
If the air aftercooler of a compressor is
bypassed or if the cooling water to the
aftercooler is shut off, relatively hot air
can be obtained for use in an ejector.
But by doing so the air storage tank
capacity is reduced and condensate will
collect in the storage tank and air lines.
This might be undesirable for some
compressed air installations. It is more
desirable to heat the air by means of an
electric heater or with a steam to air
heat exchanger. Only a very small
amount of electricity or low pressure
steam is required to reach 200 F.
Fig. 1 - Ejector nozzle converts air pressure into velocity and the diffuser converts
velocity back into pressure.
(or hotter), and in most cases the
reduced air requirements of the ejector
are well worth the additional expense.
By heating motive air to 200 F., the air
required to operate an ejector can be
reduced to as little as 70% of the air
requirements for 70 F. air. Sometimes
air ejectors are selected to keep the
temperature of the load fluid low. This
rules out steam ejectors. And to remove
the load fluid in condensers most
efficiently it would then be necessary to
operate the ejector with cold air.
TEST RESULTS
Data from our test runs on one and two
stage air ejectors (of optimum design)
correlate very well with data on steam
ejectors. We used air at 100 psig. and
200 F. in our tests and compared the
results with steam ejectors operating on
100 psig. dry saturated steam .
Single stage air ejectors require 1.4. -
1.5 lb. of air to handle the same
condition of vacuum and load that 1.0 lb.
of steam will when it is supplied to a
single stage steam ejector.
In a two stage air ejector, 2.5-2.7 lb. of
air will be needed to do the same job
that 1.0 lb. of steam will do in a two
stage non-condensing steam ejector.
These ratios change somewhat when
the pressure of the motive air is
changed. A typical figure for single
stage might be 1.7 lb. of 200 psig air per
lb. of dry saturated steam at 200 psig.
Or 1.4 lb. of 60 psig. air per lb. of dry
saturated steam at 60 psig .
Fig. 2 shows the ratio of motive air to
load air required for one stage ejectors.
The absolute pressure scale covers the
operating vacuum range of one stage
units. Fig. 3 shows the ratio of motive air
to load air required for typical two stage
ejectors designed for any particular
vacuum in the operating range for two
stage ejectors. The ratios are based on
supplying motive air at 100 psig. and
200 F. to remove load air at 70 F.
These ratios will be higher for load air
above 70 F. and lower for load air below
70 F. But the corrections are small
between 50-90 F. If the ejector is to
handle a fluid other than air, the flow
ratio must be corrected for the difference
in the thermodynamic properties of the
load fluid and those of air. This
correction factor is usually considered a
function of the relative molecular weights
of the load fluid and air.
Fig. 2 shows that for pressure above 3.2
in. Hg abs., a single stage air-operated
ejector is more economical to operate
than a two stage ejector (when the
motive air pressure is 100 psig.). The
exact pressure at which two stages of
compression become more economical
depends on the pressure of the motive
air supply. Absolute pressures as low
as 0.394 in. Hg abs. (10 mm.) are
practical with a two stage air-operated
ejector.
WHAT IT COSTS
Figs. 4, 5 and 6 show the operating
costs of one and two stage air ejectors
when the cost of the compressed air is
known.
Compressor manufacturers have
organized and published much useful
data which permit an analysis of
compressed air costs. These costs are
made up of: .
Operating costs including power, labor,
repairs, maintenance, lubricants, etc.
Depreciation of equipment.
Interest on the investment made for the
equipment.
Power is the largest portion of total cost.
And in many cases the cost of power
need be the one consideration
necessary for a study of compressed air
costs.
We have used the tables in
Compressed Air Data, Ingersoll-Rand
Co., Phillipsburg, N.J. (1939) to
compute the cost of power required for
compressed air. The other costs, being
unique to each application, should be
studied to determine their relative
importance and effect on the overall
cost.
To use the Compressed Air Data
tables it is necessary to know the brake
horsepower required to compress and
deliver 100-cfm. of air and the local cost
of the various fuels under consideration.
Air-operated Ejectors Discharging to Atmospheric Pressure
Figs. 2 and 3 - Air consumption for single-stage and two-stage air-operated ejectors.
Since the brake horsepower will vary
considerably with the size and type of
compressor, you should obtain exact data on
brake horsepower requirements from the
manufacturer after the air requirements are
known. However, typical figures are shown in a
table of the reference we mentioned above. And
the use of these figures will permit an
approximate cost analysis.
SAMPLE PROBLEM
Lets assume that an air-operated ejector is
required to maintain an absolute pressure of 5
in. Hg in a system that has an air leakage of 25
lb/hr. The costs of various fuels available are:
Electricity 1.5 c./kwh
Fuel oil 9.5 c./gal
Gas 63.7 c./M cu. ft.
Gasoline 22.0 c./gal.
Coal $9.79/ton
Fig. 2 shows that a one stage ejector will do
the job and that 6.7 Ib of 100 psig., 200 F.
motive air are required for every lb. of air to be
evacuated. Therefore, the total motive air
required to operate the ejector would be:
6.7lb.
motive air
X 25 lb. load
air
=
lb. load air hr.
167.5 lb. motive air/hr.
We can now use Fig. 7 to find that 167.5 lb./hr.
of air is equivalent to 37.5 standard cu. ft. of air
per min.
From our reference, the brake horsepower
requirements of a typical single
stage 100 psig. air compressor with a
capacity of slightly more than 37.5 scfm.
is found to be approximately 22 bhp./100
scfm. delivered. With this value and the
fuel costs listed above we can enter the
other tables of the Compressed Air Data
book and find the power costs for running
the compressor on the various fuels:
Electricity 0.412c. (37.5) (60)=
100 cu.ft.
9.27 c./hr.
Fuel Oil 0.218 c. (37.5) (60)=
100 cu. ft.
4.91 c./hr.
Gasoline 0.962 c. (37.5) (60)=
100 cu. ft.
21.65 c./hr.
Gas 0.242 c. (37.5) (60)=
100 cu. ft.
5.45 c./hr.
In order to determine the cost of air
compressed by a steam turbine or steam
engine driven compressor, we would have
to know the steam rate of the turbine
engine in lb. of steam per bhp.-hr. A
typical figure might be 28 lb. of steam per
bhp.-hr. Then the power cost for the
ejector might be:
$9.79 x 0.0733 c.-ton x (37.5) (60)
ton 100 cu.ft.$
= 16.15c./hr.
The reference table we have used is
based on evaporation rate of 7 lb. of water
per lb. of coal burned. It will be necessary
to correct this for the actual evaporation
rate.
Our calculations show that for our
assumed conditions a compressor driven
by an engine burning fuel oil would be the
cheapest way of producing the air
necessary to operate the ejector (when
only power costs are considered).
AIR COSTS ARE REASONABLE
When making cost analyses of air
requirements from the reference tables,
the various assumptions upon which
each table is based should be checked
against the actual conditions of
operation. It is likely that some particular
fuel will be outstandingIy cheap due to
local conditions. In such cases these
approximate calculations will show
conclusively which fuel is most
economical.
Although the data above are limited to
ejectors operating on 100 psig., 200 F.
air, we can see that power costs of air-
operated ejectors can be quite
reasonable.
AIR vs STEAM
Under most circumstances where steam
is already available, a steam ejector
would be used in preference to an air-
operated ejector. Economics would
dictate the choice. If steam is not
available, air might well be the cheaper
motive fluid.
There are also cases where air-operated
ejectors are selected for other than
economic reasons. In general, air-
operated ejectors are most desirable
where the heating or diluting features of
the steam ejector are objectionable;
where compressed air is more readily
available than steam; where the
properties of air are desirable as the
motivating fluid.
SOME APPLICATIONS
There are many services for which an air-
operated ejector is ideally suited. Pump
priming is readily done by means of an
air or steam operated ejector which
operates only long enough to exhaust the
air from the pump casing and piping. This
permits the system to become fined with
the liquid to be pumped. The ejector is
then isolated from the system by means
of a valve. The pump is turned on. And
the ejector air supply is turned off. This
leaves the pump primed and ready for
operation.
A siphon pipe system which uses gravity
to draw water or some other liquid over a
high elevation without the use of
expensive pumps requires some initial
priming to start-up. It can be primed by
using an air-operated ejector operating on
air from a portable or stationary
compressor.
The pumping of corrosive, tarry or sludge
liquids can be done without the use of
special pumps by means of an air-
operated ejector.
Frequently we want to recover vapor in an
intercondenser in its pure state, undiluted
and unheated. To accomplish this we can
use an air-operated ejector for the initial
stage of compression to compress the
vapor to a pressure where it can be easily
condensed. Either a steam ejector or an
air-operated ejector can be used to
maintain the required intercondenser
vacuum.
THE THERMOCOMPRESSOR
Many applications require compressed
air at a pressure below the available air
pressure. This makes it necessary to
throttle the air through an orifice or valve
to reduce its pressure. The cost of
compressing air to a high pressure and
then throttling to a lower pressure for a
particular application can be reduced by
installing an air operated thermo-
compressor.
Working on the same principle as a
vacuum producing ejector, the
thermocompressor picks up air at
atmospheric pressure (or higher) and by
means of a high velocity air jet
compresses the atmospheric air to the
required pressure. The savings
accomplished by the thermocompressor
are derived from reducing the
consumption of high pressure air by the
amount of atmospheric air that the
thermocompressor will entrain.
Thermocompressors operating on air,
steam and many other fluids have found a
wide and useful field of application in
industry.
The rugged and simple construction of
ejectors along with the fact that they can
handle large volumes of fluids (without the
relatively. enormous proportions of other
types of vacuum pumps) often
determines when and where an ejector
should be used. Other considerations
may, of course, outweigh the size and
simplicity factors. An overall picture of
requirements is necessary to select the
best suited vacuum pump for your needs.
Fig. 7 - Volume-weight conversion chart
OPTI MI ZI NG PROCESS
VACUUM CONDENSERS
Graham Corporation
P.O. Box 719,
20 Florence Avenue
Batavia, N.Y. 14021-0719
Phone: 716-343-2216
Fax: 716-343-l 097
Email: equipment@graham-mfg.com
Website: http://www.graham-mfg.com
INSIDE; REPRINTED FROM CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
Vacuum condensers play a critical role in
supporting vacuum processing operations.
Although they may appear similar to
atmospheric units, vacuum condensers have
their own special designs, considerations and
installation needs. By adding vacuum
condensers, precondensers and
intercondensers (Figure l), system cost
efficiency can be optimized. Vacuum
condensing systems permit reclamation of
high value product by use of a precondenser,
or reduce operating costs with
intercondensers.
A precondenser placed between the vacuum
vessel and ejector system will recover
valuable process vapors and reduce vapor
load to an ejector system minimizing the
systems capital and operating costs.
Similarly, an intercondenser positioned
between ejector stages can condense motive
steam and process vapors and reduce vapor
load to downstream ejectors as well as lower
capital and operating costs.
Vacuum condensers cannot be designed or
considered as typical process heat exchangers.
Doing so will result in less than optimal
performance with increased utility and
condensate treatment costs. For instance,
internal geometry may not be modeled well
by standard heat transfer software because
condenser design is proprietary and varies
from one manufacturer to another. Also, tube-
field layout and baffling are often
unconventional and not suited for standard
software. It is also vital to incorporate ejector
operation into vacuum condenser design.
A number of primary CPI processes (ranging
from glycerin manufacture to urea prilling)
use vacuum condensers each requiring a
special design that depends on the type of
vacuum condenser needed. For example, in
urea plants, the main vacuum condensers are
outfitted with spray nozzles above the tube
field for removal of solidified product
buildup.
Vacuum condenser systems
The prevalent type of vacuum condensers are
shell-and-tube. These look similar externally
to conventional shell-and-tube heat
exchangers; however, their internal geometry
is notably different. The major components
of a vacuum condenser (Figure 2) include:
lTubes
lTubesheet( s)
lShell
lSupport plates
lBaffles
lChannels or bonnets
The design and optimum operation of a
vacuum condenser is application specific, and
determined by its tube-field layout and flow
baffling. These geometries strongly affect
condensation efficiency and pressure drop
minimization. Under sub-atmospheric
conditions, the need to minimize pressure
drop is the key design consideration. Pressure
drop across a vacuum condenser reduces
condensation efficiency or product recovery
and, therefore, increases the operating cost of
a vacuum system.
Vessel geometry affects both vapor
distribution and flow pattern, which
ultimately impacts condenser performance
and pressure drop. Poor flow distribution
may result in localized dead spots in a
condenser that essentially reduce effective
heat transfer surface area. Furthermore,
improper baffling may result in
noncondensable binding and, consequently, a
loss in the systems efficiency and vacuum.
At higher vacuum levels, the design of
vacuum condensers becomes more critical and
the units are characterized by unique
geometries or features. For instance, in
glycerin plant condensers, which operate
below 10 mm Hg, spacing between tubes
varies. Initially, the top tube row has spacing
increased to 1.62 times tube diameter. This
allows high specific volume vapors to
distribute above the tube field, and flow into
the bundle at velocities suitable for low
pressure drop. Tube spacing is then
OPTI MI ZI NG
PROCESS VACUUM
CONDENSERS
James R. Lines and David W. Tice,
Graham Corporation
Designing these
units properly
involves more
than just using
standard heat-
transfer software
reduced to a normal 1.25 times tube diameter
near the final tube row, which ensures that
velocities are sufficiently high to maintain
proper heat transfer.
Types of vacuum condensers
The geometries of surface condensers
generally follow three basic designs that
comply with standard nomenclature
established by the Tubular Exchanger
Manufacturers Assn. (TEMA; Tarrytown,
N.Y.):
1. Shellside-condensing design fixed tubesheet
type, designated as: AXL, BXM, AEL or
BEM. Figure 3 provides a clearer description
of the various mix and match geometries
and their designations
2. Shellside-condensing design removable
bundle type: AXS, AXU, AES or AEU
3. Tubeside-condensing design fixed tubesheet
type: AEL or BEM
Shellside condensing
Key features of vacuum condensers with
shellside condensation include:
lVapor inlet connection
lVapor distribution space above the tube
field
lMain condensing zone
lNoncondensable-gas cooling and final
condensing zone
lNoncondensable-gas outlet connection (or
vapor outlet)
lCondensate outlet connection
Condensers with shell diameters greater than
26 in. often have a longitudinal baffle that
runs virtually the entire tube length. This
type of condenser is denoted as a TEMA
crossflow X shell. A majority of the
condensation occurs in the tube field prior to
the longitudinal baffle.
Noncondensable gases and associated vapors
of saturation are drawn underneath the
longitudinal baffle by a low-pressure region
created by a downstream ejector, which is
designed for that purpose. As
noncondensables and vapors are drawn
underneath the longitudinal baffle, that change
in direction separates condensate from the
vapors. Condensate drops down via gravity
to the bottom of the shell and is subsequently
drained from the unit. Meanwhile
noncondensables and associated vapors are
drawn through tubes beneath the longitudinal
baffle for additional cooling and condensation.
This separation of condensate from
noncondensables and remaining vapors
permits final cooling of
noncondensables to a
temperature below the
bulk condensate
temperature.
Furthermore, tubes
beneath a longitudinal
baffle contain the coldest
cooling water. This
enables a system design
whereby final
noncondensable gas and
the saturated vapor
outlet temperature is
below the cooling water
outlet temperature.
Units with smaller
diameter shells (less than
26 in.), denoted as
TEMA E shells, are
characterized by up and
over baffles in the final
noncondensable cooling
section. Here again, the
majority of condensation
takes place in the tube
field area before the up and over baffle
section. Internal geometry is such that there is
separation of the condensate from
noncondensables and vapors of saturation.
Only noncondensables and associated vapors
of saturation are drawn into the up and
over baffle section to ensure that heat
transfer is maximized. Once again, it is
possible to cool noncondensables to a
temperature below the cooling water outlet
temperature or below the average condensate
temperature.
In either case of shellside condensing, the
dominant design factor is to cool
noncondensables to the coldest temperature
possible, while at the same time maintaining
minimum pressure loss. Ensuring that
noncondensables are cooled to the lowest
temperature possible minimizes the amount
of condensable vapors that saturate those
noncondensable gases. Effective condenser
optimization requires cooling
noncondensables to within 10-15F of the
inlet cooling-water temperature. This serves
to minimize the amount of vapors that
saturate the noncondensables and must be
handled by a downstream ejector.
Tubeside condensing
Although shellside condensation is more
prevalent, tubeside condensing may also be
used. In this case, cooling water is on the
shellside, while noncondensables and vapors
are directed through the tubes. In this
configuration, vapors and condensate remain
in intimate contact throughout the heat
transfer area and exit this area together at the
same location. The shellside is baffled (as in
any typical heat exchanger) because the
shellside fluid is simply water.
One special feature of tubeside condensers is
in the bottom head, where the condensate
drops to an outlet drain and noncondensable
gases are extracted through a connection on
the side of the head.
Noncondensable gases
Due to the sub-atmospheric condition of
vacuum systems, air inleakage is always a
potential problem. In addition, a particular
process may already have various
noncondensable gases in the process load.
With noncondensables being present,
condensation occurs along the cooling curve,
and vapors of saturation exit the condenser
along with the noncondensables.
The tube-field layout is designed to separate
condensate from noncondensables and their
vapors of saturation. It is common to have
noncondensables, along with their vapors of
saturation, exit a condenser at one location
while condensate exits another.
Flow distribution above the tube field is
important so as to ensure that vapors and
noncondensables enter the bundle uniformly
and that there is full utilization of available
heat transfer area. Also, pressure drop is
minimized by proper flow distribution, thus
reducing utility and capital costs.
Figure 4 shows heat release curves for the
extreme cases of low noncondensable and high
noncondensable flow. Note the shape of the
respective curves and the effect that
noncondensable load has on logarithmic mean
temperature difference (LMTD), heat transfer
rate and required surface area.
Noncondensable gases serve to lower LMTD
and heat transfer rate, while consequently
increasing required surface area of the
condenser.
Precondenser pressure drop
Pressure drop in a precondenser has a
compounded impact. Depending on the
process, precondensers are positioned to
recover valued overhead vapors as condensate
prior to their introduction to an ejector
system. As pressure drop increases, more
condensable vapors exit the precondenser
with noncondensable gas. Not only does this
reduce the amount of condensable vapor
recovered, it increases the gas load to the
ejector system and its compression
requirements. As load and compression range
increases, so do utility requirements and
wastewater treatment costs. Pressure drop
across the intercondenser similarly increases
utility requirements for an ejector system.
Table 1, p. 102, highlights the impact of
pressure drop across a precondenser.
System interdependency
Within a vacuum system, there is an
interdependency between an ejector and
intercondenser. This relationship must be
understood for optimum design and to ensure
reliable operation. An intercondenser is
designed to handle discharge load from a
preceding ejector at a pressure equal to, or
below, that which is achievable by that
ejector. Furthermore, the intercondenser
must condense the condensable vapors and cool
noncondensables in a manner that satisfies the capability of
the next following ejector.
Should an intercondenser not satisfy the discharge
capabilities of its preceding ejector or the suction capacity
of the ejector that follows it, a discontinuity occurs. The
result is that the preceding ejector ceases proper operation,
resulting in a sharp rise in the operating pressure of the
vacuum vessel, which ultimately affects product quality. It
is for this reason that ejector-condenser interdependency
must be understood and taken into account.
Equipment installation
Proper installation of vacuum condensers is important for
smooth operation. Typical plant layouts allow vacuum
condenser condensate to drain by gravity to a condensate
receiver. The leg height of the condensate drain must be
sufficient to ensure that condensate is not lifted into the
intercondenser because of the vacuum operation.
A straight vertical drain leg is preferred. This may not
always be possible, however. Should a layout require an
offset, horizontal runs of pipe should not be used.
Horizontal piping runs allow the formation of air pockets,
which offer additional resistance to drainage, and may
cause the flooding of a condenser.
The suggested practice is to lay out a drain leg with no less
then a 45 deg angle, measuring from the horizontal axis,
and ensuring at least a 5ft straight length prior to the
angled run of piping. Remember to always take into
account the operating pressure of the condensate receiver.
As the condensate receivers operating pressure increases,
so does required drain leg height. Figure 5, above, shows
acceptable drain design.
Equipment layout
Pressure drop due to piping between components is just as
important as pressure drop across a condenser. Keeping
pipe diameter equivalent to connection size on the
condenser is one key to minimizing piping loss. Also, one
should maintain interconnecting piping as short as possible.
Furthermore, always try to position a precondenser or first-
stage ejector as close to a vacuum vessel as possible. If at
all possible, directly connect the two items; sometimes it is
possible to mount a precondenser directly atop a vacuum
vessel. First stage ejectors may be coupled directly to the
vacuum vessel, as well.
Remember the importance and negative impact of even a
small pressure drop loss in a high vacuum processing
system. A 2 mmHg pressure loss due to piping has a
greater impact on equipment size, utility and cost when that
pressure drop is taken at 15 mm Hg absolute rather than at
80 mm Hg absolute pressure.
Edited by David J. Deutsch
First published in The International Journal of Hydrocarbon Engineering, UK, 1997
Introduction
Whether for lube oil, fuel oil, or general fractionation,
vacuum columns utilize ejector systems to maintain
design vacuum levels within the column.
Noncondensibles, cracked gases, hydrocarbon vapors
and steam are removed from the column by the ejector
system. Extraction of these fluids from the column is key to
a proper vacuum level within the column and consequently,
design charge rates and specification quality product are
achieved.
Refiners do have lengthy operating experience with ejector
systems. Ejector systems have been the mainstay for
refinery vacuum distillation. Whether a crude vacuum tower
operates as a wet, damp or dry tower, an ejector
system is the vacuum producer. Different tower operating
pressures and overhead load characteristics of wet, damp
or dry operation affect only the configuration of an ejector
system but the basic operating principle remains
unchanged.
Even with lengthy operating experience, refiners view
ejector systems with hesitation and uncertainty. This
uncertainty results from an incomplete understanding of
the basic operating principles of ejectors themselves and
their interdependency with any vacuum condenser it
supports or to which it discharges. There is only limited
information in technical journals or books addressing
operating principles of ejector systems. On a positive note,
ejector systems are quite reliable and performance
shortcomings are not a common problem. However, when
operating problems do occur, they appear as a dramatic
change in performance rather than a gradual loss of
performance. Vacuum tower crisis is always critical and an
immediate remedy is necessary. The purpose of this
article is to offer a concise and complete overview of
ejector and condenser fundamentals, system operation
and troubleshooting.
Ejectors
Component parts
It is important to know the proper nomenclature for internal
parts of an ejector before beginning to discuss how an
ejector works. An ejector is a static piece of equipment with
no moving parts (Figure 2). There are four major
components to an ejector, the motive nozzle, motive chest,
suction chamber and diffuser.
Ejector system troubleshooting
J. R. Lines and R. T. Smith, Graham Corporation examine
ejector systems and provide troubleshooting experience
with reference to case studies.
Figure 1. Three stage twin element ejector system
Operating principle
The basic operating principle of an ejector is to convert
pressure energy of high pressure motive steam into velocity.
High velocity steam emitted from a motive nozzle is then used
to work on the suction fluid. This work occurs in the suction
chamber and diffuser inlet. The remaining velocity energy is
then turned back into pressure across the diffuser. In simple
terms, high pressure motive steam is used to increase the
pressure of a fluid that is at a pressure well below motive
steam pressure.
Thermodynamically, high velocity is achieved through adiabatic
expansion of motive steam across the converging/diverging
motive nozzle from motive pressure to suction fluid operating
pressure. The expansion of the steam across the motive nozzle
results in supersonic velocities at the nozzle exit. Typically,
velocity exiting a motive nozzle is in the range of Mach 3 to 4,
which is 3000 to 4000 ft/sec. In actuality, motive steam expands
to a pressure below the suction fluid pressure. This creates the
driving force to bring suction fluid into an ejector. High velocity
motive steam entrains and mixes with the suction fluid. The
resulting mixture is still supersonic. As this mixture passes
through the converging, throat, and diverging sections of a
diffuser, high velocity is converted back into pressure. The
converging section of a diffuser reduces velocity as the cross-
sectional area is reduced. The diffuser throat is designed to
create a normal shock wave. A dramatic increase in pressure
occurs as flow across the shock wave goes from supersonic, to
sonic at the shock-wave, to subsonic after the shock wave. In a
diffuser diverging section, cross-sectional flow area is
increased and velocity is further reduced and converted to
pressure.
The performance curve
Ejector manufacturers summarize critical data
on a performance curve. Figure 3 shows a
performance curve for a single stage ejector.
On the y-axis of this curve is suction pressure
in millimeters of mercury absolute (mm HgA).
On the x-axis is the water vapor equivalent load
(Ib/hr).
Equivalent load is used to express a process
stream, which may be made up of many
different components, such as air, water vapor
and hydrocarbons, in terms of an equivalent
amount of water vapor load. Figures 4 and 5,
from the Heat Exchange Institute Standards for
Jet Vacuum Systems, show the curves that are
used to convert various molecular weight
gases to the appropriate vapor equivalent at a
reference temperature of 70F.
The performance curve can be used in two
ways. First, if the suction pressure is known for
an ejector, the equivalent vapor load it handles
may be determined. Secondly, if the loading to
an ejector is known, suction pressure can be
determined. If field measurements differ from
a performance curve, then there may be a
problem with either the process, utilities or
ejector.
Motive steam
Minimum motive steam pressure is important
and is also shown on a performance curve.
The manufacturer has designed the system to
maintain stable operation with steam
pressures at or above a minimum steam
pressure. If motive steam supply pressure falls
below design, then a motive nozzle will pass
less steam. When this happens, the ejector is
not provided with sufficient energy to compress
the suction fluid to the design discharge
pressure. The same problem occurs when the
supply motive steam temperature rises above
its design value, resulting in increased specific volume,
and consequently, less steam passes through the motive
nozzle.
An ejector may operate unstably if it is not supplied with
sufficient energy to allow compression to its design
discharge pressure. Unstable ejector operation is
characterized by dramatic fluctuations in operating
pressure. If the actual motive steam pressure is below
design or its temperature above design, then, within limits,
an ejector nozzle can be rebored to a larger diameter. The
larger nozzle diameter allows more steam to flow through
and expand across the nozzle. This increases the energy
available for compression. If motive steam supply
pressure is more than 20 - 30% above design, then too
much steam expands across the nozzle. This tends to
choke the diffuser. When this occurs, less suction load is
handled by the ejector and suction pressure tends to rise.
If an increase in suction pressure is not desired, then
ejector nozzles must be replaced with ones having smaller
throat diameters or the steam pressure corrected.
Steam quality is another important performance variable.
Wet steam may be damaging to an ejector system.
Moisture droplets in motive steam lines are accelerated to
high velocities and become very erosive. Moisture in motive
steam is noticeable when inspecting ejector nozzles.
Rapidly accelerated moisture droplets erode nozzle
internals. They etch a striated pattern on the nozzle
diverging section and may actually wear out the nozzle
mouth. Also, the inlet diffuser tapers and throat will have
signs of erosion. On larger ejectors, the exhaust elbow at
the ejector discharge can erode completely through.
Severe tube impingement in the intercondenser can also
occur but this is dependent upon ejector orientation. To
solve wet steam problems, all lines up to the ejector
should be well insulated. Also, a steam separator with a
trap should be installed immediately before an ejector
motive steam inlet connection. In some cases, a steam
superheater may be required. Wet steam can also cause
performance problems. When water droplets pass
Maximum discharge pressure
The maximum discharge pressure (MDP), also shown on the
performance curve, is the highest discharge pressure that an
ejector has the ability to achieve with the given amount of motive
steam passing through the steam nozzle. If the discharge
pressure exceeds the MDP, the ejector will become unstable
and break operation. When this occurs, a dramatic increase in
suction pressure is common. As an example, when a system
designed to produce 15 mm HgA pressure breaks operation,
suction pressure sharply increases to 30 - 50 mm HgA. This
often causes a tower upset. Therefore, it is of paramount
importance to make sure ejectors do not exceed their MDP.
Since increasing the discharge pressure above the MDP causes
a loss of performance, it seems logical that lowering the
discharge pressure below the MDP should have the opposite
affect. This, however is not the case. Ejectors with a
compression ratio, discharge pressure divided by suction
pressure, higher than 2:l are called critical ejectors. Performance
of a critical ejector will not improve if its discharge pressure is
reduced. This is primarily due to the presence of the shock wave
in the ejector diffuser throat.
Condensers
Component parts
Condensers are manufactured in three basic configurations:
fixed tubesheet, U-tube or floating head bundle.
Thermodynamically, these units perform identically. They differ
only in ease of maintenance and capital cost. The fixed
tubesheet unit, typically TEMA, AEM, BEM, AXM or BXM styles, has
a bundle that is not removable from the shell. This unit is
generally the least expensive to build. The major disadvantage of
this type of unit is that the shellside of the condenser is not
accessible for normal cleaning methods. The U-tube exchanger,
TEMA, AEU or BEU, is the next most economical type of
construction for a removable bundle. Since the bundle is
completely removable from the shell, it allows thorough cleaning
of the shellside as well as the tubeside. The major drawback to
the U-tube unit is that the U-bend section of the tube can make
through an ejector nozzle, they decrease the
energy available for compression. Furthermore,
water droplets may vaporize within an ejector as
temperature increases. Vaporized water droplets
act as an additional load that the motive steam
must entrain and compress. The effect is a
decrease in load handling ability. With extremely
wet steam, the ejector may even become
unstable.
difficult cleaning of tube internal surfaces. Floating head
units, TEMA type AES, AET, AXS or AXT, are generally the
most expensive. The floating head adds complexity and
material to the return end of the condenser. These units are
advantageous because they allow complete access for
cleaning of both the shellside and the tubeside. Figure 6
indicates typical TEMA nomenclature for condenser designs.
Operating principle
The primary purpose of a condenser in an ejector system is
to reduce the amount of load that a downstream ejector
must handle. This greatly improves the efficiency of the
entire system. Often condensers are analyzed like shell and
tube heat exchangers which are common throughout
refineries. Although vacuum condensers are constructed
like these exchangers, their internal design differs
significantly due to the presence of two phase flow and
vacuum operation.
Vacuum condensers for crude tower applications generally
have the cooling water running through the tubes. The
condensing of the water vapor and hydrocarbons takes
place on the shellside. Generally, the inlet stream enters
through the top of the condenser. Once the inlet stream
enters the shell, it spreads out along the shell and
penetrates the tube bundle. A major portion of the
condensibles contained in the inlet stream will change
phase from vapor to liquid. The liquid falls by
gravity and runs out of the bottom of the
condenser and down the tail leg. The
remainder of the condensibles and the
noncondensibles are then collected and
removed from the condenser through the
vapor outlet.
Vapor is removed from the condenser in two
ways. In larger units, approximately 30 in. in
diameter and larger, a long air baffle is
used. The long air baffle runs virtually the full
length of the shell and is sealed to the shell
to prevent bypassing of the inlet stream
directly to the vapor outlet (Figure 7). This
forces the vapors to go through the entire
bundle before they can exit at the vapor
outlet.
Similarly, smaller units use an up and over
baffle arrangement to maximize vapor
distribution in the bundle. In this
configuration, the exiting vapor leaves the
condenser on one end only. The vapors are
forced through a series of baffles in order to
reach the vapor outlet. Figure 8 illustrates a
typical AEM cross-sectional drawing.
Both the long air baffle and the up and over
baffles are normally located in the coldest
cooling water pass in order to guarantee
counter current flow, and cooling of vapors
and noncondensibles below exiting water
temperature and optimal heat transfer.
As mentioned previously, a condenser is
designed to limit the load to the downstream
ejector. In many cases, the load to a
condenser is ten times the load to the
ejector. Consequently any loss in condenser
performance will have a dramatic affect on
the downstream ejectors. This makes the performance of ejectors
very dependent on the upstream condensers.
The first intercondenser is the largest and most critical condenser
from a design and operation standpoint. The pressure that the first
intercondenser is designed to operate at is directly related to the
maximum cooling water temperature for which the system is
designed. The pressure inside the condenser must be high enough
for condensation to occur. For instance, with 91 F cooling water,
an initial condensing temperature of approximately 115 F is
reasonable. This corresponds to a first stage intercondenser
operating pressure of 76 mm Hg.
The equation for design of a vacuum condenser is the classic heat
transfer relationship:
Q = U x A x LMTD
where:
Q= Amount of heat transfer required (btu/hr)
U = Overall heat transfer rate (btu/hr ft
2
F)
A= Surface area of the condenser (ft
2
)
LMTD = Log mean temperature difference (F)
During the design phase, all of these variables are fixed. Q is fixed
by the amount of steam being used by the upstream ejector and
the amount of load coming over from the tower. The amount of
steam that an ejector uses is directly related to the compression
ratio. Therefore, a high design cooling water temperature results in
a high minimum first intercondenser pressure which results in a
high steam usage for the first stage ejector.
The heat transfer rate is a function of cooling water flow, process
side condensing characteristics and tube material. Normally the
heat transfer rate is determined for the tubeside and shellside
separately and then combined into an overall heat transfer rate.
The overall heat transfer rate is then used in the above equation to
calculate the required surface area.
The surface area is set by the number of tubes in the condenser.
The tubes in most crude vacuum system condensers are 3/4 in.
diameter tubes and the surface area is calculated based on the
external surface area of the tube.
The LMTD is a thermodynamic quantity that is used to calculate the
amount of heat that is given up. The LMTD is set by the cooling
water inlet temperature, cooling water temperature rise and the
shellside inlet and outlet temperatures.
Cooling water
When cooling water supply temperature rises above its design
value, ejector system performance is penalized. A rise in cooling
water inlet temperature decreases condenser available LMTD.
When this occurs, the condenser will not condense enough and
more vapors are carried out as saturated vapors with the
noncondensible gases. As discussed in the preceding ejector
section, this increased load to a downstream ejector cannot be
handled by that ejector.
Similarly, if cooling water flow rate falls below design values, a
greater temperature rise across the condenser occurs. Even if
cooling water is at its design inlet temperature, a greater
temperature rise reduces available LMTD. Condensation efficiency
is reduced and additional load is passed on to a downstream
ejector. Losses in cooling water flow occur over time as more
process equipment is added to a cooling water loop or system
pressure drop rises and reduces capacity of cooling water
pumps. Furthermore, reduction in cooling water flow lowers the
heat transfer rate.
Lower than design inlet cooling water temperature does not have
a negative affect. Actually it often removes system performance
problems. Typically summer months place the greatest strain on an
ejector system. It is at this time that cooling water is warmest and
demands on the cooling tower are the greatest. During winter
months, the lower inlet cooling water temperature increases the
safety margin for condenser operation as LMTD is greater than the
design value.
Fouling
Intercondensers and aftercondensers are subject to fouling like all
other refinery heat exchangers. This may occur on the tubeside,
shellside or both. Fouling deters heat transfer and, at some point,
may compromise system performance.
Cooling tower water on the tubeside is prone to biological fouling
or fouling due to corrosion products. Vacuum condensers are
always designed to include a margin for fouling. Over time,
however, fouling deposits continue to accumulate and exceed the
design value. When this occurs, condensation within the
condenser is reduced. A good rule of thumb for tubeside fouling in
the condenser is if you are unable to see the tube material, then
the tubes are fouled.
On the shellside, hydrocarbon vapors, steam and
noncondensibles are handled. Depending upon tower fractionation
and the type of crude handled, a hydrocarbon film may develop on
tube external surfaces. Also, during tower upsets, hydrocarbon
liquids are carried over from the tower. During this type of upset it
is common for hydrocarbons to bake on to external tubing
surfaces. This hydrocarbon film on external tube surfaces
reduces condensation efficiency and results in carryover of
additional vapors to a downstream ejector.
Routine refinery procedures should include periodic cleaning of
condenser bundles. These procedures must include a provision
for cleaning both tube and shell-sides. A noticeable impact of
fouling is increased cooling water pressure drop across the
condenser or an increase in process side operating pressure. For
ease of shellside cleaning a removable bundle should be used,
TEMA, AXS or AXT.
Steel tubing
While steel tubing may be compatible with process vapors,
noncondensibles and cooling water, periods of extended
shutdown for routine maintenance, revamp, or even startup are a
concern. It is during this period that steel tubing is exposed to air
and moisture. This permits rust to develop and form a scale
buildup. When the process is eventually started, the condensers
may be severely fouled. Experience has shown that on occasion
the fouling is so severe that the operation of the ejector system is
well below design values. Modest savings in initial investment are
quickly lost to reduced unit charge rates and/or product quality. It
is for this reason that vacuum system manufacturers often caution
against the use of steel tubing and suggest a nonferrous or
stainless material.
Rating programs
Complexity of vacuum condenser design is of critical importance.
Thus proprietary designs are developed and offered by vacuum
equipment manufacturers. These proprietary designs must
effectively manage heat transfer requirements and at the same
time, be of proper internal configuration so as to minimize pressure
drop. Another important aspect of design and internal
configuration deals with assuring adequate noncondensible
removal and eliminating the potential of noncondensible blanketing
or pockets.
The proprietary design discussed here, has evolved and was
developed from research, as well as ongoing evaluation and
performance monitoring of condensers during operation. A
vacuum system is very unforgiving to poorly designed condensers
which will have a dramatic negative effect on vacuum levels
maintained and fractionation achieved by the distillation tower.
Proprietary design procedures incorporate the following
considerations:
Condenser vapor inlet location and distribution area
above the tube field so as to insure proper vapor entry to
the shell and penetration into the tube field.
Tube field layout and penetration areas to guarantee that
flow distribution into the bundle is well maintained and
pressure drop is held to a minimum.
Noncondensible gas cooling section, where bulk
condensate is separated from the vapor and final
cooling to design saturation temperature is achieved.
Bulk condensate and noncondensibles exit the shell at
different locations and temperatures. In this way,
noncondensibles and vapors are cooled below the
condensate temperature to maximize condensation
efficiency without contending with excessive condensate
loading and associated thermal duty.
Support plate spacing and bundle penetration areas to
insure velocities are well below those necessary to
establish vibration.
Process vapors assessed to properly ascertain
vapor/liquid equilibrium (VLE) conditions throughout the
condensing regime.
Condensing profile broken down into as many as fifty
steps to properly determine the effective LMTD and VLE
at each step.
Often proprietary designs are compared to those
determined by computer programs available from
institutional organizations, research companies or
software companies. These generic programs do not
properly model flow configurations typical of vacuum
condensers. A number of organizations put forth excellent
software to reliably predict performance of process heat
transfer equipment, however, that same software should
not be applied to exchangers designed for vacuum
condensation. The software is unable to model internal
configurations typical of vacuum condensers and they
typically force condensate and noncondensibles to exit the
same connection and be at the same temperature.
The ejector system
Type of tower
As mentioned above, typical operating modes for a vacuum
tower are classified as wet, damp or dry.
Wet towers have overhead loading characterized by
substantial amounts of stripping steam plus typical
amounts of coil steam to the fired heater. Operating
pressure for a wet tower has a range of 50 - 65 mm Hg
Abs at the tower top and a flash zone pressure of
approximately 65 - 75 mm Hg Abs. With such moderate
vacuum levels, often it is possible to have a precondenser
between the vacuum tower and a two stage ejector system.
The precondenser reduces loading to the ejector system
by condensing substantial amounts of steam and
hydrocarbon vapors, thereby reducing energy demands to
operate the ejector system.
A damp tower operates typically in the range of 15-25
mm Hg Abs at the tower top, with flash zone pressure of
approximately 35 mm Hg Abs. Stripping steam is
appreciably reduced and the ejector system is a three
stage system.
Dry towers operate between 5-l5 mm Hg Abs at the
tower top, flash zone pressure at 20 mm Hg Abs, and do
not utilize stripping steam. Here again, it is customary to
utilize 3 stage ejectors. It is not possible to operate at
these pressures and utilize a precondenser. The
operating pressure is below a level where cooling water
is cold enough to induce condensation. There are cases
of deep-cut operation where the pressure may be below
5 mm Hg Abs and a 4 stage ejector system is used.
Here two ejector stages are in series ahead of the first
intercondenser (Figure 9).
Ejectors/condensers
From the figures referenced above, it is understood that
ejectors and condensers are staged in series with each
other. Process vapors and noncondensibles flow in series
from the tower to an ejector, then to an intercondenser,
followed by another ejector, then to an intercondenser, etc.
The purpose of an ejector is to entrain tower overhead
vapors and noncondensibles, and then compress them to
a higher pressure. Ultimately, via a series of staged
ejectors, process fluids are brought to a pressure
equivalent to atmospheric pressure or greater. For
example, a vacuum tower is maintained at 10 mm Hg:
1st stage ejector compresses process fluid from 10 - 80
mm Hg.
2nd stage ejector compresses from 80 - 250 mm Hg.
3rd stage ejector compresses from 250 - 800 mm Hg.
The purpose of intercondensers, as mentioned previously,
is to be positioned between ejector stages to condense as
much steam and hydrocarbons as possible. By
condensing steam and hydrocarbon vapors, the load
handled by a downstream ejector is reduced. This
maintains energy usage (motive steam consumption) for
driving the ejectors, to a minimum.
Process conditions
These are very important for reliable vacuum system
operation. Process conditions used in the design stage
are rarely experienced during operation. Vacuum system
performance may be affected by the following process
variables, which may act independently or concurrently:
Noncondensible loading. Vacuum systems are
susceptible to poor performance when noncondensible
loading increases above design. Noncondensible
loading to a vacuum system consists of air leaking into
the system, lightened hydrocarbons, and cracked gases
from the fired heater. The impact of higher than design
noncondensible loading is severe. As non-condensing
loading increases, the amount of saturated vapors
discharging from the condenser increases. The ejector
following a condenser may not handle increased
loading at the condenser design operating pressure.
The ejector before the condenser is not designed for a
higher discharge pressure. This discontinuity in
pressure causes the first ejector to break operation.
When this occurs, the system will operate unstably and
tower pressure may rapidly rise above design values.
Noncondensible loadings must be accurately stated. If
not, any vacuum system will suffer performance
shortcomings. If noncondensible loadings are
consistently above design, then new ejectors are
required. New condensers may be required depending
on severity.
Condensible hydrocarbons. Tower overhead loading
consists of steam, condensible hydrocarbons and
noncondensibles. As different crude oils are processed
or refinery operations change, the composition and
amount of condensible hydrocarbons handled by the
vacuum system vary. A situation may occur where the
condensible hydrocarbon loadings are so different from
design that condenser or ejector performance is
adversely affected. This may occur in a couple of
different ways. If the condensing profile is such that
condensible hydrocarbons are not condensed as they
were designed to, then the amount of vapor leaving the
condenser increases. Ejectors may not tolerate this
situation, resulting in unstable operation. Another
possible effect of increased condensible hydrocarbon
loading is an increased oil film on the tubes. This
reduces the heat transfer coefficient. Again, it may result
in increased vapor and gas discharge from the
condenser. Unstable operation of the entire system may
also result. To remedy performance shortcomings, new
condensers or ejectors may be necessary.
Tower overhead loading. In general, a vacuum system will
track tower overhead loading as long as noncondensible
loading does not increase above design. Tower top
pressure follows the performance curve of the first-stage
ejector. Figure 3 shows a typical performance curve. At light
tower overhead loads, the vacuum system will pull tower
top operating pressure down below design. This may
adversely affect tower operating dynamics and pressure
control may be necessary. Tower pressure control is
possible with multiple element trains. At reduced overhead
loading, one or more parallel elements may be shut off.
This reduces handling capacity, permitting tower pressure
to rise to a satisfactory level. If multiple trains are not used,
recycle control is another possible solution. Here, the
discharge of an ejector is recycled to the system suction.
This acts as an artificial load, driving the suction
pressure up. With a multiple-stage ejector system,
recycle control should be configured to recycle the load
from before the first intercondenser back to system
suction (Figure 10). This way, noncondensible loading
is not allowed to accumulate and negatively impact
downstream ejectors.
System back pressure. Vacuum system back pressure
may have an overwhelming influence on unsatisfactory
performance. Ejectors are designed to compress to a
design discharge pressure (MDP). If the actual
discharge pressure rises above design, the ejectors will
not have enough energy to reach the higher pressure.
When this occurs, the ejector breaks operation and
there is a sharp increase in suction pressure. When
back pressure is above design, possible corrective
actions are to lower the system back pressure, rebore
the steam nozzle to permit the use of more motive
steam or install a completely new ejector.
Installation
Sufficient clearance should be provided to permit removal
of the motive chest which contains the motive nozzle which
protrudes into the suction chamber. The ejector may be
installed in any desired position. If the ejector is pointed
vertically upward, a drain must be present in the motive
chest or in the suction piping to drain any accumulated
liquid. This liquid will act as load until it is flashed off,
giving a false performance indication. The liquid could also
freeze and cause damage. The motive line size should
correspond to the motive inlet size. Oversized lines will
reduce the motive velocity and cause condensation.
Undersized lines will result in excessive line pressure drop
and, thus, potential low pressure motive to nozzle. The
motive fluid lines should be insulated.
The suction and discharge piping should match or be
larger than that of the equipment. A smaller size pipe will
result in pressure drop possibly causing a malfunction or
reduction in performance. A larger pipe size may be
required depending on the length of run and fittings
present. Appropriate line loss calculations should be
checked. The piping should be designed so that there are
no loads (forces and moments) present that may cause
damage. Flexible connections or expansion joints should
be used if there is any doubt in the load transmitted to the
suction and discharge flanges. If the system vent is
designed to exhaust to a hotwell, the pipe should be
submerged to a maximum of 12 in. If the discharge
exhausts to atmosphere, the sound pressure level should
be checked for meeting OSHA standards, paragraph 1910.95
and Table G-12 and/or the local standards.
A thermostatic type condensate trap should be avoided since
they have a tendency to cause a surge or loss of steam
pressure when they initially open. This could cause the
ejector to become unstable.
Operation
Start-up
The ejector motive line should be disconnected as near as
possible to the motive inlet and the lines blown clear. This is
extremely important on new installations where weld slag
and chips may be present and scale particles could exist.
These particles could easily plug the motive nozzle throats. If
a strainer, separator, and/or trap is present they should be
inspected and cleaned after the lines are blown clear. The
vapor outlet of the aftercondenser and condensate outlets
should be open and free of obstructions and the cooling
medium should be flowing to the condenser(s).
All suction and discharge isolating valves, if present, should
be opened. If the unit has dual elements with condensers
present, ensure the condenser is designed for both
elements operating. If the condenser has been designed for
one element operating, the suction and discharge valves
should be opened to only one element (the other element
being isolated).
The motive valve to the last ejector stage (Z stage) should
then be fully opened. For optimum performance during an
evacuation cycle the motive valves should always be opened
starting with the Z stage and proceeding to the Y, X, etc.
stages. If a pressure gauge is present near the motive inlet,
the reading should be taken to ensure the operating
pressure is at or slightly above that for which the unit is
designed. The motive pressure gauge should be protected
with a pigtail to insure protection of the internal working parts
of the gauge. The design operating pressure is stamped on
the ejector nameplate.
Shutdown
There are two procedures to be considered when shutting
down: method A is appropriate if it is desired to maintain the
vacuum upstream of the first stage ejector (an isolating valve
has to be present at suction) rather than allow pressure to
rise to atmospheric pressure, in which case the valves
should be closed in the following order:
Close 1st stage suction valve.
Close 1st stage motive inlet valve.
Close 2nd stage suction valve.
Close 1st stage discharge valve.
Close second stage motive inlet valve.
Close 2nd stage discharge valve (if present).
If there are more than two stages, then the second stage
motive inlet valve should be closed on all ejectors before the
second stage discharge valve is closed. If the system
contains an isolating valve at the first stage suction only, the
procedure would be to close this valve and then either shut
off the motive to all ejectors at once or shut them off by stages
starting at the first stage. When all the motive valves have
been shut off, the cooling medium may be turned off. If the
unit is going to be shut down for a short period of time to
service the ejectors or for some other reason, it is not
necessary to shut off the cooling medium. Energy savings
should be considered when making this decision. If the unit is
going to be down and freezing of the cooling medium is
possible, then measures must be taken to prevent freezing or
the unit drained as much as possible to prevent damage.
Allowing a small amount of coolant to continuously flow will
usually prevent freezing.
Method B is employed if it is not required to maintain a vacuum
upstream of the first stage ejector and the valves should be
closed in the following order:
Close motive valve to all ejectors or close the motive
valve(s) to each individual stage starting at first stage and
continue on to second, etc.
The cooling medium may be turned off as explained in the
preceding paragraphs.
Switching ejector elements
Should it become necessary or desirable to shift from one two
stage element to another while the unit is in operation, then
the procedure is as follows:
The standby Z stage ejector discharge valve (if provided)
should be opened.
The Z stage motive valve should then be opened.
The Z stage suction valve should then be opened. When
this has been accomplished, this standby Z stage ejector
begins to take suction from the intercondenser along with
the other Z stage element.
The Y stage discharge valve on the standby element should
then be opened.
This is to be followed by opening the Y stage motive valve.
The Y stage suction valve should then be opened. At this
point both two-stage elements are in parallel operation. The
procedure then continues as normal. The operating
element can now be secured by closing the valves as
follows:
Close 1st stage suction valve.
Close 1st stage motive valve.
Close 2nd stage suction valve.
Close 1st stage discharge valve.
Close 2nd stage motive valve.
Close 2nd stage discharge valve (if
provided).
Again the sequence then continues as
normal.
Operating survey
The goal here is to introduce a systematic
way to troubleshoot a crude vacuum system.
The first task is to review design data and
then go out into the field and take data. This
leads to the most important part of vacuum
system troubleshooting: how and what data
should be taken.
Figure 11 shows the appropriate test points
for a three stage crude vacuum system. The
following test points are mandatory for proper
system troubleshooting:
Suction and discharge pressure on each
ejector.
Motive steam pressure at each ejector.
Cooling water inlet and outlet pressures for
all condensers.
Cooling water inlet and outlet temperatures
for all condensers.
It is essential that all of these readings are
accurate. The most common cause of
misdiagnosing vacuum system problems is
inaccurate or inconsistent measurements.
For this reason, certain guidelines must be followed.
Accurate suction and discharge pressures at each
ejector are the most important and most difficult
readings to take.
All ejector suction and discharge pressures, except for
the last stage discharge pressure, will be in the range
from I - 400 mm HgA. Measuring pressure in this range
requires a high accuracy absolute pressure gauge.
Wallace & Tiernan absolute pressure gauges are
commonly used. This gauge should not be permanently
mounted to the system. It should be kept in a lab until it
is needed. All absolute pressure measurement devices
are delicate and prone to being knocked out of
calibration by process vapors and liquids. A common
compound pressure gauge with a range of 30 in.
HgV/0/30 psig is often used by refinery personnel to take
these measurements. This type of gauge is simply not
accurate enough to yield useful vacuum measurements.
The motive steam pressure and cooling water inlet and
outlet pressures should be measured with a properly
ranged and calibrated pressure gauge. The cooling
water temperatures should be taken with a bi-metallic
thermometer using thermowells. All of the vacuum,
motive, steam, cooling water pressure and temperature
measurements should be taken with one instrument.
For instance, the steam pressure measurement should
be taken at the first stage ejector. The same gauge
should then be physically moved to the second stage
ejector and then to the third stage ejector. This
eliminates any possible difference in gauges caused by
wear, over pressurization, shock, etc. Quite often, small
ball valves are permanently added to the equipment to
facilitate this type of testing.
Table 2 is a compilation of design and
test data taken for the three stage
crude system shown in Figure 11. The
column marked Design shows the
design values for all the test points.
The design suction, discharge and
motive pressures, P1-9, are all taken
from the system performance curve
shown in Figure 12. The ejector
discharge pressures are calculated
from the curve assuming a maximum
pressure drop of approximately 5%
across each condenser. The design
values for condenser inlet and outlet
cooling water temperature and cooling
water pressure drop, p, are obtained
from the manufacturers condenser
data sheets. As shown, there are no
design values given for the cooling
water inlet and outlet pressures. For
design and troubleshooting the only
Measurement data can then be compared to the design
data. This is done using the system performance curve
and data sheets. It is often very helpful to be able to
compare new data to baseline data taken when the system
was operating correctly
important number is the pressure loss across the
condenser, not the actual pressure.
Case studies 1 to 4 represent examples of different types
of common performance problems. In each case, a
different problem was found with the equipment. After
each case has been dicussed, there will be an additional
section on how mechanical failures can also contribute to
the symptons shown.
Case study 1:
fouled condenser
The most common performance problem with steam
ejector systems is lower than design steam pressure. For
this reason, motive steam pressure is always the first data
steam pressure is always the first data that should be
examined. In this case, the motive steam pressures at
each ejector, P7-9, are all above design and should not
pose any performance problems. Next, the ejector suction
and discharge pressures are examined, starting with the
third stage ejector. The process begins with the last stage
because if that is not working, then the other stages will not
work either.
Here, the third stage discharge pressure, P6, and third
stage suction pressure, P5, are both below design. Thus,
the third stage ejector is operating correctly and its load
must be within design limits. Since the third stage ejector
load is within design limits, the second intercondenser
must be working properly. Next, the second stage ejector
discharge pressure, P4, is examined. It is also below
design, indicating an acceptable shellside P of 3.5%.
Remember, pressure drop across a vacuum condenser
should be less than 5% of its operating pressure.
Moving to the second stage ejector suction, P3, the
systems problems begin to show up. P3 is 13 mm Hg
higher than design. It is not possible for the first stage
ejector to compress its load to 96 mm Hg Abs, 13 mm Hg
greater than the 83 mm Hg Abs design, and still maintain a
suction pressure of 20 mm Hg Abs. The higher than
design first stage discharge pressure is causing the first
stage ejector to break operation. The logical cause of the
high second stage ejector suction pressure is a fouled first
intercondenser. To confirm this, the cooling water data is
examined.
The cooling water pressure drop on all three condensers
is normal, indicating cooling water flow rate is
approximately at design. The cooling water temperature
rise is low across the first intercondenser and high across
the second intercondenser. The low temperature change
on the first intercondenser indicates that the cooling water
is not absorbing as much heat as it should and therefore,
must be fouled. As previously discussed, a fouled
condenser allows greater vapor carry over to the
downstream ejector. This accounts for the high second
stage ejector suction pressure and high second
intercondenser cooling water temperature rise.
Case study 2:
excessive noncondensible loading
Following the same thought process as case study 1,
motive steam pressure is not a problem. The third stage
ejector discharge pressure is also under design. It is
noted that the third stage ejector suction pressure is higher
than design, measured at 305 mm Hg Abs versus a
design of 277 mm Hg Abs. This appears to affect first and
second stage ejector performance.
Possible causes of an elevated suction pressure are
cooling water flow rate below design, cooling water inlet or
outlet temperature greater than design, condenser fouling
or higher than design loading to the ejector. Reviewing
cooling water data suggests no abnormalities, i.e.
pressure drop across each condenser seems acceptable
and cooling water temperatures are below design values.
With cooling water pressure drop and temperature rise at
each condenser close to design values, fouling may be
ruled out. The remaining possible cause is an increased
load to the ejector.
Common performance problems arise when
noncondensible gas loading exceeds the design value.
Higher non-condensible loading results in increased
loading to downstream ejectors. This is due to a higher
mass flow rate of noncondensibles plus their associated
vapors of saturation.
The elevated pressure at the third stage ejector suction
causes the second stage to break operation. Again, this is
because the second stage ejector is unable to compress
its load to a pressure greater than 292 mm Hg Abs.
Therefore, there is an increase in the suction pressure of
the second stage as it breaks operation. This, in turn,
forces the first stage to break operation and the suction
pressure to the system increases from 20 mm Hg Abs to
62 mm Hg Abs.
Case study 3:
excessive condensible loading
This case is characterized by a modest loss in lower top
pressure. Once again, the steam pressure to each ejector
is satisfactorily above design. The third stage ejector
suction and discharge pressures are below design. The
second stage ejector suction and discharge pressures are
also below normal, as is the first stage ejector discharge
pressure. The only pressure that is abnormal is the first
stage ejector suction pressure.
The cooling water data indicates all three condensers have
higher than design cooling water pressure drops and
lower than design temperature rises. This indicates that:
the high cooling water pressure drop is an indication of
either fouling or high cooling water flow rate. The low T
indicates that either the condensers are fouled or that there
is a high cooling water flow rate. The previous analysis of
the suction pressures of the second and third stage
ejectors show no signs of fouling, i.e. elevated suction
pressures. The conclusion must be that there is a higher
than design cooling water flow rate to the condensers.
Higher cooling water flowrate does not affect ejector
system performance. The elevated first stage suction
pressure and tower top pressure must be the result of a
high condensible load causing the ejector to run out further
out on its curve.
Case study 4:
low motive steam pressure
Using the same method as previous case studies
provides a quick answer to this performance problem. The
steam pressure on the second stage ejector is below
design. As discussed earlier, this will cause the second
stage to break operation. When this second stage ejector
breaks operation, its suction pressure rises above the
maximum discharge pressure of the first stage ejector.
This results in broken operation for the first stage ejector
and increased tower top pressure. This situation will
correct itself if the second stage ejector steam pressure is
increased.
Mechanical problems
Now that examples of how process conditions, fouling and
utilities will affect system performance have been seen, it
needs to be understood what affect mechanical problems
will have on a system. A common mechanical problem is a
loose steam nozzle. When a steam nozzle becomes loose
it begins to leak steam across the threads. The leaking
steam then becomes load to the ejector. If the loose nozzle
occurs in the first stage ejector the affect will be an
overloaded first stage ejector. If the leak occurs in the
second or third stage ejector, the data will look similar to a
fouled condenser.
Inspection of ejector internals should be done periodically.
Proper cross-sectional area and smooth internal parts are
important. The ejector manufacturer will provide the
diameter of the motive nozzles and diffuser throats. If
internal surfaces show signs of erosion or corrosion, or if
the two key diameters have increased by more than 4%, it
may be necessary to replace the ejector. Product build up
within an ejector similarly affects performance in an
adverse way.
Condenser condensate drain legs function as gravity
drains. The height of the drain leg must be sufficient to
overcome the elevation of liquid maintained within the
drain leg due to the pressure differential between
condensate receiver and the condenser. If the leg is too
short, the condenser will flood. If the drain leg becomes
plugged, the condenser may flood. A flooded condenser
performs poorly and broken ejector operation is a common
result.
Conclusion
Ejector systems support vacuum tower operation. Proper
operation of an ejector system is important; without it, the
vacuum tower performance is not optimal. When tower
pressure increases above design operating pressure,
flash zone pressure increases proportionally. The
consequence of higher flash zone pressure is reduced
vacuum gas oil yields and increased vacuum resid. When
charge rates to the tower are less than design, the ejector
system will pull the tower to a lower pressure. Lower
pressure in the tower may adversely affect tower hydraulics
and cause flooding. This will affect vacuum gas oil quality.
With annual performance evaluations of ejector systems,
improved product quality, increased unit throughput or
reductions in operating costs can often be realised.
Proper Piping for Vacuum Systems
LOREN WETZEL
GRAHAM MANUFACTURING CO.
O
ptimally designed piping upstream and downstream of vacu-
um equipment increasesequipment efficiency and reduces
maintenance. It also minimizesvacuum lossand pressure drop, takes
advantage of suction lift to enhance energy efficiency and decreases
the risksof flooding equipment or shutting down systems.
Unfortunately, however, contractors or engineering firms doing
plant layout frequently either route piping to accommodate exist-
ing process equipment, or try to fit pipes into available space.
Such slipshod piping configuration contributes greatly to plant
downtime and process inefficiency.
In addition, many plant startups and modifications are delayed
because a simple piping installation had been performed improp-
erly. And, if a problem is found after startup, it may not be
rectifiable without considerable trouble and expense. This article
discusses the principles of proper piping design for common plant
equipment, such as tailpipes, hotwells and float traps.
Trapped bubbles in tailpipes. A common hazard in barometric or
shell-and-tube condenser tailpipes is accumulating gases.
Condensate from a shell-and-tube condenser, or cooling water
plus condensed steam or hydrocarbons from a
direct-contact barometric condenser, always con-
tain air or other non-condensible gases.
A horizontal or slightly downward-sloped line is
vulnerable to these gases, which cling to upper pipe
surfaces. All typesof pipe contain a certain amount
of internal roughnessand, because of this, gases
tend to start clinging and building up in the small-
est crevice. In addition, every flanged joint hasa
slight crack where a gasket islocated, thuspermit-
ting another place for gasesto collect.
As these gases accumulate, they form tiny bubbles,
growing into larger ones that eventually become
big enough to partially or completely block off
piping at that point. The condensate cannot flow
downwards and soon its level rises, flooding the
condenser.
Testing has proven that if piping changes direc-
tion, it must form at least a 45-deg angle from the
horizontal (Figure 1). With this amount of sloping,
gases will either slide back up the pipe or continue
downward with the thrust of the flow-
ing water. Observe that this is true
whether the condenser is a barometric
or shell-and-tube unit.
When a change in direction is required,
there must always be a vertical straight
distance of five pipe diameters or four ft
minimum between each change. This
allows flowing liquid to develop a mini-
mum velocity head and a straight
downward pattern before the first change in direction. There are
no valves in the tailpipes shown (Figure 1), for two reasons:
If a valve is accidentally left closed during startup or on turn-
around, or if vibration closes a valve partly or completely, the
condition can flood condensers, cause vacuum loss and shut
down operation
Chemical Engineering, November 1996
1
Figure1 (top). If pipingmust changedirection, it should format least a 45-degangle
fromthehorizontal plane; thehorizontal pipingin therightmost drawingisvulnerable
to gasaccumulation.
Any valve, by definition, causes pressure drop. Unlike a
smooth piece of pipe, a valve creates a node, in which prod-
ucts such as hydrocarbons, salts or rust can accumulate. This
leads to excessive pressure drop, or can result in closing off
piping completely and possibly shutting down operations
CONFIGURING FOR SUCTION LIFT
Suction lift is a function of vacuum systems that can be used to
advantage in piping (Figure 2). For example, it can enhance a
pumping system by reducing the load on an existing motor.
Imagine, for instance, pumping a liquid from one level up 80 ft
to a vessel operating under vacuum. The vacuum or suction lift
can be used to reduce the total dynamic head (TDH) require-
ments for the systems pump and motor.
This reduces the horsepower used and possibly the motor size,
thus saving energy and money. Another application is to merely
move liquid from one tank to another without a pump.
To find a specific valuefor a given pieceof equipment with Figure2,
usethelowest expected condenser pressureat theminimum cooling-
water temperatureat theinlet (for barometric systems), or the
minimum condensing pressuredueto loading. Thebarometric pres-
sure, in addition to theabsolutepressurein thecondenser, greatly
affectsthesuction lift. I recommend using thehighest recorded baro-
metric pressurefor calculation, and taking 80% of thetheoretical
suction lift to cover any overlooked condition.
For an actual check of suction lift, obtain the barometric pressure
directly at the installation point, and measure the condenser or
vessel absolute pressure. Using Figure 2, move vertically upward
from the actual condenser pressure reading, to the barometric
pressure. At the intersection, move horizontally to the left to read
suction lift in ft H
2
0.
TAILPIPE HEIGHTS
Recommended minimum effective tailpipe heights are shown,
based on water at 32F (Table, opposite page). This height should
be based on the absolute maximum recorded barometric pressure
for given equipment, regardless of the anticipated condenser oper-
ating pressure. This pressure information must be used in piping
design when vacuum equipment is placed in a building or an ele-
vated structure.
For example, consider an installation site with a highest recorded
barometric pressure of 30 in. Hg. The plant has been laid out,
and the most-economical placement of the vacuum vessel (assume
a process precondenser) is at an elevation of 32 ft, next to the
evaporator. Based on the 30-in.-Hg maximum pressure, the mini-
mum effective tailpipe for water should be 34 ft.
The result, however, is that water will flood the pre-condenser by
2 ft. As something must be changed, the logical solution is to
move the evaporator and condenser to the next floor level, or to
elevate them enough to overcome the difference.
Note that the values in this chart are based on water; heights
should be corrected if any hydrocarbons or other substances are
present. For hydrocarbons, good installation practice is to use at
least 45 ft, regardless of barometric pressure.
It is difficult to predict actual heights needed for hydrocarbons
under vacuum. Some have a tendency to foam, which suggests
the rule-of-thumb minimum of 45 feet. If the specific gravity of
the liquid in the tailpipe is known, the height should be adjusted
accordingly.
HOTWELL DESIGN
The designer must
carefully consider open
hotwell design in a
process(Figure 3).
Good practice recom-
mendsthat the hotwell
area be equal to 1.5
timesthe tailpipe volume
measured from the bot-
tom of the tailpipe to the
point of overflow (not lessthan 12 in.). The large volume isneed-
ed to ensure there isenough liquid present to seal the tailpipe.
As vacuum is produced, the water rises in the tailpipe to the
height induced by the vacuum, minus the barometric pressure. If
there is insufficient hotwell area present, the seal will be broken
and air drawn into the tailpipe, affecting the performance of vac-
uum-producing equipment and the process. The pressure could
rise dramatically, affecting the process pressure, and possibly shut-
ting down plant operations.
Chemical Engineering, November 1996 2
Figure2. Usetheabsolutepressureof a condenser, plusbaromet-
ric pressure, to estimatesuction-lift values.
Figure3. Sufficient hotwell area isneces-
saryto contain vacuumin a tailpipe.
LOOP SEALS AND FLOAT TRAPS
Using an intercondenser to remove condensate from an ejector to
another condenser operating at a lower pressure is a typical piping
configuration that can frequently be problematic. However, fol-
lowing a few simple guidelines will eliminate problems. The
configuration discussed in the following paragraphs should be
used primarily for turbine-exhaust condensers and their associated
inter- and inter-after condensers.
Whenever hydrocarbons are present that will condense in the
inter- or inter-after condensers, or when the vacuum system is on
a platform elevated about 40 ft in the air, a condensate receiver or
seal tank should be used (leftmost diagram of Figure 1).
If a float trap is used (Figure 4), the intercondenser should be at
least 18 in. above the normal liquid level of the condenser into
which condensate is dumped. If a loop seal is used, the loop-seal
height should be equal to the difference between the highest
operating pressure in the intercondenser minus the main con-
densers lowest operating pressure.
In looking at the highest intercondenser pressure, the designer
should also consider off-design or startup conditions. In addition,
the designer should take into account extremely small loads to the
main condenser when using the coldest condensing-water temper-
ature. This will yield the lowest main-condenser pressure.
Since piping is relatively inexpensive, loop-seal height should not
be shortened to save a few dollars. Generally, an 8- to 10-ft loop
seal should be adequate; but this height should be determined by
the manufacturer of the ejector or condenser. The valve at the
bottom of the tailpipe is for draining the unit when it is idle, to
prevent freezing or rusting, and to service the tailpipe equipment.
Frequently, the designer runs into a space problem, requiring that
the ejector condenser be located below the normal liquid level in
the hotwell of the condenser. This could be a problem if piping is
configured as in Figure 5 condensate will not flow out of the
intercondenser because there is insufficient piping distance
between the two condensers to allow this. The inter- or inter-after
condenser will be flooded on the shell side losing vacuum and
shutting down the system.
Chemical Engineering, November 1996 3
Figure4 (top, left). Dont skimp on loop-seal height in order to
cut costs.
Figure5 (top, right). In thisincorrect example, theinter- or
inter-after condenser will beflooded on theshell side.
Figure6 (left). Theaddition of a steam-powered pump corrects
thedeficienciesof Figure5.
Such a problem can be
resolved (Figure 6).
Basically, this configu-
ration requires a
pressure-powered
pump, which runs on
steam. The pump size
and steam pressure
and quantity required
are functions of total
lift and actual lb/h of
condensate to be
pumped.
Depending on the
steam pressure avail-
able, lift can be as high
as 300 ftthough the
needed height is typi-
cally only 8 to 15 ft,
requiring relatively
low-pressure steam of 50 psig or less. The designer should always
try to pipe equipment relatively simply, as shown in Figure 4,
because additional hardware (such as a pressure-powered pump)
may be needed, adding to the complexity of existing piping.
Two other equipment configurations are useful when space is at a
premium. First, a barometric configuration has its shell body
extended to form a storage tank, with a level controller modulat-
ing an overboard valve, plus a condensate pump removing liquid
in the storage area (Figure 7). This setup is often called a low-
level barometric.
An off-shoot of this is shown (Figure 8) with the same storage
and controls, but with a shell-and-tube intercondenser mounted
on top. The condensate pump, in both cases, must be carefully
sized for the net positive suction head (NPSH)
available.
Both of these examples are extensively used
throughout industry. The designer, as stated, must
carefully look at the pump NPSH, but generally a
suction head of 4-5 ft is adequate. The only other
design criterion is sizing the control valve to satisfy
downstream conditions.
HYBRID SYSTEMS
Some designs feature ejectors with a shell-and-tube
intercondenser plus a liquid ring vacuum pump
(LRVP). In such configurations, the LRVP must
be located directly below the condenser (Figure 9).
This system, commonly called a hybrid system,
is very cost effective. As the LRVP is located
directly below the condenser, this application elim-
inates a second shell-and-tube intercondenser, possibly a shell and
tube aftercondenser, and two additional steam-jet ejectors, realiz-
ing considerable space savings.
Note, however, that an LRVP is limited, because it is pumping
condensate as well as any noncondensible gases. An LRVP can
only pump a percentage of condensate, compared to the seal liq-
uid required. Each
individual system
should be analyzed for
its particular limita-
tions.
Note, also, that a sin-
gle-stage ejector, or as
many as four stages
upstream of the inter-
condenser, could be
required in some
cases. Figure 9 uses a
two-stage configura-
tion simply to depict
the principle of the
system.
PROTECTING
AGAINST
CONDENSATE
Vapor piping entering and leaving condensersin a vacuum system
with condensiblespresent can result in seriousoperating problemsif
designed incorrectly (Figure10). With barometric condensers(Figure
10a), it isimportant to notethat condensateissplashing down the
barometric wallsand could run down thevapor inlet, unlesstheinlet
isprotected by a dam or seriesof elbows.
Chemical Engineering, November 1996 4
Figure9. A liquid-ringvacuumpump eliminatesa second shell-and-tubeintercon-
denser, aswell assteam-jet ejectors.
Figure7. A low-level barometric con-
figuration hasan extended shell bodyto
forma storagetank.
Figure8. A variation on thelow-level
barometric, thelow-level shell-and-tube
configuration addsan intercondenser on top
If theprocessvessel isa turbine, liquid can run down thepipefrom
thebarometric condenser, tearing apart turbineblades, causing serious
damageand major expenseplusa shutdown. Even with a less-critical
typeof processvessel, such asan evaporator, water can contaminate
product, increaseprocessload or ruin product completely.
Condensible vapors flowing in a pipeline will naturally condense
since the pipe is usually cooler than the saturation temperature of
the vapor it contains. Vapor piping entering and leaving a baro-
metric condenser (or a shell-and-tube condenser) must not
contain any pockets where this liquid can accumulate. This liquid
will add another flashed load to the ejector, or could seal off the
line completely, resulting in a downgraded system.
The absolute pressure upstream of a pocket will rise dramatically,
indicating that ejectorsare not working satisfactorily. Thiswill cause
a false alarm, while equipment may actually be performing properly.
Edited byIreneKim
AUTHOR
Loren E. Wetzel is assistant manager of contract engineering for
Graham Manufacturing Company, Batavia, NY. He received his
B.S. degree in mechanical engineering from Rochester Institute of
Technology in 1956. He has been employed full time at Graham
Manufacturing Inc. since graduation. During initial employment,
he was trained in every department in the fabrication shop, as
well as both the heat exchanger and vacuum engineering depart-
ments. He specialized in ejector design. including being in charge
of the ejector testing and service departments. During this time,
he was also a senior contract engineer. He has been involved at
length in the research and development of ejectors.
Chemical Engineering, November 1996 5
Figure10. Vapor inlet pipingshould prevent condensatefrom
splashingdown barometric walls(a); inlet and outlet pipingshould
not haveanypocketsin which condensed liquid can accumulate(b)
Understand vacuum-system fundamentals
Properly operatingejectorsand condensersisimportant
in maximizingvacuumtower gas-oil yield
G. R. MARTIN, PROCESS CONSULTING SERVICES, Grapevine, Texas
J. R. LINES, GRAHAM MANUFACTURING CO., INC., Batavia, New York
S. W. GOLDEN, Glitsch, Inc., Dallas, Texas
C
rude vacuum unit heavy vacuum gas-oil (HVGO) yield is
significantly impacted by ejector-system performance, espe-
cially at conditions below 20 mmHg absolute pressure. A deepcut
vacuum unit, to reliably meet the yields, calls for proper design of
all the major pieces of equipment. Understanding vacuum ejector
system impacts, plus minimizing their negative effects equals
maximum gas yield. Ejector-system performance may be adversely
affected by poor upstream process operations.
The impacts of optimum ejector performance are more pro-
nounced at low flash-zone pressures. Gas-oil yield improvements
for small incremental pressure reductions are higher at 8 mmHg
than at 16 mmHg. Commercial operation of a column with a 4.0
mmHg top pressure and 10 mmHg flash-zone pressure is possi-
ble. Designing a deepcut vacuum unit calls for a balance between
practical limits of furnace design, column diameter, utility con-
sumption and ejector-system size. Commercial performance of a
deepcut vacuum unit operating at a HVGO true boiling point
(TBP) cutpoint of 1,150F highlights the impact of off-design
ejector performance on gas-oil yield. Understanding the vacuum
ejector-system fundamentals is critical to maintaining gas-oil
yields.
Ejector-system performance at deepcut vacuum column pressures
may be independently or concurrently affected by:
Atmospheric column overflash, stripper performanceor cutpoint
Vacuum column top temperature and heat balance
Light vacuum gas-oil (LVGO) pumparound entrainment to
the ejector system
Cooling-water temperature
Motive steam pressure
Non-condensibleloading, either air leakageor cracked light-end
hydrocarbons
Condensible hydrocarbons
Intercondenser or aftercondenser fouling
Ejector internal erosion or product build-up
System vent back pressure.
Minimizing ejector-system gas loading lowers column pressure,
thereby increasing gas-oil yield. By optimizing process perform-
ance when processing West Texas Intermediate (WTI) crude, the
gas-oil yield can be increased by 0.75 vol%. This represents 1,150
bpd of incremental gas-oil recovery for a 150,000-bpd refinery.
Assuming an average $5/bbl gas-oil differential over vacuum
residue, incremental annual revenue is $2 million. Experience
with deepcut vacuum unit operation on WTI crude has shown
that vacuum column pressure is strongly impacted by atmospher-
ic column operation and LVGO pumparound operation.
Hydrocarbon Processing, October 1994 1
Fig. 1. Gas-oil yield.
Fig. 2. Feed enthalpyvs. temperature.
GAS-OIL YIELDS
The gas-oil yield on a crude vacuum column iscontrolled by feed
enthalpy. If more heat can be added to the reduced crude at a given
column pressure, more oil isvaporized. A good furnace design is
required to reliably meet the coil outlet temperature requirements
of a deepcut operation without excessive cracked-gasproduction.
Fig. 1 shows the impact on gas-oil yield, assuming a given quality
of WTI reduced crude. The curves are in terms of vacuum
residue yield as a percent of whole crude. Fig. 2 represents feed
enthalpy as a function of temperature and pressure. Figs. 1 and 2
are based on the same atmospheric residue composition assuming
a crude unit charge of 40,000 bpd. The effect of column temper-
ature and pressure on gas-oil yield is highlighted. Gas-oil yield
improvements for small incremental pressure reductions are high-
er at low column pressures than at higher pressures.
For example, a 2 mmHg pressure reduction is made for columns
operating at 16 mmHg and 8 mmHg. Both have a constant flash-
zone temperature of 760F. Lowering pressure from 16 to 14
mmHg and from 8 to 6 mmHg will increase gas-oil yield by
0.46% and 0.77%, respectively. This trend is more dramatic for
larger spreads in operating pressures. The column top pressure
varied between 4 and 16 mmHg and was caused by the process
and utility systems.
It isimportant to achieve lower pressureswhile meeting the practi-
cal limitsof furnace design and minimizing cracked-gasformation.
Example: a vacuum unit isto minimize residue yield to 9% based
on whole crude. From Figs. 1 and 2 a column operating at 6
mmHg and 730F flashzone pressure and temperature will have
the same gas-oil recovery asa column at 14 mmHg and 780F.
These two caseshave a feed enthalpy differential of 171.5
MMBtu/d with the higher pressure requiring a higher feed
enthalpy.
EJECTOR-SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
Gas load. The ejector-system loading consists of:
Non-condensibles like cracked gas from the furnace and air
leakage
Condensible hydrocarbons carried with non-condensibles
Entrainment
Furnace coil steam
Tower stripping steam.
Non-condensibles and a small amount of condensible gases are
generated in the furnace. Cracking is most severe in dry vacuum-
tower operations with furnace-outlet temperatures above 750F. A
proper furnace design will minimize cracked hydrocarbon gases.
Deep-cut operations with insufficient quench to the tower boot
can also cause cracked-gas formation. The quench distribution
quality to the boot should be included in the vacuum tower
design. Ejector load is also affected by poor crude stripping in the
atmospheric crude tower. Cause: damaged or an insufficient num-
ber of stripping trays, improperly designed trays or insufficient
stripping steam.
Theory. The operating principle of an ejector is to convert pres-
sure energy of the motive steam into velocity. This occurs by
adiabatic expansion from motive steam pressure to suction-load
operating pressure. This adiabatic expansion occurs across a con-
verging and diverging nozzle (Fig. 3). This results in supersonic
velocity off the motive nozzle, typically in the range of mach 3 to
4. In actuality, motive steam expands to a pressure lower than the
suction load pressure. This creates a low-pressure zone for pulling
the suction load into the ejector. High-velocity motive steam
entrains and mixes with the suction gas load. The resulting mix-
tures velocity is still supersonic.
Next, the mixture enters a venturi where the high velocity recon-
verts to pressure. In the converging region, velocity is converted
to pressure as cross-sectional flow area is reduced. At the throat
section, a normal shock wave is established. Here, a dramatic
boost in pressure and loss of velocity across the shock wave
occurs. Flow across the shock wave goes from supersonic ahead of
the shock wave, to sonic at the shock wave and subsonic after the
shock wave. In the diverging section, velocity is further reduced
and converted into pressure. Fig. 3 shows ejector components and
a pressure profile.
Motive pressure, temperature and quality are critical variablesfor
proper ejector operating performance. The amount of motive steam
used isa function of required ejector performance. The nozzle
throat isan orifice and itsdiameter isdesigned to passthe specified
quantity of motive steam, required to effect sufficient compression
acrossthe ejector. Calculation of a required motive nozzle throat
diameter isbased on the necessary amount of motive steam, its
pressure and specific volume. The following equation found in the
Heat Exchange Institute Standard for Steam Jet Ejectorsiscom-
monly used to determine throat diameter:
Hydrocarbon Processing, October 1994 2
Fig. 3. Ejector componentsand pressureprofile.
lb/hr motivesteam=892.4 C
d
D
n
2
(Psia/Vg)
0.5
where
Cd =Nozzle discharge coefficient
D =Nozzle throat diameter, in.
Psia =Motive steam pressure at ejector, lb
f
/in
2
V
g
= Motive steam specific volume, ft
3
/1b.
Motive steam quality is important because moisture droplets
affect the amount of steam passing through the nozzle. High-
velocity liquid droplets also prematurely erode ejector internals,
reducing performance.
Operating a vacuum unit requires an ejector system to perform
over a wide range of conditions. Loads vary from light to above
design. The ejector system must be stable over all anticipated
operating conditions. Determinating design air leakage and light-
end hydrocarbon loading is essential to stable operation of the
vacuum system. Furthermore, an accurate understanding of ejec-
tor-system back pressure for all operating modes is necessary for
stable operation. An ejector does not create its discharge pressure,
it is simply supplied with enough motive steam to entrain and
compress its suction load to a required discharge pressure. If the
ejector back pressure is higher than the discharge pressure it can
achieve, then the ejector breaks operation and the entire ejector
system may be unstable.
Compression ratio. The ratio of discharge pressure to suction
pressure is the ejector compression ratio. These normally vary
from 3 to 15. An ejectors individual compression ratio is a func-
tion of cooling-water temperature, steam use and condensation
profile of hydrocarbons handled. The first-stage ejector, tied
directly to column discharge, will have a compression ratio set
primarily by intercondenser cooling-water temperature.
Intercondenser capital cost, steam costs and cooling-water
requirements should be balanced against first-stage ejector design
discharge pressure. This pressure must be high enough for con-
densation to occur in the intercondenser. With 85F cooling
water, an initial steam condensing temperature of 105F is rea-
sonable. This corresponds to a first-stage intercondenser operating
pressure of approximately 60 mmHg. But, other condenser oper-
ating pressures are possible. If a lower operating pressure is
considered, this lowers the available log-mean temperature differ-
ence (LMTD) and, thus, increases intercondenser cost. But, less
motive steam is required. If a higher operating pressure is used,
more motive steam is needed to permit compression to that high-
er pressure. Capital and operating costs are balanced to optimize
overall system cost.
A deepcut column with an operating pressure of 4 mmHg will
normally have a three-stage ejector system. Some columns have
design top pressures below 4 mmHg and as low as 1.5 mmHg.
These columns may have four-stage ejector systems. A four-stage
system will have two ejectors in series compressing column over-
head load to the first intercondenser operating pressure.
CONDENSERS
Intercondensers are positioned between ejectors. The aftercon-
denser is located after the last ejector. There is an interdependency
between the ejectors and condensers. Both must perform satisfac-
torily for proper system operation. Condenser performance is
affected by:
Cooling-water temperature, flowrate and temperature rise
Non-condensible loading
Condensible loading
Fouling
Height of barometric leg.
The first intercondenser is the largest and primary condenser in
the vacuum system. But, the second intercondenser and aftercon-
denser are also key to proper overall system operation. In the past,
direct-contact barometric condensers were commonly used.
However, shell-and-tube condensers are primarily used now. They
condense motive steam and condensible hydrocarbons, and cool
non-condensible gases normally on the shell side. Cooling water
is typically on the tubeside.
Configurations. The ejector system may be configured a number
of different ways to handle various crudes and differing refinery
operations. It is possible to use a single vacuum train consisting of
one set of ejectors and condensers. This allows minimal initial
investment but limits flexibility in controlling utilities or manag-
ing different crudes and varying unit operations. Often, parallel
ejectors are installed for each stage. Each parallel ejector will han-
dle a percentage of total loading, i.e., twin-element ejectors each
designed for 50% of design load, triple-element ejectors each
designed for 40% of design load for 120% capacity, or twin-ele-
ment
1
3
2
3 ejector trains.
Hydrocarbon Processing, October 1994 3
Fig. 4. Three-stagevacuumsystem.
Parallel ejector trains allow one train to be shut down for mainte-
nance while the column operates at a reduced load. At light loads,
a train may be shut down to reduce operating costs. Fig. 4 shows
a typical deepcut vacuum system with triple-element ejectors and
first intercondensers. The second intercondenser and aftercon-
denser are both single elements.
VACUUM-SYSTEM TROUBLESHOOTING
Commissioning. Before startup, the ejector system should be iso-
lated from the column and load tested to see if air leakage occurs.
Each ejector will have a no-load suction pressure, supplied by
the ejector manufacturer. No-load suction pressures attained in
the field should be compared to manufacturer data. If the design
no-load suction pressure cannot be met, the cause should be iden-
tified prior to startup.
Operation. Column overhead pressure rising above the design
maximum pressure may be the result of increased unit through-
put, furnace problems or atmospheric column internal damage.
These process conditions result in increased column overhead gas
rate and are not necessarily a problem for the ejector system. A
first-stage ejector will have an operating curve, usually provided
by the manufacturer, that indicates column top operating pressure
maintained by the ejector as a function of mass loading. As over-
head mass flowrate increases above design, so will column
overhead pressure. The converse is also true to a point.
The ejector system will track this performance curve provided
design air leakage or non-condensible hydrocarbon loading is not
exceeded. If this happens, the first ejector will follow its perform-
ance curve. However, the secondary ejectors are affected. Due to
an increase in non-condensible loading, a subsequent increase in
saturated condensible loading from the first intercondenser
results. As non-condensible loading increases, the amount of
steam and hydrocarbon condensed decreases. The increased gas
loading exiting the first condenser cannot be handled by the sec-
ond-stage ejector at the intercondenser design operating pressure.
Furthermore, the first-stage ejector does not have enough energy,
nor are its internals designed to compress the load to a high
enough pressure to allow the second-stage ejector to handle the
increased intercondenser gas discharge. As a consequence the first-
stage ejector breaks operation and tower pressure rapidly increases
and may become unstable. A similar situation may also occur
between the second- and third-stage ejectors.
Unstable column operation can also result from poor steam con-
ditions. If the steam pressure at any ejector falls below design,
then less steam will pass through the motive nozzle. This results
in insufficient steam for compression across the ejector. Excessive
superheat will have a similar effect since less steam passes through
the nozzle. Accurate assessment of steam conditions is critical. If
steam pressure is below design or if excess superheat exists, the
motive nozzle must be rebored to a larger diameter. After boring,
it is necessary to smooth the internals and remove rough edges so
that flow coefficients are not impacted.
High steam pressuresarenormally acceptableaslong asthey are
within 110% to 120% of design. If steam pressureistoo high, then
too much steam passesthrough thenozzle, choking thediffuser
throat and reducing theload handled. If thisoccurs, new nozzles
must beinstalled or steam pressurecontrolled closer to design.
Wet steam causes erosion of ejector internals. This reduces ejector
capacity and may cause erratic operation. Moisture droplets accel-
erated to supersonic velocities are very erosive on the motive
nozzle, inlet diffuser and exhaust elbows or condenser tubes.
Steam lines must be insulated up to the ejector motive nozzle. A
steam separator and trap must be installed before each ejector.
Steam traps require periodic inspection to ensure they properly
dump condensate. If the motive nozzle or diffuser show excessive
wear (cross-sectional area increase in excess of 7% of design) then
they must be replaced.
If a condenser becomes fouled, it will not properly condense and
cool gases to the design outlet temperature. This increases gas
loading to the following ejector, which is unable to handle the
condensers design operating pressure. This leads to breaking of
the preceding ejector. Condensers should be periodically cleaned
and maintained in a usable condition.
Insufficient cooling water will similarly affect ejector performance.
Thisproblem reducesoverall heat-transfer rate and increasesthe
water temperature rise. A higher temperature rise lowersLMTD.
Thiseffect hasthe largest impact on the first intercondenser. If the
overall heat-transfer rate and LMTD fall below design, condenser
performance iscompromised. The net result isthat proper conden-
sation and gascooling doesnot occur and the ejector overloads.
Therefore, the ejector system may operate in a broken condition.
Cooling-water supply should be maintained at high enough flow to
meet the design LMTD at design heat loads.
Good condenser performance is needed the most during the sum-
mer. At this time, cooling water is the warmest and refinery
cooling demands are highest. Proper determination of cooling
water availability, temperature, operating pressure and pressure
drop is key to proper ejector system performance. Periodic field
surveys should be performed.
Hydrocarbon Processing, October 1994 4
Fig. 5. Intercondenser tailpipearrangement.
Improper barometric leg (condensate drain) layout has a negative
effect on condenser performance. Condensate drains by gravity,
so the barometric leg must be high enough to ensure that con-
densate does not enter and flood the condenser. Flooding lower
tubes makes them ineffective for heat transfer. The barometric
legs should be at least 34 ft above the condensate receiver for
100% water condensate. With mixed water and hydrocarbon
condensates, a barometric leg of at least 42 ft is required. If con-
denser flooding occurs, check the drain legs for blockage. Also,
horizontal drain leg runs are not recommended because they are
susceptible to gas pockets. Fig. 5 has recommended barometric
leg layouts. If a condensate receiver operates above atmospheric
pressure then the barometric leg height must be increased.
If the system back pressure, or back pressure on any ejector,
increases above its design discharge pressure, then that ejector
may operate in an unstable or broken condition. This occurs
because the ejectors internals are not designed to compress to a
higher discharge pressure. Also, there is insufficient steam to do
the necessary work.
PROCESS OPERATIONS
Once the ejector system is designed and the utility-system per-
formance is established, process operations will dictate
ejector-system performance. Air leakage and non-condensible
production from the vacuum unit fired heater is set for a given
system volume and furnace performance. Furnace non-condensi-
ble production can be controlled by coil steam injection. Coil
steam will load the ejector system. Hence, the optimum coil
steam versus cracked gas production impacts vacuum once the
system is built. Here, we will assume that non-condensible and
coil steam load on the ejector system are constant. Lieberman
2
covered the importance of furnace design and operations on ejec-
tor-system performance. We will focus on controlling the ejector-
system condensible hydrocarbon load.
The condensible load is impacted by the atmospheric column
performance and vacuum column operation. The LVGO top
product vapor pressure has the biggest impact on ejector conden-
sible load for a given ejector-system noncondensible load.
Assessing the operating variables that impact LVGO vapor pres-
sure is the key to minimizing it. The variables that impact LVGO
vapor pressure are atmospheric column overflash, stripper per-
formance and cut-point; and vacuum column top temperature
and LVGO/HVGO material balance.
Atmospheric column. This design and operation has a significant
impact on the ejector system. For lighter material being fed to the
vacuum column, LVGO vapor pressure will be higher at a given
temperature. The atmospheric column stripping section and wash
section affect the vacuum column condensible load. Minimizing
atmospheric column overflash is important. The stripping section
performance is affected by steam rate (lb steam/bbl atm. residue).
Maximizing stripping-section performance is the largest, and least
costly operating tool to maximize vacuum column ejector-system
performance. Atmospheric column cutpoint is also important.
The order of importance is:
Stripping section
Overflash
Atmospheric residue cutpoint.
Vacuum column. The top temperature should always be mini-
mized and the quantity of LVGO maximized. LVGO
pumparound rate and return temperature must be optimized
within the constraints of entrainment to the overhead system and
LVGO pumparound circuit exchanger LMTD. Minimizing the
pumparound return temperature will lower condensible load for a
given exchanger surface area and utility. There are some trade-offs
because the return temperature and LVGO yield influence con-
densible load.
The pumparound condenses hydrocarbons before the ejector sys-
tem. The quantity of condensible hydrocarbons to the ejector
system is a function of the quantity of noncondensibles and the
lightest-condensible materials vapor pressure. Minimizing top
temperature minimizes first-stage ejector vapor load.
Hydrocarbon Processing, October 1994 5
TABLE 1. SLOP OIL ASTM D86 DISTILLATION
Vol% Temperature, F
0 133
5 198
10 210
20 223
30 235
40 246
50 262
60 278
70 309
80 385
90 509
100 643
Fig. 6. Ejector systemsurvey, high pressure.
The column packing internals and liquid distributor may be
viewed as a direct-contact heat exchanger. Poor heat-transfer per-
formance, due to vapor-distribution problems or poor liquid
distribution, will increase the ejector condensible load. The top
pumparound system design is critical for optimum ejector per-
formance. In the past, many of these distributors were spray
headers. A modern, high quality gravity distributor will reduce
entrainment and reduce ejector condensible loading.
Pumparound spray header distributors are susceptible to plug-
ging, especially if no strainers are provided. Plugging results in
liquid maldistribution. Even with conservative packed-bed
depths, inherent packing distribution is often not sufficient to
recover from maldistribution. Trayed vacuum towers are often
revamped with packed designs that reuse existing draw pans. But
these draw pans are usually designed with vapor risers that are too
large and too few in number for packed applications. The
pumparound return temperature and heat-transfer efficiency of
the pumparound tower internals set the hydrocarbon vapor equi-
librium. Either poor heat transfer or high pumparound return
temperatures will increase ejector load.
An improperly-designed spray header can produce sufficient
entrainment to overload the vacuum system or reduce intercon-
denser heat-transfer capability by waxing the condenser tubes.
The spray-header system design requires even irrigation to the
packings top. Nozzles to minimize mist formation are critical.
The spray header design must provide a sufficient operating range
while not exceeding high nozzle pressure drops that produce high
quantities of mist-size droplets. Our experience has shown that a
nozzle pressure drop of 15 psi is typically a good maximum. This
varies by nozzle selection.
CASE STUDY: DEEPCUT OPERATION
A new vacuum unit was designed to operate at a HVGO TBP
cutpoint up to 1,150F. One of the design flash-zone operations
was a temperature of 770F at 12 mm Hg absolute pressure. The
vacuum ejectors were designed for an overhead pressure of 4
mmHg. The vacuum overhead pressure varied after unit commis-
sioning. The minimum top pressure was typically 6.5 mmHg. A
2.5 mmHg reduction to achieve the design value would result in
an additional 0.8% gas-oil yield based on whole crude (Fig. 1).
Optimizing an operating unit to obtain minimum overhead pres-
sure is challenging. Some of the modifications implemented had
some interesting results.
Ejector system survey. Thisshowed that the column design top
pressure could not be obtained. And a marked deterioration
occurred at higher crude charge rates. A survey of the overhead
ejector system wasdone at a crude charge rate of 35,000 bpsd (Fig.
6) and again at a charge rate of 52,000 bpsd (Fig. 7). The column
overhead pressure was6.5 mmHg and 14 mmHg absolute, respec-
tively. The pressure surveyswere conducted with an absolute
pressure manometer to ensure accurate pressure readings. Non-
absolute pressure manometersare not recommended since they are
affected by changesin barometric pressure and elevation.
Process impacts. There are two approaches to troubleshooting any
process problem. Try something and see what happens or study
the problem. The first approach was to make a change and see
what happens. One theory to account for the reduced perform-
ance was that wax was forming on the condenser surface from
entrained LVGO. But wax was not observed during previous
intercondenser inspections. An improperly-designed spray header
can produce sufficient entrainment to overload the vacuum sys-
tem or reduce the heat-transfer capability of the intercondenser
by waxing the condenser tubes. Then, we reduced the
pumparound flowrate from 30,000 bpd to 19,000 bpd. We
observed that:
Top column pressure lowered by 4 mmHg to 9 mmHg
Pumparound return temperaturelowered from 125F to 115F
Lower top column temperature was reduced by 6F
LVGO yield was the same
LVGO draw temperature increased by 40F
Slop make was reduced.
Next, a study was done to determine the cause of the ejector sys-
tems poor performance. Our initial theory was improper design.
We decided to conduct a detailed survey to find out what was
causing the poor ejector performance. Evaluating unit operating
data and looking at oil and gas samples from the overhead system
revealed some possible problem sources. A slop oil sample from
the ejector-system hotwell was taken and tested. Distillation data
is shown in Table 1.
The distillation showed that 90% of the material was kerosene
and lighter. The light material was either carried over from the
atmospheric crude column or formed in the heater by cracking.
Hydrocarbon Processing, October 1994 6
Fig. 7 Ejector systemsurvey, low pressure.
Normally, gasoline/kerosene boiling-range material formed in the
heater is minimal. The slop-oil rate was much higher than pre-
dicted, based on column overhead temperature and measured
noncondensible load. Material boiling at temperatures above
450F should not have been present. The slop-oil analysis indicat-
ed the atmospheric tower was not stripping and only a small
amount of LVGO was being entrained. We assumed that reduc-
ing condensibles to the ejector may reduce column pressure.
An evaluation of the intercondensers was conducted, including
installation of block valves to isolate one of the two parallel first-
stage ejectors and intercondensers for cleaning without a unit
shutdown. The high proportion of non-condensible gases increas-
es the difficulty of achieving low approach temperatures because
of the relatively poor heat-transfer coefficient. The cooling-water
temperature typically ranged from 74F to 80F. This, in con-
junction with the exchanger approach temperature limitation, set
the first-stage intercondenser pressure. The exchanger approach
temperature was about 20F. The intercondenser performance was
adequate.
At low charge rates, the atmospheric towersfurnace wasnot ther-
mally limited. Therefore, the atmospheric column cutpoint could
be increased, lowering the light slop to the vacuum unit. At high
charge rates, stripping steam wasreduced to the flooding limit on
the stripping trays. Light material to the vacuum column increased.
Reducing the light slop oil from the atmospheric column, assum-
ing this caused the high condensibles load, required modification
to the atmospheric column stripping section. The vacuum col-
umn light slop oil material is a result of either poor stripping in
the atmospheric crude tower or cracking in the furnace. However,
furnace cracking was assumed to be negligible.
Further analysis showed that the atmospheric tower stripping sec-
tion was inadequately designed. Adequate stripping steam at high
crude charge rates was not possible. The trays were hydraulically
limited and flooded. Introducing appreciable quantities of steam
resulted in black diesel oil. Tray modifications were planned dur-
ing an atmospheric crude unit shutdown.
By modifying the stripping traysand improving stripping efficien-
cy, slop-oil make wasreduced, even at higher crude throughputs.
Result: a vacuum tower overhead pressure that varied between 3
mmHg to 4.5 mmHg depending on ambient temperature and
humidity. Cooling-water temperature to the first-stage ejector
intercondensersand LVGO pumparound return temperature
became the major factorsin minimizing vacuum-column top pres-
sure. A hydraulically-limited stripping section isnot a typical
refinery problem. But, an inefficient or damaged stripping section
iscommon. When operating at low column pressure, the impact
of atmospheric-column stripping-section operating inefficiencies
resultsin significant gas-oil yield lossesdue to lossof vacuum.
LITERATURE CITED
1. Kister H.K., et al., Distillation Design, Chapter 9, McGraw-
Hill Book Co., New York, 1992.
2 Lieberman, N.P. Delayed coker-vacuum tower technology,
New Orleans, La., May 1993.
THE AUTHORS
Gary R. Martinis an independent consultant at
his company, Process Consulting Services,
Grapevine, Texas. His work has included field
troubleshooting, revamping process units and
field inspection. He previously worked as a
refinery process engineer for El Paso Refining
and Glitsch, Inc. Mr. Martin holds a BSin
chemical engineering from Oklahoma State University.
James R. Linesis vice president of engineering
for Graham Manufacturing Co., Inc., Batavia,
N.Y. Since joining Graham in 1984, he has held
positions as an application engineer, product
supervisor and sales engineer focusing on vacu-
um and heat transfer processes. Mr. Lines holds
a BSdegree in aerospace engineering from the
University of Buffalo.
Scott W. Goldenis refinery technical service
manager for Glitsch, Inc. in Dallas, Texas. He
specializes in field troubleshooting, process unit
revamps and field inspection. He has published
more than 20 technical articles concerning refin-
ery process unit troubleshooting, computer
modeling and field inspection. Previously he
worked as a refinery process engineer Mr. Golden holds a BSin
chemical engineering from the University of Maine.
Hydrocarbon Processing, October 1994 7
Estimating the Size and Cost
of Steam Vacuum Refrigeration
For processrefrigeration requirementsbetween 35 and 80F,
usethesechartsto estimatethethreetypesof steamvacuumrefrigeration
E. SPENCER
GRAHAM MANUFACTURING CO., INC., GREAT NECK, NY
When process refrigeration requirements call for utmost reliability
in the temperature range of 35 to 80F or higher, steam vacuum
refrigeration deserves first consideration.
Many processes require water at temperatures below those avail-
able from the cooling water source. In the range of 55 to 80F or
higher, conventional reciprocating. centrifugal and absorption sys-
tems encounter a variety of problems of maintenance and
reliability, particularly at the higher temperature levels. Steam vac-
uum refrigeration systems on the contrary exhibit improved
performance, with no change in reliability or maintenance.
Seven Key Considerations. Steam vacuum refrigeration should
be considered when:
Steam is the motive fluid and either high or low pressure
steam is readily available.
Variations in cooling water temperature produce lower con-
densing temperatures during a large portion of the operating
period, resulting in steam economy.
Reliability is of utmost importance.
Brackish or scaling water is the only condensing medium (in
this case barometric condensers offer a large advantage).
Outdoor installation is contemplated.
Chilled water temperature is above 55F.
Chilled water temperature range is large.
Basic Types. Three types of steam vacuum refrigeration systems
are available today. These are:
Steam Vacuum Refrigeration With a Barometric Condenser
(Fig. 1)
Steam Vacuum Refrigeration With a Surface Condenser (Fig.
2)
Steam Vacuum Refrigeration With an Evaporative Condenser
(Fig. 3)
The steam vacuum refrigeration cycle is best illustrated by the sys-
tem using a barometric condenser (Fig. 1). In this cycle a vacuum
equivalent to the chilled water temperature desired (for example
50F equal to 9.21 mm. hg. abs.) is maintained in the flash tank
(1) by the booster ejector (4). Water is flashed to vapor in the
flash tank and is compressed by the booster to a pressure (which
is dependent upon the available condensing water temperature)
higher than the flash tank pressure (for example, 103F, 52 mm.
hg. abs.) and is discharged into the barometric condenser (5). In
the barometric condenser the motive and flash steam are con-
densed and the noncondensables are removed by the secondary
ejector system (7), which compresses the noncondensibles and
saturation vapor and discharges them to atmospheric pressure.
Surface-Type Condenser. In the system shown in Fig. 2, the baro-
metric condenser has been replaced by a surface condenser. This
system requires that condensate be removed by a condensate
pump, which is usually supplied in duplicate. unless the system is
at such an elevation that a barometric leg can be installed.
Evaporative Condenser. Fig. 3 shows a system that replaces the
barometric condenser with an evaporative surface condenser,
essentially combining the surface condenser and the cooling tower
in one unit.
Utility requirementsfor steam vacuum refrigeration systems can
be determined by reference to Fig. 4.
As in all refrigeration systems, energy requirements are a function
of refrigerant temperature and condensing temperature. As the
available condenser medium temperature rises, utility require-
ments go up. Similarly as the refrigerant temperature drops,
utility requirements go up. Conversely a reduction in condensing
medium temperature, or increase in refrigerant temperature,
results in decreased utility requirements.
Steam vacuum refrigeration systems are particularly responsive to
a reduction in this split, more so than other systems. Generally
speaking a five degree reduction in condenser temperature results
in a reduction in steam consumption of as much as 10 percent.
Thus when making a determination of the most economical
refrigeration system, the process engineer should take into
account the variation in temperature of the condensing medium
during the day and over the entire year. The average steam rate,
when this is taken into consideration, will be improved consider-
ably over the theoretical design rate, and is a true indication of
the steam consumption of these systems.
Since energy requirementsand first cost are a function of chilled
water temperature, steam vacuum refrigeration systemswill be
most economical if the highest possible refrigerant temperature is
Hydrocarbon Processing, June1967 1
Fig. 1: Steamvacuumrefrigeration systemwith barometric type
condenser
Fig1a: A 2,000-ton vacuumrefrigeration systemwith barometric
condensersinstalled in a refinery
Fig. 2: Steamvacuumrefrigeration systemwith surfacetypecondenser.
Fig. 3: Steamvacuumrefrigeration systemwith evaporative
typecondenser.
selected. In systemswhere the refrigerant temperature range is
large, say 45 to 65F, a two stage flash system will result in
economies. Thiscan easily be understood by reference to Fig. 4. If
half the load isflashed at 55F, the steam requirement is16.7 lbs.
per hr. ton of refrigeration, and the water requirement is5.3 gpm
per ton of refrigeration for thisportion of the load. The other half
of the load isflashed at 45F, requiring a steam a rate of 23.6 lbs.
per hr. per ton of refrigeration, and the water requirement is6.4
gpm per ton of refrigeration. Thusthe total steam consumption is
lower than if all of the refrigerant were flashed at 45F.
In actual practice the loads are balanced in proportion to the
flashed volume, but the effect of two stage flash is essentially as
illustrated above.
SELECTING A STEAM VACUUM
REFRIGERATION SYSTEM
Determine desired chilled water temperature (check range)
Determine maximum available condensing water temperature
Determine available steam pressure.
Having determined the above, you may make several selections
using Fig. 4, depending upon whether you wish to optimize
steam consumption or water consumption.
For surface condenser systems, condensing temperatures will be
approximately 8above the leaving water temperatures; whereas
in barometric systems, condensing temperatures will be approxi-
mately 3above leaving water temperatures.
Thus utility requirements for surface condenser systems will be
somewhat above those for barometric systems.
Cost Data. Fig. 5 gives installed cost data per ton of refrigeration
for packaged barometric systems using one, two or three boosters.
Fig. 6 gives installed costs for systems using surface condensers.
Steam consumption of steam vacuum refrigeration systems using
evaporative condensers (Fig. 3) is a function of wet-bulb tempera-
ture. Steam consumption for these systems may be determined by
the use of Fig. 8.
Cost correction factors for motive steam pressures are given in
Fig. 9. Fig. 7 gives cost per ton of refrigeration for systems with
evaporative condensers.
Hydrocarbon Processing, June1967 4
Fig. 4: Utilityrequirementsfor steamvacuumrefrigeration
systems.
Fig. 5: Installed cost per ton, barometric systemsusingone,
two or threeboosters.
Fig. 6: Installed cost per ton, surfacecondenser systems, using
one, two or threeboosters.
Multiple boostersare used for refrigeration systemsrequiring oper-
ation under a variable demand. Capacity control isobtained by
cycling boostersin and out of service, either automatically or man-
ually, with variationsin load. Generally speaking these boostersare
divided in equal increments; however, should circumstances
require they may be subdivided in any proportion. Multiple boost-
er systemsare particularly advantageousif it isdesired to take
advantage of part load economy and the effect of reduced con-
denser water temperature during cool periodsof the year.
Multiple Systems. For sizes beyond those shown, multiple systems
are generally used; although if the size is only 10 or 15 percent
larger than shown, it is quite possible to enlarge the standard
designs. Generally it will be more economical and give more flexi-
bility to go to multiple systems. However, single units have been
built as large as 2,000 tons of refrigeration.
Space requirements for the three types of systems are given in the
block diagrams, Figs. 10, 11 and 12.
Indexing Terms: Barometric9, Condensers/ProcessEquipment9, Cooling9, Costs7, Curves10,
Estimating8, Evaporation9, Heat Transfer9, Refrigeration9, Selection8, Steam6, Surfaces9,
Water6.
Hydrocarbon Processing, June1967 5
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Elliot Spencer is a sales engineer with Graham
Manufacturing Co., Inc., Great Neck, New
York. Mr. Spencer holds an M.S. degree in
chemical engineering from the Brooklyn
Polytechnic Institute. He held engineering
positions with the York Corp. and The Trane
Co. prior to assuming his present position 15
years ago. He is a member of ASHRAE.
Fig. 7: Installed cost per ton for systemswith evaporative
condensers.
Fig. 8: SteamConsumption in poundsper hour per ton
of refrigeration.
Fig. 9: Cost correction factorsfor varioussteampressures.
Ejectors Give Any Suction Pressure
Recent testson multistageejector systemswill simplify your
task of designingvacuum-producingequipment for any pressure.
F. DUNCAN BERKELEY
GRAHAM MANUFACTURING CO., INC., BATAVIA, N.Y.
B
ecause of overlapping performance, its often a lengthy prob-
lem to arrive at the most economical design of an ejector. In
practically every new application of high vacuum, we find it nec-
essary to investigate thoroughly the many available means of
producing vacuum to reduce equipment and operating costs to a
practical and profitable level.
But the giant strides of technology have brought to light an
entirely new concept in the study of vacuum-producing appara-
tus. Recent tests of 5-stage and 6-stage systems indicate that
steam ejectors have carved a unique and popular place in industry
where large volumes of gases must be evacuatedand they can
produce almost any desired suction pressure.
In addition, by using only certain parts of a multistage system,
one installation can serve the whole range of test conditions.
The simple principles on which ejectors operate and the almost
universal use of steam and compressed air in plants of all kinds
have given the ejector many advantages over other vacuum
pumps. However, in spite of simple operating principles, the most
economical design of an ejector is often a lengthy problem.
Chemical Engineering, April 1957 1
Among the variables that you should consider in selecting a par-
ticular design of steam ejector are:
1. Suction pressure required.
2. Steam available.
3. Water available.
4. Fluid to be evacuated.
5. Equipment cost.
6. Installation cost.
LETS DISCUSS PRINCIPLES
In order to show how these six variables affect the design of a
steam ejector, lets discuss briefly the principles of ejectors.
All ejectors operate on a common principle. By means of a high-
velocity jet of propelling steam, air or other fluid, a gas or
vaporor even finely divided solidscan be entrained and
caused to flow at high velocity along with the motive stream.
Directing the combined stream into the diffuser section of an
ejector converts velocity into pressure. In effect, the high-velocity
combined stream pushes against the discharge pressure of the
ejector and maintains a pressure difference between the suction
inlet and the discharge of the ejector.
The line sketch above illustrates approximately a typical conver-
sion of pressure to velocity in the nozzle of the ejector and the
conversion of velocity into pressure in the diffuser.
In all flow processes there are energy losses. The ejector is no
exception.
Lets suppose that the flow process within an ejector is 100% effi-
cient. At 100% efficiency, it would be possible for an ejector
handling no load to convert the energy of pressure of the motive
gas to velocity in the nozzle and then convert this energy of veloc-
ity back to pressure in the diffuser so that the discharge pressure
of the ejector would equal the initial pressure of the gas.
Such ideal flow processes can be approached in a well-designed
flow section, where the expansion ratio of the gas is not too great.
However, the jet velocity we achieve in this instance is not very
high and there is relatively little velocity energy available to
entrain a secondary gas.
Under normal circumstances the expansion process in the nozzle
of a well-designed ejector is almost always a fairly efficient part of
the overall flow process. So we get very small energy losses in the
nozzle. However, as jet velocity is increased by altering the design,
the task of efficiently converting velocity back into pressure
becomes increasingly difficult. It is in this part of the flow process
of an ejector that we lose some of the energy.
When we reach supersonic-flow velocities, shock waves are
unavoidable in converting velocity back to pressure. These shock
losses in the diffuser become more severe as the diffuser entrance
velocity (velocity of compression) is increased. This, in turn, lim-
its the discharge pressure to which the velocity energy can be
converted.
Therefore, if we fix the discharge pressureas it is for a single-
stage ejector discharging to the atmospherethere is a practical
limit to the velocity of compression for which an ejector can be
designed. And in the case of an ejector that is evacuating a closed
vessel with no in-leakage, there is a limit to the absolute pressure
that a particular number of stages will ultimately reach, even if we
permit the ejector system to operate forever.
Suction pressure of an ejector handling a gas load is further affect-
ed by the surrender of part of the energy of the jet velocity to
entraining (or accelerating) the load gas. This explains why the
absolute pressure increases as the load to the ejector increases and
why the number of ejection stages increases as the design pressure
decreases.
USE WATER TO CONDENSE
Where water is available at reasonably low temperatures, its com-
mon practice to condense the steam from each stage of a
multistage ejector in an intercondenser to reduce the load on the
successive stage.
Such a design reduces the steam required to handle a given load
as compared to a multistage noncondensing ejector, where each
preceding stage discharges directly to the succeeding stage.
However, an intercondenser increases the initial cost of an ejector
and the problem of selection is one of operating cost vs. initial
equipment cost. Because every ejector application has its own
economics, we cant set down a simple rule to guide the selection
of the correct design. For a particular application, though, a buyer
of ejectors often knows from experience the limitations on steam,
water or money that he faces.
A FAMILY OF
DESIGNS
Since an ejector can
be designed for high
efficiency at some par-
ticular absolute
pressure, each design
will yield a different
performance curve.
Fig. 1 indicates the
performance for a
family of designs of 1-
stage ejectors using the
same quantity of
steam in each design.
Chemical Engineering, April 1957 2
The envelope of this
family of curves is
the curve of all pos-
sible points of
maximum efficiency
for 1-stage ejectors.
If we plot many
graphs similar to
that shown in Fig. 1
for many 1- to 5-
stage ejector systems,
the envelopes of the
individual graphs
will lead us to the
overall plot, shown
as Fig. 2 on the fac-
ing page.
Fig. 2 plots absolute
pressure vs. air load
for all the possible
points of maximum
efficiency covering
the entire range of absolute pressures for which we usually use
ejectors. The data are based on ejectors designed for maximum
air-handling capacity at a particular pressure and include all of
the most common ejector designs based on one steam consump-
tion (100-psig. steam) and condensing water at an inlet
temperature of 85F.
We can see that as many as three noncondensing stages can be
used practically. In 3-, 4- or 5-stage ejectors its necessary to use
non-condensing stages where the interstage pressure at which a
condenser would have to operate would be too low for the water
to condense the steam.
Fig. 2 permits a comparison of capacities of the various designs of
ejectors that can be used for a particular suction pressure. For
instance at 10 mm. Hg abs., four designs are available. They are:
A 2- or 3-stage noncondensing system.
A 2- or 3-stage condensing system.
From Fig. 2, we can see that a 2-stage noncondensing ejector
would require about 9% more steam/lb. of air load than the 3-
stage noncondensing ejector. However, the 3-stage ejector would
cost considerably more than the 2-stage. Thus, there probably
would not be enough advantage at 10 mm. Hg abs. to justify the
additional initial cost of the 3-stage system.
The 2- and 3-stage condensing ejectors would require only 43%
and 19%, respectively, of the steam required for a 2-stage non-
condensing ejector. Of course, their initial costs would be higher
and they need a supply of cooling water. If long periods of opera-
tion are required, however, the steam savings will undoubtedly
more than make up for the difference in initial costs.
If we know the utility and equipment costs, its a simple matter to
calculate how many hours of operation will be required for the
steam savings of the higher-cost designs to balance the increased
initial equipment cost and increased cost of installation.
Installation costs can be an important consideration if steam and
water lines must be extended any appreciable distance to the ejec-
tor, or if special structures must be erected to support the ejector.
Ordinarily, a 1-stage ejector can be supported by the equipment
on which it is installed. However, multistage ejectors with inter-
condensers require some kind of support if they are to be
elevated, as they often are.
WATER TEMPERATURE EFFECTS
If condensing water colder than 85F. were used for our compari-
son in Fig. 2, all of the curves representing the performance of
ejectors that require water would be shifted to the right, indicat-
ing an increase in capacity for these designs.
If water warmer than 85F. were used, the shift in these curves
would be to the left. And if the water temperature were high
enough, some of the curves would move far enough to the left to
disappear from the graph entirely.
The effect of water temperature is more critical on ejectors
designed for low absolute pressures. For example, in a 4-stage
ejector, the increase in capacity for 65-F. water over 85-F. water
for a particular steam consumption will be greater at 1 mm. Hg
abs. than at 4 mm.
STEAM PRESSURE EFFECTS
Steam pressures higher than 100 psig. will permit designing for a
larger capacity for a particular steam consumption. A greater ben-
efit from high steam pressures can be realized in 1- and 2-stage
ejectors than in other designs.
The benefit from high-steam pressures becomes less as the
absolute pressure for which the ejector is designed decreases.
Single-stage ejectors designed for absolute pressures less than 200
mm. Hg abs. cannot operate efficiently on steam pressures below
25 psig. However, initial stages of multistage ejectors can often be
designed to operate efficiently on steam pressures below 1 psig.
And it is not uncommon to use an extra stage for an ejector
designed to operate on steam pressures as low as 15 psig.
It is very important that the steam used to motivate ejectors be at
least dry-saturated steam. Small amounts of moisture can be
removed successfully by using a good, properly sized steam sepa-
rator which will remove 98 to 99% of the moisture entering the
separator. Moisture in steam is usually difficult to detect without
the careful use of a throttling calorimeter. Steam calorimeters are
laboratory instruments and are seldom available in the field.
Chemical Engineering, April 1957 3
Many an engineer has had difficulty proving or disproving that
the quality of steam is affecting the operation of an ejector.
Steam separators are relatively inexpensive and should always be
installed with an ejector wherever there is any possibility that the
steam to the ejector contains moisture.
Steam lines from the boiler to the ejector should be insulated
especially where the length of piping is over 10 ft.because if a
boiler is generating steam that is just barely dry-saturated, it will
take a relatively small heat loss to cause moisture to be present in
the steam at the ejector.
WHY USE INTERCONDENSERS?
Condensing ejectors are available in both surface or barometric
(direct-contact) types.
We have not shown the economic considerations of water require-
ments on Fig. 2, but we should mention that the barometric
intercondenser requires slightly less water to operate than the sur-
face intercondenser.
Barometric intercondensers have these principal advantages:
They cost less than a surface intercondenser designed for the
same service.
If used with abarometric leg, they dont need acondensatepump.
They seldom require cleaning and can handle corrosive or
tarry substances with relatively little wear or loss in efficiency.
The vapors come in intimate contact with the condensing
water in a scrubbing action that removes soluble vapors,
gases and suspended solids from the noncondensables.
The disadvantages of barometric intercondensers are:
Condensate mixes with the cooling water and
cannot be recovered for use as hot, pure boiler feedwa-
ter.
If a pump, instead of a barometric leg, is used
to remove the water, it must handle the condensing
water in addition to the condensate. This requires a
larger condensate pump than for a surface intercon-
denser.
HOW TO SELECT EJECTORS
By using Fig. 2 we can make the correct selection of a
steam ejector to handle noncondensable gases. In cases
where a portion of the load to the ejector is a condens-
able vapor, the data plotted on Fig. 2 are not applicable
and its necessary to analyze the particular operating
conditions to determine the correct ejector design for
optimum economy.
In some instances we can reduce the load to the ejector
considerably by using a precondenser to condense a
large portion of the vapors before they reach the ejec-
tor. Often the absolute pressure is too low to use a precondenser
and its necessary to compress or boost the vapors to a pressure
where a large part of the condensing can be done in an intercon-
denser. This permits the use of small secondary ejectors to
complete the compression of non-condensable vapors.
For a multistage ejector handling air or other noncondensable
gases, there is a particular design that will require a minimum of
steam and water for its operation. Using more water will not give
any appreciable steam savings.
In cases where a large portion of the load is a condensable vapor,
there is a range of steam and water combinations which can be
designed for and the relative costs of steam and water will deter-
mine the best design. The cost of ejector equipment will usually
not vary appreciably within the range of steam and water require-
ments possible. So the problem in these instances is one of
economics of operation where the initial cost of the ejector equip-
ment is fixed.
Performance of ejectors operating on fluids other than steam can-
not be analyzed by using Fig. 2, since the thermodynamic
properties of the motive fluid will vary the design of an ejector.
OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS
Each stage of a multistage ejector has the same basic operating
characteristics as a 1-stage ejector. Therefore, to understand the
operation of a multistage ejector, we should first discuss how 1-
stage ejectors operate.
Single-point design ejectors are most sensitive to changes in dis-
charge pressure. If the discharge pressure of an ejector exceeds its
minimum stable discharge pressure, the operation will become
Chemical Engineering, April 1957 5
unstable and the capacity will no longer be a function of the
absolute pressure. Stable operation can be attained either by
increasing the steam flow or by decreasing the discharge pressure.
In a nozzle of a fixed design we have to raise the steam pressure to
increase the steam flow. The minimum steam pressure at which
the ejector regains stability is called the motive steam pickup
pressure. The motive steam pickup pressure is a direct function
of the discharge pressure. At the higher discharge pressure, the
ejector will regain its stability once the motive steam pressure is
increased to the pickup pressure; but the absolute pressure for a
particular load will be increased slightly from what it was at the
lower discharge pressure.
For every discharge pressure in a single-point-design ejector there
is also a minimum steam flow below which the operation will be
unstable. For a nozzle of fixed design, we have to decrease the
steam pressure to reduce the steam flow.
The maximum steam pressure at which the ejector becomes
unstable is called its motive steam break pressure. For a particu-
lar discharge pressure and load the motive steam break pressure is,
of course, below the motive steam pickup pressure. At steam pres-
sures between the break and pickup pressures, the ejector may
operate stably or unstably depending on which direction the
steam pressure is changing.
If the steam pressure is being increased from a point of instability,
the ejector will operate unstably until the pickup pressure is
attained; and if the steam pressure is being decreased from a point
of stability, the ejector will operate stably until the break pressure
is reached.
The terms break and pickup pressures are also used in refer-
ence to the discharge pressure of an ejector for the pressures at
which ejector operation becomes unstable and stable, respectively.
These critical discharge pressures are a function of the steam pres-
sure and load for a fixed design.
Some ejector stageshave no motive steam break and pickup pres-
suresbecause of the low ratio of the discharge pressure to suction
pressure over which they operate, or because they are designed to
eliminate thischaracteristic. In these ejectorsthe capacity varies
directly with steam pressure over certain operating limits.
Variations in ejector designs permit a variety of operating charac-
teristics in ejectors. Certain of these may be essential to the
success of an ejector for a particular application.
SINGLE-POINT DESIGN
If only one load and vacuum are required for a particular applica-
tion, single and multistage ejectors can be designed specifically for
one condition. This saves steam.
Occasionally, however, single-point design ejectors are not always
stable at very light loads or at loads slightly in excess of design
load. An ejector of this design is not necessarily undesirable if the
ejector always operates at the exact design conditions. This, of
course, depends on whether or not its possible to determine accu-
rately the load on the ejector before it is designed.
Close designs can often result in substantial steam and water sav-
ings in large systems. However, we usually cant determine exact
operating conditions prior to design. For this reason single-point
designs are not in general use.
More often the design condition for an ejector can only be esti-
mated approximately and we often arbitrarily select a design with
a reasonable safety factor. Here the ejector is designed for stable
operation at light loads as well as at its so-called design point to
insure trouble-free operation if the load is more or less than that
estimated originally.
A long range of stability from light loads to beyond design load
will require more steam than the single-point design ejector. The
greater the range of stability required, the more steam required.
For the sake of steam and water economy, ejectors should not be
designed for stability any farther in excess of design load than is
deemed necessary for safe limits.
With low compression ratios, we can design an ejector that is
inherently stable at light loads as well as at loads far in excess of
design load. This requires little more steam than in the single-
point design, and occurs when the suction pressure for which the
ejector must be designed does not fall at the extreme low-
absolute-pressure range of a particular ejector.
For instance, a one-stage ejector designed for 50 mm. Hg abs.
would be more sensitive to off-design conditions than a 1-stage
ejector designed for 100 mm. The 100-mm. ejector would have
stable characteristics at light loads loads in excess of its design
point with practically no increase in steam over the single-point
design. In contrast, the 50-mm. ejector would need more steam
over the single-point design to achieve stability at very light loads
and loads in excess of its design load.
MULTIPOINT DESIGN
Occasionally an ejector must operate alternately at two or more
conditions of load and vacuum. Then we must design the ejector
for the most difficult conditions (or the conditions that call for
the largest ejector). The other conditions will then fall within the
performance curve of the larger ejector.
An ejector of this type is sometimes considerably oversized for
some of the required conditions in order to achieve the most eco-
nomical design from the standpoint of initial cost. If operational
economy is important at each of the conditions, it may be desir-
able to use two separate ejectors to achieve efficiency at both
operating points.
Its possible in some applications to provide an ejector for two or
more different operating conditions with maximum efficiency at
each point by providing a steam nozzle or diffuser designed for
Chemical Engineering, April 1957 6
each condition. In changing operations from one condition to the
other, we only have to shut down the system long enough to
change the nozzle or the diffuser.
Often, substantial steam savings can be realized without buying
two ejector systems.
Designs of this kind have found applications in the recompression
boosters for evaporators and large ejectors for high-altitude wind
tunnels.
In certain applications ejector is required to meet a specific design
curve. Then we sometimes must use considerably more steam
than for a single-point design to produce the desired characteristic
curve. At some point in the curve the ejector is, of course, rela-
tively efficient and at either side of this high-efficiency point the
ejector is relatively inefficient.
Ejectorsof thistype are used frequently by jet-aircraft-engine test
laboratorieswhere altitude conditionsare simulated in a vacuum
test cell. These test cellspermit usto observe and measure the per-
formance of an engine under the actual conditionsthat it will meet
in the sky. Enormousejectorshave been built for variousengine
manufacturersto handle the combustion productsfrom a jet engine
at vacuum corresponding to altitudesashigh as100,000 ft.
At these altitudesthe absolute pressure dwindlesto 8 mm. Hg or
less. Ejectorsdesigned for these applicationsmust cover a wide range
of operating conditionswith a minimum steam consumption.
Fig. 3 shows typical performance curves of some large ejectors
now being used by aircraft companies to test engines at altitudes
from sea level to 40,000 ft.
USE ONLY SOME STAGES
Its possible to meet a large variety of operating conditions eco-
nomically with multistage ejectors by operating only some of the
stages at a time.
All ejectorshave at least asmany different performance curvesas
they have stages. For a particular stage to operate, all the succeeding
stagesmust, of course, be operating also. Fig. 4 indicatesa set of
performance curvesfor a typical 5-stage ejector. By furnishing suit-
able automatic controls, practically all pointswithin the envelope
formed by these curvescan be reached by the ejector. Thus, the
ejector can cover an entire area of possible operating conditions.
On large ejectors, the cost of automatic controls may be paid for
many times in steam savings.
Six stages of compression have lengthened the range of operation
of steam ejectors down to absolute pressures as low as 5 microns
of Hg (0.005 mm. Hg). Commercial designs are available and
should often be used in place of other kinds of vacuum pumps.
Chief advantagesof ejectorsover other kindsof vacuum pumpsare:
Rugged and simple construction.
They can handle enormous volumes of gases in relatively
small sizes of equipment.
Require less maintenance.
Simple operation.
Other considerations, of course, may outweigh these advantages.
Or perhaps the unavailability of a suitable motive fluid or water
will rule out the use of an ejector for a particular application.
Youll need an overall picture of your requirements and utilities to
select the best vacuum pump for your needs.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We gratefully acknowledge the commentsand suggestionsof H. M.
Graham and the engineering department of Graham Manufacturing Co.
Chemical Engineering, April 1957 7
The plot in Figure 4 illustrates pilot plant ejectors. In this plot,
note that two- and three-stage condensing units have been elimi-
nated, shutoff pressures of various other units have been altered,
and a four-stage noncondensing curve has been added.
In order to illustrate the differencesbetween the application of jets
to pilot plantsand to full-size facilities, suppose one ischoosing an
ejector for operating at 20 mm. Hg abs. For a pilot plant, one
would select a two-stage noncondensing ejector. However, ascan
be seen from the curve, if it were being selected for a production
plant, one would probably choose a two-stage condensing system.
Further, if one were selecting an ejector to run on a pilot plant at
5 mm., a two- or possibly three-stage noncondensing jet would
be used. In reference to the production plant chart, note that
economy requires the use of a three- or perhaps four-stage con-
densing jet, the four-stage unit being more economical to run.
Should one desire a 1-mm. system, one would use a three- or
four-stage noncondensing ejector on the pilot plant. For the pro-
duction plant, one would need a four-stage condensing unit.
Many processes today are being investigated at 500 micron or
lower in absolute pressure. For the small loads that would be
encountered in the pilot plant, a four-stage non-condensing unit
may do, yet the curve shows that for the production plant a four-
or five-stage condensing unit would be required.
When an ejector is required for pilot plant operation below 500
micron, it normally becomes necessary for the ejector manufac-
turer to supply intercondensers of some type. For the pilot plant,
the direct contact, or barometric condenser is probably the most
satisfactory, since it is the most trouble-free condenser. However,
if conditions require that the condensate be recovered, the surface
type is necessary. When surface-type units are selected, they
should be of such a design that the process side may be readily
cleaned and inspected.
These considerations all revolve around economy. For small ejec-
tors handling pilot plant loads, it is possible to supply a piece of
equipment with a low first cost and a reasonable steam consump-
tion, yet if one were selecting a unit sized for, say, ten times the
capacity, one would approach the problem in a different manner,
since the cost of steam used always amounts through the years to
far more than the original cost of the equipment. In the pilot
plant, the ejector is not used very often over long periods of time.
Therefore, steam consumption is not an essential consideration
when selecting an ejector, and the non-condensing type is nor-
mally recommended. Though it may lack economy, the
noncondensing type is relatively inexpensive and extremely sim-
ple. Since it requires no condensing water, it offers another
advantage in that there is no problem of condensate removal. It
can be mounted at ground level, as opposed to the required baro-
metric leg on the condensing type with the barometric condenser
and, of course, when the surface-type intercondenser is used, a
condensate removal pump, or other means, is required to drain
the intercondensers.
MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
In the selection of ejectors for pilot plants, it is recommended
that alloys or corrosion-resistant materials always be selected. This
recommendation is made for the following reasons:
Chemical EngineeringProcess, March 1967 2
Figure2. Three-stagecondensingair ejector (right) and three-stagenoncondensingair ejector (left).
1. Many times the pilot plant will be used for only a short peri-
od of time, and if the ejector is purchased as manufactured
from one of the more corrosion-resistant alloys, it can be
used again at another location.
2. This type of ejector is so small that the alloy from which it is
manufactured has relatively little to do with the overall price.
3. Many times it is impossible to determine under what condi-
tions the pilot plant will operate, and it is unknown just
exactly the service to which the ejector will be subjected. An
alloy gives the best protection for this situation.
In order to give some idea as to the installed costs of ejectors,
Table 1 shows estimated installed costs for production plant ejec-
tors. In Table 2 are estimated installed costs for pilot plant
ejectors. These estimates are based on the ejectors shown in
Figures 3 and 4 and indicate ejectors which use approximately
1,000 lb./hr. steam and have capacities as shown.
The curves in Figures 3 and 4 are for a noncondensable load. For
units which have a condensable and noncondensable load com-
bined, these curves will not apply and may be much different.
Figure 5 shows a portable pilot plant ejector which many process
plants find expedient and extremely economical. A four- or five-
stage ejector has been selected for a nominal capacity and has a
typical operating curve as indicated in Figure 4. It has been select-
ed for the largest probable load that the pilot plant will have and
is so arranged that it can be operated as a five-stage ejector with
its characteristic curve, a four-stage ejector with its characteristic
curve, etc., down to a single-stage unit. The unit is self-contained
and has found wide use in plants where many different pilot
operations are run in a short time period.
OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE
There are a few rather simple rules to follow in the operation and
maintenance of any ejector equipment, and if the operator will
adhere to these rules, little or no difficulty may be expected.
1. It is essential that the joint between the steam nozzle and the
steam chest be tight so that there are no steam leaks at this
point. A steam leak at the back of the nozzle acts like an
additional load on the ejector and will tend to decrease the
vacuum that this apparatus can produce.
2. Be sure that steam is supplied at the design pressure and tem-
perature. Lower steam pressures cannot be tolerated under
any circumstances on most ejectors, and higher steam pres-
sures cause them to use more steam with no increase in
capacity. Best results are obtained when the operating pres-
sure is held as close as possible to the design pressure.
Chemical EngineeringProcess, March 1967 3
Figure3. Plot of production plant ejectors.
Table 1.Installed costs of Figure 3 production plant ejectors using
barom etric-type condensers (approxim ately 1,000 lb./hr.steam ),w ith
estim ates for other capacities.
Ejector Figure 3 2X 4X 1OX
Single-stage,noncondensing $ 1,200 $ 1,400 $ 1,850 $ 2,800
Tw o-stage,noncondensing 1,800 2,200 3,150 4,700
Three-stage,noncondensing 2,400 2,900 4,150 6,500
Tw o-stage,one-condenser 4,200 5,800 8,200 12,600
Three-stage,tw o-condenser 6,600 8,700 12,400 18,800
Three-stage,one-condenser 5,800 7,900 10,800 16,600
Four-stage,tw o-condenser 10,600 13,400 19,500 29,800
Five-stage,tw o-condenser 16,300 23,800 34,000 53,600
Six-stage,tw o-condenser 19,200 27,300 39,200 60,600
Note:The above figures are based on the load beingtotallynoncondensable and will
not applywhen a mixture of condensable and noncondensable vapors is present.
Multistage ejectors are based on nominal suction pressures,and figures will vary
slightlyfor higher or lower pressures.
3. Keep the nozzlesclean. It will be found that when a new sys-
tem isstarted pipeline chipsand other foreign matter are
carried in the steam linesto the ejector strainer and that cer-
tain particlesmay passthrough thisstrainer and plug up the
steam nozzle. Thiswill show up in lossof vacuum. It isadvis-
able to blow out the strainer frequently upon first starting up
and, if necessary, to check the nozzlesby removing the plug at
the back of the steam chest and passing the proper reamer
through each nozzle to make sure it isnot plugged.
4. The steam supply piping to the ejector should be of suffi-
cient size to pass the steam required by the ejector with no
appreciable pressure drop. The steam supply piping should
also be short enough to assure design operating pressure. The
ejector will operate most efficiently on dry steam; thus, the
steam supply piping should be insulated to prevent excessive
condensation before the steam reaches the ejector. Shortness
of steam pipe will also reduce condensation. If there is any
doubt as to whether the steam is dry, a moisture separator
should be installed in the line.
5. If the unit has an intercondenser or aftercondenser of the
surface type, the tubes should be kept clean on the water
side. When these tubes foul up, they will fail to transfer suffi-
cient heat to condense the steam, in which case steam will
discharge to the next-stage ejector or to the air vent of the
aftercondenser. In the case of an intercondenser, this, of
course, means loss of vacuum.
6. The ejector should be placed as close as possible to the vessel
which is to be evacuated to minimize pressure drop.
It should be emphasized that the steam jet ejector is one of the
most foolproof, trouble-free pieces of apparatus that operate in
any vacuum cycle. This does not mean that the apparatus can be
abused beyond all limitations, nor does it mean that it can be
ignored indefinitely, insofar as inspection, maintenance, and
repair are concerned. It simply means that it is one of the most
dependable sources of vacuum that can be purchased.
Chemical EngineeringProcess, March 1967 4
Table 2. Installed costs of Figure 4 pilot plant ejectors (approximate-
ly 1,000 lb./hr. steam), with estimates for other capacities.
Ejector Figure 4 0.25X 0.5X 2X
Single-stage, noncondensing $ 1,200 $ 600 $ 850 $ 1,400
Two-stage, noncondensing 1,800 860 1,250 2,200
Three-stage, noncondensing 2,400 1,200 1,800 2,900
Four-stage, noncondensing 3,200 - 2,950 4,100
Four-stage, two-condenser 10,600 5,500 7,100 13,400
Five-stage, two-condenser 16,300 8,600 11,100 23,800
Six-stage, two-condenser 19,200 - 14,600 27,300
Note:The above figures are based on the load beingtotallynoncondensable and
will not applywhen a mixture of condensable and noncondensable vapors is pres-
ent.Multistage ejectors are based on nominal suction pressures,and figures will vary
slightlyfor higher or lower pressures.
Figure4. Plot of pilot plant ejectors.
CONCLUSIONS
1. Pilot plant ejectorsshould be assimple aspractical, and where
possible noncondensing type ejectorsare recommended.
2. For the pilot plant, little consideration should be given to steam
and water consumption of the ejector, since it will be used for
such a short period of time. Usually, first cost isthe most
important consideration. Thisisnot the manner in which pro-
duction plant ejectorsshould be selected. In thiscase, ejectors
should be selected for economy of operating costs.
3. When it isnecessary to use a condensing-type ejector in a
pilot plant, the surface type isnormally not recommended
unlessthe condensate must be recovered. The barometric type
issimpler and more trouble-free, and there islittle hazard
from contaminating water supplies, because the quantities
handled are so small.
4. It issuggested that for pilot plant ejectorscorrosion-resistant
or alloy materialsalwaysbe selected which are compatible
with all the known fluidsto be handled. Since these ejectors
are small, these materialshave little to do with the original
cost and may save shutdown.
WilliamD. Mainsreceived hisdegreein
chemical engineeringfromtheSpeed
ScientificSchool at theUniversityof
Louisville. Hehasbeen employed by
GrahamManufacturingCo., Inc., since
May, 1946, and ispresentlyvicepresi-
dent of theGrahamManufacturingCo.,
Inc., in chargeof theSalesDepartment.
PreviouslyMainswasemployed byHenryVogt MachineCo.
and J.C. Mahoney, Inc.
Richard E. Richenbergreceived hisdegree
in mechanical engineeringfromRochester
Instituteof Technology. Hehasbeen
employed bytheGrahamManufacturing
Co., Inc., sinceMay, 1957, during
which timehehasbeen involved with
research and development on ejectorsand
heat exchanger equipment aswell ascon-
tract engineering. Heispresentlyin
chargeof theProposal EngineeringDepartment and isassistant
engineeringmanager of theGrahamManufacturingCo., Inc.
Chemical EngineeringProcess, March 1967 5