Dualism

For other uses, see Dualism (disambiguation).

Dualism (from the Latin word duo meaning two)
[1]
denotes the state of two parts. The term 'dualism' was
originally coined to denote co-eternal binary opposi-
tion, a meaning that is preserved in metaphysical and
philosophical duality discourse but has been more gener-
alized in other usages to indicate a system which contains
two essential parts.
Moral dualism is the belief of the great complement
or conict between the benevolent and the malevolent.
It simply implies that there are two moral opposites at
work, independent of any interpretation of what might
be moral and independent of how these may be repre-
sented. The moral opposites might, for example, exist in
a world view which has one god, more than one god, or
none. By contrast, ditheism or bitheism implies (at least)
two gods. Bitheism implies harmony, ditheism implies
rivalry and opposition, such as between good and evil, or
bright and dark, or summer and winter. For example, a
ditheistic system would be one in which one god is cre-
ative, the other is destructive.
Alternatively, in ontological dualism, the world is di-
vided into two overarching categories. The opposition
and combination of the universes two basic principles of
yin and yang is a large part of Chinese philosophy, and is
an important feature of Taoism, both as a philosophy and
as a religion (it is also discussed in Confucianism).
In theology, dualism can refer to the relationship between
God and creation. The Christian dualism of God and
creation exists in some traditions of Christianity, like
Paulicianism, Catharism, and Gnosticism. The Pauli-
cians, a Byzantine Christian sect, believed that the uni-
verse, created through evil, exists separately froma moral
God. The Dvaita Vedanta school of Indian philosophy
also espouses a dualism between God and the universe.
The rst and the more important reality is that of Vishnu
or Brahman. Vishnu is the supreme Self, God, the abso-
lute truth of the universe, the independent reality. The
second reality is that of dependent but equally real uni-
verse that exists with its own separate essence.
In philosophy of mind, dualism is a view about the re-
lationship between mind and matter which claims that
mind and matter are two ontologically separate cate-
gories. Mind-body dualism claims that neither the mind
nor matter can be reduced to each other in any way.
Western dualist philosophical traditions (as exemplied
by Descartes) equate mind with the conscious self and
theorize on consciousness on the basis of mind/body du-
alism. By contrast, some Eastern philosophies draw a
metaphysical line between consciousness and matter
where matter includes both body and mind.
In philosophy of science, dualism often refers to the di-
chotomy between the subject (the observer) and the
object (the observed). Another dualism, in Popperian
philosophy of science refers to hypothesis and refuta-
tion (for example, experimental refutation). This notion
also carried to Poppers political philosophy.
In physics, dualism also refers to media with properties
that can be associated with the mechanics of two dierent
phenomena. Because these two phenomenas mechanics
are mutually exclusive, both are needed in order to de-
scribe the possible behaviors. An example of using two
dierent physical models to describe one phenomenon is
waveparticle duality.
In cybernetics, Norbert Weiner described Manicheaen
devils (dualistic adversarial systems) as those systems
or problems in which an intelligent adversary is attempt-
ing to exploit weaknesses of the investigator (such as
in a game-playing opponent, adversarial law, evolution-
ary systems of predator/parasite and prey/host, poli-
tics/enslavement attempts, etc.). Weiners Cybernetics
contrasted such systems with Augustinian devils that
were systems or problems that, though very complex and
dicult to gure out, did not feature an adversary with
contrary intent. Victories or expansions of knowledge
in such systems were able to be built upon incremen-
tally, through science (experimentation expanding em-
pirical knowledge bases). Weiner noted that temporary
weaknesses (such as errors to perceive all components of
a system) were not fatal in attempts to defeat Augus-
tinian devils because another experiment could simply
be pursued (and he noted that he had personally defeated
many Augustinian devils with his contributions to sci-
ence and engineering). Weiner further noted that tempo-
rary lapses in judgment against Manicheaen devils were
more often fatal or destructive, due to the desire of the op-
ponent to win/survive at all costs, even going so far as to
introduce any level of deception into the system (and he
noted that he had been defeated by many Manicheaen
devils, such as on occasions when he was temporarily
careless in chess). Although this duality between com-
plexity and opposition may seem obvious, there are
deep implications in many areas of science, such as game
theory, political science, computer science, network sci-
ence, security science, military science, evolutionary bi-
ology, cryptography, etc.
1
2 3 ONTOLOGICAL DUALISM
1 Moral dualism
Moral dualism is the belief of the great complement or
conict between the benevolent and the malevolent.
Like ditheism/bitheism (see below), moral dualism does
not imply the absence of monist or monotheistic princi-
ples. Moral dualism simply implies that there are two
moral opposites at work, independent of any interpre-
tation of what might be moral and - unlike dithe-
ism/bitheism - independent of how these may be repre-
sented.
For example, Mazdaism (Mazdean Zoroastrianism) is
both dualistic and monotheistic (but not monist by def-
inition) since in that philosophy Godthe Creator
is purely good, and the antithesiswhich is also
uncreatedis an absolute one. Zurvanism (Zurvanite
Zoroastrianism), Manichaeism and Mandaeism, are rep-
resentative of dualistic and monist philosophies since
each has a supreme and transcendental First Principle
from which the two equal-but-opposite entities then em-
anate. This is also true for the lesser-known Christian
gnostic religions, such as Bogomils, Catharism, and so
on. More complex forms of monist dualism also exist,
for instance in Hermeticism, where Nous thought - that
is described to have created man - brings forth both good
and evil, dependent on interpretation, whether it receives
prompting from the God or from the Demon. Duality
with pluralism is considered a logical fallacy.
1.1 History
Moral dualismbegan as a theological belief. Dualismwas
rst seen implicitly in Egyptian Religious beliefs by the
contrast of the gods Set (disorder, death) and Osiris (or-
der, life).
[2]
The rst explicit conception of dualism came
from the Ancient Persian Religion of Zoroastrianism
around the mid-fth century BC. Zoroastrianism is a
monotheistic religion that believes that Ahura Mazda is
the eternal creator of all good things. Any violations of
Ahura Mazdas order arise from druj, which is everything
uncreated. From this comes a signicant choice for hu-
mans to make. Either they fully participate in human life
for Ahura Mazda or they do not and give druj power. Per-
sonal dualism is even more distinct in the beliefs of later
religions.
The religious dualism of Christianity between good and
evil is not a perfect dualism as God (good) will in-
evitably destroy Satan (evil). Early Christian Dualism is
largely based on Platonic Dualism (See: Neoplatonism
and Christianity). There is also a personal dualism in
Christianity with a soul-body distinction based on the idea
of an immaterial Christian Soul.
[3]
2 Duotheism, bitheism, ditheism
See also: Dualistic cosmology
In theology, 'dualism' may also refer to 'duotheism',
'bitheism' or 'ditheism'. Although ditheism/bitheism
imply moral dualism, they are not equivalent: dithe-
ism/bitheism implies (at least) two gods, while moral du-
alism does not imply any -theism (theos = god) whatso-
ever.
Both 'bitheism' and 'ditheism' imply a belief in two
equally powerful gods with complementary or antony-
mous properties. However, while bitheism implies har-
mony, ditheism implies rivalry and opposition, such as
between good and evil, or bright and dark, or summer and
winter. For example, a ditheistic system would be one
in which one god is creative, the other is destructive (cf.
theodicy). In the original conception of Zoroastrianism,
for example, Ahura Mazda was the spirit of ultimate
good, while Ahriman (Angra Mainyu) was the spirit of
ultimate evil. (This Zoroastrian conception of polar op-
position and conict would later come to inuence the de-
velopment of Christianity as it elaborated upon the idea
of the Devil as an ultimate source of evil opposed to the
Christian God, an idea that was previously absent in Ju-
daism.)
In a bitheistic system, by contrast, where the two deities
are not in conict or opposition, one could be male and
the other female (cf. duotheism). One well-known exam-
ple of a bitheistic or duotheistic theology based on gen-
der polarity is found in the neopagan religion of Wicca,
which is centered on the worship of a divine couple - the
Moon Goddess and the Horned God - who are regarded
as lovers. However, there is also a ditheistic theme within
traditional Wicca, as the Horned God has dual aspects of
bright and dark - relating to day/night, summer/winter -
expressed as the Oak King and the Holly King, who in
Wiccan myth and ritual are said to engage in battle twice
a year for the hand of the Goddess, resulting in the chang-
ing seasons. (Within Wicca, bright and dark do not cor-
respond to notions of good and evil but are aspects of
the natural world, much like yin and yang in Taoism.)
However, bitheistic and ditheistic principles are not al-
ways so easily contrastable, for instance in a systemwhere
one god is the representative of summer and drought and
the other of winter and rain/fertility (cf. the mythology
of Persephone). Marcionism, an early Christian sect, held
that the Old and New Testaments were the work of two
opposing gods: both were First Principles, but of dier-
ent religions.
[4]
3 Ontological dualism
Alternatively, dualism can mean the tendency of humans
to perceive and understand the world as being divided
3
The yin and yang symbolizes the duality in nature and all things
in the Taoist religion.
into two overarching categories. In this sense, it is du-
alistic when one perceives a tree as a thing separate from
everything surrounding it. This form of ontological du-
alism exists in Taoism and Confucianism, beliefs that di-
vide the universe into the complementary oppositions of
yin and yang.
[5]
In traditions such as classical Hinduism,
Zen Buddhism or Islamic Susm, a key to enlightenment
is transcending this sort of dualistic thinking, without
merely substituting dualism with monism or pluralism.
3.1 In Chinese philosophy
The opposition and combination of the universes two ba-
sic principles of yin and yang is a large part of Chinese
philosophy, and is an important feature of Taoism, both
as a philosophy and as a religion. Yin and yang is also
discussed in Confucianism, but to a lesser extent.
Some of the common associations with yang and yin, re-
spectively, are: male and female, light and dark, active
and passive, motion and stillness. The yin and yang sym-
bol in actuality has very little to do with Western dualism;
instead it represents the philosophy of balance, where
two opposites co-exist in harmony and are able to trans-
mute into each other. In the yin-yang symbol there is a
dot of yin in yang and a dot of yang in yin. This sym-
bolizes the inter-connectedness of the opposite forces as
dierent aspects of Tao, the First Principle. Contrast is
needed to create a distinguishable reality, without which
we would experience nothingness. Therefore, the inde-
pendent principles of yin and yang are actually depen-
dent on one another for each others distinguishable ex-
istence. The complementary dualistic concept in Taoism
represents the reciprocal interaction throughout nature,
related to a feedback loop, where opposing forces do not
exchange in opposition but instead exchange reciprocally
to promote stabilization similar to homeostasis. An un-
derlying principle in Taoismstates that within every inde-
pendent entity lies a part of its opposite. Within sickness
lies health and vice versa. This is because all opposites
are manifestations of the single Tao, and are therefore
not independent from one another, but rather a variation
of the same unifying force throughout all of nature.
4 Mind-matter and mind-body du-
alism
4.1 In philosophy of mind
Main article: Dualism (philosophy of mind)
In philosophy of mind, dualism is any of a narrow variety
of views about the relationship between mind and matter,
which claims that mind and matter are two ontologically
separate categories. In particular, mind-body dualism
claims that neither the mind nor matter can be reduced to
each other in any way, and thus is opposed to materialism
in general, and reductive materialismin particular. Mind-
body dualismcan exist as substance dualismwhich claims
that the mind and the body are composed of a distinct
substance, and as property dualism which claims that
there may not be a distinction in substance, but that
mental and physical properties are still categorically dis-
tinct, and not reducible to each other. This type of du-
alism is sometimes referred to as "mind and body" and
stands in contrast to philosophical monism, which views
mind and matter as being ultimately the same kind of
thing. See also Cartesian dualism, substance dualism,
epiphenomenalism.
4.2 In Buddhist philosophy
During the classical era of Buddhist philosophy in India,
philosophers such as Dharmakirti argue for a dualism be-
tween states of consciousness and Buddhist atoms (the
basic building blocks that make up reality), according to
the standard interpretation of Dharmakirtis Buddhist
metaphysics.
[6]
Typically in Western philosophy, dual-
ism is considered to be a dualism between mind (non-
physical) and brain (physical), which ultimately involves
mind interacting with the physical brain, and therefore
also interacting with the micro-particles (basic building
blocks) that make up the brain tissue. Buddhist dual-
ism, in Dharmakirtis sense, is dierent in that it is not
a dualism between the mind and brain, but rather be-
tween states of consciousness (nonphysical) and basic
building blocks (according to the Buddhist atomism of
Dharmakirti, Buddhist atoms are also nonphysical: they
are unstructured points of energy). Like many Buddhists
from 600-1000 CE, Dharmakirtis philosophy involved
mereological nihilism, meaning that other than states of
4 5 THEISTIC DUALISM
consciousness, the only things that exist are momentary
quantum particles, much like the particles of quantum
physics (quarks, electrons, etc.).
4.3 History
The rst signicant argument against dualism came from
Thomas Hobbes's (15881679) materialist critique of the
human person. Hobbes argues that all of human experi-
ence comes from biological processes contained within
the body (see: The Leviathan
[7]
). In response to Hobbes,
the French philosopher 'Ren Descartes (15961650) de-
veloped Cartesian dualism, which posits that there is a
divisible, mechanical body and an indivisible, immate-
rial mind which interact with one another. The body per-
ceives external inputs and the awareness of them comes
from the soul. The point of interaction between the two
is at the pineal gland in the brain.
[8]
During the 19th and 20th centuries, materialistic monism
became the norm.
[9]
Still, in addition to already discussed
theories of dualism (particularly the Christian and Carte-
sian models) there are newtheories in the defense of dual-
ism. Naturalistic dualismcomes fromAustralian philoso-
pher, David Chalmers (born 1966) who argues there is an
explanatory gap between objective and subjective expe-
rience that cannot be bridged by reductionism because
consciousness is, at least, logically autonomous of the
physical properties upon which it supervenes. Accord-
ing to Chalmers, a naturalistic account of property du-
alism requires a new fundamental category of properties
described by new laws of supervenience; the challenge
being analogous to that of understanding electricity based
on the mechanistic and Newtonian models of materialism
prior to Maxwells equations.
A similar defense comes from Australian philosopher
Frank Jackson (born 1943) who revived the theory of
epiphenomenalism which argues that mental states do not
play a role in physical states. Jackson argues that there are
two kinds of dualism. The rst is substance dualism that
assumes there is second, non-corporeal form of reality.
In this form, body and soul are two dierent substances.
The second form is property dualism that says that body
and soul are dierent properties of the same body. He
claims that functions of the mind/soul are internal, very
private experiences that are not accessible to observation
by others, and therefore not accessible by science (at least
not yet). We can know everything, for example, about a
bats facility for echolocation, but we will never knowhow
the bat experiences that phenomenon. In Jacksons mind
experiment, he imagines a girl who grows up in a black-
and-white room. She may grow up learning all about the
scientic facts of colors, but has no way of experiencing
colors other than black or white. When someone brings
a red tomato into her room, she is stunned. She discov-
ers a new fact: the experience of red is 'like this.' That
experience is not a physical fact but a conscious one.
[10]
4.4 Soul dualism
Main article: Soul dualism
In some cultures, people (or also other beings) are be-
lieved to have two (or more) kinds of soul. In several
cases, one of these souls is associated with body func-
tions (and is sometimes thought to disappear after death,
but not always), and the other one is able to leave the body
(for example, a shaman's free-soul may be held to be able
to undertake a spirit journey). The plethora of soul types
may be even more complex.
The Bipartite view of theology recognizes the exis-
tence of both material and immaterial aspects of human
life, typically body and soul. This is distinct from the
Tripartite view that holds soul and spirit to be separate
aspects of a person along with the body.
5 Theistic dualism
In theology, dualism can refer to the relationship between
God and creation or God and the universe. This form of
dualism is a belief shared in certain traditions of Chris-
tianity and Hinduism.
[11]
5.1 In Christianity
The Cathars being expelled from Carcassonne in 1209. The
Cathars were denounced as heretics by the Roman Catholic
Church for their dualist beliefs.
The dualism between God and creation has existed as a
central belief in multiple historical sects and traditions
of Christianity, including Catharism, Paulicianism, and
Gnostic Christianity. Christian dualism refers to the be-
lief that God and creation are distinct, but interrelated
through an indivisible bond.
[11]
In sects like the Cathars
and the Paulicians, this is a dualism between the mate-
rial word, created by an evil god, and a moral god. His-
torians divide Christian dualism into absolute dualism,
5
which held that the good and evil gods were equally pow-
erful, and mitigated dualism, which held that material evil
was subordinate to the spiritual good.
[12]
The belief, by
Christian theologians who adhere to a libertarian or com-
patibilist view of free will, that free will separates hu-
mankind from God has also been characterized as a form
of dualism.
[11]
The theologian Leroy Stephens Rouner
compares the dualism of Christianity with the dualism
that exists in Zoroastrianism and the Vedanta tradition
of Hinduism. The theological use of the word dualism
dates back to 1700, in a book that describes the dualism
between good and evil.
[11]
The tolerance of dualism ranges widely among the dif-
ferent Christian traditions. As a monotheistic religion,
the conict between dualism and monism has existed in
Christianity since its inception.
[13]
The 1912 Catholic En-
cyclopedia describes that, in the Catholic Church, the
dualistic hypothesis of an eternal world existing side by
side with God was of course rejected by the thirteenth
century, but mind-body dualismwas not.
[14]
The problem
of evil is dicult to reconcile with absolute monism, and
has prompted some Christian sects to veer towards dual-
ism. Gnostic forms of Christianity were more dualistic,
and some Gnostic traditions posited that the Devil was
separate fromGod as an independent deity.
[13]
The Chris-
tian dualists of the Byzantine Empire, the Paulicians,
were seen as Manichean heretics by Byzantine theolo-
gians. This tradition of Christian dualism, founded by
Constantine-Silvanus, argued that the universe was cre-
ated through evil and separate from a moral God.
[15]
The Cathars, a Christian sect in southern France, believed
that there was a dualism between two gods, one repre-
senting good and the other representing evil. The Roman
Catholic Church denounced the Cathars as heretics, and
sought to crush the movement in the 13th century. The
Albigensian Crusade was initiated by Pope Innocent III in
1208 to remove the Cathars from Languedoc in France,
where they were known as Albigesians. The Inquisition,
which began in 1233 under Pope Gregory IX, also tar-
geted the Cathars.
[16]
5.2 In Hinduism
Dvaita Vedanta (dualistic conclusions of the Vedas)
school of Indian philosophy espouses a dualism between
God and the universe by theorizing the existence of two
separate realities. The rst and the more important real-
ity is that of Vishnu or Brahman. Vishnu is the supreme
Self, God, the absolute truth of the universe, the inde-
pendent reality. The second reality is that of dependent
but equally real universe that exists with its own separate
essence. Everything that is composed of the second real-
ity, such as individual soul (Jiva), matter, etc. exist with
their own separate reality. The distinguishing factor of
this philosophy as opposed to Advaita Vedanta (monistic
conclusion of Vedas) is that God takes on a personal role
and is seen as a real eternal entity that governs and con-
trols the universe.
[17]
Because the existence of individuals
is grounded in the divine, they are depicted as reections,
images or even shadows of the divine, but never in any
way identical with the divine. Salvation therefore is de-
scribed as the realization that all nite reality is essentially
dependent on the Supreme.
[18]
6 Consciousnessmatter dualism
While Western philosophical traditions, as exemplied
by Descartes, equate mind with the conscious self and
theorize on consciousness on the basis of mind/body
dualism; some Eastern philosophies provide an alter-
nate viewpoint, intimately related to substance dualism,
by drawing a metaphysical line between consciousness
and matter where matter includes both body and
mind.
[19][20]
6.1 In Samkhya and Yogic philosophy
In Samkhya and Yoga schools of Indian philosophy,
there are two irreducible, innate and independent real-
ities 1) consciousness itself (Purusha) 2) primordial ma-
teriality (Prakriti)". The unconscious primordial mate-
riality, Prakriti, contains 23 components including intel-
lect (buddhi,mahat), ego (ahamkara) and mind (manas).
Therefore, the intellect, mind and ego are all seen as
forms of unconscious matter.
[21]
Thought processes and
mental events are conscious only to the extent they receive
illumination from Purusha. Consciousness is compared
to light which illuminates the material congurations or
'shapes assumed by the mind. So intellect after receiv-
ing cognitive structures form the mind and illumination
from pure consciousness creates thought structures that
appear to be conscious.
[22]
Ahamkara, the ego or the phe-
nomenal self, appropriates all mental experiences to it-
self and thus, personalizes the objective activities of mind
and intellect by assuming possession of them.
[23]
But con-
sciousness is itself independent of the thought structures
it illuminates.
[22]
By including mind in the realmof matter, Samkhya-Yoga
avoids one of the most serious pitfalls of Cartesian dual-
ism, the violation of physical conservation laws. Because
mind is an evolute of matter, mental events are granted
causal ecacy and are therefore able to initiate bodily
motions.
[24]
7 In philosophy of science
In philosophy of science, dualism often refers to the di-
chotomy between the subject (the observer) and the
object (the observed). Another dualism, in Popperian
philosophy of science refers to hypothesis and refuta-
tion (for example, experimental refutation). This notion
6 12 NOTES
also carried to Popper's political philosophy.
8 In physics
In physics, dualismrefers to mediums with properties that
can be associated with the mechanics of two dierent
phenomena. Because these two phenomenas mechanics
are mutually exclusive, both are needed in order to de-
scribe the possible behaviors. All matter, for example,
has wave-particle duality.
9 Dualism in modern and contem-
porary philosophy
The American philosopher Arthur Oncken Lovejoy in his
*The Revolt Against Dualism (1960) develops a critique
of the modern new realism, reproposing a form of dual-
ism based on a fork of human experience.
10 Political dualism
In politics, dualism refers to the separation of powers be-
tween the legislature and executive.
11 See also
Advaita Vedanta
Atheism
Dialectic
Didache The Two Ways
Dualism (philosophy of mind)
Dualistic cosmology
False dilemma
Legal dualism
Legal pluralism
Manichaeism (moral dualism)
Monism
Nondualism
Pantheism
Pluralism (philosophy)
Reductionism
Rhizome (philosophy)
Table of Opposites
Yanantin (complementary dualism in Native South
American culture)
12 Notes
[1] The term 'dualism' is recorded in English since 178595
(Random House Websters Unabridged Dictionary, 2001,
dualism).
[2] Egypt and Mesopotamia
[3] soul
[4] Enrico Riparelli, Il volto del Cristo dualista. Da Marcione
ai catari, Peter Lang, Bern - Berlin - Bruxelles - Frank-
furt am Main - New York - Oxford - Wien 2008, 368 pp.
ISBN 978-3-03911-490-0
[5] Girardot, N.J. (1988). Myth and Meaning in Early Tao-
ism: The Theme of Chaos (hun-tun). University of Cali-
fornia Press. p. 247. ISBN 978-0-520-06460-7.
[6] Georges B.J. Dreyfus, Recognizing Reality, SUNY Press
1996 (ISBN 978-0791430989)
[7] Leviathan Introduction. oregonstate.edu.
[8] Cartesian Dualism: Mind and Brain Interaction
[9] Materialism
[10] Jackson, Frank. 1990."Epiphenomenal Qualia, in 'Mind
and Cognition,' W. Lycan (ed.). Oxford: Blackwell.
[11] Rouner, Leroy (1983). The Westminster Dictionary of
Christian Theology. Westminster John Knox Press. p.
166. ISBN 978-0-664-22748-7.
[12] Peters, Edward (2011). Heresy and Authority in Medieval
Europe. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 106. ISBN
978-0-8122-0680-7.
[13] Russell, Jerey (1998). A History of Heaven: The Singing
Silence. Princeton University Press. p. 53. ISBN 978-0-
691-00684-0.
[14] The Catholic Encyclopedia: An International Work of Ref-
erence on the Constitution, Doctrine, Discipline, and His-
tory of the Catholic Church. Robert Appleton Company.
1912. p. 170.
[15] Hamilton, Janet; Hamilton, Bernard; Stoyanov, Yuri
(1998). Christian Dualist Heresies in the Byzantine World,
C. 650-c. 1450: Selected Sources. Manchester University
Press. pp. 12. ISBN 978-0-7190-4765-7.
[16] Chidester, David (2001). Christianity: A Global History.
HarperCollins. pp. 266268. ISBN 978-0-06-251770-8.
[17] Etter, Christopher. AStudy of Qualitative Non-Pluralism.
iUniverse Inc. P. 59-60. ISBN 0-595-39312-8.
[18] Fowler, Jeaneane D. Perspectives of Reality: An Intro-
duction to the Philosophy of Hinduism. Sussex Academic
Press. P. 340-344. ISBN 1-898723-93-1.
7
[19] Haney, p. 17.
[20] Isaac, p. 339.
[21] Haney, p. 42.
[22] Isaac, p. 342.
[23] Leaman, p. 68.
[24] Leaman, p. 248.
13 References
Haney, William S. Culture and Consciousness: Lit-
erature Regained. Bucknell University Press (Au-
gust 1, 2002). ISBN 1611481724.
Isaac, J. R.; Dangwal, Ritu; Chakraborty, C.
Proceedings. International conference on cognitive
systmes (1997). Allied Publishers Ltd. ISBN 81-
7023-746-7.
Leaman, Oliver. Eastern Philosophy: Key Read-
ings. Routledge, 2000. ISBN 0-415-17357-4.
14 External links
Duality entry in the UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptol-
ogy
Dualism at PhilPapers
Dualism entry in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Phi-
losophy
Dualism at the Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project
Dualismand Mind entry in the Internet Encyclopedia
of Philosophy
Dictionary of the History of ideas: Dualism in Phi-
losophy and Religion
8 15 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
15 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses
15.1 Text
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