THE ADVENT OF CHRISTIANITY AND ITS IMPACTS ON TIV RELIGIOUS

CIVILIZATION
ABSTRACT

The project work “The advent of Christianity to tiv land and its influence on
church growth” traces the origin of Christianity in Tiv land, its impact and progress
to the church in Tiv land. The project is carried out by primary sources, which an
interview conducted by Zungwe Deborah, Rev. Prof. Ahaneku Anjou was
interviewed on 23-06-2016 and Rev. Peter Azuara at Mkar-Gboko, Benue State of
Nigeria. The project also adopted secondary sources by using books. In the
research carried out, we discovered that, missionaries brought Christianity as far as
19th century with education, agriculture, gospel, medicine, thereby developing our
land. But to some people, much was not done by the missionaries rather cause
worst to Tiv society. Some with the opinion that, the mission did their best by
giving education which is the key to success and most of the missionaries died and
were buried in Tiv land for this cause of the gospel. I thereby say that, the
missionaries did more good than harm. Therefore, more research should be carried
out on this topic for more understanding.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF STUDY

ORIGIN OF CHRISTIANITY IN NIGERIA;

This project focuses on the arrival of Christianity to Tiv land, also how Christianity
came to Nigeria in the 15th Century through Augustinian and Capuchin Monks
from Portugal to Benin and Warri. In 19th Century most Missionaries arrived in
other parts of Africa, Roman Catholics and Anglicans. In 1842, the Church of
England was established in Badagry by Townsend. In 1846, Samuel Ajayi
Crowther an Ethnic Yoruba and former slave was elected Bishop of Nigeria and
the first Black Bishop of Anglican Communion, Lagos, which became a Diocese
of its own in 1919(Erivwo 1979). In 1857, the Christianity spread to Jebba People,
and the EtSU of Bida was converted to Christianity. The Missionaries to Nigeria
established Christianity in Onisha, Bonny became the Headquarters. In 1889,
Christianity spread to Hausa land, establishing a Mission in Zaria in 1902.

In 1930, other Missionary bodies like the Wesleyans had occupied different part of
Nigeria. BENUE STATE IN PERSPECTIVE (2003).

On April, 1911, Christianity (NKST ‘’acronym’’ meaning Nongo U Kristu Hen

Sudan Ken Tiv),the English meaning is ‘‘The Church of Christ in Sudan among
the Tiv’’ now called ‘‘URCC’’ meaning Universal Reformed Christian Church
came through the Dutch Reformed Church Missions of South Africa, under the
leadership of Rev.Carl Zimmerman toJ.E. Isholibo Sai in Sai Village in Benue
State (Rubingh 1969). Few months later, some catholic railway workers started
spreading Christianity along Makurdi side still in Benue. (BENUE STATE IN
PERSPECTIVE 2003).

In 1912, Missionaries were granted the permission to travel through Tiv areas.
Before that time, foreigners were not allowed to enter Tiv land, because the Tiv
People saw any stranger coming to their land as threat, most especially foreigners.
The Tiv land was the last area of conquest in Nigeria to be brought under British
control. But today, Christianity grew up in all the Tiv land, Central North Nigeria
known as the Middle Belt with Schools, Hospitals, Banks, good Roads, and so on.
‘‘Tiv view on Spiritual matters could be conceptualized under four distinctive parts
of the spirit; the concept of Aondo (God) which is the Supreme Being, Akombo
(Rituals), Tsav (witchcraft), and Ujijingi (spirits). Ujijijngi includes Adzov’’.This
is because it is on this that the entire traditional religious sect among the Tiv are
embedded.

Aondo is the high God, the Creator. Aondo has personality, and He can be angry
and expresses his anger even today in His roar of thunder and in spitting out the
storms.
Akombo rites was made to communicates to God when men could not reach God
because of the pestle a woman struck against God while pounding yam in her
Mortal, God (Aondo) became angry and left man. Therefore Akimbo (Ritual) was
used to communicated with God from afar.
Tsav (witchcraft); Tiv people believe that, people could turn to some animals or
objects to commit evil, such as kill, run people mad, destroy destinies and so, and
after committing such evil, transform back to human being. This can be done using
Tsav. Ujijingi (spirits) are also known as Adzov. These spirits have cult were they
dwell and also move around. Those spirits could be good or bad. The Adzov Cult
was believed to have helped others such as in healing, blessing or fighting for
others.

1.2. STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

The problem this project hopes to solves is the issue of the coming or Advent of
Christianity and its influence in Tivland, that is, how Christianity entered
Tivland,who were the persons that brought Christianity and what important has it
given to Tiv people? Has Christianity added or reduced the Tiv people values?
The Tiv people were known as united group, in unity of power, language, in
human and the Tar may be seen in the early practice of preserving the excrement of
leaders who left the tribal area when the time came to go back to his Tar, the leader
carried his excrement with him and threw it away at home (tar) but it’s not so
today. (Rubingh 1969:66)
Tiv people do things in common, love, care and were united together, this is one of
the reason Islam could not penetrate Tiv land, with their oneness said no to Islam
and Islam faded away in Tivland accept now.
In Tiv contemporary Society, there is ‘‘no’’ such unity, now that we have
Christianity that can even make the unity stronger, instead, we are in disunity.

1.3. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

This research work seeks to know the origin of Christianity in the land.
To know how the Tiv people reacted to the arrival of Christianity when they
already had their traditional Religion.
To know the influence of Christianity to Tivland.
To know if Christianity is real growing in Tiv.
To know if Christians are not united among themselves in Tivland.

1.4. JUSTIFICATION OF STUDY

The interviews and reviewed of books carried out by me indicates that, Christianity
actually came to Tivland at Sai now Katsina-Ala Local Government of Benue State
in 1911 by missionaries, with Education, Agriculture, Medicine and Bible. These
things mentioned are tools for development. But some persons are still with the
opinion that, the Missionaries could not do the best they should, rather, contributed
to problems we are having today, well, I can say that, Missionaries gave their best
by giving their to die for the gospel, let us continue where they stopped and make it
greater by sacrificing and giving out our love to others.

1.5. SCOPE OF STUDY

This project focuses on the Origin of Christianity in the Tiv land, reaction of Tiv
people to Christianity, and also influence on Church growth in Tivland.

1.6. METHODOLOGY

The study has adopted the following methods for the research work; it includes
primary sources by using oral interviews, conducted by Zungwe Deborah. The
persons interviewed were; Rev. Prof. Anjov Ahenakaa, Department of Philosophy
And Religions, Benue State University Makurdi and also Seminary School Mkar
on 23 June, 2016. And Rev. Peter Azuana. The General Secretary “NKST”
“Nongo U Kristu U i Ser U Sha” meaning Universal Reformed Church
Headquarters Mkar on 25th June, 2016. And also secondary sources such as
consulting
Textbooks,Journals,Articles,internet,Encyclopedia,Dictionaries,academic project
,data collection and so on for a better research.

1.7. RELEVANCE OF STUDY

This research work is relevant in the following ways:

It serves as a source of reference Book.
It serves as research material.
It relevant to Churches (to gain more Knowledge).
It is a sense of History.
1.8. LIMITATIONS

Lack of Books for research Purposes.

Financial constraints.
Insecurity, most people are not open to people even their community because of
evil society.
The dead of my Daddy while in Mkar-Gboko for the first day of the oral interview.

1.9. DEFINITION OF TERMS

Advent: Advent means coming or arrival, first appearance.

Advent is from a Latin word ‘‘Adventus’’ meaning Arrival.

Advent also means a season observed in many Western Christian Churches as a

time of expectant waiting and preparation for the celebration of nativity of Jesus at
Christmas.

Latin Adventus is the translation of Greek word parousia commonly used to refer
to the second coming for Christians.

Advent means the coming of an important event, person, invention, and so on.

But in this context, Advent is the coming of Christianity.

Christianity: Christianity is a ‘‘Monotheistic religion’’ based on the life and

teaching of Jesus Christ as presented in the New Testament.

Christianity is the World’s largest religion with over 2.4 billion adherent known as
Christians.

Christianity is based on the life and teaching of Jesus Christ and the teaching of
inspired Apostles and
Evangelist as recorded in Acts of the Apostles in the Holy Bible.(Nnaji 2009:3).
TIV: Tiv has a dual meaning, is a name of group of people in Benue State and the
name of the Father of all Tiv People. But in this context, Tiv, a group of people in
Benue State, Middle Belt of Nigeria. (Makar 1994:4).

Tiv originated from Bantu in Congo to the South East and inside Cameroom,
settled on Hills located a few miles South-East of Obudu, Akiga located Swem
Karagbe hill (1969:62), finally settled in Benue State.

The Tiv bordered to the East by the Hausa-speaking, Mada, Jukum,and Chamba to
the North by the Alago and Akwe to the West by the Idoma and South by
theUdam.

Tivland stretches from approximately 60 to 300 North and from 80 to 100 East
Longitude.Tiv also lived on both Banks of the Benue River about 150 miles from
its Confluence with the Niger. (Rubingh 1969:62)

Influence: Influence means the power to have an effect on People or things that is
able to do.
Influence means to affect or change how someone or something develops, behaves
or thinks. (Cambridge advanced learners dictionary and thesaurus).

Influence in Spanish is called ‘‘Influencia’’.

Influence is the capacity or power of person or thing to be a compelling force on or

produce effect on the actions or behavior.

Church: The word Church is in Greek language and in New Testament is

‘‘Ekklesia’’ which means a ‘‘calling out’’ especially a religious congregation or an
assembly (Strong exhaustive concordance 1677).

The word Church designates the body of believers of which Jesus Christ is the
head, Colossians 1:18.

Church is a group of people called out for a special purpose by God.

Literally, Church is a building that human beings worship in that the understanding
of a layman.

Growth: Growth is referred to as a positive change in size or maturation often over

a period of time.

Growth can occur as a stage of Maturation or a process toward fullness or

fulfillment.

It can also perpetuate endlessness, for example, as detailed by some theories of the
ultimate fate of the universe.

Growth can also be referring as the mode of growth, example, and numeric models
for describing how much a particular quantity grows over time (Wikipedia the free
encyclopedia).

Aondo: The Tiv traditional Religion calls God or god Aondo meaning the Supreme
Being. When the Missionaries brought Christianity, they further adopted the name
Aondo for the Supreme Being.Tiv contemporary Society calls small gods now
Baraonda while the Supreme God (Aondo).

Impact of Christianity on the Cultural Values of Esan People

ABSTRACT

The role of religion particularly the Christian religion in the development process
of a society has continued to be a subject of study. Some people think that religion
contribute positively to the well-being of the society, while others think it has
negative effects. In Esanland, some people that are knowledgeable in the culture of
Esan see religion as “Opium of the people”, this simply means that the Christian
religion has negative influence on the development and cultural values of Esan
people. This study aim at the impact of Christianity and western culture on the
cultural values of Esan people. Particular attention was given to Eguare and
Emaudo-Ekpoma, both in Esan West Local Government Area. It also shows that
the traditional Esan society was a well ordered society, with a viable social
structure, social institutions and cultural values before the advent of Christian
religion and western culture. Historical-analytic method was adopted for the study.
Two Hundred respondents were randomly selected within the Local Government
Area for the study. Data for the study were collated through the use of self-
developed questionnaires. The study also adopted the theoretical framework of
Prudential Personalist Ethics theory of Benedict Ashley who was a 20th Century
American theologian and philosopher. The result of the study showed that the
impact of Christianity and western culture on the Esan people were both positive
and negative. It is recommended that the Christian witnesses and missionaries
should establish relationships of respect and love with those men (to whom they
witness), they should acknowledge themselves as members of the group in which
they live, and through the various undertakings and affairs of human life, they
should share in their social and cultural life. The study concluded, that long before
the advent of Christianity into Esan land, the traditional society has already been
structured to reflect socio-cultural status. There were such socio institutions that
serve the purposes of Integration and sustenance. Such institutions also promoted
the well-being of the society.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title Page……………

Certification. ii

Dedication. iii

Acknowledgements. v

Contents. vi

Abstract ix

CHAPTER ONE.. 1
INTRODUCTION.. 1

1.1. Background to the Study. 1

1.2. Statement of the Problem. 8

1.3. Objectives of the Study. 9

1.4. Research Methods. 9

1.5. Location of Study. 12

1.6. Scope of Limitation of Study. 12

1.7. Clarification of Terms. 13

1.7.1. Christianity. 13

1.7.2. Culture. 14

1.7.3. Values. 15

1.7.4. Esan. 16

1.8. Organization of the work. 17

CHAPTER TWO.. 19

LITERATURE REVIEW… 19

2.0. THE ESAN PEOPLE.. 19

2.1. History. 19
2.2. Geographical Location. 34

2.3. Occupation. 36

2.4. Traditional Religion. 37

2.5. Social Structure. 43

2.5.1. The Village Council 44

2.5.2. The Lineage (Idumu) 47

2.5.3. Uelen (Family) 47

2.6. Major Institutions. 50

2.6.1. Marriage. 51

2.6.2. Iruen (A rite of Initiation) 63

CHAPTER THREE.. 66

3.0. CULTURAL VALUES OF ESAN PEOPLE.. 66

3.1. Culture: A Definition. 66

3.2. Cultural Values of Esan. 70

3.2.1. Communalism.. 71

3.2.2. Respect for Elders. 73

3.2.3. Chastity. 75

3.2.4. Sacred Days. 76

3.2.5. Festivals. 77

3.2.6. Music. 80

3.2.7. Life After Death. 81

3.2.8. Sanctity of Life. 84

3.2.9. Unity. 85

3.2.10. Name. 88

3.2.11. Faith Healing. 90

3.2.12. Language. 93

3.2.13. Mode of Dressing. 94

3.2.14. Hair Styles. 94

3.3. Cultural Evolution in Esan. 97

3.4. Economy Evolution in Esan. 98

3.5. Culture and Religion. 101

CHAPTER FOUR.. 106

4.0. CHRISTIAN RELIGION IN ESAN.. 106

4.1. The Advent of Christianity in Africa. 106

4.2. Advent of Christianity in Esanland. 111

4.3. The Spread of Christianity in Esan. 114

4.4. Conflicts between Christianity and Esan Cultural Values. 119

4.4.1. Reasons for the Conflicts. 120

4.4.2. Inculturation: A Solution to the Conflicts. 121

4.5. Impact of Christian Religion on Esan Cultural Values. 130

4.5.1. Christianity as it Affects Cultural Values. 131

4.5.1.1. Social Values. 131

4.5.2. Religious Values. 145

4.5.3. Educational Values. 153

4.5.4. Economic Value. 156

4.5.5. Christianity and Development in Esan. 158

4.5.6. Religious Development 159

4.5.7. Social Development 160

4.5.8. Educational Development 161

4.5.9. Economic Development 161

CHAPTER FIVE.. 164

5.1. EVALUATION.. 164

5.2. Summary. 173

5.3. Findings. 175

5.4. Contributions to Knowledge. 176

5.5. Conclusion. 176

5.6. Recommendations. 177

Works Cited. 180

APPENDICES. 188

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

Before the advent of Christianity into Esanland in the first decade of the twentieth
century, the Esan society was a well organised society with a viable social
structure, social institutions and cultural values. The Esan people occupy the Edo
Central Senatorial District of Edo State Nigeria. It is made up of five (5) Local
Government Areas viz:- Esan West, Esan Central, Esan North-East, Esan North-
West and Igueben, with Ekpoma, Irrua, Uromi, Ubiaja and Igueben as
Headquarters respectively. It is made up of thirty (30) clans; Ekpoma, Egoro,
Opoji, Irua, Ewu, Uromi, Ugoha, Ubiaja, Ukhuesan, Emu, Ohodua, Ewatto,
Ewosa, Ewohimi, Ekpon, Ebelle, Okalo, Amahor, Iria, Ugun, Ujiagba, Ogwa,
Igueben, Ugbegun, Idoa, Uzen, Orowa, Udo, Onogholo and Ukhun (Okogie 29).

The people had a religion with certain basic beliefs similar to those of the Christian
religion. They believed in an Almighty or -Overall God (Osenobua) to whom
worship was given through the minor communal household gods known as ebo
(Donatus Akhilomen 12). Ebo, divinities or gods who were worshipped by the
traditional Esan society were only approached as intermediaries between
Osenobulua, Supreme Being and them (the people). ‘They act for Him in the
theocratic government of the world’ (Alli 45). As they,s the ebo were brought forth
by Osenobulua, Supreme Being Himself, they have no absolute existence or
authority. They were appointed and are commissioned by him to serve a purpose.
Hence, their authority and power is derived from Him and delegated by Him. This
is why in Esan, every act of worship or ritual has an ultimate reference to
Osenobulua the Supreme Being who in turn sanctions it.

Apart from this, the traditional Esan society cherished their cultural values such as
family unit or communalism, respect for elders and constituted authority, ancestral
worship, to mention but a few. All of these were strictly adhered to as their guiding
principles. This was the position in Esan when Christianity and western culture
began to make inroads. The coming of Christianity with its civilizing influence has
greatly affected the cultural life of Esan people. This impact has been greatly felt in
the economic, political, educational, medical and in the overall cultural life of the
people. In essence, it could be said that the presence of the Christian Church
stimulated the socio-cultural development of the Esan people. These are, in spite of
the deficiencies of the early Christian missionaries (who could not distinguish
between the culture of Europe and the principles of Christianity). Those aspects of
the Esan cultural values that were not in the best interest of the people (according
to the missionaries) had to give way or abolished.

One could say here, that, it might be one of the reasons why in the mid-nineteen
seventies, there was a constant call for the revival of culture in Nigeria. Every
ethnic group in Nigeria was encouraged and motivated to revive the apparently
dormant cultural values of its peoples. General Yakubu Gowon, a former Head of
State, said at the fourth National Festival of Arts in 1975, that some people had
wondered whether the aim of cultural revival was to abandon all modern amenities
and conveniences and return to pre-historic times, or whether it was to raise a new
religion which would replace the existing ones. He maintained that such views
were wrong since Cultural Revolution is not synonymous with cultural bigotry
(Kato 4). Nwafor Nduka, argues that Cultural Revolution or emancipation does not
mean a call to return to the past. What he is saying is that there are much of our
past that are no longer relevant to the society today and therefore, should be
discarded (vi), but those that are relevant should be revived and reserved. This is
because much of our past is no longer relevant to the society today. Matthew Omo-
Ojugo, agrees with Nduka when he said that, Edo State and Nigeria have excellent
cultural values which should be revived for the survival of our society and for our
people to compete meaningfully wzith other societies in the world in the 21st
century and beyond. He added that there are, however, some traditional and
cultural traits which must be discarded because they are no longer relevant in
civilized societies (2). According to Nduka, “we are culturally under-developed;
therefore our appreciation of beauty is mundane and almost naive. We instinctively
like or dislike what we see. The profound and the intriguing put us off” (7-10).
This implies that our cultural values still exhibits the disabilities of adolescents,
for, as yet, it has not assumed is final distinctive statures. Therefore, there is need
of re-assessment, re-evaluation and development.

If Cultural Revolution is neither a return to the past, nor an introduction of another

new religion, then what is it? According to Adrian Hastings, it means
“rediscovering the wisdom of the ancestors, revaluing their ceremonies,
reawakening their names, renewing their own language” (43). Nduka, opines that,
it is; “a more discriminating, in culturing of foreign cultural elements with the
indigenous cultural heritage, instead of just selling our cultural birthright for a
mess of Western Cultural Pottage” (vi). In a nut shell, culture is an aggregate
concept fundamentally characterized by the distinctive spirit, way of life, device
for living and attainments of the people. Olive Ponting opines that culture
determines how social institutions cultivate and impose behaviour that is
communally transmitted from one generation to another. Culture is versatile and
includes both material and non-material objects and concepts. It entails the totality
of a people’s norms, values, beliefs, codes of socially acceptable conducts, mode
of life, religion, philosophy and ideology. It also includes communal informal
education and technology (430).

If the above statements are correct, then cultural revival are noble intentions that
should be pursued vigorously. Africans generally and Esan in particular, has every
reason to seek the revival of their cultural values since their philosophy, value,
systems, identity, languages and indeed, all of their cultural values had apparently
been threatened with extinction. They had been humiliated, exploited, oppressed,
and denied self-determination (Kato 5), and this also applied to Esan people. They
had become strangers even in their own land as a result of colonialism by the
Europeans.

The white men had conquered them with their culture, and so anything that gave
Africans a sign of relief was welcome, while anything that subjected them to the
imperialists was resisted. That was why, what seems to be good was marred by
those who conducted the crusade against Christianity, “the White man’s
religion”,and directed their energies to the persecution of Christians. The Christian
religion was rightly or wrongly identified with imperial Europe, therefore, all
appeared culturally alienating. Those who felt that Christianity was detrimental to
the cultural values of the people wanted a cultural revival without prejudice to the
schools, medical facilities, architectural designs, and indeed the benefits of science
and technology from Europe. Culture has been defined as the total life style of
people. According to Edward Tylor, culture is; ‘that complex whole which
includes knowledge, belief, art, moral, law, custom, and any other capabilities and
habits acquired by man as a member of society’(21). Also, culture comprises
ideology, including ideas, beliefs and values, technology including skills, crafts,
arts and material items; and social organization- including rules, regulations and
roles (Hobbs and Blank 84).

In this study, we shall present the cultural setting of the Esan society before the
coming of the Christian religion, of particular interest on the fact that the society
was a religious one and given these ideas about cultural values, we observed a
situation of cultural clash between the Africans and the Europeans at the coming of
the Christian religion. A change in any aspect of a cultural value affects other
aspects. This is more evident in connection with religion which has been regarded
as the heart of culture. The Esan people, however, already had values that they
would not give up. They liked some of the things Christianity taught and did, but it
was not possible to throw away everything they had so cherished before the
coming of Christianity. The result was a conflict of values. Conflict between the
traditional Esan values and the Western Christian values. The westerners insisted
on the superiority of their culture and religion and demanded a complete
abandonment of the traditional Esan values such as their mode of worship,
polygamy, communalism et cetera. This was not acceptable to the Esan people.
Christians were persecuted, and on many occasions taken to court at Ubiaja
(interview with Chief Samuel Omofumaat Ukpoke-Uhiele on June 5, 2016). The
Esan people who accepted the Christian religion, did so mainly because of the
benefits they would get from the civilizing influence of Europe. Their conversion
was superficial; there was no deep commitment to the Christian religion. However
their life-style was bound to change. Those cultural practices that were not in
agreement with the new religion had to be completely dropped or modified
(Ayandele 243). For instance, people were made to change their traditional names
which expresses their philosophy and religion to Western names at conversion
even without knowing the meanings. Those who answered traditional names on
conversion to Christianity, changed them to Christian names particularly at
baptism. Some who even answered meaningful traditional names considered a
change necessary to march with the demands of the new religion. This trend almost
destroyed the value in names as people abandoned meaningful names that
expressed their cultural philosophy, religion amongst others. (interview with
Omofuma at Ukpoke, June 5, 2016).

Some Esan people however resisted changing their names and have ever since not
been any less Christians. A good example is the researcher whose father did not
change her tradition name at baptism. Till today, she bears her traditional name.
Apart from these, the Esan people’s cherished culture such as respect for elders,
communal life, ancestral worship amongst others were distorted in the name of
western civilization which was encouraged by the Christian faith.

Service Elman, affirms that, “the human race is proceeding toward greater and
greater homogeneity-racially, culturally, and linguistically” (xiii). Regrettably,
Elman noted that, through this process of homogeneity, many of the world’s
ancient cultural values had disappeared. Elman continued that, while some cultural
values are simply dying out or being exterminated, some are undergoing radical
changes as they become involved in various kinds of functional relationships with
expanding industrial civilization, and others are being ethnically assimilated (xiii).
This is sad observation and it is not in the best interest of Africans who are
endowed with their God-given cultural values. Some anthropologists have also
expressed fear over such findings, such that the disappearance of cultural values
has brought a great loss to human knowledge, art, history and science (xiii).
Is it in any wonder therefore, that, a people whose culture is threatened with
extermination would seek means of protecting their cultures? They need to be
sympathised with. Their predicament is caused in most cases by “the ignorance and
sometimes the cruelty with which ‘civilized’ peoples had treated them” (xiii). This
situation could be the sad story of the Esan people. They have complained about
the apparent extinction of their cultural values including their language. Omo-
Ojugo, “Time News” states; “A language is endangered when it is on a path toward
extinction. A language is in danger when its speakers cease to use it in an
increasingly reduced number of communicative domains and cease to pass it on
from one generation to the next. That is, there are no new speakers, adult or
children. In Esan today, there are many literate parents, who deliberately use the
English language as the only means of communication between themselves and
their children at home. Even among illiterate and semi-literate parents, it is
becoming something of ‘fashion’ to use adulterated English, Nigerian Pidgin
English or a mixture of both Esan and English or Esan and Nigerian Pidgin
English, reflecting an apparent diglossie situation in a society that otherwise was
homogenous linguistically” (81). There is need for Esan people to revive their
language so that Esan language will not go into extinction. In the face of such
apparent extinction, what could be the justification of the Esan society playing host
to Christianity for these number of years? Could it be that the Christian religion
has not done what it was supposed to do in the land? Is it also true that the total
cultural values of the Esan people have been threatened with extinction? These and
other related issues shall be examined in the course of our discussion.

In this work, we shall present some cultural values of Esan people as it has been
affected both negatively and positively by Christianity and western culture. This
thesis, therefore examines the impact of Christianity and Western culture on
cultural values of Esan, the conflicts between Christianity and culture in Esanland
and then proffer possible solutions to the conflict so that future Christian
evangelists do not make the same mistake of the early missionaries.

1.1. Statement of the Problem

The common opinion by some knowledgeable and highly placed men and women
in Esan is that the Christian religion is a mere “opium of the people”. Karl Marx
used this expression to argue that religion functions as an instrument of
maintaining stratification systems in society and of keeping the masses under
subjection to a few privileged rich. By this position they contend that the Christian
religion is detrimental to the development process of the Esan society.

The introduction of Christianity to Esanland was viewed as a threat to the old order
and was therefore strongly resisted by the Chief Priests of the various traditional
religions who were supported by village elders. It is not surprising that, most of the
pioneer Christians in Esanland were persecuted in their attempt to win converts
(Kio-Apori 63). The implication of this position is that, the Christian religion has
no positive effect that it can offer to the cultural values of the Esan people. Such a
negative view of the Christian religion in Esanland fails to recognize the
contribution that Christianity has made in the areas of education, commerce,
health, housing, politics, economy, social services, among others. These
improvement have been a direct result of the coming of the Christian religion with
Western civilization and culture. Instead of recognising this, these antagonists
contend that in spite of the number of years that Christianity came to the land, its
impact has been very minimal on the cultural life of the Esan people.

If these submissions are proved to be correct, they will have devastating effects on
the Christian religion in Esan society. It is the burden of this essay therefore, to
assess the impact of Christianity and Western culture on the Cultural values of
Esan people. This task is carried out with the consciousness that whereas there is a
difference between the Christian Religion and Western culture and civilization, on
one hand, it is impossible to separate one from the other in the context of our
present discussion. The reason is that Christian religion came into Esan on the
wings of Western civilization and colonialism.

1.2. Objectives of the Study

The overall aim of this study is to critically examine the impact of Christianity on
the cultural Values of Esan people. The specific objectives of the study, therefore,
are to:
(a) examine the negative and positive impact of Christian religion on the cultural
values of the Esan people;

(b). establish that the traditional Esan society was a well ordered, with a viable
social structure, social institutions and cultural values before the advent of
Christian religion and Western Culture;

(c). prove that Esan people are not atheists: they were not irreligious, that religion
guided their total life before the coming of Christian religion; and

(d). make useful recommendations in addressing the conflict between Christian

teachings and Esan cultural values.

1.3. Research Methods

This study relies on primary and secondary sources of information. It made use of
historical and evaluative methods of research.

For the primary sources, copies of questionnaire were administered to respondents

and key informant interview (K.I.I) was conducted among Esan people in order to
get up to date data. The instrument used was the random sampling method. For the
secondary sources, relevant materials such as journals, articles, books and other
resources were consulted. The lack of ample literature in the subject area has made
key informant interview and the use of questionnaire compelling and inevitable. It
is expected that an objective historical and evaluative study of this kind would give
fresh perspectives on the impact of Christianity and western culture on the cultural
values of Esan people.

Theoretically, this study adopts the Prudential Personalist Ethics theory

propounded by Benedict Ashley, which is basically teleological in nature, but
different from emotivism and voluntarism or deontologism. “Prudential Personalist
Ethics stresses that the “ends’’ of human action are always persons and the
community of interrelated persons responding to each other” (173). This ethical
model is qualified Prudential because this indicates the practical goal-seeking
character and even the situational or contextual character of this ethics.
Personalism advocates that morality is not solely a matter of obeying abstract rules,
but to intelligently seek appropriate, concrete behaviour by which an individual
achieves personal goals. According to Anthony Flannery, “the value of the law or
rule is not denied, but the emphasis is on the fact that what makes such law
obligatory is their helpfulness in guiding prudential decisions to successful goal-
achievement’’ (955). The goals that are morally right for a human being are such
that are determined by the nature of the human person and human action. Thus,
this Prudential Personalist model of ethics is not based on intuitionism or idealism
of any sort since its principles are derived from human historical experience,
especially the experience of perfect human actualization (John Onimawhawo
“Youths and Moral”16). Ashley claims that this ethics is called ‘’personalism’’
because it evaluates human goals and the means to these goals in terms of the self
actualisation or fulfillment of the human person in the community (173). In
Prudential Personalism, therefore, the consequences of any human act must be
assessed not in terms of immediate pains and pleasures or even in terms of other
immediate qualitative values but must have bearing on the actualization of the
human person in relation to other persons (17).

In the debate on ethical issues, that ethical decisions are always taken within the
context of some value system is an obvious fact. In considering any ethical debate
within a historical-theological context, we need a paradigm which will help us
make our conclusions not only consistent with historical-theological norms, but
also that which takes into account the value systems of others. This is why this
work adopts Prudential Personalism ethical model in evaluating the impact of
Christianity and western culture on the cultural values of Esan people. It is an
ethical model whose logic goes beyond those who take their stand on absolute
principles or authoritative laws and those who argue only for pragmatic solutions.
Therefore it is when Prudential Personalism logic is employed that we shall be able
to achieve a synthesis of extreme positions on Christian religion and western
culture on cultural values of Esan people.

In this study, a historical-analytic approach based on Prudential Personalism

ethical model was adopted. With the historical approached, we were able to
discourse, explain and analyse critically the negative and positive impact of
Christianity and western culture on the cultural values of Esan people. The
evaluative method of research was employed to achieve the overall aim and
specific objectives of this study. The study, therefore, examined the impact of
Christianity and western culture on cultural values of Esan people, using the
Prudential Personalist Ethics theoretical framework to ascertain the significance of
the solution proffered to harmonise the two cultural differences. This theory was
considered basically because of the moral and cultural values highlighted in the
work. It is an ethical model whose logic goes beyond abstract rules; it is to
intelligently seek appropriate, concrete behaviours by which human personal goals
are achieved.

1.4. Location of Study

Esan is made up of 30 clans and it is located in the northern part of the forest
regions. It occupies longitude 5o 301 7o 301 and latitude 5o 301 north and 7o
301East of Benin (Olayinka 12-33). The area is bounded in the north and northeast
by Akoko-Edo Local Government Area; on the south by Ika Local Government
Area; on the west by Owan Local Government Area. It occupies an area of about
2,987.52 kms (Okogie 2).Before the colonial period, there were rigidly fixed
geographical boundaries. The areas expanded and contributed under various
political and social-economic circumstances which reflected possible strength and
weaknesses of the period. The boundaries were often along roads and demarcated
by geographical and environmental features such as hills, rivers and streams. Iyala
or moat demarcated an in-group from out-group of Esan settlers (Okoduwa 1).

1.5. Scope of Limitation of Study

This study is poised to explore the impact of the Christian religion and western
culture on the cultural values of the Esan people. The area of concentration is
basically in these five (5) Local Government Areas viz:-Esan West, Esan Central,
Esan North-East, Esan North-West and Igueben Local Government Areas, all in
Edo State. These areas have been selected by the writer because the writer is well
abreast with these areas and quite conversant with the custom and cultural values
of these areas.
In the course of the study, the researcher had financial and transportation
constraints due to the deplorable situation of the roads in Esanland and such could
not move round all the Local Government Areas; therefore, could not access those
to be interviewed in such areas personally except through the questionnaires
distributed with the assistance of some members of my church. Also managing my
family as a widow with my job and the state of my health was quite demanding
during the course of this study.

1.6. Clarification of Terms

Some key terms will be defined and explained for purpose of clarity. They include:
Christianity, Culture, Value and Esan.

1.6.1. Christianity

Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheist religion based on the life and teachings of

Jesus Christ who served as the focal point of the Christian faith. It is the world’s
largest religion with over 2.4 billion followers or 33% of the global population,
known as Christians.It is one of the most popular religions through the western
world. Members of the religion are called Christians. It is a monotheistic religion,
meaning it has only one God (Encyclopedia; Monotheistic Religion.Web 5th
Febuary 2016). It is also the act of voluntarily accepting Jesus Christ as personal
Lord and saviour and as such become his disciple who learns and behaves like him.
In respect of this study, Christianity shall be referred to as religious activities
carried out by religious people with the aim of proclaiming the gospel of Jesus
Christ.

As an adjunct to the above considered definition; I have put forward my own

definition of Christianity. Christianity is a term that refers to the beliefs espoused
by various group of churches that derive their doctrines from the teaching of Jesus
Christ and His apostles. The most important thing for Christians is love and charity
towards all manners of men. Christians group sometimes differ in traditions that
come to surround their practices of faith. The expression of the basic tenets as
indicated above is a unifying factor that shapes the outlook of Christians.
1.7.2. Culture

From the beginning of a person’s life to when he goes to the grave he is regulated
by certain creations of man called culture. In spite of the fact that all
anthropologists’ agree on the importance of the concept culture, yet no particular
definition has a universal acceptable definition. Different definitions are given
depending on the persuasion and perspective of the proponent. It must be noted
here that men of letters have usually adopted a descriptive and practical approach
in their effort to define culture. According to Paul Mussen, culture is; “a body of
stored knowledge, characteristic ways of thinking and feeling, attitudes, goals and
ideas” (Mussen 62). Edward Taylor defined it as “that complex whole which
includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and
habits acquired by man as a member of society” (21). John Fichter a sociologist
has also concisely defined culture as: “the total configuration of institutions that
the people in society share in common” (270). OnyerisaraUkeje summarized all the
above mentioned definitions as an all-embrasive sort of descriptive definition when
he said:

In general therefore, culture may be defined as the fabric of ideas, beliefs, skill,
tools aesthetic objects, methods of thinking, of eating and of talking as well as
customs and institutions into which each member of the society is born. In short it
includes the way each individual makes a living the music he plays, celebrations
and festivals, modes of communication and transportation, the house we live in and
the food we eat. (3)

From the definitions we have attempted from above, it is very clear that culture is
descriptive and complex concept with wide-ranging and comprehensive
connotations and significance. It is also clear that culture refers to the way of life
of a people-away of life that reflects their distinctive genius and spirit, their
fundamental character or ethos, their values orientations, world-view, institutions
and achievements in the various fields of human endeavors-Legal and literary,
artistic and scientific, religious, philosophical and technological (Leonard Broom
and Philip Selznick 50-51). Therefore, culture is an aggregate concept
fundamentally characterized by the distinctive spirit, way of life, device for living
and attainment of people.
1.7.3. Values

Values are important and lasting beliefs or ideas shared by the members of the
society about what is good. Levi Ezeaku defines value as norms which refers to a
set of ideas and of opinion commonly held against which member’s actions and
achievements are measured and evaluated. It is these that determine what is
socially accepted (89). Every human society has a set of moral issues, what is good
or bad, right or wrong. These notions, which have a great deal of influence on the
conduct of the members of that particular society are usually based upon some
recognized authority whose sanctions are accepted and obeyed. To some, moral
values, sanctions or ethics are derived from human society (Idowu 144). To others,
common sense is the source of supernatural source. Whatever the source, moral
sanctions have power to compel obedience (146, 152). African society are no
exception although, their moral values are not uniform throughout the land. The
moral values or codes of behavior are designed to promote good, right and healthy
societal living (Dzurgba 60). They are to regulate the behavioral lives of people
individually and collectively for peace, concord and social harmony.

The African traditionalist believes that the society belongs to the deity and the
various divinities have been given certain duties to perform among their people.
They are the final authority over all laws and moral codes regulating such society.
He punishes evil not only here on earth but in hereafter as well. To avoid this
punishment, the African traditionalists are required to live an ideal life here on
earth to secure a sure good home hereafter. Ideal life includes honesty, kindness,
truthfulness, chastity, loyalty, kindness, humility, obedience, devotion, respect,
generosity, hospitality, justice and such other virtues.

One of the agents of cultural values are parents and elders. They are strictly
charged with the up keep of the society, to govern their homes and society at large.
It is their obligatory responsibility to keep orders and sanity in the society. They
are the guardians of the laws, rules, and order regulating the society; hence they are
greatly reverenced (Parinder 179). Others are ancestors, divinities and personal
names.
However, due to new African modernism generating from western Christianity,
civilization and political emancipation a lot of the valuable cultural values are
either reinterpreted or set aside with total ignominy. Prominent conversational acts,
taboos and rules of the past are no longer regarded today. However, from historical
experiences, and for ideal ethical societies, the African (Esan) people have to
rediscover their wealth or values to improve upon the present decadent society.

1.7.4. Esan

The word ‘Esan’ is the shortened form of the original Edo phrase “Esanfua”
(which means they jumped off’ or they fled or escaped) (Omokhodion 1). It is
generally believed that due to the oppressive measures put in place by the Oba of
Benin in the 14th century AD, the people, who later came to settle in this part of
the State ‘escaped’ or literally put, ‘jumped out’ from Benin kingdom and fled into
the jungle. Today, those who descended from them are called the Esan people.

Geographically, Esan is located on a plateau of about 134 miles above the sea
level. This Esan plateau rises from river Orhiomo in Esan East Local Government
Area and it is drained by river Utor, Orie, Obhu and Oha, including Iyagun stream,
Utobo stream and a few other minor streams. The group of people referred to today
as Esans can be found to the North-East of Benin. These people form the bulk of
the people in the former Esan division of the Benin province. On the North-West
and North of Ishan land, there is the Ivbiosakan land (owan) and Etsako Divisons
while on the South and South-East you have the Western Ibo, the Agbor and Asaba
people. On the East, it is boarded by the River Niger and Igala people
(Omokhodion 1). Today Esan division is divided into five Local Government
Areas, namely; Esan West, Esan Central, Esan North East, Esan East and Igueben
Local Government Areas.

The Esans possess a well-defined social political structure in which the family
plays vital roles as its unit generates dual social and moral systems (Akhilomen
12).Akhilomen contributed that, Esans as a people had a democratic and egalitarian
system of government before the advent of the Europeans. The families form the
bases for social unity and thereby exerts great influence on its members. Members
consult one another before major decisions was taken. The Onogie directs the
political wheel of the community, while the Odionwele functions at the level of
Idumu or quarter to ensure that administration is run smoothly (12).

1.7. Organization of the work

This study is divided into five Chapters. The first chapter is the introductory
chapter. It deals with the statement of the problem of the research, the aim and
objectives of the study, Research methodology, location of the study, scope and
limitations of study, clarification of terms, and organization of works. Chapter two
gives the review of related literature of some Scholars on Esan people history of
origin, occupations, traditional religion, social structure and major institutions of
the Esans. With these, one was able to appreciate the organisation of the traditional
Esan society. In Chapter three, we examine the cultural values in Esanland. In this
regard, a brief definition of the concept of culture was given. We also examine
how the economy and religion of the Esan evolved. This was to show that, the
Esan society was richly endowed with values that enhanced its integrating and
survival before the advent of Christianity into the land. A brief history of the
advent of Christianity into Africa, and Esan is given in Chapter four. The Chapter
also focuses on the spread of Christianity in the land of Esan, such advent and
spread were not without conflicts.as is the case when there is clash of two forces,
there was a conflict between the Christian church and the cultural values of the
Esan people. This is carefully evaluated in this chapter. The impact of the Christian
religion on the cultural values of the Esan people was also discussed. Each cultural
value is carefully examined to see how Christianity has affected it. A further look
is also taken at what role the Christian religion has played in the religious, social,
educational, and economic development of the Esan people. Chapter five focuses
on the evaluation, summary, findings, contributions to knowledge, conclusion and
recommendations.

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Preview Only THE IMPACT OF CHRISTIANITY IN ISOKOLAND: A CASE
STUDY OF OYEDE CLAN
CHAPTER ONE
BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY
Introduction
Isokoland falls within the evergreen forest belt of southern Nigeria,1 The land
here is flat and low lying, intersected by numerous Greeks, water course and
swamps with relatively higher and drier ground. The Isoko people inhabit the area
enclosed, roughly by longitude 60o5 and 6o25 east ad latitude 5o15 and 5o40 north
in Delta state.2 The Isoko’s had various complex cultures and traditions which had
been passed on from generation to generation, seen as the cultural attribute of the
people. Nevertheless, the advent of Christianity brought an imminent change
which reformed the belief system, cultural, structural and traditional aspect of the
people to a large extent.
The Isoko’s had a complex traditional institution built up by various belief
system in each clan.3 Over the years, the weakness of African culture has thus
enabled Christianity to wax strong in the social African setting. One of the aims of
this study is therefore to examine the impacts of Christianity. In Isokoland using
Oyede clan as a case study, showing how Christianity reformed some of her
obnoxious culture which glorified some certain customs and traditions that are not
worth mentioning.
Over the years, this long aged culture and beliefs system had become the
cultural identity of the Isoko’s which had been passed on from generations, not
until the advent of Christianity in the early decades of the 20th century.5
Christianity brought a lasting impact in the social cultural and religious life of the
Isoko people, as Christianity replaced the idolatry form of worship. Although,
some still practice Christianity alongside with traditional worship. Today the Isoko
people are reckoned with Christianity as the major religion in Isokoland which
began to gain foothold from the mid 20th century.6
However, on the account of the advent of Christianity in Isokoland, it should be
noted that the Isoko’s had no direct contact with the Early missionaries. At this
same time, their neighbors; Agbor, Ijaw, Kwale and Urhobo had already
established contact relations with the Early missionaries during the early decades
of the 20th century. It was through trading contact with the Ijaws in Patani,that the
Early missionaries discovered that, the Isoko Traders came from another region.
Thus, these missionaries were determined to penetrate into Isokoland and
propagate Christianity in this new found region. This led to the introduction of
Christianity into Isokoland in the early part of the 20th century through trading
contact.7
Aim and Objectives
Basically, the aim of this study is to examine the impact of Christianity in
Isokoland “a case study of Oyede clan”.
Some of these objectives are as follows:
To examine Isoko community its socio-cultural organization as well as religious
institutions.
To illustrate the dynamics of Oyede clan as well as various institutions that exists
in Oyede community before, the advent of Christianity.
To examine the role and impact of missionary activities in the Oyede community.
To shed light on the impact of Christianity in Oyede community and the
transformation of the cultural social and religious institutions of the Isoko people.
Significance of the Study
 The significance of this study is basically to reveal the impact of Christianity in
Oyede community as well as consider how the socio-cultural and religious
structure of Oyede community had undergone some reformation, starting from
early decades of the 20th century to the present day. However, observation and
finds derived from a work of this type will offer an expository account of how the
various forms of fetish customs and primitive superstitious of the Oyede people
attained its present modernized stage.
Findings made in a work of this type will equally provide some vital information
that will help anyone who deems it necessary to conduct further research in this
areas subsequently.
Scope of the Study
The scope of this study covers the Oyede community. In Isoko north local
government area of forest belt region in Delta state of southern Nigeria. However,
this project covers a period from pre-colonial times to the advent of Christianity
which brought about the penetration of Europeans into the Isokoland in the late
20th century. This work focuses on the social, cultural and religious institutions of
the Oyede people before and advent of Christianity. Also, attempts were made to
examine how this new religion (Christianity) sharpened, translated and directs the
lives of Oyede community till date.
Research Methodology
This study adopts the historical research methodology which depends on
secondary, primary sources as well as oral interviews which would be clearly
stated at the end of my project work. These primary sources contains oral
interview, government ethical reports, newspapers, myths and Tolklores. While the
secondary sources contain books and Articles written on the historical survey of
the Isoko people and their traditional social and religious institutions.
Literature Review
Making a concise analysis and research on the preferred topic, various books
related to this topic must be reviewed on other to get broad analysis and
information useful for this project.
Obaro Ikime “The Ground Work of Nigerian History”8; The people and kingdom
of the Delta provinces; this work provided and analysis on the geographical
location of the Isoko people and their environs. O. Ikhime gave analysis on various
origin of tradition of the Isoko people, of which some claimed to have migrated
from the Benin Kingdom, some from nowhere while others claimed to have
migrated from Egypt. His book reviewed on the origin of the Isoko and its
existence of the seventeen clan in Isoko land which makeup the Isoko country in
the precolonial times.
My Nabota, “Essential Topics in African Traditional Religion”.9 This book
emphasizes on the relationship between the supreme being and other deities in the
Isokoland. “The Isoko’s fear, respect and worship God despite the homage they
pay to other smaller deities, yet they also have other object of worship”. My
Nabota maintains in his book that “these deities are brought into being by God and
they are generally regarded as sons and daughters of God, they have no absolute
existence apart from God. Their power and authorities are meaningless apart form
the supreme deity”….
J.E. Okwoho, “Effect of Missionary Activities in Isoko Local Government
Area”.10 This work emphasizes on the social organization of the Isoko people,
their administration of Justice, social and cultural entities before the advent of
Christianity. It also shed light on the various judicial and traditional law
maintained in the society and various penalties placed on defaulters of these laws.
The Author mainly focused more on the cultural institution.
Edward Foshole Luke Etal “Christianity in Independent Africa”.12 This book
focuses on the advent of Christianity in Africa, the coming of various missionary
societies such as C.M.S, Baptist, Jesuit, Catholic and other protestant missions in
Africa. This book also shed light on the challenges faced by these missionaries at
the early arrival as well as the impact of Christianity on African communities.
F.O. Adugbo: History of Christianity in WestAfrican13 This book focuses on
the advent of Christianity in West Africa challenges faced by the missionaries at
the early arrival as well as the impact of Christianity on African community.
S.U Erivwo “A History of Christianity In Nigeria – The Urhobo, Isoko and
Itsekiri”.14 This book shed light on the advent of Christianity, the activities of the
missionaries in the early decades of the 20th century in the Isoko, Urhobo and
Itsekiri country. The latter part of these book focuses on the conversion processes
of the Urhobo, Isoko and Itsekiri people, the people’s response toward the new
religion as well as the impact of Christianity in these areas.
Ogbu Kalu: Christianity In West-Africa, The Nigerian Story`15 This book
emphasis on the advent of Christianity in Nigeria and the various response towards
this new religion. The Author focused more on the impact of Christianity in
various societies and how it transformed their social, political, cultural and
religious life of the people of Isoko.
CHAPTERS
This study is divided into:
Chapter one: Chapter one is an introduction of the topic, starting with its aims and
objective of the subject matter, giving different views of scholars who had written
subject matters related to this topic, explaining the development that took place
with the period of study (before and after the advent of Christianity) and lastly
stating the various sources used in making this project work easy to comprehend.
Chapter Two: This chapter explains the geographically and tradition of origin of
the Isoko people, their socio cultural organization and religious entities of the
people before the advent of Christianity.
Chapter Three: The advent and development of Christianity in Isokoland. This
chapter focuses more on the activities of these missionaries and conversion
processes in Isokoland.
Chapter Four: Impact of Christianity in Isokoland: This chapter emphasizes on the
impact and legacies of Christianity on the social, political, cultural and religious
life of the Isoko people.
Chapter Five: Conclusion
This chapter will conclude summary of this work, starting from the first chapter
will be established in this conclusive I analysis. Any changes that has been made in
subsequent years will also be summarized in this chapter.  
Endnotes
IMPACT OF CHRISTIAN RELIGION ON CULTURE
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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

In this paper, Christian values are defined as those ideals or principles which
Christianity cherishes. In this presentation, my aim is not to dwell on the unique
worth of Christianity or its values. These are well-known and appreciated,
especially in Nigeria society. My main concern is to relate and evaluate this worth
in terms of a definite culture, namely, Nigeria ensemble of values. The choice of
Nigeria is obvious for an Nigeria writer. It becomes attractive and obvious, too,
once we identify Western, including American, culture, which Benin s, rightly or
wrongly, identify with Christianity. That is, since Western culture has been
perceived in Benin land as synonymous with Christianity, Nigeria culture as a
recipient of Western culture bears the influence or weight of Christianity on its
own culture.

My second duty will be to select certain sections of this culture in order to

highlight these Christian influences. To fathom the extent of the influence of
Christian values on Nigeriaculture some historical and sociological perspectives
will be necessary as they will mirror such influences where they exists. The
missionaries came to Benin land in the later part of the 19th Century, where they
met a pattern of life not all of which ran counter to Christian principles. The spread
of Christian influence was balked by such elements as the size of the area, the
complete absence of roads and means of communication, as well as other harsh
environmental circumstances which inhibited free movement of the early
missionaries to all corners of the area. These facts may have accounted for the less
universal preponderance of the Christian influence on the host culture. Such claims
as these may be seen as too lofty in view of the allegation of mass caving in of
Nigeriaculture to the invading European culture. But the assumptions that local
culture and Christian values were polarized and conflicting and that Christian
values dislodged their host counterparts can be maintained only with notable
qualifications, for it must be remembered that the host culture was traditional and
natural, that is, it was unadulterated, original or God-given. It approximated in part,
and accorded with Christian values and to that degree was not in conflict to them.
Equally important in this regard is the similarity in human nature which tends to
minimize among differences among human groups. I have been purposely cautious
because there were indeed areas where conflict existed between the host culture
and Christian values. Nonetheless, since grace builds upon nature and nature exists
in Benin land as elsewhere, there is much of enormous positive value in Nigeria
traditions and religious consciousness.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The effect has been a more distinctive and permanent manifestation of the legacy
or influence of Christianity, which is the invisible and unofficial striving to live in
conjunction with both the Christian and the traditional life. Thus, the individual
Christian in his subconscious and in moments of crisis clings tenaciously to, or
relapses without conflict or qualms, into traditional life. But credit must go to
Christianity for the tremendous impact it has had on the advancement of
knowledge and learning in Benin: the opaque scales that blindfolded the people
have been pulled down. All now know that all men are equal before God, and
probably this new thought has been the motive force behind the struggle for
Nigeria unity. Ignorance and superstition have been put to flight after contact with
Christianity. And this is an invaluable achievement indeed.

RESEARCH QUESTION

1. How did Christianity influence the Benin Culture?

2. Does Christianity religion have any bearing with Benin culture?

3. Do you think Christian religion is a better religion compare to Benin

culture?

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

The purpose of the study is to:

1. Determine the bearing of the Christian religion to culture.

2. Highlight the influences of Christian religion on culture.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The research is important because it teaches us the relationship between

Christianity and culture. It will expose to the Christian the importance of cultural
heritage within the Benin kingdom, and also it will show us whether culture and
Christianity work hand in hand.

SCOPE OF THE STUDY

The study is designed to find out the impact of Christian religion on culture of
Benin. The study is restricted to Oredo Local Government Area alone.

DEFINITION OF TERMS

Christianity:

Religion:

Culture:

Belief:

Value:

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 ABSTRACT

Christianity as a religion has affected all spheres of life among the people of
Nigeria. A careful study of the religious background of the Nnewi people will
show that Christianity has found its way into both the urban and rural areas of the
Nnewi society. This study is aimed at looking into the relevance of
Christianity in the development of the Nnewi nation. For better understanding of
the project, a brief introduction to the lifestyle of the Nnewi people prior to the
advent of Christianity will also be made. The division of work for this study is
as follows:-1 General background study via the aims, methodology and
clarification of terms.2 The historical origin and organizational lifestyle of the
Nnewi people. 3 The advent and expansion of Christianity looking at the
Nnewi traditional setting before Christianity. 4 Contributions of the Christian
religion to the Nnewi nation. 5 Evaluations, Recommendations and
Conclusions.

CHAPTER ONE

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND

Christianity as a religion has been involved in many cities of the world since the
emergence of the world. However, with the various denominations in Christianity,
I would focus more on Anglicanism. This project work would therefore
encompass the history of Christianity in Nigeria, the spread to Nnewi in Anambra
State with the case study of the Anglicans stressing out its impacts. The history of
Christianity in Nigeria especially in Nnewi town which is among the towns in
Igboland located in Anambra State in the South eastern part of Nigeria present
certain discoveries that are both positive and negative. Discoveries has been made
on the people of Nnewi and their culture, they are known to have great cultural
value that makes them unique. Religion is part of them and thus they cannot live
without it. An adage says :- “Okpukpem bu ndum. Onye nwere
Okpukpem Nwere ndum”. This means :- “My religion is my
life. Whoever takes away my religion takes my
life”.1 The Igbo people place so much values and attachment to their religion.
With the advent of Christianity in Nigeria, especially in the Igbo land, the
traditional religion of the Igbo people began to encounter some challenges. Some
of the traditional practices were abandoned when Christianity took a firm ground
in Nnewi town. The first Christian contact in Nigeria occurred in the fifteenth
century when the Portuguese introduced Roman Catholicism. However, it was
virtually extinguished over the following 200 years until Roman Catholic
missionaries returned in the 1800s.Since then, the catholic church has grown and
now claims approximately 19 million members and adherents mainly in the south
east. The Anglican church of Nigeria now numbers over 11 million members
and adherents. The growth of the church of Nigeria (Anglican Communion) since
the end of the slave trade has been a very rapid one. It is interesting to know that
within two centuries, Christianity and indeed Anglicanism which started like
child’s play in Badagry and Abeokuta has spread like wild fire to all nooks and
crannies of our country Nigeria. Christianity came into Nigeria in the 15th
century through the efforts of Augustinian and Capuchin monks from
Portugal.However, it was not until 1842 that Henry Townsend of the church
missionary society sowed the seed of Anglicanism properly when he landed in
Badagry from Freetown, Sierra Leone.2 The background of this study is that
Christianity has come to stay in Nigeria and states within the country. Although,
Christianity poses a form of threat due to its various denominations which
sometimes speak in different voices. Christianity in Nnewi, Anambra state is
what I would research on and expose in this work, I would specialize more on the
Anglicans, other things to be considered in this work include the origin of the
people of Nnewi, their religion and activities of the missionaries and how they
affected the traditional religion of the Nnewi people. 1.2 AIMS AND
OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY - This work sets to expose the impacts of
Christianity in totality to the Nnewi people but focusing on the Anglicans. - To put
away the people’s faith in the powers of idol worshipping and to help them find
peace in Christianity. - This work is aimed at looking into the relevance of
Christianity in the development of the Nnewi nation. - To expose the relation of
the Anglican church to other denominations and its emergence in Nnewi nation. -
To examine the origin of the Nnewi people and their religion, how peculiar it is to
them and also the activities of the Christian missionaries in Nnewi, Anambra state.
- To make suggestions/recommendations on how the Anglican church of Nigeria
can reflect the life patterns of Nnewi traditional society. 1.3 CLARIFICATION
OF TERMS AND CONCEPTS There are three basic terms that needs
clarification in this work : Christianity, Anglicans and Traditional society. 1.3. 1
Christianity A monotheistic system of beliefs and practices on the old
Testament and the teachings of Jesus as embodied in the New Testament and
emphasizing the role of Jesus as savior. The Christian religion was founded on the
life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth.3 Christianity is today the world’s
most wide spread religion, with more than billion members, mainly divided
between the Roman Catholic, Protestant, and Eastern Orthodox churches. It
originated among the Jewish followers of Jesus of Nazareth, who believed that he
was the promised Messiah (or ‘Christ’) but the Christian church soon became an
independent organization, largely through the missionary efforts of St. Paul. In 313
Constantine ended official persecution in the Roman Empire and in Theodosius I
recognized it as the state religion. Most Christians believe in one God in three
persons (the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit) and that Jesus is the son of God
who rose from the dead after being crucified; a Christian hopes to attain eternal life
after death through faith in Jesus Christ and tries and try to live by his teachings as
recorded in the New Testament. 1.3.2 Anglicans The name “Anglican”
means “of England” but the Anglican church exists worldwide. It began in the
sixth century in England, when Pope Gregory the Great sent St. Augustine to
Britain to bring a more disciplined Apostolic succession to the celtic Christians.
The Anglican Church evolved as part of the Roman Church, but the celtic
influence was folded back in the Roman portion of the church in many ways. The
Anglican church was spread worldwide first by English colonization and then by
English-speaking missionaries. The adherents of these practices are known as ‘The
Anglicans’.4 The word “church” has been misused, thus Billy Graham one of
the American evangelist of the twentieth century says : The Invisible
Church is that larger body of believers who, down through the ages,
have sincerely trusted Jesus as Lord and savior. One becomes a
member of the Church when he receives Jesus Christ as his Lord and
Savior. The visible church is the present day universal church,
composed of the local group of Christian .In it are both the wheat and
tares….5 The Anglican church is the church of England and its overseas off
shoots. Anglicanism is a protestant firm of Christianity. It is sometimes seen as
being the middle way, between Roman Catholicism and extreme Protestantism.
This is because, in the English Reformation, the English church kept the early
catholic ministry of bishops, priests and deacons. The critical point which led to
the Anglican church was the outright rejection of the Pope and so of the catholic
church as an organization. 1.3.3 Traditional Society This is the third term
I would like to clarify for the progresss of this work. In sociology,
traditional society refers to a society characterized by an orientation to the past, not
the future, with a predominant role for custom and habit.6 The term “traditional”
refers to those societies that are small scale, are derived from indigenous and often
ancient cultural practices. 1.4 METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY The method
or research for this study is the radical, practical approach. I would rely on
quantitative and quantitative sources of social research such as surveys, interviews
with some lay and ordained members of the Anglican church of Nigeria, analysis
of documents from school libraries, institutes, online research ( E- library),
journals, text books and research papers. This course is illustrated with a wide
range of hypothetical and real-life case studies. 1.5 SCOPE AND LIMITATION
OF THE STUDY This work would focus on Christianity in Nnewi, Anambra
State. An attempt will be made to bring out the methods the Christian missionaries
(Anglicans) used that led to the establishment and growth of Christianity in Nnewi.
The scope so indeterminate and the interested parties amongst potential readers
almost infinitely varied.7 Limitation to indepth stories/histories from materials.
ENDNOTES 1 Paul Todd, “Christianity in Nigeria”. 2 H. Nkem
and M. V. Chigeze, “Foreign Missionary Background and Indigenous
Evangelization in Igboland” (Germany: LIT Verlag Munster, 1972) p. x 3
The free dictionary at Farlex, the free dictionary. com. oxford University press. 4
The Anglican domain: “Church history” (Wikipedia)
http://anglican.org/church/churchHistory.html. 5 Billy Graham, “The Billy
Graham Christian workers hand book”, (Worldwide publication, Minneapolis,
1984) p. 58 6 S. Langlois , Traditions, Social 7 Bruce Kaye, “An
Introduction to World Anglicanism”, (Cambridge University Press 2008).

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Omoruyi (Austin) Aigbe
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Published Dec 7, 2014
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Impact of Catholic Mission on Education in Nigeria

By: Omoruyi Austin Aigbe (B.PA, Ekpoma, M.PA New York)

Abstract

Over a hundred years ago, the missionaries brought western education to where we
know today as Nigeria. They inculcated in their students moral education. Many of
the students grew to become teachers. These teachers produced by the
missionaries, as well as their students were seen as nation builders (odozi obodo).

The Catholic Mission is one of the most popular orthodox and oldest Christian
Churches that exists in the contemporary world. The Mission has not only
contributed to the growth of moral behavior amongst the citizenry of the globe but
has also remained an active player in the educational development of many
countries across the different continents of the world. Nigeria is one of the
countries where the educational-wind of the Catholic Mission has been and is
blowing. The history of the Catholic education in Nigeria is traceable to the
colonial era when the missionaries came with “the bible and their pen” as tools for
the indoctrination of the Christian faith. They began to build missionary schools in
all knocks and crannies of the country.

In Northern Nigeria, the Mission was resisted in planting Mission schools, while it
was easily planted in Southern Nigeria; where people saw the mission school as
‘messiah’ towards an end to their mass illiteracy. As you may know, poverty and
illiteracy are highly correlated or associated, this may explain the high level of
illiteracy and poverty in the North, when compared to the South. This paper
attempt to conceptualize the impact of the Mission on Education in Nigeria. It is
divided into four parts; first, it subject education to a conceptual clarification,
secondly, it discusses the purpose of Catholic education, third, it focuses on the
Mission schools and lastly looks at the impact of the Mission on education in
Nigeria.

1.0 Introduction

The over 100-year-old story of the Catholic Church in Nigeria has been told by
different scholars on a different platform, with different perspectives, relying on
different sources. But, this paper will not necessary focus on the 100 years old
story as it were, it will discuss the impact of the mission on education in Nigeria,
which is anchored on the principle of saving souls by reconciling man with his
creator through preaching and practicing the good news.

However, it is vital to note the effort of Henry the Navigator and the Portuguese
Roman Catholic priests who, in the 15th century, accompanied traders and officials
to the West African coast, including Benin. The priests, with the support of the
Oba of Benin’s palace, built several churches to serve the Portuguese community
and a small number of African converts.

Before we launch into the deep, let attempt to conceptualize education:

1.1 What is Education?

In Nigeria and probably many other parts of the world, when people talk about
education, especially in relation to the education of their children, they almost
invariably refer to the learning which takes place in school resulting in the
acquisition of knowledge and skills, passing examinations and obtaining
certificates. They tend to equate the quality of education with the level of
performance and achievement of learners. Education is, however, much more than
the acquisition of knowledge, skills and certificates.

Unfortunately, educationist and educational philosophers do not seem to agree

among themselves on the definition of education. They have tended to define
education differently even though in the final analysis they would seem to be
saying the same thing from differently perspective. It is not the intention in this
paper to undertake a philosophical definition of education as stated by secular
educationists and philosophers of education. Since this paper is concerned with the
impact of Catholic mission on education, it suffices to limit the definition of
education to the definition as stated in the philosophy of education of the Catholic
Church.

In the Encyclical Letter of 1929, probably the most authoritative document on

Catholic education; Pope Pius (X1) defined education as the sacred task of forming
the character of the child and aiding him/her to attain the purpose of existence. It is
stated in CAN.795 of the Code of Canon Law that “education must pay respect to
the development of the whole person so that all may attain their eternal destiny and
at the same time promote the common good of society. Children and young
persons are therefore to be cared for in such a way that their physical, moral and
intellectual talents may be develop in a pleasant manner so that they may attain a
greater sense of responsibility and a right use of freedom and be formed to take an
active part in social life.” These two definitions which have said more or less the
same thing, except that the definition in the Canon Law is more elaborate.

The Catholic Church’s conceptualization of education has been variously restated

differently by some persons and bodies. Francis Cardinal Arinze (1965) defined
education as “the development of the whole man; soul, body, intellect, will,
emotion, and physical well-being.” The Catholic Bishops of Lagos, West and Mid-
West defined education in their Pastoral Letter in 1971 as “the harmonious
development of our physical, moral and intellectual endowments.” The Catholic
Bishops of Nigeria in 1972 described education as consisting “not only in the
aggregate of all experiences that enlighten the mind, increase knowledge and
develop abilities, it includes moral and religious education which help to develop
attitudes and strengthen the will.”

1.2 PURPOSE OF CATHOLIC EDUCATION

As you may know, when the purpose of a thing is not known, abuse is inevitable. It
is stated in the Second Vatican Council declaration; that the “true education is
directed towards the formation of the human person in view of his final end and the
good of the society to which he will, as an adult, have a share.” The document
stated further that “the purpose of education is to help children and young people
to develop harmoniously their physical, moral and intellectual qualities. They
should be trained to acquire gradually a more perfect sense of responsibility in the
proper development of their own lives by constant effort in the pursuit of liberty,
overcoming obstacles with unwavering courage and perseverance.”

St. Thomas Aquinas stated that “the purpose of education is to aid man to attain the
purpose of existence and the purpose of man’s existence with God. Pope Pius (X1)
affirmed this purpose of education when he stated that “there is no true education
which is not totally directed to the last end since the whole purpose of education is
to shape man in this mortal life that he will be able to reach the last end for which
his creator has destined him.” He stated further that “the immediate and specific
purpose of Catholic education, and by extension Christian education is to
cooperate with divine grace in forming the true and perfect Christian to express
and form Christ Himself in whom we have been regenerated by baptism.”

The Church maintains that since education is a means of perfecting the individual
for life, perfecting society and leading the individual to God, religion should be the
core and the center of the education of the child. In other words, since the Church
is the custodian of theological truths and the moral values which follow from them
and which is the purpose of education to inculcate in man, it follows that the
teaching of the Church should constitute the basis of any education of the child.

The purpose of education is not just to make converts. Rather, it is intended to

make good citizens of learners. Religious education will make learners to grow up
to behave in accordance with the norms of society. Pope Pius (X11) pointed out in
1946 that if children were deprived of knowledge of their faith, they would be
hindered in their moral development and would be led astray in their spiritual life
and by extension their societal development. This is what we see today in our
society, graduates who have gone astray and has become a burden to society.

1.3 CATHOLIC SCHOOLS

In order to perform her role effectively in Nigeria education, the Church requires
schools. CAN. 796(1) states: “Among the means of advancing education, Christ’s
faithful are to consider schools as of great importance since they are the principal
means of helping parents to fulfill their role in education.” The Sacred
Congregation for Catholic Education has defined school as “a place for integral
formation by means of a systematic assimilation of culture.” It further states that
the school should not be merely a place where values which are being actively
lived are presented but also be a community whose values are being transmitted
through the interpersonal and sincere relationship of its members and through
individual and cooperative adherence to the outlook on life that permeates the
school.

It is significant to note that the Mission needs not just a school for the purpose of
carrying out her obligations to children and the wishes of their parents, the Mission
requires Catholic schools. According to CAN. 803 (1) “a Catholic school is
understood to be one which is under the control of the competent ecclesiastical
authority or one which in a written document is acknowledged as Catholic by the
ecclesiastical authority.” It is stated in CAN. 803 (2) that “formation and education
in a Catholic school must be based on the principles of Catholic doctrine and the
teachers must be outstanding in true doctrine and upright life.” I dire to say, that at
the root of Mission education is leadership by example.

Pope Benedict (XV1) in an address in Washington DC (April 2008) to heads of

colleges stated that colleges must be unwavering in their commitment to Catholic
teaching in everything they do, from the classroom to the dormitory and that
academic freedom in a Catholic college must be informed and tempered by the
Catholic faith and the teachings of the Church.

Pope Benedict (XVI) stated further that students must receive authentic Catholic
teachings. Colleges, he stated, have the duty to ensure that students receive
instruction in Catholic doctrine and practice. This requires that public witness to
the way of Christ, as found in the Gospel and upheld by the Church, shapes all
aspect of an institution’s life, both inside and outside the classroom. Divergence
from this vision, he concluded, weakens Catholic identity.

1.4 Impact of the Mission on Education

The Catholic mission; feels responsible to contribute concretely to the progress of
the society within which it works; for example the mission is capable of searching
for ways to make education accessible to all those who should benefit from it
especially the poor or members of minority groups who customarily have been
deprived from education. It is not enough to establish schools that ordinary church
members cannot afford to send their wards; hence corruption is thriving as
everyone is running the rat race to make up; thereby spending more than what they
earn.

The contribution of the Church to the educational development of Nigeria remain

unparalleled. The mission used their limited resources to build schools all over the
place and products of these schools have competed and still completing favorably
with their counterparts anywhere in the world. Generations of our best teachers,
professors, lawyers, medical doctors and other professionals were trained in places
like Immaculate Conception College (ICC), Benin. I am a proud Old Boy of the
great ICC, Benin.

Let me quickly state, without equivocation, that the first Executive Governor and
the best Governor, Bendel State (Edo and Delta) ever had, Prof. Ambrose
Folorunsho Alli is a product of Catholic Mission, he was admitted to ICC, Benin in
1944, which means to say, he was among the first student of our great school, no
wonder he performed beyond measure.

Up to 1970, many of the schools in various places in the Nigeria, especially in

Southern Nigeria were either established or managed by the Mission. Like in other
parts of the world, it has always been a thing of pride to associate with a Catholic
Mission owned or run school. Without the Church, there is no way Nigeria could
have made the stupendous progress it has recorded in education, especially from
1945 when the Second World War came to an end.

The Mission impacted on the Nigerian indigenous system of education. They were
after formal training of the mind, for this reason they encouraged boarding
accommodation so as to supervise, control and direct the learner along proper lines
(Nnamdi 2002).
It is important to mention here that, most of the guidelines set by the Mission on
education in Nigeria, still serves as the basis for the modern day educational
policies, education laws and techniques of educational administration in Nigeria
today (Martins 2005).

Catholic Mission can well be described as the barometer of the Nigeria’s

development hence schools were the Mission’s most important social institutions
in the country. Whatever the motives in the historical and sociological perspectives
may be, the mission schools were the greatest service done to Nigerian people.

I will like to draw your attention at this juncture, that most of the leading African
nationals, were educational products of the Catholic Missions. For Nigeria, these
include Nnamdi Azikiwe, Obafemi Awolowo, Herbert Marcauley, Anthony
Enahoro and a host of others. Without these personalities the dream of having a
sovereign Nigeria in 1960 would not have been realized.

In conclusion, Catholic Mission, has contributed so much to the educational and

social development of Nigeria both in terms of human development and physical
transformation. It is some of such education-oriented developmental facilities that
one of the militant Islamist sects in the country popularly known as Boko Haram is
currently poised to overwhelming. God forbid!

Catholicism in Nigeria
Catholicism arrived in the territory that would come to be known as Nigeria with
Portuguese explorers in the 15th century, though their missionary efforts were
largely unsuccessful and Catholicism virtually disappeared by the 17th century.
Modern Catholic missions were established by priests from the Society of African
Missions of Lyon in 1865, beginning in Lagos, and a vicariate was established in
Benin in 1870. By 1920, numerous missions had appeared throughout Igboland,
eventually outnumbering Anglican Church Missionary Society missions. Holy
Ghost priests and priests from the St. Patrick’s Society arrived in 1932. In 1950,
the first archdiocese of Kaduna, Lagos, and Onitsha were established. The world’s
largest Catholic seminary is located is Bigard Memorial in Enugu in southeastern
Nigeria.
Catholic schools grew increasingly popular; while Protestant mission schools
taught in local languages, Catholic schools promoted English, which was regarded
as a means of advancement in colonial society by the Igbo. Catholic missionaries
also reached potential converts in the provision of medical care. In 1957, the
Eastern Region saw the introduction of universal primary education, which was
intended to secularize education and to limit the influence of private organizations,
such as the Catholic Church. Catholics protested, viewing the move as evidence of
discrimination against the Church and eventually exceptions were made allowing
the schools to remain in operation. However, under the 1970 Public Education
Edict no. 2, the East Central State assumed control over all private schools
following the civil war centered in Biafra.

The Catholic Church in Nigeria became deeply involved in the civil war between
the Biafran Igbo and the Nigerian Federal forces from 1967 to 1970. Triggered by
a series of attacks on Igbo communities in the north and an Igbo-led failed military
coup, the civil war was, for the Biafran Igbo, a holy war in which the Biafran Igbo
imagined themselves as a vanguard against Islam. Over half of the Catholic
missions in Nigeria were located in the eastern region, and the few Protestant
missions there tended to work outside of Igbo communities. Catholic missions,
including the Irish Holy Ghost Fathers and the Holy Rosary Sisters followed their
Igbo congregations into Biafran territory as the Federal forces encircled them.
They provided news of the immense suffering wrought by the civil war to outside
media, and helped garner support for the Biafrans from the international Christian
community—so much so that they were criticized for prolonging a hopeless cause
by encouraging relief aid and giving hope to the Biafrans. In 1968 a Vatican
mission visited Biafra, and Pope Paul VI (who had been the first European cardinal
to visit Nigeria in 1962) personally spoke out on behalf of the Biafran Igbo.
Missionaries who supported the Biafran Igbo were expelled following the war—
roughly 500 total—and no foreign priests were permitted to work in Nigeria until
the mid-1970s.

Numerous lay organizations emerged in the post-war period that supplemented the
Catholic Church’s missionary efforts, its charitable work, and which increasingly
gave the Church an indigenous, Africanized flavor, including the St. Anthony’s
Guild, St. Jude’s Society, the Legion of Mary and the Block Rosary Crusade. Lay
societies provided an important space for internal dialogue and external interface
between the Church and followers of indigenous religious traditions, and through
them, certain concepts and traditions were accepted within Catholicism (for
example, an acceptance of the Igbo ozo rank, a politico-religious title), Catholics
were taught to be welcoming towards followers of traditional religions,
emphasizing forgiveness instead of intolerance, and the terms “pagan” and
“idolatry” were dropped in discussions of traditional religion adherents.

In recent years the Catholic Church has seen massive growth in Nigeria, where
parishioners are attracted by schools, medical services, and social services that the
state has failed to provide with quality and consistency. As seminarians dwindle in
North America and Europe, Nigerian and other West African priests serve parishes
far from home (one in five American priests is foreign-born). At the same time,
churches in North America and Europe provide outreach to Nigerian parishioners,
often led by Nigerian priests. For example, the Igbo Catholic Foundation at San
Francisco’s Sacred Heart Parish provides a Catholic context in which Igbo
immigrants can connect with, learn about, and celebrate their culture.