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Department of Civil Engineering, A.I.T. Page 1

Chapter 1:
INTRODUCTION
Soil compaction is the process to increase the soil (ground) density in order to make use
the ground surface for development, i.e. building, road, etc. The volume of void space is
reduced by applying high loads over a small area to force the air out of an unsaturated soil
mass. What happens to air spaces when someone steps on the soil or a piece of equipment
drivesover the soil? The soil compacts again.
In Geotechnical engineering, soil compaction is the process in which a stress applied to a
soil causes densification as air is displaced from the pores between the soil grains.The
soils at the given site are often less than ideal for the intended purpose. They may be
weak/highly compressible or have a higher permeability than desirable from the
geotechnical engineering point of view. In such situations, one has to try to stabilize or
improve the engineering properties of such soils. This can be achieved through
compaction [1].
The better the compaction, the better will be shear strength, density and bearing capacity
of the individual layers and with that the lasting quality of the embankment of road
construction.Rollers are used for compaction since long olden days. Over a thousand
years ago the Chinese used huge cylindrical shaped stone rollers for road works, and the
world famous builders of Rome used towed stone rollers. The self propelled road rollers
powered by steam engines were built in 19
th
century .As the time passed the development
of compaction equipments has taken place rapidly[2].
Soil compaction is one of the most critical components in the construction of roads,
airfields, embankments, and foundations. The durability and stability of a structure are
related to the achievement of proper soil compaction. Structural failure of roads and
airfields and the damage caused by foundation settlement can often be traced back to the
failure to achieve proper soil compaction. It is a standard procedure in the construction
of earth structures, such as embankments, subgrades, and bases for road and airfield
pavements. No other construction process that is applied to natural soils produces so
marked a change in their physical properties at so low a cost as compaction (when it is
properly controlled to produce the desired results) [2].
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1.1 Soil Compaction

Soil compaction is defined as the method of mechanically increasing the density of soil.
In construction, this is a significant part of the building process. If performed improperly,
settlement of the soil could occur and result in unnecessary maintenance costs or structure
failure. Almost all types of building sites and construction projects utilize mechanical
compaction techniques.

Compaction involves an expulsion of air without a significant change in the amount of
water in the soil mass. Thus, the moisture content of the soil, which is defined as the ratio
of the Weight of water to the weight of dry soil particles, is normally the same for loose,
un compacted soil as for the same soil after compaction. Since the amount of air is
reduced without change in the amount of water in the soil mass, the degree of saturation
(the ratio of the volume of water to the combined volume of air and water) increases.
When used as a construction material, the significant engineering properties of Soils are
its shear strength, its compressibility, and its permeability. Compaction of the soil
generally increases its shear strength, decreases its compressibility, and decreases its
permeability [3].

1.2 Why compact?
There are five principle reasons to compact soil:
1. Increases load-bearing capacity
2. Prevents soil settlement and frost damage
3. Provides stability
4. Reduces water seepage, swelling and contraction
5. Reduces settling of soil
We compact (densify) fine grained soils so they absorb less free moisture. Soil tends to
absorb moisture with time and softens, promoting bearing and to reduce differential
settlement. We also compact soil and rock mixtures to increase their effective shear
strength, making them more able to resist gross deformations .Excessive settlement may
eventually lead to complete slope failure hencewe compact soils to reduce the long-term
settlement [4].

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Chapter 2:

EFFECTS OF POOR COMPACTION



Fig 1: EFFECTS OF POOR COMPACTION
In the slide above, you see six examples of structures that have been compromised
because of poorly compacted soil.

In the first example, a structure has cracked due to the soil below it failing due to lack of
compaction. In the second example, a concrete slab has cracked due to poor soil
underneath it. The third example shows the joint in a pipeline which could separate due to
poor supporting soil. The fourth example shows a foundation cracking and falling away
due to the soil settling. The fifth example shows a concrete block designed to support a
structure tipped to one side as the soil is not supporting it evenly. The last example shows
a trench settling, which jeopardizes the pipe that runs through it [4].



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Chapter 3:

SOIL TYPES AND CONDITIONS

Considering soil compaction, the two broad classifications are cohesive soils and
cohesionless, or noncohesive, soils. Cohesive soils are those that contain sufficient
quantities of silt or clay to render soil mass virtually impermeable when properly
compacted. Such soils are all varieties of clays, silts, and silty or clayey sands and
gravels. By contrast, cohesionless soils are the relatively clean sands and gravels, which
remain pervious even when well-compacted [2].

Every soil type behaves differently with respect to maximum density and optimum
moisture. Therefore, each soil type has its own unique requirements and controls both in
the field and for testing purposes. Soil types are commonly classified by grain size,
determined by passing the soil through a series of sieves to screen or separate the
different grain sizes.

There are three basic soil groups:
1. Cohesive
2. Granular
3. Organic (this soil is not suitable for compaction and will not be discussed here).

Cohesive soil:
Cohesive soils have the smallest particles. Clay has a particle size range of .00004" to
.002". Silt ranges from .0002" to .003". Clay is used in embankment fills and retaining
pond beds.

Granular soil:
Granular soils range in particle size from .003" to .08" (sand) and .08" to 1.0" (fine to
medium gravel). Granular soils are known for their water-draining properties.


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Organic soil:
These are partly decomposed vegetable matter. These make soil unsuitable for
construction purposes, and needs to be removed and replaced with suitable soil.

Most soils are made up of a mixture of these basic soil types and are classified as sandy
clay, clayey sand, sandy silt etc. Study of the properties of these types of soil greatly
helps in selection of proper compaction equipment [6].

3.1 Soil Properties Affected By Compaction

Principal soil properties affected by compaction include-
1. Settlement.
2. Shearing resistance.
3. Movement of water.
4. Volume change.
Compaction does not improve the desirable properties of all soils to the same degree. In
certain cases, the engineer must carefully consider the effect of compaction on these the
desire to hold volume change to a minimum may be more important than just an increase
in shearing resistance.

Settlement: It is the decrease in surface elevation of the fill material within the
embankment. A principal advantage resulting from the compaction of soils used in
embankments is that it reduces settlement that might be caused by consolidation of the
soil within the body of the embankment.

Shearing resistance: It is the soils ability to resist slippage when a force is applied.
Increasing density by compaction usually increases shearing resistance. This effect is
highly desirable in that it may allow the use of a thinner pavement structure over a
compacted subgrade.

Movement of water: When soil particles are forced together by compaction, both the
number of voids contained in the soil mass and the size of the individual void spaces are
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reduced. This change in voids has an obvious effect on the movement of water through
the soil. One effect is to reduce the permeability, thus reducing the seepage of water.

Volume Change: Change in volume (shrinkage and swelling)is an important soil
property, which is critical when soils are used as subgrades for road sand airfield
pavements. Volume change is generally not a great concern in relation to compaction
except for clay soils where compaction does have a marked influence. For these soils, the
greater the density, the greater the potential volume change due to swelling, unless the
soil is restrained [6].














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Chapter 4:
TYPES OF COMPACTION
There are four types of compaction effort on soil or asphalt:
1. Vibration
2. Impact
3. Kneading
4. Pressure
Each of these types is carried out using one of two types of forces: static or vibratory.
Static force relies on the weight of a machine to apply downward pressure on soil, thus
compressing the soil particles. Adding weights to, or removing them from, the
compaction machine can adjust the amount of pressure. Although effective, static
compaction is best suited for the upper soil layers. The types of compaction that fall under
static are kneading and pressure
Vibratory forces, on the other hand, uses mechanically driven force to apply downward
pressure in addition to the weight of the machine. The mechanically driven force is an
applied vibratory force that rotates the eccentric weight of a piston and spring
combination .Compactors achieves compaction through the use of delivering rapid blows,
or impacts, to the surface. This is effective in that it not only compacts the top layers, but
the deeper layers as well. With vibration, the particles are set in motion and moved closer
together to form a high density [7].

4.1 Lab Compaction Test

Tests to determine optimum moisture content are done in the laboratory. The most
common is the Proctor Test, or Modified Proctor Test. A particular soil needs to have an
ideal (or optimum) amount of moisture to achieve maximum density. This is important
not only for durability, but will save money because less compaction effort is needed to
achieve the desired results.

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Proctor Test (ASTM D1557-91)
The Proctor, or Modified Proctor Test, determines the maximum density of a soil needed
for a specific job site. The test first determines the maximum density achievable for the
materials and uses this figure as a reference. Secondly, it tests the effects of moisture on
soil density. The soil reference value is expressed as a percentage of density. These values
are determined before any compaction takes place to develop the compaction
specifications. Modified Proctor values are higher because they take into account higher
densities needed for certain types of construction projects.
Test methods are similar for both tests. [See Figure 4] [4],[8].

Effect of Compactive Effort:

As the compactive effort increases, the maximum dry density increases and OMC
reduces for the same soil.


Fig 3 Effect of Compactive Effort:

The line of optimum moisture contents is usually around 85% saturation and the optimum
moisture content decreases with increasing compactive effort.

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Automated Proctor Equipment Manual Proctor Test


Fig 4 Proctor Test








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4.2 Field Compaction Tests
It is important to know and control the soil density during compaction. Following are
common field tests to determine on the spot if compaction densities are being reached.


Fig 5 Field density Test
Sand Cone Test (ASTM D1556-90)
A small hole (6 x 6 deep) is dug in the compacted material to betested. The soil is
removed and weighed, then dried and weighedagain to determine its moisture content. A
soils moisture is figuredas a percentage. The specific volume of the hole is determined
byfilling it with calibrated dry sand from a jar and cone device. Thedry weight of the soil
removed is divided by the volume of sandneeded to fill the hole. This gives us the density
of the compactedsoil in lbs per cubic foot. This density is compared to the maximum
.Proctor density obtained earlier, which gives us the relative densityof the soil that was
just compacted. [See Figure 6] [8].

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Fig6

Nuclear Density (ASTM D2922-91)
Nuclear density meters are a quick and fairly accurate wayof determining density and
moisture content. The meter usesa radioactive isotope source (Cesium 137) at the soil
surface (backscatter) or from a probe placed into the soil (directtransmission). The isotope
source gives off photons (usuallyGamma rays) which radiate back to the meters detectors
on thebottom of the unit. Dense soil absorbs more radiation than loosesoil and the
readings reflect overall density. Water content (ASTMd3017) can also be read, all within
a few minutes. A relativeProctor density is obtained after comparing maximum density
withthe compaction results from the test. [See Figure 7] [9].



Fig 7




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Chapter 5:
COMPACTION IN FIELD OF CIVIL
In earlier days, embankment design and construction were not given adequate attention.
Embankments were constructed and left for compaction by natural process. Due to loads
imposed by heavier axle loads, very high degree of sub-grade support have become
necessary in present scenario which requires fast and heavy compaction by suitable
compacting equipments. Initially its application was restricted to pavement materials such
as fine crushed rocks, gravels and soft rocks but this has been extended to control of
earthworks in general.
Presently compaction is used in various fields of civil engineering like-
Railways.
Airfield pavements.
Earth structures, such as embankments.
Subgrades, and bases for road.
Harbours.
Foundations of structural buildings etc


Compacting gravel subgrade for runways The main embankment
Bouquet CanyonDam


Compacting flexible pavements Coarse gravel compaction in railways
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5.1 Types of Compaction Equipments

A large variety of mechanical equipments is available for compaction of soil but soil type
and moisture condition will often dictate the type of equipments and method of use [7].

Some important compacting equipment are given below: -
1. Light compacting equipments (Rammers/Plate compactors)
2. Smooth wheel rollers
3. Sheepsfoot rollers
4. Pneumatic tyred rollers
5. Vibratory rollers
6. Grid rollers
7. Dynamic compaction
8. Vibrofloatation
9. High-Energy Impact Roller Compaction
The details about various types of rollers and equipmentsare given as below: -

Rammers:
Rammers are the light compacting equipments used for small areas, which provide impact
load. These may be hand or machine operated.
The area of base is normally 15cm x 15cm or 20cm x 20cm or more. Free fall rammers
can be heavier type also weighing 2 or 3 tonne lifted and dropped by cables to a height of
1 or 2m to compact large rock fragments


Fig 8

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Smooth Wheel Rollers:

These rollers have one large steel drum in front and two steel drums on the rear. The
gross weight of these rollers is in the range of 8-10 tonne. The performance of a smooth
wheel roller depends upon its load per cm width and diameter of the roll.


Fig 9
Sheepsfoot Roller:

For compacting heavy clays and silty clays, sheepsfoot rollers are found to be very
effective. These rollers are employed in road and rail projects. They consist of steel
drum/s on which projecting legs are fixed which may apply pressure up to 14kg/sqcm or
more.



Fig 10

Pneumatic Tyred Rollers:

Pneumatic tyred rollers are used in both earthwork and bituminous work. These rollers
have wheels on both the axles but they are staggered so that they can compact the layers
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with uniform pressure throughout the width. The front axle may have four pneumatic
smooth wheels where as there can be five wheels on the rear axles.


Fig11


Vibratory Rollers:

Latest specifications of earthwork invariably recommend vibratory rollers. These rollers
are helpful from several considerations like:-
(i) Higher compaction level can be achieved with maximum work
(ii) Compaction can be done up to greater depths
(iii) Output is many times more than conventional rollers

Vibratory rollers are similar to smooth wheel rollers with the modification that the drum
or drums are made to vibrate by employing rotating or reciprocating mass.


Fig12

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Grid Rollers:

These rollers have a cylindrical heavy steel surface consisting of a network of steel bars
forming a grid with squire holes and may be ballasted with concrete blocks. They are
generally towed units and can operate at speeds between 5 and 24 kmph. Typical weights
vary between 5.5 tonnes net and 15 tonnes ballasted [7].



Fig 13
Deep Dynamic Compaction(DDC):



Fig14

Deep Dynamic Compaction (DDC) densifies marginal materials using high levels of
impact energy at the surface.A tamper with a weight of 5 to 40 tons is dropped using a
crane from a height of 30 to 120 feet. The tamper is dropped in a systematically
controlled pattern on a coordinate grid layout. The impacts are spaced at a distance
depending on the depth of the compressible layer, the depth to the groundwater, and grain
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size distribution. Five to 15 blows per grid point are applied. The first phase is the high-
energy phase to improve the deeper layers. This is followed by a low-energy phase to
densify the upper layers. In the low-energy phase, the tamper is only raised 15 to 20 feet.
Backfilling the craters and additional passes may be required [10].






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Vibroflotation:



Fig 15

Suitable for granular soils
Practiced in several forms:
1. Vibrocompaction
2. Vibro-replacement




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Vibro-Compaction:

The vibrator penetrates to design depth, aided by water and/or air flushing. The vibrator is
then raised in discrete increments following a pre-determined holding time or until a
build-up of resistance at each level indicates that the desired degree of compaction has
been achieved. If the objective is to maintain original site elevation, additional material
may be introduced to compensate for surface lowering induced by the process.

Vibro-Compaction ground improvement has been effective in treating suitable subsurface
conditions to depths greater than 125 feet, with a more practical limit of around 70 feet
for crane-mounted systems and 28 feet for excavator-mounted systems.

Vibro Replacement:

Vibro replacement was used for a similar process using water as the jetting medium with
the addition of a graded stone aggregate added down the probe hole and forced out
laterally into the formation soils, to create stone columns. Latterly, Vibro replacement is
also done using compressed air for jetting in clayey soils above the water table.

Columns are constructed by the introduction of natural or recycled aggregate backfill to
the tip of the vibrator. The horizontal action of the vibrator displaces the stone laterally to
form a dense structural element. As successive stone columns are formed, the intervening
soil is densified, creating an integrated soil/stone matrix capable of supporting high,
vertical loads.


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Stage1 Vibrator makes a hole in weak ground.
Stage 2 hole backfilled
Stage 3 and compacted
Stage 4 Densely compacted stone column
Vibro Stone Column (Bottom feed method):Method does not require water for
penetration thus avoiding the disposal of large quantities of muck and also making
environmental friendly.
Rig used: Vibrocat, operational advantage is it is able to exert a pull down force
improving penetration speed
Vibrocat feeds the Coarse granular material to the tip of vibrator with the aid of
pressurized air.Installation method consists of alternate step of penetration and retraction.
During retraction gravel runs into the annular space created and then compacted using
vibrator thrusts and compressed air.


VIBROFLOTATION PROBE SPACING
Spacing of the grid varies depending on soil type, density to be achieved and
probe/vibrator characteristics, but generally lies in the range of 1.5 to 3.5m[11].









High-Energy Impact Roller Compaction:
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Figure 16

High-energy impact rollers (IR) have been increasingly used for earthworks by
compacting on-site soils. The IR applies high energy to the ground and densifies deeper
soils than conventional rollers and plate-type compactors. A trial program was
implemented on the third runway of the Shanghai Pudong International Airport in China
to validate the performance of the IR technology. Field monitoring and in-situ testing
were undertaken during or after the IR compaction. The cone penetration data indicated
that significant improvement in soil properties was measured up to a depth of 4 m after 20
to 25 passes of compaction. However, the improvement of the properties of the very soft
silty clay at the depth of 1 to 2 m was limited. The vibration monitoring data suggested
that the IR compaction with 12-ton impact module would not cause damage to buildings
at a distance of 9.5 m away from the boundary of the compaction path.

One disadvantage of this technology is that the high-impact forces disturb (i.e., loosen)
the top 0.25 to 1.5 ft of the surface so the top layer needs additional compaction with
conventional rollers. The vibrations caused by the impact rollers and their effect on
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nearby structures (e.g., underground utilities/pipe lines or nearby building structures) are
important to consider with this technology[12].

COMPACTION: ASSOCIATED COSTS

From the graph we can say that High-energy impact rollers is effective and economical up
to a depth of 4m. Deep Dynamic Compaction is effective up to 6m andVibro compaction
is best suited and economic for depth more than 10 to 12m [11].









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Equipments Most suitable soils Typical applications
S Sm mo oo ot th h w wh he ee el l
r ro ol ll le er rs s, , s st ta at ti ic c o or r
v vi ib br ra at ti in ng g

W We el ll l- -g gr ra ad de ed d s sa an nd d- -g gr ra av ve el l
m mi ix xt tu ur re es s, , c cr ru us sh he ed d r ro oc ck k, ,
a as sp ph ha al lt t

R Ru un nn ni in ng g s su ur rf fa ac ce e, , b ba as se e c co ou ur rs se e, ,
s su ub bg gr ra ad de es s f fo or r r ro oa ad ds s a an nd d r ru un nw wa ay ys s

R Ru ub bb be er r- -t ti ir re ed d r ro ol ll le er rs s

C Co oa ar rs se e- -g gr ra ai in ne ed d s so oi il ls s w wi it th h
s so om me e f fi in ne es s

R Ro oa ad ds s a an nd d a ai ir rf fi ie el ld d s su ub bg gr ra ad de e a an nd d b ba as se e
c co ou ur rs se e p pr ro oo of f- -r ro ol ll li in ng g

G Gr ri id d r ro ol ll le er rs s

W We ea at th he er re ed d r ro oc ck k, , w we el ll l- -
g gr ra ai in ne ed d c co oa ar rs se e s so oi il ls s
s sa an nd d- -g gr ra av ve el l m mi ix xt tu ur re es s
S Su ub bg gr ra ad de e, , s su ub bb ba as se e. .
S Su ub bg gr ra ad de e l la ay ye er rs s
S Sh he ee ep p f fo oo ot t r ro ol ll le er rs s: :
s st ta at ti ic c
F Fi in ne e- -g gr ra ai in ne ed d s so oi il ls s w wi it th h
m mo or re e t th ha an n 2 20 0% % f fi in ne es s
D Da am ms s, , e em mb ba an nk km me en nt ts s, ,s su ub bg gr ra ad de e f fo or r
a ai ir rf fi ie el ld ds s, , h hi ig gh hw wa ay ys s
V Vi ib br ra at ti in ng g p pl la at te e ( (l li ig gh ht t) ) C Co oa ar rs se e- -g gr ra ai in ne ed d s so oi il ls s, , 4 4 t to o
8 8% % f fi in ne es s
S Sm ma al ll l p pa at tc ch he es s
T Ta am mp pe er rs s, , r ra am mm me er rs s A Al ll l t ty yp pe es s D Di if ff fi ic cu ul lt t- -a ac cc ce es ss s a ar re ea as s
I Im mp pa ac ct t r ro ol ll le er rs s W Wi id de e r ra an ng ge e o of f m mo oi is st t a an nd d
s sa at tu ur ra at te ed d s so oi il ls s
S Su ub bg gr ra ad de e e ea ar rt th hw wo or rk ks s ( (e ex xc ce ep pt t
s su ur rf fa ac ce e) )

5.2Factors Affecting Compaction inthe Field
Compaction of a particular soil is affected by following given factors

(i) COMPACTIVE EFFORT

In modern construction projects, heavy compaction machinery is deployed to provide
compaction energy. Types of machinery required are decided based on type of soil to be
compacted. Different type of action is effective in different type of soils such as for
cohesive soils; sheepsfoot rollers or pneumatic rollers provide the kneading action. Silty
soils can be effectively compacted by sheepsfoot roller/pneumatic roller or smooth wheel
roller. For compacting sandy and gravelly soil, vibratory rollers are most effective. If
granular soils have some fines, both smooth wheel and pneumatic rollers can be used.
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(ii) MOISTURE CONTENT

Proper control of moisture content in soil is necessary for achieving desired density.
Maximum density with minimum compacting effort can be achieved by compaction of
soil near its OMC (Optimum Moisture Content). If natural moisture content of the soil is
less than OMC, calculated amount of water should be added to soil with sprinkler
attached to water tanker and mixed with soil by motor grader for uniform moisture
content. When soil is too wet, it is required to be dried by aeration to reach up to OMC.

(iii) SOIL TYPE

Type of soil has a great influence on its compaction characteristics. Normally, heavy
clays, clays and silt offer higher resistance to compaction where as sandy soils and coarse
grained or gravelly soils are amenable for easy compaction. The coarse-grained soils
yield higher densities in comparison to clays. A well-graded soil can be compacted to
higher density.

(iv) LAYER THICKNESS

The more the thickness of layer of earth subjected to field compaction, the less the energy
input per unit weight of soil and hence, less is the compaction under each pass of the
roller. Suitable thickness of soil of each layer is necessary to achieve uniform thickness.
Layer thickness depends upon type of soil involved and type of roller, its weight and
contact pressure of its drums. Normally, 200-300 mm layer thickness is optimum in the
field for achieving homogeneous compaction.

(v) CONTACT PRESSURE

Contact pressure depends on the weight of the roller wheel and the contact area. In case
of pneumatic roller, the tyre inflation pressure also determines the contact pressure in
addition to wheel load. A higher contact pressure increases the dry density and lowers the
optimum moisture content.

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(vi) NUMBER OF ROLLER PASSES

Density of the soil increases with the number of passes of rollers but after optimum
number of passes, further increase in density is insignificant for additional number of
cases. For determination of optimum number of passes for given type of roller and
optimum thickness of layer at a predetermined moisture content, a field trial for
compaction is necessary.

(vii) SPEED OF ROLLING

Speed of rolling has a very important bearing on the roller output. The greater the speed
of rolling, the more the length of embankment that can be compacted in one day. Speed
was found to be a significant factor for vibratory rollers because its number of vibrations
per minute is not related to its forward speed. Therefore, the slower the speed of travel,
the more vibrations at a given point and lesser number of pass required to attain a given
density [5].

5.3How Much Compaction Is To Be Done?

With the help of field compaction trials, the appropriate type of roller for particular type
of soil, optimum depth of layer of soil to be compacted and optimum moisture content of
the soil to be used for compaction can be determined. For this, a ramp of following
dimension is prepared. Each strip is rolled with using different moisture contents, type of
roller and different thickness of lift of soil. Finally, by plotting the graph between various
parameters used, the desired parameters are determined [13].
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The number of passes needed to achieve the desired compaction depends on the lift
thickness, contact pressure, and soil moisture content.



Number of passes versus average settlement (compression) in inches for various modern
compactors ( study report on compaction equipments and construction machinery) [13].

5.4 Intelligent Compaction (IC)

Intelligent Compaction is an innovation continuous compaction control process that
measures material stiffness during the compaction process, analyzes the information
being collected, makes an adjustment of vibratory roller parameters, and executes the
change to optimize the compaction effort.

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Vibratory rollers with a feedback control measurement system
Measures material stiffness , Control system automatically changes parameters
(amplitude and frequency) based on the measured material stiffness

GPS-based documentation system
Continuous monitoring materials stiffness and corresponding roller locations .Real-time
displaying color-coded mapping of stiffness

Fig17


Easy to find out uneveness of stiffness, soft and very stiff spots.
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Intelligent compaction can greatly improve the quality and uniformity of compaction
which are critical for long-lasting performance of pavements
When and how much of compaction is achieved, avoiding under or over compaction .
Where compaction is achieved or not achieved can easily be known [14].
Currently (Empirical Pavement design, R Value)
Specific Relative Density (Proctor Test)
Specific Moisture Limits (Proctor Test)
Test Rolling (optional)
Future (Mechanistic Pavement Design, Modulus)
QC: Intelligent Compaction Equipment
QC/QA: Continue to Specify Moisture
QA: Specify Modulus and Strength
(QC Quality Control, QA Quality Assurance)
QC Testing (verified by LWD),QA Testing (verified by PLT ).
Intelligent compaction benefits
Cover 100% of the rolling area, resulting in better control of density and its uniformity.
Replace conventional proof rolling ,identify soft spots in real time ,improve pavement
performance ,improve site safety [14].

CMV

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Chapter 6:
CONCLUSION

Compaction is the densification of an unsaturated soil by the reduction in the voids
volume filled with air, the volume of solids and water content essentially remaining the
same. The important factors which govern the compaction process are the moisture
content, the soil type. This paper has discussed these factors in detail. Various
improvements in the engineering properties of soil that are achieved through compaction
are critically evaluated. This paper has discussed how the laboratory compaction test
results can be extended to achieve the required field compaction.

Soil Compaction is very critical for any development. Failure to make sure the
effectiveness of an entire process may cause disaster in future. Developers, consultants,
local authorities and the contractor must aware the bad consequences that probably
happen if neglecting any aspect in the process and should be responsible to the scope of
works that delegated to them by the users. Hopefully this short presentation will benefits
to the viewers in understanding the basic principles in Soil Compaction theory that can be
useful. THANK YOU













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Chapter 7:

REFRENCES
[1] Das ,B. M. (1985). Advanced Soil Mechanics. McGraw-Hill Book Company, New
York.
[2] Rattan Lal, Manoj K. Shukla (2004). Principles of Soil Physics. MARCEL
DEKKER, INC. NEW YORK
[3] Das, Braja M. (2002). Principles of Geotechnical Engineering. first edition, Pacific
Grove, CA
[4] ME Sumner (1999). Hand Book of Soil Science. CRC Press , MULTIQUIP INC.
Boca Raton, Florida.
[5] Kumar Neeraj Jha (2011). Construction Project Management :Theory and Practice
.Pearson Education India.
[6] Hamza M.A, Al-Adawi S.S, Al-Hinai K.A. Effects of combined soil water and
external load on soil compaction.Soil Research, 2011, 49, 135-142

[7] Study Report on Compaction Equipments and Construction Machinery (2005)
Report.No.Ge- R-76.Geotechnical Engineering Directorate Research Designs &
Standards Organization Lucknow-11

[8] ASTM, Standard Practice for Quality Control of Soil Compaction using (D1556-90,
D1557-91, D2922-91,d3017) American Society of Testing and Material. USA.

[9] Selim ALTUN, Alper SEZER. Investigation of Parameters of Compaction Testing
Turkish J. Eng. Env. Sci. 32 (2008) , 201 209.

[10] Lukas, R.G. (1986). Dynamic Compaction for Highway Construction Volume I:
Design and Construction Guidelines. U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal
Highway Admin., Washington, D.C., FHWA/RD-86/133.


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[11] UMASS Lowell (2013) 14.330. Soil Mechanics and Soil Compaction A Basic
Handbook by Multi Quip.

[12] Clegg, B., and A. R. Berrang. 1971. The development and testing of an impact
roller. Transactions of the South African Institution of Civil Engineers. Vol. 13, No. 3,
pp. 65-73.

[13] Proctor, R. R. (1933). Fundamentals principles of soil compaction. Engineering
news-record.Vol. 111, No. 9, 245-248.


[14] George Chang, Qinwu Xu, Accelerated Implementation of Intelligent Compaction
Technology for Embankment Subgrade Soils, Aggregate Base, and Asphalt Pavement
Materials .US Department of Transportation ,Federal Highway Administration.

[15] Kyu-Sun Kim, Dante Fratta, and Haifang Wen. Field Measurements for the
Effectiveness of Compaction of Coarse-grained Soils. KSCE Journal of Civil
Engineering (2014) 18(2):497-504.












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