Chapter 3

Point to Point Connections

Serial point to point

PPP operation
Configuring PPP
Trouble shooting WAN connectivity

Members: Charles Balubal

Aaron Cabusao

Serial point to point

point-to-point connections are used to connect LAN to service provider WAN and
to connect LAN segments within an enterprise network. A LAN to WAN point to
point connection is also referred to as a serial connection or leased line
connection. Leased lines are a frequently used type of WAN access, and they
are generally priced based on the bandwidth required and the distance between
the two connected points.

Serial Communication
There are many different serial communication standards, each one using a
different signaling method. There are three important serial communication
standards affecting LAN to WAN connections.
RS-232 - Most serial ports on personal computers conform to the RS-232C or

newer RS-422 and RS-423 standards.

V.35 - Typically used for modem-to-multiplexer communication, this ITU standard
for high-speed, synchronous data exchange combines the bandwidth of several
telephone circuits.
HSSI: -A High-Speed Serial Interface (HSSI) supports transmission rates up to 52
Mbps. Engineers use HSSI to connect routers on LANs with WANs over highspeed lines, such as T3 lines.

Point to Point Communication Links

A point to point link can connect two geographically distant sites, such as a
corporate office in Boston and a regional office in New Orleans. For a point to
point line, the carrier dedicates specific resources for a line that is leased by the
customer. Point to point connections are not limited to connections that cross
land. There are hundreds of thousands of miles of undersea fiber-optic cables
that connect countries and continents worldwide.

 Time-Division Multiplexing
TDM was invented to maximize the amount of voice traffic carried over a
medium. Before multiplexing, each telephone call required its own physical link.
This was an expensive and unscalable solution. TDM divides the bandwidth of a
single link into separate time slots. TDM transmits two or more channels over the
same link by allocating a different time slot for the transmission of each channel.
In effect, the channels take turns using the link.

Statistical Time-Division Multiplexing

STDM uses a variable time slot length allowing channels to compete for any free
slot space. It employs a buffer memory that temporarily stores the data during
periods of peak traffic. STDM does not waste high-speed line time with inactive
channels using this scheme. STDM requires each transmission to carry
identification information or a channel identifier.

TDM Examples (Sonet and SDM)

The telecommunications industry uses the Synchronous Optical Networking
(SONET) or Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) standard for optical transport
of TDM data. SONET, used in North America, and SDH, used elsewhere, are two
closely related standards that specify interface parameters, rates, framing
formats, multiplexing methods, and management for synchronous TDM over
fiber.

On the figure above, SONET/SDH takes bit streams, multiplexes them, and
optically modulates the signals. It then sends the signals out using a light emitting
device over fiber with a bit rate equal to (incoming bit rate) Thus, traffic arriving at
the SONET multiplexer from four places at 2.5 Gbps goes out as a single stream
at 4 2.5 Gbps, or 10 Gbps. This shows an increase in the bit rate by a factor of
four in time slot T.

 Demarcation Point
The demarcation point marks the point where your network interfaces with a
network that is owned by another organization. In telephone terminology, this is
the interface between customer premises equipment (CPE) and network service
provider equipment.

DTE-DCE
From the point of view of connecting to the WAN, a serial connection has a data
terminal equipment (DTE) device at one end of the connection and a data circuitterminating equipment or data communications equipment (DCE) device at the
other end. The CPE, which is generally a router, is the DTE. The DTE could also
be a terminal, computer, printer, or fax machine if they connect directly to the
service provider network. The DCE, commonly a modem or CSU/DSU, is the
device used to convert the user data from the DTE into a form acceptable to the
WAN service provider transmission link. This signal is received at the remote
DCE, which decodes the signal back into a sequence of bits. The remote DCE
then signals this sequence to the remote DTE.

Serial Cables
The concept of DCEs and DTEs was based on two types of equipment: terminal
equipment that generated or received data, and the communication equipment
that only relayed data. In the development of the RS-232 standard, there were
reasons why 25-pin RS-232 connectors on these two types of equipment must
be wired differently. These reasons are no longer significant, but there are two
different types of cables remaining: one for connecting a DTE to a DCE, and
another for connecting two DTEs directly to each other.
The DTE/DCE interface for a particular standard defines the following
specifications:
Mechanical/physical: Number of pins and connector type
Electrical: Defines voltage levels for 0 and 1
Functional: Specifies the functions that are performed by assigning
meanings to each of the signaling lines in the interface
Procedural: Specifies the sequence of events for transmitting data

 Serial Bandwidth
Bandwidth refers to the rate at which data is transferred over the communication
link. The underlying carrier technology depends on the bandwidth available.
There is a difference in bandwidth points between the North American (T-carrier)
specification and the European (E-carrier) system. Optical networks also use a
different bandwidth hierarchy, which again differs between North America and
Europe. In the United States, Optical Carrier (OC) defines the bandwidth points.
Line Type Bit Rate Capacity
56
56 Kbps
64
64 Kbps
T1
1.544 Mbps
E1
2.048 Mbps
J1
2.048 Mbps
E3
34.064 Mbps
T3
44.736 Mbps
OC-1
51.84 Mbps
OC-3
155.54 Mbps
OC-9
466.56 Mbps
OC-12
622.08 Mbps
OC-18
933.12 Mbps
OC-24
1.244 Gbps
OC-36
1.866 Gbps
OC-48
2.488 Gbps
OC-96
4.976 Gbps
OC-192 9.954 Gbps
OC-768 39.813 Gbps

HDLC Encapsulation
HDLC is a synchronous data link layer protocol developed by the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO). HDLC uses synchronous serial
transmission to provide error-free communication between two points. HDLC
defines a Layer 2 framing structure that allows for flow control and error control
through the use of acknowledgments. Each frame has the same format, whether
it is a data frame or a control frame.

 WAN Encapsulation Protocols

On each WAN connection, data is encapsulated into frames before crossing the
WAN link. To ensure that the correct protocol is used, the appropriate Layer 2
encapsulation type must be configured. The following are short descriptions of
each type of WAN protocol:
HDLC: The default encapsulation type on point-to-point connections, dedicated
links, and circuit-switched connections when the link uses two Cisco devices.
HDLC is now the basis for synchronous PPP used by many servers to connect to
a WAN, most commonly the Internet.
PPP: Provides router-to-router and host-to-network connections over
synchronous and asynchronous circuits. PPP works with several network layer
protocols, such as IPv4 and IPv6. PPP uses the HDLC encapsulation protocol,
but also has built-in security mechanisms such as PAP and CHAP.
Serial Line Internet Protocol (SLIP): A standard protocol for point-to-point serial
connections using TCP/IP. SLIP has been largely displaced by PPP.
X.25/Link Access Procedure, Balanced (LAPB): An ITU-T standard that
defines how connections between a DTE and DCE are maintained for remote
terminal access and computer communications in public data networks. X.25
specifies LAPB, a data link layer protocol. X.25 is a predecessor to Frame Relay.
Frame Relay: An industry standard, switched, data link layer protocol that
handles multiple virtual circuits. Frame Relay is a next-generation protocol after
X.25. Frame Relay eliminates some of the time-consuming processes (such as
error correction and flow control) employed in X.25.
ATM: The international standard for cell relay in which devices send multiple
service types, such as voice, video, or data, in fixed-length (53-byte) cells. Fixedlength cells allow processing to occur in hardware; thereby, reducing transit
delays. ATM takes advantage of high-speed transmission media such as E3,
SONET, and T3.

 HDLC Frame Types

HDLC defines three types of frames, each with a different control field format.
Information (I) frame: I-frames carry upper layer information and some control
information. This frame sends and receives sequence numbers, and the poll final
(P/F) bit performs flow and error control.
Supervisory (S) frame: S-frames provide control information. An S-frame can
request and suspend transmission, report on status, and acknowledge receipt of
I-frames. S-frames do not have an information field.
Unnumbered (U) frame: U-frames support control purposes and are not
sequenced. Depending on the function of the U-frame, its Control field is 1 or 2
bytes. Some U-frames have an Information field.

Configuring HDLC Encapsulation

There are two steps to re-enable HDLC encapsulation:
Step 1. Enter the interface configuration mode of the serial interface.
Step 2. Enter the encapsulation hdlc command to specify the encapsulation
protocol on the interface.
Ex:
R2(config)# interface s0/0/0
R2(config-if)# encapsulation hdlc

 Troubleshooting a serial interface

The output of the show interfaces serial command displays information specific to
serial interfaces. When HDLC is configured, encapsulation HDLC should be
reflected in the output, as highlighted in Example Below. Serial 0/0/0 is up, line
protocol is up indicates that the line is up and functioning; encapsulation HDLC
indicates that the default serial encapsulation (HDLC) is enabled.
R1# show interface serial 0/0/0
Serial0/0/0 is up, line protocol is up
Hardware is GT96K Serial
Internet address is 172.16.0.1/30
MTU 1500 bytes, BW 1544 Kbit/sec, DLY 20000 usec,
reliability 255/255, txload 1/255, rxload 1/255
Encapsulation HDLC, loopback not set
Keepalive set (10 sec)
CRC checking enabled
<Output omitted for brevity>

PPP OPERATIONS
PPP encapsulation has been carefully designed to retain compatibility with most
commonly used supporting hardware. PPP encapsulates data frames for
transmission over Layer 2 physical links. PPP establishes a direct connection
using serial cables, phone lines, trunk lines, cellular telephones, specialized radio
links, or fiber-optic links.

Three main components of PPP

-

HDLC-like framing for transporting multiprotocol packets over point-to-point

links.
Extensible Link Control Protocol (LCP) for establishing, configuring, and
testing the data-link connection.
Family of Network Control Protocols (NCPs) for establishing and configuring
different network layer protocols.

Advantages of PPP
-

The link quality management feature, If too many errors are detected, PPP
takes the link down.
PPP supports PAP and CHAP authentication.

LCP and NCP

LCP and NCP are two key components to PPP. An understanding of these two
protocols will help you understand and troubleshoot PPP operations.

PPP Layered Architecture

A layered architecture is a logical model, design, or blueprint that aids in
communication between interconnecting layers. At the physical layer, you can
configure PPP on a range of interfaces, including
- Asynchronous serial, such as leased line services
- Synchronous serial, such as those that use basic telephone service for
modem dialup connections
- HSSI
- ISDN

 PPP Link Control Protocol (LCP)

The LCP functions within the data link layer and has a role in establishing,
configuring, and testing the data-link connection. The LCP provides automatic
configuration of the interfaces at each end, including
-

Handling varying limits on packet size

Detecting common misconfiguration errors
Terminating the link
Determining when a link is functioning properly or when it is failing

PPP Network Control Protocol (NCP)

NCPs include functional fields containing standardized codes to indicate the
network layer protocol that PPP encapsulates. Each NCP manages the specific
needs required by its respective network layer protocols. The various NCP
components encapsulate and negotiate options for multiple network layer
protocols.

PPP Frame Structure

A PPP frame consists of six fields.
-

Flag: A single byte that indicates the beginning or end of a frame.

Address: A single byte that contains the binary sequence 11111111, the
standard broadcast address. PPP does not assign individual station
addresses.
Control: A single byte that contains the binary sequence 00000011, which
calls for transmission of user data in an unsequenced frame.
Protocol: Two bytes that identify the protocol encapsulated in the information
field of the frame.
Data: Zero or more bytes that contain the datagram for the protocol specified
in the Protocol field.
Frame Check Sequence (FCS): Normally 16 bits (2 bytes). By prior
agreement, consenting PPP implementations can use a 32-bit (4-byte) FCS
for improved error detection.

PPP Sessions
Understanding PPP session establishment, LCP and NCP are important parts of
implementing and troubleshooting PPP.

 Establishing a PPP Session

There are three phases of establishing a PPP session.
- Phase 1: Link establishment and configuration negotiation
- Phase 2: Link quality determination (optional)
- Phase 3: Network layer protocol configuration negotiation

LCP Operation
LCP operation uses three classes of LCP frames to accomplish the work of each
of the LCP phases.
- Link-establishment frames establish and configure a link (Configure-Request,
Configure-Ack, Configure-Nak, and Configure-Reject).
- Link-maintenance frames manage and debug a link (Code-Reject, ProtocolReject, Echo-Request, Echo-Reply, and Discard-Request).
- Link-termination frames terminate a link (Terminate-Request and TerminateAck).

LCP Packet
Each LCP packet is a single LCP message consisting of an LCP Code field
identifying the type of LCP packet, an identifier field so that requests and replies
can be matched, and a Length field indicating the size of the LCP packet and
LCP packet type-specific data.

PPP Configuration Options

PP can be configured to support various optional functions,These optional
functions include:
-

Authentication using either PAP or CHAP

Compression using either Stacker or Predictor
Multilink that combines two or more channels to increase the WAN bandwidth

NCP Explained
There are NCPs for IPv4, IPv6, IPX, AppleTalk, and many others. NCPs use the
same packet format as the LCPs. After the LCP has configured and
authenticated the basic link, the appropriate NCP is invoked to complete the
specific configuration of the network layer protocol being used. When the NCP
has successfully configured the network layer protocol, the network protocol is in
the open state on the established LCP link. At this point, PPP can carry the
corresponding network layer protocol packets.

Configuring PPP
PPP Configuration Options
-

uthentication: Peer routers exchange authentication messages.

Compression: Increases the effective throughput on PPP connections by
reducing the amount of data in the frame that must travel across the link.
Error detection: Identifies fault conditions. The Quality and Magic Number
options help ensure a reliable, loop-free data link.
PPP Callback: PPP callback is used to enhance security. With this LCP
option, a Cisco router can act as a callback client or a callback server.
Multilink: This alternative provides load balancing over the router interfaces
that PPP uses.

PPP Basic Configuration Command

To set PPP as the encapsulation method used by a serial interface, use the
encapsulation ppp interface configuration command.
Ex.
R3# configure terminal
R3(config)# interface serial 0/0/0
R3(config-if)# encapsulation ppp

PPP Compression Commands

Point to point software compression on serial interfaces can be configured after
PPP encapsulation is enabled. The command syntax for the compress command
is:
Router(config-if)# compress [ predictor | stac ]

To configure compression over PPP, enter the following commands:

R2(config)# interface serial 0/0/0
R2(config-if)# encapsulation ppp
R2(config-if)# compress [ predictor | stac ]

PPP Link Quality Monitoring Command

The ppp quality percentage command ensures that the link meets the quality
requirement set; otherwise, the link closes down. The command syntax for the
ppp quality command is
Router(config-if)# ppp quality percentage
(percentage:

Specifies the link quality threshold. Range is 1 to 100.)

PPP Multilink Commands

Multilink PPP (also referred to as MP, MPPP, MLP, or Multilink) provides a
method for spreading traffic across multiple physical WAN links. Multilink PPP
also provides packet fragmentation and reassembly, proper sequencing,
multivendor interoperability, and load balancing on inbound and outbound traffic.
Configuring MPPP requires two steps.
Step 1. Create a multilink bundle.
-

The interface multilink number command creates the multilink interface.

In interface configuration mode, an IP address is assigned to the multilink
interface. In this example, both IPv4 and IPv6 addresses are configured on
routers R3 and R4.
The interface is enabled for multilink PPP.
The interface is assigned a multilink group number.

Step 2. Assign interfaces to the multilink bundle. Each interface that is part of the
multilink group:
-

Is enabled for PPP encapsulation.

Is enabled for multilink PPP.
Is bound to the multilink bundle using the multilink group number configured
in Step 1.

Verifying PPP Configuration

Use the show interfaces serial command to verify proper configuration of HDLC
or PPP encapsulation. When you configure HDLC, the output of the show
interfaces serial command should display encapsulation HDLC. When PPP is
configured, the LCP and NCP states also display. Notice that NCPs IPCP and
IPv6CP are open for IPv4 and IPv6 because R1 and R2 were configured with
both IPv4 and IPv6 addresses.
Ex.
R2#show interfaces serial 0/0/0
Serial0/0/0 is up, line protocol is up
Hardware is GT96K Serial
Internet address is 10.0.1.2/30
MTU 1500 bytes, BW 1544 Kbit/sec, DLY 20000 usec,
reliability 255/255, txload 1/255, rxload 1/255
Encapsulation PPP, LCP Open
Open: IPCP, IPV6CP, CCP, CDPCP,, loopback not set
Keepalive set (10 sec)
CRC checking enabled
<Output omitted for brevity>

Verifying PPP Commands

Command

Description

show interfaces

Displays statistics for all interfaces configured on the

router.
Displays information about a serial interface.

show interfaces
serial
show ppp multilink

CDisplays information about a PPP multilink interface.

 PPP Authentication Protocols

PPP defines an extensible LCP that allows negotiation of an authentication
protocol for authenticating its peer before allowing network layer protocols to
transmit over the link.
PAP is a very basic two-way process. There is no encryption. The username and
password are sent in plaintext. If it is accepted, the connection is allowed. CHAP
is more secure than PAP. It involves a three-way exchange of a shared secret.
The authentication options require that the calling side of the link enter
authentication information.

Password Authentication Protocol (PAP)

PAP provides a simple method for a remote node to establish its identity using a
two-way handshake. PAP is not interactive. When the ppp authentication pap
command is used, the username and password are sent as one LCP data
package, rather than the server sending a login prompt and waiting for a
response.

Challenge Handshake Authentication Protocol (CHAP)

After authentication is established with PAP, it does not reauthenticate. This
leaves the network vulnerable to attack. Unlike PAP, which only authenticates
once, CHAP conducts periodic challenges to make sure that the remote node still
has a valid password value. The password value is variable and changes
unpredictably while the link exists.

PPP Encapsulation and Authentication Process

For example, if an incoming PPP request requires no authentication, then PPP
progresses to the next level. If an incoming PPP request requires authentication,
then it can be authenticated using either the local database or a security server.
As illustrated in the flowchart, successful authentication progresses to the next
level, while an authentication failure disconnects and drops the incoming PPP
request.

Configuring PPP Authentication

To specify the order in which the CHAP or PAP protocols are requested on the
interface, use the ppp authentication interface configuration command:
Router(config-if)# ppp authentication {chap | chap pap | pap chap |
pap} [if needed][list-name | default] [callin]

 Configuring PPP with Authentication

For example a two-way PAP authentication configuration, with the configuration
in the following listing. Both routers authenticate and are authenticated, so the
PAP authentication commands mirror each other. The PAP username and
password that each router sends must match those specified with the username
name password password command of the other router.PAP provides a simple
method for a remote node to establish its identity using a two-way handshake.
This is done only on initial link establishment. The hostname on one router must
match the username the other router has configured for PPP. The passwords
must also match. Specify the username and password parameters, use the
following command: ppp pap sent-username name password password.

Trouble shooting WAN connectivity

Troubleshooting is an important component to understanding and implementing
any technology.

Troubleshoot PPP
Similar to other protocols implemented on a router, troubleshooting PPP involves
a combination of debug and show commands.

Troubleshooting PPP Serial Encapsulation

Recall that the debug command is used for troubleshooting and is accessed from
privileged EXEC mode of the command-line interface. The debug command must
not be used as a monitoring tool; rather, it is meant to be used for a short period
of time for troubleshooting.

Debug PPP Command Parameters

Parameter
packet

Usage
Displays PPP packets being sent and received. (This command
displays low-level packet dumps.)
negotiation
Displays PPP packets transmitted during PPP startup, where PPP
options are negotiated.
error
Displays protocol errors and error statistics associated connection
negotiation and operation.
authentication Displays authentication protocol messages, including Challenge
Authentication Protocol (CHAP) packet exchanges and Password
Authentication Protocol (PAP) exchanges.
compression Displays information specific to the exchange of PPP connections using
MPPC. This command is useful for obtaining incorrect packet sequence
number information where MPPC compression is enabled.
cbcp
Displays protocol errors and statistics associated with PPP connection
negotiations using MSCB.

 Troubleshooting a PPP Configuration with Authentication

Authentication is a feature that needs to be implemented correctly or the security
of your serial connection may be compromised. Always verify your configuration
with the show interfaces serial command, in the same way as you did without
authentication. Never assume your authentication configuration works without
testing it. Debugging allows you to confirm your configuration and correct any
deficiencies. For debugging PPP authentication, use the debug ppp
authentication command.

Debug PPP
In addition to the debug ppp command, there are other commands that are
available for troubleshooting a PPP connection.
-

debug ppp packet

debug ppp negotiation
debug ppp error