Fema 453 CH 2
Fema 453 CH 2
Fema 453 CH 2
2.1 OVERVIEW
T
his chapter discusses explosive threat parameters and
measures needed to protect shelters from blast effects.
Structural systems and building envelope elements for
new and existing shelters are analyzed; shelters and FEMA model
building types are discussed; and protective design measures for
the defined building types are provided, as are design guidance
and retrofit issues. The purpose of this chapter is to offer compre-
hensive information on how to improve the resistance of shelters
when exposed to blast events.
After the appropriate loads are calculated for the shelter, they
should be applied to the exterior wall and roof surfaces of the
shelter to determine the design forces for the structural and
nonstructural elements. The continuous load path carries the
loads acting on a building’s exterior façade and roof through the
floor diaphragms to the gravity load-bearing system and lateral
load-bearing system. The individual components of the façade and
roof must be able to develop these extraordinary forces, though
Figure 2-7
Effects of uplift and load
reversals
Figure 2-8
Flat slab failure mechanisms
Level 1 9 mm full metal copper jacket with lead core 124 1,185
Level 4 .30 caliber rifle lead core soft point 180 2,540
Level 6 9 mm full metal copper jacket with lead core 124 1,400
2.4.1 Structure
Figure 2-12
Typical frame detail at
interior column
Flat roof systems are exposed to the incident blast pressures that
diffuse over the top of the building, causing complex patterns
of shadowing and focusing on the surface. Subsequent negative
phase effects may subject the pre-weakened roof systems to low
intensity, but long duration suction pressures; therefore, light-
weight roof systems may be susceptible to uplift effects. Two-way
beam slab systems are preferred for reinforced concrete construc-
tion and metal deck with reinforced concrete fill is preferred for
steel frame construction. Both of these roof systems provide the
required mass, strength, and continuity to resist all phases of blast
loading. The performance of conventional precast concrete plank
systems depends to a great extent on the connection details, and
these connections need to be detailed to provide continuity. Flat
slab and flat plate construction requires continuous bottom rein-
forcement in both directions to improve the integrity and special
details at the columns to prevent a punching shear failure. Post-
tensioned slab systems are particularly problematic because the
cable profile is typically designed to resist the predominant pat-
terns of gravity load and the system is inherently weak in response
to load reversals.
The building’s façade is its first real defense against the effects of a
bomb and is typically the weakest component that will be subjected
to blast pressures. Debris mitigating façade systems may be designed
to provide a reasonable level of protection to a low or moderate
intensity threat; however, façade materials may be locally over-
whelmed in response to a low intensity short stand-off detonation
or globally overwhelmed in response to a large intensity long stand-
off detonation. As a result, it is unreasonable to design a façade
to resist the actual pressures resulting from the design level threat
everywhere over the surface of the building. In fact, successful per-
formance of the blast-resistant façade may be defined as throwing
debris with less than high hazard velocities. This is particularly true
for the glazed fenestration. The peak pressures and impulses that
are used to select the laminated glazing makeup are typically estab-
lished such that no more than 10 percent of the glazed fenestration
will produce debris that is propelled with high hazard velocities
into the occupied space in response to any single detonation of the
design level threat. The definitions of high hazard velocities were
adapted from the United Kingdom hazard guides and correspond
to debris that is propelled 10 feet from the plane of the glazing and
strikes a witness panel higher than 2 feet above the floor. Similarly,
a medium level of hazard corresponds to debris that strikes the
witness panel no higher than 2 feet above the floor. A low level of
hazard corresponds to debris that strikes the floor no farther than
10 feet from the plane of the glazing and a very low level of hazard
corresponds to debris that strikes the floor no farther than 3.3 feet
from the plane of the glazing. Glass hazard response software was
developed for the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, the General Ser-
vices Administration, and the Department of State to determine
the performance of a wide variety of glazing systems in response to
blast loading. These simplified single-degree-of-freedom dynamic
analyses account for the strength of the glass prior to cracking
and the post-damage capacity of the laminated interlayers. While
many of these glass hazard response software remain restricted, the
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) 2248 relates
the design of glass to resist blast loading to an equivalent 3-second
equivalent wind load.
2.5.1 Structure
1
Abrasions on the faces of tempered glass reduce the glass strength.
The main components of any blast curtain system are the curtain
itself, the attachment mechanism by which the curtain is affixed
to the window frame, and either a trough or other retaining
Rigid catch systems collect huge forces upon impact and require
considerable anchorage into a very substantial structure to pre-
vent failure. If either the attachments or the supporting structure
are incapable of restraining the forces, the catch system will be
dislodged and become part of the debris. Alternatively, the debris
Figure 2-17
Geotextile debris catch
system
Concrete
1" Radius
Sand blast concrete
bent plate
surfaces prior to
jacketing
Small wood light frame buildings (<3,000 square feet) are single
or multiple family dwellings of one or more stories in height (see
Figure 2-21). Building loads are light and the framing spans are
short. Floor and roof framing consists of closely spaced wood joists
or rafters on wood studs. The first floor framing is supported di-
rectly on the foundation, or is raised up on cripple studs and post
and beam supports. The foundation consists of spread footings
constructed of concrete, concrete masonry block, or brick ma-
sonry in older construction. Chimneys, when present, consist of
solid brick masonry, masonry veneer, or wood frame with internal
metal flues. Lateral forces are resisted by wood frame diaphragms
and shear walls. Floor and roof diaphragms consist of straight or
diagonal wood sheathing, tongue and groove planks, or plywood.
Figure 2-21
W1 wood light frame
< 3,000 square feet
Large wood light frame buildings (> 3,000 square feet) are
multi-story, multi-unit residences similar in construction to W1
buildings, but with open front garages at the first story (see Figure
2-22). The first story consists of wood floor framing on wood stud
walls and steel pipe columns, or a concrete slab on concrete or
concrete masonry block walls.
Figure 2-22
W1a wood light frame
> 3,000 square feet
beam column joints, all member stresses are primarily axial. When
diagonal brace connections are eccentric to the joints, members
are subjected to bending and axial stresses. Diaphragms consist of
concrete or metal deck with concrete fill and are stiff relative to
the frames. Walls may consist of metal panel curtainwalls, glazing,
brick masonry, or precast concrete panels. When the interior of
the structure is finished, frames are concealed by ceilings, par-
tition walls, and architectural furring. Foundations consist of
concrete spread footings or deep pile foundations.
Figure 2-28
S5 steel frames with infill
masonry walls
Figure 2-30
C2 concrete shearwalls
– type 1 bearing walls
Metal stud blast walls built within the existing building may be
used to supplement the enclosure; however, in order for these
walls to develop their resistance to lateral loads, they must be an-
chored to an existing structure. Windows enclosing the selected
shelter must either be laminated or treated with an anti-shatter
film. Either the laminated glass or the anti-shatter film should
be anchored to the surrounding wall with a system that can de-
velop, but not overwhelm the capacity of the wall. A conservative
estimate of the ultimate capacity of an existing wall may be deter-
mined, in the absence of actual design information, by scaling the
code specified wind pressures with the appropriate factor of safety.
Figure 2-37
URM load-bearing walls
2.6.7 Conclusions
Peripheral ties
(dashed lines)
Vertical tie