The Contribution of Islamic

Civilization to the Scientific and
and
Technical Advancement of the World
Jahanbakhsh Thawaqib
Translated by: Mahboobeh Morshedian

Abstract:
bstract: Despite backward situation of Arab
Peninsula in the Age of Ignorance, that is, pre-Islamic era,
Muslim researchers and intellectuals endeavored to enter the
realm of science by displaying their talents and introducing
their innovations. This article describes the geographical
expansion of Islam, the progress of Islamic civilization with
its advances in areas such as medicine, physics, astronomy,
and history, as well as its impact on western civilization. It
demonstrates how Muslims were able to achieve a
remarkable civilization and benefit other societies,
particularly the western world.
_________________________________________________

Introduction
The geographical expansion of the Muslim world and the development
of Islamic sciences and civilization are historically stunning and
glorious. This occurred at a time when the western world was
overtaken by the scientific stagnation of the Middle Age. Inspired by
Islam and monotheism, Muslims who had entered other territories
outside the Arabian Peninsula tried firstly to acquaint themselves with
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the cultural heritage of the new lands. Due to their thirst for learning
and knowledge, they turned their focus on science, literature, and the
arts.
Muslims significantly contributed to human knowledge in various
fields through their innovations. This contribution was so great that
Islamic civilization has been the pioneer of the scientific, intellectual
and cultural genius for a long period of time, with the West benefiting
from its great achievements.

The Geographical Expansion of Islam

The mission of Prophet Muhammad began in the Arabian Peninsula in
Mecca in 7th century A.D. There, the Holy Prophet invited people to
Islam for 13 years. In doing so, various kinds of hardships were
inflicted on him by the pagans of Quraysh. After the polytheists
planned in Dr al-Nadwah to kill him, the Holy Prophet had to migrate
to Medina. Thereafter going through a decade of challenges including
battles and after 23 years of efforts to invite people to Islam and
propagate it, he could finally lay foundations for an Islamic
civilization.
Before long, Islam transcended the boundaries of the Arabian
Peninsula. During the time of the Prophets successors, Islam
proceeded to the heart of Asia in the East and northern Africa in the
West. Muslims advance on Iran began in the time of the first caliph.
Afterwards, during the time of the second caliph, Islam spread in Iran.
Finally, during the time of the next few caliphs, the whole of Iran was
conquered by the Muslims.
In addition, Muslims made some advances on the northern and
northwestern areas of the Arabian Peninsula; that is, in the front line
facing the conquests of the Roman Empire. The Muslim army
conquered Syria 1and Palestine in 19 A.H and reached Armenia in 21
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A.H. Alexandria was also conquered in the same year and Tripoli in 23
A.H. Likewise, the Muslims entered Tunisia in 27 A.H.1 Finally
crossing the strait between Morocco and Iberia (Gibraltar strait) in 92
A.H, the Muslims (Arabs and barbarians from northern Africa) entered
the whole of Iberia (Andaluca Spain, which also included the
present-day Portugal) under Tariq ibn Ziyads command. After
crossing the Pyrenees, they also proceeded into the heart of France.2
The rapid spread of Islam was due to various factors. The first main
factor was the Holy Quran; it contains teachings which promise to
save the mankind. It is also based on justice, equality, and moral
virtues. These very lofty principles attracted people who were
suffering oppression by the emperors and considered Islam to be the
call of freedom.
About the impact of the Glorious Quran on the individuals and
society, and the fact that Muslims could achieve outstanding progress
under the Holy Quran, the European historian, Will Durant, wrote as
follows:
Thanks to the Quran, the Muslims conduct and
culture developed. The Quran saved them from
illusions, superstitions, oppression, and violence. It
1



For a detailed description of Muslims entering the Roman Empire, see Baladhuri, Fotuh-alBuldn, p. 140; Yaqubi History, vol. 2, p. 31; Tabari History, vol. 5, pp. 1775-930; Arab
History, pp. 188-98, pp. 206-16; Shahidi, The Analytical History of Islam, pp. 122-26;
Fayyaz, The History of Islam, p. 143, pp.148-51; Gustav Le Bon, The Civilization of the
Arabs, pp. 166-77.
2
See Albert Mallet & Jules Isaac, The History of the Middle Ages, vol. 4, pp.102-7; The
Civilization of Arabs, pp. 274-7; Aldo Mie Lee, Islamic Sciences and their Role in the World
Scientific Development, p.107; Gustav Le Bon, The Civilization of the Arabs, p. 302-60. For
more information about the way Islam spread, see Harry Fozzard, The Atlas of Islamic
History; Thomas Arnold, The Preaching of Islam, London, 1970. Being translated to Persian
(and entitled The History of Spread of Islam, translated by A. Ezzati, the Publications of
Tehran University,1385), this book discusses the spread of Islam in the western Asia, Africa,
Spain and the European regions under the Uthmaids as well as its spread in Iran, the Middle
East, China, Africa, the Malaya archipelago, etc in detail.
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granted the people of the lower classes honour and

esteem. Likewise, it made society replete with such
justice and piety that no parallel can be found for it. At
the same time, the Quran urged them to make progress
which led to making such a progress that was unique in
history.3
Aside from the Glorious Quran, another factor contributing to the
spread and progress of Islam is its compliance with human nature.
Islam does not merely consist of religious rituals, it consists of both
religion and the law. All public and private aspects of life are taken
into account in it and for each one some guidelines have been
provided. In Islam, there is a relationship between human nature and
religious obligations. In these two fields, all legal applications are
interconnected.4 Thus, the consistency between Islam and human
nature facilitates peoples inclination to it.
According to some European scientists, the simplicity of the Islamic
principles and teachings contributed to its spread.5 In the introduction
to his translation of the Holy Quran, George Sale pointed out:
The main reason behind the progress of Islam is the
unaffected simplicity of its teachings. This contributed
to the spread of Islam and sowed its seeds more than
the swords of warriors did. Islam influenced the
Christian world greatly and established a spiritual
religion in Asia.6
3



Durant, The History of Civilization (The era of Faith, 2nd section, Islamic Civilization), p.
52.
4
Vaglieri, The Call of Islam from the heart of Italy, p. 94.
5
For instance, Through its simplicity, Islam is distinguished from other religions and has
spread quickly since it is really easy to understand its injunctions and perform its religious
obligations, also it does not include complicated and unfamiliar issues. (See Albert Mallet &
Jules Isaac, The History of the Middle Ages, vol. 4, p. 110).
6
Salmasi-Zadeh, The History of the Quranic Translation in the World, p. 69.
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Professor Montet referred to the rationality of the principles of Islamic

beliefs and its resultant merits in its propagation. He writes:
In the best sense of the word, Islam is basically rational
both ideologically and historically. The definition of
the term rationality as a thought system that imparts
the religious beliefs to the principles confirmed by the
intellect corresponds to Islam completelyTo a
Muslim, the religious principles come down to the
belief in the unity of Allah and the prophetic mission
of His Messenger No doubt, the simplicity and
clarity of these teachings are the key decisive factor in
the progress, religious activities, and propagation of
Islam. These perfect principles, so pure and void of
theological and intellectual sophistication; thus, so
accessible and comprehensible, are in fact greatly able
to permeate the human conscience.7

The Progress of Islamic Civilization

Under Islamic teachings and due to their turning to sciences, Muslims
progressed rapidly in all different aspects of civilization including the
arts, architecture, fine arts, textile industry, geography, shipbuilding,
seafaring, trade, exploration, discoveries, physics, chemistry, medicine,
astronomy, botany and agriculture, irrigation, music, calligraphy, urban
development, book and library, religious sciences, and so forth.
Through this, they founded the brilliant Islamic civilization so
amazingly that orientalists admitted to the stunning progress of
Muslims in various sciences.


Thomas Arnold, The History of the Spread of Islam, p. 302.
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Will Durant, Gustav Le Bon, and Gume, are among orientalists who
admitted to the brilliant Islamic civilization, its impact on Europe, and
Muslims role in scientific development.
For instance, Gustav Le Bon wrote about the reasons behind the spread
of Islam as follows:
In addition to the just and benevolent treatment of people,
simplicity and clarity of the Islamic principal beliefs were
the main factors that caused Islam to spread. The very
simplicity, clarity, and good manners made people such as
the Egyptians who had been Christian since the time of
the Byzantine emperors embrace Islam the moment they
were invited to it. No Muslim tribe, whether victorious or
defeated, was seen giving up Islam for Christianity. The
impact of the Islamic civilization and politics is really
astonishing. In the Age of Ignorance, Saudi Arabia
consisted of some small principalities and self-willed
tribes which were always engaged in civil war, murder
and plunder. However, a century after the advent of Islam,
the scope of religiousness expanded over the area between
the Sind Sea and Andaluca. In all the countries that were
under the banner of Islam, the progress was truly
astounding in every aspect. This occurred because of
Islamic beliefs being in accordance with natural rules and
principles. They even out the general ethics and create
justice, benevolence, and religious leniency in them.8
In his book The History of Civilization, Will Durant considered the rise
and fall of the Islamic civilization a great event in history and
maintained that during five centuries (81- 597 A.H / 700-1200 A.D),
Islam was the world precursor of power, discipline, and expansion of
8


Gustav Le Bon, The Civilization of the Arabs, p. 144
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J. Thawaqib

its realm, good manners, improvement of the standard of living, fair

human laws, religious leniency, literature, and scientific research in
medicine, philosophy, etc.
Muslim scientists acquired and perfected Greek mathematics, natural
sciences, astronomy, and medicine. They also transmitted even more
enriched Greek legacy to Europe. For 500 years, Muslim physicists
were the pioneers of the worlds medicine. European architects,
blacksmiths, glass-blowers, goldsmiths in Italy, the new boom of the
creative potters in Italy and France, and armorers in Spain were all
inspired by Muslim craftsmen. Only the golden ages of a communitys
history can produce so many renowned figures in the fields of politics,
education, literature, philology, geography, history, mathematics,
astronomy, chemistry, philosophy, medicine, etc.; they emerged during
four centuries, from the time of Harun to ibn Rushds era.9
Muslims increased and advanced the knowledge they learned from
Greeks through experimental studies. In the strongest sense, they
invented laboratory experiments and truly pioneered objective
scientific research. Scientific researches with the aim of discovering
the real essence of single elements were first conducted by Muslims.
The corollary of these pioneering activities was that it stimulated the
forerunners of the European intellectual movement, that is, Rodger
Bacon, Albertus Magnus (the great Albert), Leonardo da Vinci, and
Galileo. 10
It is beyond the constraints of this paper to fully enumerate the Muslim
scientists with important scientific works, discoveries, and inventions
in various fields of material sciences who achieved world repute.
9



See Durant, The History of Civilization, p. 322. About the greatness of Islamic civilization,
see Mirhov, The Islamic Legacy; Albert Mallet, The History of the Middle Ages, vol. 4, pp.
107-13. For more information on what scientists admitted about the Islamic civilization and
science, see Muhammd Reza Hakimi, Muslims Knowledge, pp. 318-20.
10
For the method of scientific research of Muslims, see Gustav Le Bon, The Civilization of
the Arabs, p. 559-62; Hunke, Islamic Culture in Europe, p. 419.
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However, in gratitude to their high scientific status and their role in the
brilliant Islamic civilization, we refer to some of these great men in
different fields and their respective specialized works.
Medicine: Ali ibn Rabben Tabari (Ferdows-ul-Hikmah wa Manafi-ulAtamah wa al-Ashrabah), Muhammad ibn Zakaria Razi (al-Hawi,
Mansuri Medicine, al-Judari wa al-Hasbah), Ali ibn Abbas Ahwazi
(Kamil-u-Sanayior al-Maliki), Avicenna (The Canon of Medicine),
etc.
Physics, mechanic and chemistry: Ali ibn Muhammad ibn Hassan ibn
Heitham (Kitab-ul-Manazhir), Abu Reihan Biruni, Qutb-u-Din Shirazi,
Abd-u-Rahman Khazeni, Kamal-u-Din Farsi, Khwarizmi (Mafatih-ulUlum), offspring of Musa ibn Shakir (Kitab-ul-Hiyal), Jabir ibn
Hayyan, Zakaria Razi (Sirr-ul-Asrar).
Mathematics: Muhammad ibn Ibrahim ibn Fazari (al-Qasidah fi Ilm-eNojum, Kitab-ul Miqyas, Kitab-u-Zij ala Sunan-l-Arab, Kiatb fi Tastihl-Korah and translation of Sadhant = Sandhind), Muhammad ibn Musa
Khwarizmi (Algebra and Muqabilah), Abul-Wafa Buzjani (of
numerous theories and books), Umar Khayyam Neishaburi (the treatise
of algebra and Muqbilah), Ghiyath-u-Din Jamshid Kashani (Miftahul-Hisab). Furthermore, figures like ibn Heitham, Avicenna, Biruni,
Khajeh Nasir Tusi, Sheikh Bahai, Thabit ibn Qurrah, Alai-Din
Qushchi, Ahmad Sarakhsi, etc. were well-versed in mathematics.
Astronomy: Muhammad ibn Ibrahim ibn Fazari, Yaqub ibn Tariq, Abu
Mashar Balkhi (al-Madkhal-ul-Kabir), Muhammad ibn Jabir al-Batani
(al-Zij), Abu Reihan Biruni (Masudi Canon, a-Tafhim li Awail
Sanaat-l-Tanjim), Khajeh Nasir Tusi, etc.
History and geography: Many historians and geographers emerged
and left precious works. The historians include Muhammad ibn Jarir
Tabari (Tarikh-u-Rusul wa al-Umam wa al-Muluk), Yaqubi (Yaqubi
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J. Thawaqib

History), Abul-Hassan Ali ibn Hussain Masudi (Murawwij-u-Dhahab

wa-Tanbih wa al-Isharf), Hamzah Isfahani (the History of Sini Mulukul-Arz), Ibn Athir (al-Kamil fi-Tarikh), ibn Khaldun (ibn Khaldun
History), Abu Ziad Balkhi (al-Bad wa-Tarikh), Abu Hanifah Dinwari
(al-Akhbar-u-Tawal), Abu-l-Fida (al-Mukhtasar fi Ahwal-l-Bashar),
Abu Reihan Biruni (al-Athar-ul-Baqiyah), ibn Khallikan (Wafiyyat-ulAyan), Jalal-u-Din Soyuti (Tarikh-ul-Khulafa), Abu Abdillah Jahshiari
(al-Wuzara wa al-Kitab), Ahmad Qalqashandi (Subh-l-Asha), Taqi-uDin Maqrizi (al-Khutat wa al-Suluk li Marifat-l-Dowal-ul-Muluk), etc.
Likewise, the geographers include Muhammad ibn Khurdadbeh (alMasalik wa al-Mamalik), Abuzaid Balkhi (Surat-ul-Aqalim), Abu
Ishaq Istakhri (Masalik wa Mamalik), Masudi (Murawwij-u-Dhahab),
Muhammad ibn Hawqal (al-Masalik wa al-Mamalik= ibn Hawqals
travelog), Abu Abdillah Ahmad ibn Muhammad Muqaddisi (Ahsan-uTaqasim fi Mmarafat-l-Aqalim), ibn Wazih Yaqubi (al-Bildan), Abu
Abdillah Jeihani (Ashkal-ul-Alam), Zakaria Qazwini (Athar-ul-Bilad
wa Akhbar-ul-Ibad), Hamdullah Mostowfi (Nuzhat-ul-Qulub), Ahmad
ibn Majid (al-Fawaid fi Usul-l-Bahr), Yaqut Himawi (Mujam-ulBildan), Baghdadi (Marasid-ul-Ittila), ibn Jabir, ibn Batutah, Nasir
Khosrow, ibn Fadlan, Abu Zaid Hassan Sirafi, each of which produced
travel logs and works describing the cities and natural geography of
Muslim and non-Muslim lands.11 Not only did Islamic civilization save
the Greek legacy from annihilation and oblivion, create a pattern for it,
organize it, and transmit it to Europe, but it also pioneered the
experimental chemistry, physics, algebra, the present-day calculus,
11



For more information about Muslim scientists in various fields (of material sciences) and
their innovations and inventions, see Gustav Le Bon, The Civilization of the Arabs, p. 556638; Durant, The History of Civilization, vol. 4, section 2, pp. 1229-33; Zeidan, The History
of Islamic Civilization, vol. 3, pp. 551-90; Safa, The History of the Rational Sciences in the
Islamic Civilization, vol.1; Nasr, Science and Civilization in Islam , pp. 38-220; Qurbani, The
History of Islamic Culture and Civilization, pp. 182-308; Hakimi, Muslims Knowledge pp.
144-76; Hatta, The History of the Arabs, pp. 462-552; Jafari, Muslims in History, pp.177202; Aldo Mie Lee, Islamic Sciences and their Role in the World Scientific Development,
pp.177-305; Baron Carra De Vaux, Muslim Thinkers, vol.2, (Geographers, mathematics and
natural sciences), pp.16-100.
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Summer 2012, Vol. 13, No. 2

spatial trigonometry, and geology. Islamic civilization granted the

West innumerable valuable discoveries and inventions. The most
valuable one may be the method of research on natural sciences. It was
the pioneering efforts of Muslims that paved the way for Europe and
led to the knowledge of natural rules and dominance over nature.12
Sigrid Hunke pointed out that in 1000 A.D, hundreds of librarians
worked in two libraries of the caliph, which included 2,200,000 books
combined. These books were twenty times as many as the rolled-up
books in the unique library of Alexandria at the peak of its boom.13
According to Hunke, in this very year Abul-Qasim compiled a book on
surgery, which was the main source for those seeking information on
this scientific field for many years. In addition, in this year, Biruni
described how the earth rotates around itself, and al-Hassan al-Heitham
discovered the rules of eyesight, experimented with the boxed camera,
and on lens, convex, concave, cylindrical mirrors, and focus. Finally,
in this very year while the Muslim world was moving rapidly toward
the apex of its golden age, Europe waited fearfully for the apocalypse;
that is, the historical, geographical, and astronomical end of the world.
At that time, the common idea among Westerners was that conducting
scientific research, familiarizing themselves with nature, and exploring
the worlds wonders mean nothing but wasting and misusing the
rational faculties.14
Laktantius (317 A.D), who taught in a church school, said, As nobody
has reached the truth yet and a lot of efforts and time might have been
wasted in search for it, obviously knowledge cannot be found where
science and scientific research is sought. Another Christian called
12



Hunke, Islamic Culture in Europe, p. 420; Safa, The History of the Rational Sciences in the
Islamic Civilization, p. 133.
13
Hunke, ibid, p. 352.
14
ibid, p. 361.
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Tertolian said openly, On Jesus Christs orders, after the descent of

the Bible, it is not our duty to be inquisitive and acquire knowledge
further than what is in the holy book.15
Moreover, a priest closed the library of Muzayunis and put the
scientists to flight. In 366 A.D during a Byzantine Caesar, this library
was transformed to a church, its books were burnt, and their
philosophers charged with sorcery and magic were persecuted. In
529 A.D, the last center of philosophy closed down in Greece. In 600
A.D, the Platini library, which was established by Augustus, was burnt.
Likewise, studying the works of different doctrines, particularly
acquiring mathematics, was prohibited.16
However, Muslims were very fond of books, particularly books on
geometry, mechanics, medicine, astronomy, philosophy, and the like.
It was said that after Harun al-Rashid had won the battle of Amuriyyah
with Byzantium (839 A.D), he agreed to make peace with Byzantium
on condition that the ancient Greek writings were surrendered. After
victory over Byzantium, he demanded of Michael III that all
philosophical works, even though not yet translated to Arabic, be
surrendered to Muslims as war tribute.17
Muslims even used to send special envoys that had great authority and
enough money from Baghdad to Byzantium and India in order to
collect the works and to ask scientists of other countries for help.
Caliphs, viziers, and other great Muslims each had a private library.
There were also numerous public and private libraries in the Muslim
15



ibid, p. 362.
16
ibid, p. 363.
17
In this regard, see Zeidan, The History of Islamic Civilization, p. 631; Hatta, The History of
the Arabs pp. 381-401; Safa, The History of the Rational Sciences in the Islamic Civilization,
pp. 42-45; Hunke, Islamic Culture in Europe, p. 379; Jafari, Muslims in History, pp. 94-5,
150; Ghunaimah, The History of the Great Islamic Universities; Shibli, The History of
Education in Islam, p. 140.
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world. Mosques and hospitals had special libraries as well.18 These

books and libraries contributed to the spread of Islamic culture and
civilization. The statistical information about these books and libraries
can be found in various historical sources including the Al-Fihrist by of
ibn Nadim.

The Impact of Islamic Civilization on Europe

As mentioned above, through conquering various lands (Fertile
Crescent, Iran, Egypt, etc.), Muslims added vast areas to their territory.
They could geographically expand the initial religious government
which the Prophet had formed in Medina. Their government covered a
large part of western Asia and northern Africa in addition to the
Arabian Peninsula. They formed such a great government that within a
short period of time most developed areas of the then civilized world
were included in it.
Similarly, in terms of civilization, Muslims inherited the ancient
civilizations and their heritage has dated back to the time of the
Assyrians, the Babylonians, the Greeks, the Romans, the Iranians, and
the Egyptians. Being fascinated with sciences, they acquired,
assimilated, and modified the rational and artistic heritage in
cooperation with the scholastic figures of the very conquered lands.
They also developed their specific culture and civilization.19 Haskins
wrote, The first and most forceful scientific and philosophical
activities of the middle age from medicine and mathematics to
astronomy and alchemy were found in the territory of the Prophet.20
18



In this regard, see Ghunaimah, The History of the Great Islamic Universities, chapters 3 &
6; Safa, The History of the Rational Sciences in the Islamic Civilization, pp. 48-120; Hunke,
Islamic Culture in Europe, pp. 122-68; Qurbani, The History of Islamic Culture and
Civilization, pp. 298-300; Zeidan The History of Islamic Civilization, pp. 630-40; Hatta, The
History of the Arabs pp. 529-30.
19
See Hatta, The History of the Arabs pp. 154 & 223-4.
20
Charles Homer Haskins, The Renaissance of the Twelfth Century, Cambridge, Mass,
U.S.A., 1971, p. 882.
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As a result of creating the really stunning and brilliant culture and

civilization, the Muslim world could penetrate into the Christian world
and influence it. As for the various manifestations of the penetration of
the Islamic culture into Europe, Will Durant wrote:
The Islamic civilization penetrated into Europe through trade,
Crusades, translation of hundreds of Arabic books into Latin
and the journey of such scholars as Gerbert, Michael Scott,
Adelard of Bath, etc. to the Islamic Andaluca as well as by
young Christians who were sent by their fathers to the Muslim
countries in order to acquire knowledge and etiquette and
become civilized.21
During many years of contact between Muslims and Christians, the
impact of the Christian world was almost limited to some religious
rites and war customs. As for religious rites, it is most likely that
Sufism entered Islam through Christian instances of monasticism and
acts of worship by Saints. The biography of Prophet Jesus Christ and
his personality22 remained in the Muslims minds; Islamic poetry and
arts received attention as well.23
In return, the Muslim world also had various influences on the
Christian world. Europe learned the following from Islamic lands:
various dishes, syrups, medications, weapons, coats of arms, artistic
flair, industrial and commercial tools and traditions as well as rules and
21



Durant, The History of Civilization, vol.4, pp. 1229-33; also Qurbani The History of Islamic
Culture and Civilization, p. 320. According to Washington Oruming , The castle of our
civilization was built by the science and technique of capable Muslims. No matter where the
Christian European nations are, they are indebted to Muslims. (The Muslim World, p .77;
Qurbani, The History of Islamic Culture and Civilization, p. 318).
22
Of course, Muslims paid attention to Prophet Jesus Christ mostly because according to the
Glorious Quran, he was a divinely chosen Prophet sent to guide mankind. Accordingly, the
belief in all divine prophets is among the Islamic beliefs and all Prophets are respected and
revered by Muslims.
23
The History of Civilization, p.319; also see Qurbani, The Reasons of Spread of Islam and
Muslims Fall, pp. 21-2; Pier Russo, The History of Sciences, p. 146.
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Summer 2012, Vol. 13, No. 2

customs of seafaring. Likewise, they borrowed many of their terms

from Muslims.24 Having acquired, developed, and boosted various
sciences, Muslims transmitted them to Europe and prepared the ground
for scientific development in the West.
The cultural and scientific influence of Islam on Europe began after the
contacts between the worlds of Islam and Christianity and it increased
gradually. These contacts were mostly of three types: a) the contacts
established during the Crusades between Muslims and westerners; b)
those which were established in Sicily; c) the contacts in Iberia
(Andaluca and the present-day Spain) between Muslims and
westerners.25 The very recent contacts which Muslims established after
the conquest of Spain and Sicily were most productive.
In order to maintain their unstable dominance over the Syrian and
Palestinian coasts, crusaders proceeded towards the East in order to
conquer Jerusalem. Greatly surprised, they faced a civilization superior
to theirs in these lands. Despite the roughly permanent wars either with
non-Christians or between Christian princes, which led to horrendous
massacres by Christians, some enterprising crusaders tried to acquire
parts of this civilization. Some other real scientists who stayed in the
lands conquered by Christians got the chance to know a part of Arabic
(Islamic) literature. They included a renowned figure, Adelard of Bath,
who after a journey to the East and his stay there (in 510-37A.H 1116-42 A.D) was so deeply influenced by Islamic sciences that this

24



About the impacts of the Islamic civilizations on Europe, see Durant, The History of
Civilization, p.319; Hunke, The History of Islam in Europe, pp. 419-20; Qurbani, The History
of Islamic Culture and Civilization, pp. 309-21; Shakib-Arsalan, The History of Islamic
Conquests in Europe, pp. 229-305.
25
Aldo Mie Lee, Islamic Sciences and their Role in the World Scientific Development, p.
477; Gustav Le Bon, The Civilization of the Arabs, pp. 731-5; Durant, The History of
Civilization,vol.4, section 2, pp. 1229-33. As for the influence of Islam in Spain and the
civilization of the Islamic Spain, see The History of Civilization, section 1, pp. 372- 90;
Joseph Mockups, The Greatness of Muslims in Spain, various pages.
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J. Thawaqib

influence can be seen in both his own works and his translations of
Islamic writings into Latin.26
Although the role assumed by Sicily and southern Italy in transmitting
the Islamic sciences to the West was geographically limited, it was
deeply influential. African Muslims disembarked in Sicily in 827 A.D /
213 A.H. In 831 A.D / 216 A.H and they conquered Palermo and then
Messina in 842 A.D / 228 A.H. Finally, they conquered the entire
island in 878 AD. / 265 A.H. Muslims inhabited this island without
facing any serious foreign invasion until 1060 A.D / 452 A.H.27
Thanks to the Muslims control and creation of favorable conditions
aimed at the spread of civilization, a unique culture was created in
Sicily which existed for many years; three world scientific languages
existing then were simultaneously used there. These three languages
were Latin, Greek, and Arabic.28 At this point, the highly active trend
of translation of various works started due to which many works of
Muslim scientists on different fields were translated from Arabic to
Latin by Sicilian translators.
Transmission of Islamic sciences to the Christian world was deeper
and more intense in Iberia, and longer compared to other places. It was
in Iberia that the definite transformation to which the revival of the
European sciences had to be linked was realized. The Muslim rulers
spirit of forgiveness and lenience when treating believers in other
religions, particularly the Christian and Jewish scientists, caused
diverse students to flock to this land. New sciences thrived during this
time as a result of the penetration of Islamic sciences into the Christian
world through the numerous works of translators. Muslim scientists
26



Aldo Mie Lee, Islamic Sciences and their Role in the World Scientific Development, pp.
448-9. About Islamic civilization in Sicily, see Gustav Le Bon, The Civilization of Islam and
the Arabs, p. 385- onward.
27
Aldo Mie Lee, Islamic Sciences and their Role in the World Scientific Development, p.
491-2.
28
ibid, p. 493.
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Summer 2012, Vol. 13, No. 2

and European historians agree that the flourishing of the Islamic

civilization in Spain awakened the western nations and Christian
Europe. It was also the origin of the present scientific and industrial
development.29
As for Islamic civilization in Andaluca (Spain), Gustav Le Bon said:
In the era of Visigoth, Andaluca enjoyed limited
development and their culture was similar to that of the
barbarians. Particularly in the last phase of their
conquest, Muslims began to progress; within one
hundred years, they completely cultivated and
developed the waste lands, built magnificent structures
and mansions, and established commercial relations
with other nations, then they endeavored to
disseminate sciences and crafts and translated Greek
and Latin books. They had set up some schools and
colleges which the Europeans made use of and
benefited from for a long time.30
In Crdoba, the Islamic civilization reached such a peak that in terms
of scientific development, it was the honor of all cities around the
world for three hundred years. One of the features of the Islamic
civilization of that time was that Muslims were extremely eager to
acquire the sciences and crafts; they established schools, libraries, and
scientific and literary institutes and societies and they also translated
Greek books. They continued to successfully master geometry,
29



The European writers believe that through Spain and Sicily, Islam exerted influence over
most of the western countries such that it can be said that Islamic influence on the West was
greater through Spain and Sicily than through Musil, Baghdad and Cairo. They give two
reasons for this claim. First, sciences and cultures of these two religions were not mixed in
Syria as they were mixed in Sicily in the time of Roger II and Fredrick II. Second, while
Latin Syrians always had access to the Islamic sciences, they were never able to acquire
them. In contrast, Christians of the western Mediterranean acquired the sciences and crafts of
Crdoba and finally Islamic Spain (Islamic Heritage, p. 12).
30
Le Bon, The Civilization of Islam and the Arabs, p. 341.
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J. Thawaqib

astronomy, natural sciences, chemistry, and medicine. Muslim scholars

achieved considerable successes in science and technology, and they
could make important discoveries. Trade and industry also reached
their zeniths. Minerals, weapons, silk and other fabrics, tanned leather,
and sugar were produced there and were taken to Africa and the East
by the tradesmen of the time. Muslims proved their talents and
capabilities in public services, too. Many roads, bridges, caravanserais,
inns, and mosques were built in various areas.31
They were superior in not only scientific and technical issues but also
in morals, as Sedilo wrote:
In that era, Muslims were superior to Christians in
terms of morals as well as science and technology. In
all of their states and behaviors, there were such
generosity, benevolence, and sacrifice the like of
which could not be found in other nations. Among the
characteristics that distinguished them from other
nations is their respect for mankind, which is
considered one of their glories.32
A valuable human characteristic which Muslims taught or tried to teach
Christians was religious leniency with believers of other religions.
They treated the conquered nations so leniently that Christians set up
the Inquisition in Seville in 782 A.D and in Crdoba in 852 A.D. From
the many churches built during the Islamic reign, Muslims showed
much respect for the religions of the defeated nations. Hence, many
Christians converted to Islam even though it was not necessary because

31



ibid, p. 342. The introduction of The History of Islamic Conquests in Europe, p. 29. Also,
see Durant, The History of Civilization, 1rst section, pp. 372-90 & Thought and Art in the
Islamic Western Territories, pp. 303-59. About the spread of Islam among Spanish
Christians, see Thomas Arnold, The History of the Spread of Islam, pp. 69-105.
32
The Civilization of the Arabs, p. 350.
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Summer 2012, Vol. 13, No. 2

in the Islamic government, Christians and Jews enjoyed the same rights
as Muslims and they could hold any position in the court.33
The Islamic civilization had been shining in the present-day Spain,
Portugal, southern France, central Switzerland, western Italy, Sicily
and other Mediterranean islands, and Islam had covered all this vast
area until the rulers of these Islamic territories became despotic and
their power was steadily undermined. They lost their unity and turned
into petty kings; as a result, they lost parts of their territory. In 1498
A.D, Ferdinand, the Christian king of Aragn, married Isabella, the
queen of Castilian Spanish. This marriage led to the great political
unity of two main parts of Spain, that is, Aragn and Castilian Spanish
as well as their territorial integrity. This resulted in Spain becoming a
powerful country. These two Christian rulers retook the Islamic
conquests and the incompetent Muslim kings lost control of them.
They had expanded their territory until Granada collapsed in 898 A.H /
1492 A.D. As a result, the last Islamic base in Europe was lost. Thus,
this political unity put an end to the Islamic reign in Iberia. In this very
year, with the provisions given to him by Ferdinand and Isabella,
Christopher Columbus had set out to discover the unknown continent,
which was later known as America.34 The interesting point to
historians is that the contract of Christopher Columbuss journey to
discover the new world was signed in Santafe, which was built by
Spaniards during war with Muslims six miles from Granada in 896-97
A.H / 1490-91 A.D. They were glad that it was the only Spanish city
which was not contaminated by the so-called Islamic heresy.35
Afterward, Portugal split from Spain and each separately began to
33



ibid, p. 345.
34
See Amir-Ali, The History of Arabs and Islam, p. 523-35; Shakib-Arsalan, The History of
Muslims Conquests in Africa, p. 25 of Introduction and p.25-onward; Abdul-Hadi Haeri, The
Early Confrontations of the Iranian thinkers with Bourgeoisie of the Western Civilization, p.
56; Gustav Le Bon, The Civilization of the Arabs, PP. 336-7.
35
Roger B. Merriam, The Conquest of Granada, in Lewis, The Islamic World, p. 142. Also,
see Haeri, The Early Confrontations of the Iranian thinkers with Bourgeoisie of the Western
Civilization, p. 56.
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J. Thawaqib

discover and colonize different parts of the world. Thereafter, the

British, the French, the Dutch and Germans endeavored to colonize
various countries. With the revival of Christian nations, new
discoveries and inventions after the renaissance, and the industrial
revolution and scientific development in Europe, the new western
civilization was founded, drawing on Muslims legacy.
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