Seismic Interpretation by Dr. Ali Bakr

SEISMIC INTERPRETATION
Dr. ALI BAKR
ALI BAKR
Contents
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1.
Basic background
2.
Structural Interpretation
3.
Seismic attributes
4.
AVO implications
5.
Seismic Inversion
6.
Seismic stratigraphy
7.
4D seismic (Time Laps)
1-BASIC BACKGROUND
ALI BAKR
1-Basic Background
Seismic acquisition
Seismic processing
Understanding the data
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1-Basic Background
Seismic interpretation and subsurface mapping are key skills that
are used commonly in the oil industry
This teaching resource introduces the basic principles of seismic
interpretation and then, if time permits, they can be applied in a
practical exercise
The resource dovetails with the A level Geology specifications
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1-Basic Background
.
Seismic acquisition offshore
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An air gun towed behind the survey

ship transmits sound waves through the
water column and into the subsurface
Changes in rock type or fluid content
reflect the sound waves towards the
surface
Receivers towed behind the vessel
record how long it takes for the sound
waves to return to the surface
Sound waves reflected by different
boundaries arrive at different times.
The same principles apply to onshore
acquisition
1-Basic Background
Seismic acquisition onshore
Onshore seismic acquisition requires an energy input from a

thumper truck. Geophones arrayed in a line behind the
truck record the returning seismic signal.
Geophones
(receivers)
Vibrator
(source)
Sub-horizontal beds
Unconformity
Dipping beds
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1-Basic Background
Seismic acquisition onshore
Seismic horizons represent changes in density and allow the subsurface

geology to be interpreted.
Lithology change
Angular unconformity
Lithology change
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1-Basic Background
Seismic Processing
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Wiggle trace to CDP gather

Normal move out correction
Stacking
What is a reflector?
1-Basic Background
Wiggle trace to CDP gather
Wiggle traces
Graphs of intensity of sound as received by

the recorders
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Seismic Processing
CDP gather
Graphs of intensity for one location collected

into groups and shown in a sequence.
1-Basic Background
Normal move out correction
Sound sources
S1 S2 S3
CMP
Seismic Processing
Sound receivers
R3 R2 R1
1
Change in lithology
from mud to sand so sound
is reflected back to surface
CDP
Data for one point from different signals to different receivers

1. More time needed to reach distant receivers so the data look like
a curve.
2. Correcting for normal move out restores the curve to a near
horizontal display.
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Original CDP
gather
corrected for
normal move out
1-Basic Background
Stacking
First, gather sound data for one

location and correct for delayed
arrival (normal move out)
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Seismic Processing
Next, take all the sound traces for

that one place
and stack them on top of each
other
Finally, place stacks for

adjacent locations side by
side to produce a seismic
line
12
1-Basic Background
What is a reflector?
A seismic reflector is a boundary between
beds with different properties. There may
be a change of lithology or fluid fill from
Bed 1 to Bed 2. These property changes
cause some sound waves to be reflected
towards the surface.
energy source
Bed 1
lower velocity
higher velocity
Bed 2
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signal receiver
There are many reflectors on a

seismic section. Major changes
in properties usually produce
strong, continuous reflectors as
shown by the arrow.
1-Basic Background
Understanding the data
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Common Depth Points (CDPs)

Floating datum
Two way time (TWT)
Time versus depth
1-Basic Background
Common Depth Points
CDPs are defined as
the common reflecting
point at depth on a
reflector or the halfway
point when a wave
travels from a source to
a reflector to a
receiver.
Common midpoint above CDP
Sound sources
S1 S2 S3
Sound receivers
R3 R2 R1
Change in lithology =
reflecting horizon
Common reflecting point or

common depth point (CDP)
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1-Basic Background
Floating datum
The floating datum line represents travel time between the recording surface and the zero
line (generally sea level). This travel time depends on rock type, how weathered the rock is,
and other factors.
The topographic elevation is the height above sea level of the surface along which the
seismic data were acquired.
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16
1-Basic Background
Two way time (TWT)

indicates the time required
for the seismic wave to
travel from a source to
some point below the
surface and back up to a
receiver.
TWT
0
0.25 seconds
0.5
seconds
In this example the TWT is

0.5 seconds.
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surface
0.25 seconds
1-Basic Background
Time versus depth
Two way time (TWT) does
not equate directly to depth
Depth of a specific reflector
can be determined using
boreholes
For example, 926 m depth =
0.58 sec. TWT
0.58 sec
288
926
1865
m
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926 m
1-BASIC BACKGROUND
Check line scale and orientation.
Work from the top of the section, where clarity is usually best,
towards the bottom.
Distinguish the major reflectors and geometries of seismic

sequences.
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1-Basic Background
1V1
Some energy will be reflected, some will be

transmitted where there is a change in AI
2V2 - 1V1
2V2 + V1
1
2V2
1V1
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Amount reflected (amplitude of reflection)

will depend on the relative difference in
physical properties across the interface
1-Basic Background
Define reflection
coefficient (RC)
1V1
2V2 - 1V1
2V2 + V1
1
2V2
RC = AI2 AI1
AI2 + AI1
If AI2 > AI1 positive RC

If AI2 < AI1 negative RC
1V1
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1-Basic Background
Polarity Conventions
Blue (90%)
Slow, Less
Dense
Peak
(60%)
Red (10%)
+ve
R.C.
Fast, more
Dense
Trough
(40%)
Blue (10%)
Red (90%)
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1-Basic Background
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Not all changes in lithology associated with

change in AI. Changes in fluid content in a
single lithology can give rise to reflections
Different combinations of layers lithologies can
have the same RC Seismic non-unique
Seismic data image interfaces we observe
changes in AI across an interface, not properties
of layers themselves
1-Basic Background
Convolutional Theorem
Subsurface at any one location as consists of a one-dimensional

series of reflection coefficients
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1-Basic Background
Subsurface at any one location as consists of a one-dimensional

series of reflection coefficients
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1-Basic Background
Each RC gives rise to a separate reflection event, the amplitude of

which is proportional to the change in AI across the interface
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1-Basic Background
*
The final image we will record for that location consists of the
algebraic sum of all the individual reflections
Mathematically we convolve the wavelet with the series of
reflection coefficients
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1- Basic Background
Data required for synthetic calculation
Seismic Data
Well Curves (Sonic and Density)
Well Position relative to Seismic
Check Shot / T-D relationship

Well Deviation Survey
Seismic Acquisition and Processing Info

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1-Basic Background
Vertical Resolution
Top & Base

Resolved
Impedance
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High Frequency
Top & Base

Unresolved
Low Frequency
1-Basic Background
Vertical Resolution
Seismic ability to define top

and bottom of a rock layer
In general, reflections are composites of thin layer effects.
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30
1-Basic Background
Vertical Resolution
Resolution depends on:
Frequency content in seismic data.
The interval velocity at the objective level
Dominant Wavelength of Seismic Wave =
Where: V is the velocity in unit distance per second and

f is the dominant frequency in Hz
~
Rv
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Vint
4fdom
1-Basic Background
Vertical Resolution
Most of the energy in a seismic wavelet is contained in a band of
frequencies centered about the dominant frequency. The dominant
period can be defined as the time between two major crests. The
dominant frequency is the reciprocal of the dominant period. The
equation for wavelength, , is:
= velocity/frequency
Calculate wavelengths for the following cases:
Shallow rocks: V=2000 m/s, f=50 Hz;
Deep rocks: V=6000 m/s, f=25 Hz.
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1-Basic Background
Vertical Resolution
Conventional
HFITM
Vertical Resolution Example (HFI Processing from Geotrace)

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1-Basic Background
Vertical Resolution
Example 1:
V = 7,000 m/s
F = 50 Hz
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= 7,000/50 [(m/s)/(cycles/s)]
= 140 m
1-Basic Background
Vertical Resolution
Example 2:
V = 3,000 m/s
F = 50 Hz
l = V/F
= 3,000/50 [(m/s)/(cycles/s)]
= 60 m
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1-Basic Background
Vertical Resolution (Summery)
Vertical Resolution is the ability to detect and map thin events

such as reservoir sand bodies
It is determined by the average frequency and bandwidth of the

seismic data
We can typically resolve down to wavelength
Wavelength is determined by frequency and velocity:

=V/f so resolution ~ V/(4*f)
Resolution deteriorates with depth
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1-Basic Background
Vertical Resolution
- 0. 5
The seismic signal contains a range of frequencies (left)

The broader the bandwidth, the sharper the pulse (smaller
side lobes)
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1-Basic Background
Vertical Resolution
Fourier analysis may be used to see the bandwidth

of the seismic data in a given portion of the data.
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Amplitude spectrum on left shows a broad bandwidth,

rich in high frequencies
Spectrum on right is irregular and abruptly truncated at
about 45 Hz. Data were filtered post-stack as a noise
reduction exercise.
1-Basic Background
Vertical Resolution
What is the dominant frequency of the seismic data in the interval

between 1500 and 1600 ms? If the velocity is 5000 m/s, what is the
tuning thickness? If it is possible to detect a bed down to 1/16 of
the wavelength, what would that be?
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1-Basic Background
Vertical Resolution
Dominant frequency:
about 4 cycles in 100 ms
= 45 cycles/second = 45 Hz
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1-Basic Background
Vertical Resolution
Tuning thickness:
Frequency = 45 Hz, Velocity = 5000 m/s
Wavelength = 5000/45 = 111 m
Tuning thickness = x 111 = 28 m
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1-Basic Background
Horizontal Resolution
Horizontal Resolution is the ability to map lateral changes in reservoir

edges and internal structures.
Seismic energy is reflected from a patch rather than a point. Migration

collapses this patch and improves resolution.
Prior to migration horizontal resolution is poor
Horizontal resolution can approach vertical resolution if aperture is

adequate
The wider the aperture the closer the horizontal resolution approaches
the vertical resolution
Other seismic processes can also reduce lateral resolution
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1-Basic Background
Horizontal Resolution Fresnel Zone
Seismic Energy Reflects from a Patch, not a Point
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1-Basic Background
Lateral resolution described by Fresnel Zone

Seismic data image (illuminate) an area, rather than a single point
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1-Basic Background
Fresnel zone diameter (F) depends upon:

Average velocity (v)
Two-way travel time (t)
F = v (t/f)1/2
Dominant frequency (f)
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1-Basic Background
Migration collapses diffractions and gives us horizontal resolution

To do this properly we need to record the whole diffraction
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1-Basic Background
Fresnel Zone example:

v = 2440 m/s
f = 25 Hz
t=2s
F = v (t/f)1/2
= 2440*(1/25) 1/2
= 488 m
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2- SEISMIC INTERPRETATION
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Interpretation Workflow
Regional
Study
Review-QC
Data
Structural mapping
Borehole to Surface
Seismic Match
Seismic Horizon and
Fault interpretation
Velocity Modelling
Time to Depth
Conversion
Seismic reservoir
property mapping
Geomodelling
DHI/Seis. Attributes
/Inversion Analysis
Reservoir Property
Mapping
Volumetric / Spatial
Distribution Analysis
Time/Depth/Attribute/
Properties integration
Peer Review
Report
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Basic Structural Geology Background
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Fault Classes
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Fault Classes
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Fault Classes
STRIKE-SLIP FAULT
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Fault Classes
270
Fault Classes090
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DIP-SLIP
OBLIQUE-SLIP
Pitch = 90
Pitch = 45E
STRIKE-SLIP
Pitch = 0
Fault Classes
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Fault Classes
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Fault Classes
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Fault Classes
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Fault Classes
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Fault Classes
Listirc
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Planners
BASIN ANALYSIS
Contine
nt
Rifting
Passive Margin
Active Margin
Island arc
Collision
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Plate Tectonic conceptual model of basin evolution
BASIN ANALYSIS
SUBSIDENCE
DL
L
T = 30 KM (CONTINENTAL)
L > L
T > t CRUSTAL THINING
=L /L= T/ t
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(streching factor)
BASIN ANALYSIS
SUBSIDENCE
LISTRIC FAULT MODEL
BASIN
LISTRIC FAULT
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SHEARING STRESS
BASIN ANALYSIS
SUBSIDENCE
PLANAR FAULT MODEL
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BASIN ANALYSIS
SUBSIDENCE
BLOCK ROTATION
MODEL
BASIN
RANGE
PLANAR FAULT
BLOCK ROTATION
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SHEARING STRESS
Fault Classes
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Fault Classes
Only on gravitational structuresnot tectonics?

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Fault Classes
Planner or Listric
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Fault Classes
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Fault Classes
listric
or
planar
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Fault Classes
Footwall uplift
Picking faults
on seismic
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Fault Classes
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Fault Classes
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Fault Classes
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Fault Classes
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Fault Classes
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Fault Classes
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Fault Classes
Fault-scarp degradation
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Fault Classes
Eroded crest
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Fault Classes
Talus at foot
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Fault Classes
Then banked in with sediment
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Fault Classes
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Fault Classes
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Fault Classes
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Fault Classes
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Fault Classes
False fault pick
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Fault Classes
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Fault Classes
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Fault Classes
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Various Folds
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Various Folds (cont'd)
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Axis
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Axial plane near axis should be close to horizontal
Fault Movement Indicators

Cross section analysis
Example 1: Onlap
Active faulting and uplift

during deposition
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Syn-faulting strata

Example 2: Offset beds of
equal thickness
Faulting post deposition
Pre-faulting strata
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SW
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NE

0.5 mile
100 ms
Offset onlap:
1. 3R>1R
2. 3R>BRR
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x1
x2
x3
x4
x5
MYA4-A
Wilhelm
Calitroleum
500 ms
BRR
1 mile
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McDonald
Isochore: line drawn through points of equal

vertical (apparent) thickness of a unit

Two Signatures:
1. Close contours
a)
a) fault cut
interval
at time
(syn tectonic)
2. Thin beds
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Structural high
b)
b) fault below
interval
(syn tectonic)
c)
c) filled in
paleo high
(post tectonic)
Fault Classes
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Hydrocarbon Traps
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Hydrocarbon Traps
Fault Free
Fault Related
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Hydrocarbon Traps
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Hydrocarbon Traps
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Hydrocarbon Traps
Trap
Over flowing point or spill point Closure
height
Closure area
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Pool
oil/gas column
oil/gas area
oil-water/gas-oil contact
Note: All measurements are in 3D space. All pools are in traps, but not
all traps could be pools.
Hydrocarbon Traps
Spill point: the lowest point at which hydrocarbon may be contained in the trap. A trap may or may
not be full to the spill plane.
Closure: the vertical distance from crest (the highest point of the trap, or culmination) to spill plane.
Oil-water contact (OWC): the deepest level of producible oil.
Gas-oil contact (GOC) or gas-water contact (GWC): the lower limit of producible gas.
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Hydrocarbon Traps
pool
Height of gas
gas
Cap rock
oil
Height of closure
trap
Reservoir rock
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Spill point
Height of oil
Basic Inversion Terminology
Modified from William 1996
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Horst -Graben Inversion -Southern North Sea
South Hewett Fault
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Horst -Graben Inversion -Southern North Sea
South Hewett Fault

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Seismic Interpretation
To Interpret:
Structure
Stratigraphy
Lithology
Fractures
Pressure
Pore Fluid
3D Seismic
Cube
Predict and Characterize Subsurface Reservoirs
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Automated Structural Interpretation
Horizons
Faults
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Ant-track
Automated Structural Interpretation
Guidance for accurate fault

interpretation
Combined visualisation of DipAzimuth and Fault Enhancement

attributes.
Well 1
Well 2
Well 3
Wells are proven

not to be in
communication.
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Initial Check List

Seismic data vintage (acquisition year)?
Acquisition report
Processing sequence, type (PSTM, PSDM, etc.)?
Processing report
Source of data (tape, project backup) and format?
8-, 16-, 32-bit data? Have any AGC, Time gain filters, been
applied? Amplitude fidelity?
Overall data quality:
Good for structural interpretation?
Good for stratigraphic interpretation?
Good for reservoir characterization?
Can we see fluid effects, lithology, both?
Which phase and polarity?
Dominant frequency at reservoir level and expected resolution?
Well tie analysis?
Existing seismic picks and interpretation review (time and depth)
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Initial Questions
Migration Type?
Time Migration
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Depth Migration
Initial Questions
Digitization of Geophysical Data
Dynamic range:
If digital sampling ranges from 1 to 256 units of amplitude:
20log10 (256) 48 dB
The number of bits in each word determines the data dynamic
range:
8-bit = 28 = 256
16-bit = 216 = 65536
20log10 (65536) 96 dB
192 dB
32-bit = 232 = 4,109
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Initial Questions
Amplitude Fidelity and Filtering
Smoothing filter, improves signal to noise ratio for interpretation
purpose, but removes discontinuities, potential faults
Amplitude
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Dip guided Gaussian Filter
Initial Questions
AGC effect on data: good for interpretation and bad for attributes and
reservoir characterization
Original Amplitude
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Time Gain
AGC filter
3D Data Load QC
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Initial Questions
Amplitude Fidelity and Footprints
Acquisition/Processing
Acquisition/Processing
footprints
fooprints
Reefs
Shallow Area Reef
Buildups
0 ms
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Shallow time slice on Variance cube
Initial Questions
Amplitude Fidelity and Footprints
Strong processing artifacts indicating poor

amplitude fidelity
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RMS Amplitude
Initial Questions
Structural and Stratigraphic Interpretation: Good
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Initial Questions
A3D Data Comparison
2000 Processed
1984-Processing Seismic Results
Shift between the 1984 and the 2000 Surveys

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Initial Questions
Polarity and Phase
Using this convention, in a seismic section displayed with SEG normal polarity
we would expect:
A reflecting boundary to appear as a trough in the seismic trace if Z2 > Zl
A reflecting boundary to appear as a peak in the seismic trace if Z2 < Zl
(a) minimum- and

(b) zero-phase
wavelets at an
acoustic-impedance
boundary with a
positive reflection
coefficient
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Initial Questions
Ideal Vertical Resolution
V(m/sec)
F(Hz)
/2to/4(m)
2000
50
20-10
3000
40
38-19
4000
30
66-33
5000
20
125-62.5
V
Dominant Wavelength of Seismic Wave =
f
Where: V is the velocity in unit distance per second and
f is the dominant frequency in Hz
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Initial Questions
Vertical Resolution and Tuning Thickness
Zero phase
wavelets
Tuning separation
in time = 1/2 of the wavelet period
in depth =
DT
DT
X interval velocity
Example:
If DT = .020 Sec
and Vint = 6000/Sec
the tuning thickness is 60 feet
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Initial Questions
Borehole to seismic tie
Quality of check
shot data?
Phase?
Match with surface
seismic?
Any stretch and
squeeze?
Position of markers
versus seismic
picks?
Time DT RHOB AI
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RC
Wavelet
Review of Well Tie

Synthetics in time domain
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Review of Well Tie

Synthetics in time domain
New Time-Depth
Updated well tie
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Review of Well Tie

Borehole to 3D seismic
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Review of Well Tie

Checkshot Data
Outlier well
Horizon 2 outlier maker
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Dos and Donts

Borehole to seismic tie
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Review of Seismic Interpretation

Picks in time/depth domain
Consistency between inlines

and cross-lines picks?
Signal consistency (peak,
trough, zero-crossing)
Auto-tracking or manual, or
combination of both?
Geological consistency
(isochrone, isochore)?
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Picks in time/depth domain
Vertical exag. 7.5x

Examples of inconsistencies between inlines and cross-lines
picks and impact on time grid
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Structural consistency
Starting from key/strong

horizons, here coal level.
Is the interpretation
structurally
meaningful/flawless?
Look at the fault throws and
their vertical evolution along
fault planes
Understand the big picture

first
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Review of Velocity Modelling

and Depth Conversion
Well velocity (checkshots)
Original stacking velocity
Evaluate the need for calibration of stacking velocity

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Review of Velocity Modeling

and Depth Conversion
Marker
Depth
Old Model
Residual (m)
-2612.46
-2512.62
-99.8408
-2727.96
-2631.32
-96.6397
-2838.46
-2743.55
-94.9091
-2884.56
-2791.08
-93.4754
-2922.96
-2838.74
-84.2182
-3015.8
-2930.85
-84.9545
-3073.45
-2994.24
-79.2136
ZZ
-3144.13
-3065.24
-78.8872
-2623.88
-2506.14
-117.745
-2736.98
-2622.13
-114.85
-2843.4
-2733.7
-109.695
-2890.87
-2783.39
-107.485
-2928.84
-2830.8
-98.0448
-3017.93
-2914.42
-103.508
-3076.67
-2980.04
-96.6268
ZZ
-3148.31
-3053.87
-94.4429
Well
AA-1
AB-1
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Review depth
residuals before well
correction is applied
It provides a direct
indication of the
velocity model quality
Data Review Completed

Highlighted where to focus interpretation efforts and attention
(minimize valuable mouse clicks)
What data is ok to use for either further:
Depth conversion
Geomodeling
Identified data that revision/update or interpretation from scratch
Go back to essentials (geology, well correlation panels,
geological environment, regional structural style, etc..
Geology is not limited to well markers!
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Geologic Correlations
Understand well correlation first at big

picture level guided by key/strong
horizons
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Horizon Selection
Start with obvious and
most continuous seismic
reflections detected
during panning
More difficult horizons
are addressed later or
phantomed from key
horizons
Get the framework first
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Traditional Fault picking
2D on optimal section = perpendicular to fault strike

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Data Conditioning
Data conditioning for structural interpretation
input
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filtered
Noise Removal
Edge preserving filtering Structurally Oriented
Original
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Filtered
Difference
Structural Framework
Screening and Panning of Amplitude data
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Inlines, Xlines and Time slices
Screening and Panning of Amplitude data
Random sections orthogonal to fault planes

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Screening of Amplitude data
Volume rendering with transparency

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Screening of Amplitude data
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Volume rendering with transparency
Screening of Dip and Azimuth Volumes
Time slice on Azimuth

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Screening of Dip and Azimuth Volumes
Time slice on Dip

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Screening of Edge Enhancement Attributes
Time slice on Variance

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Interpretation- Structural Mapping
Fault markers
Fault sticks
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Fault markers
Fault sticks
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Modeled Fault plane
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Screening of Structural Framework

Auto-tracking time structural map
Transfer low level,

repetitive tasks to the
workstation such as
auto-tracking
Maximise the value
of a mouse click!!!!
3D Auto-tracking will reveal data quality and

ALIinterpretation
BAKR
issues to be addressed eventually
QC Your Horizon Picks

In 2D and 3D Views
1X vertical exaggeration
10X vertical exaggeration
Looking for mispicks in 3D views using vertical exaggeration

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In 2D and 3D Views
Looking for bulls eyes and slope

anomalies on contoured maps
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In 2D and 3D Views
Pick quality and signal

consistency on instantaneous
amplitude
Pick quality and signal

consistency check on
instantaneous phase
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Velocity Modeling and

Depth conversion
Check all available data:
Check shots
VSP
Synthetics
Stacking velocities
Geologic tops correlation
Select, use and integrate as needed:
Simple TDR from wells
Average interval velocity
Full velocity modelling: wells + calibrated stacking
Etc..
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Interpretation
Seismic Geomorphology
Crevasse splay
100 m
100 m
channels
TIME SLICE Y ATRIBUTOS

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TWT
Stratal Slice of Amplitud Maps
Reference horizon 1
Time slice
Horizon slice
Proportional slice
Reference horizon 2
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Interpretation Summary
QC existing data and interpretation
Data type, phase, resolution, amplitude, well ties, picks, etc..
Beware of noise level, noise removal to support interpretation
Use the full 3D data and auto-tracker as much as possible
Use 3D attributes (Dip, Azimuth, Edge Enhancement) and 3D
rendering techniques (geobodies mapping, transparency) for data
screening
Minimize manual picks and clicks and maximize the use of the
workstation for repetitive low level tasks
Ensure signal consistent horizon interpretation and geological
consistency before embarking on geofantasy!
Ensure good tie with wells in time
Use and integrated all available data
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3- SEISMIC ATTRIBUTES
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Seismic Attributes
Seismic attributes are all the
information obtained from
seismic data, either by direct
measurements or by logic or
experienced-based reasoning.
The main objective of the
attributes is to provide detailed
and accurate information to the
interpreter on structural,
stratigraphic and lithological
parameters of the seismic
prospect.
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Seismic Attributes
Pre stack:
Input data is CDP or image gathers
Have directional (azimuth) and offset related information
Lots of information that may not be practical in initial or basic
studies
Contain considerable amounts of data that can be directly
related to fluid content and fracture orientation.
AVO, velocities, azimuthal are the most prominent of this
class.
Post stack
After data is stacked, these are computed on the trace.
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Seismic Attributes
General Classification
From A.R. Brown

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Seismic Attributes
Some Important Post stack Attributes
Seismic attributes are specific measures of geometric, kinematic, dynamic, or
statistical features derived from seismic data. General attributes include:
1) Reflector amplitude,
2) Reflector time
3) Reflector dip and azimuth
4) Complex amplitude and frequency
5) Generalized Hilbert attributes
6) Illumination
7) Edge detection/coherence
8) Spectral decomposition
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These have a physical

as well as statistical
basis!
Seismic Attributes
Why Seismic Attributes
Envelope
presence of gas (bright spots), thin-bed tuning effects,

lithology changes.
Phase
lateral continuity of reflectors, bedding configurations.
Frequency
bed thickness, presence of hydrocarbons, fracture zones.
Spectral Decomposition
Coherence
bed thickness.
faults, fractures, lateral stratigraphic

discontinuities
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Seismic Attributes
By their computational characteristics:
Instantaneous Attributes: Computed sample by sample. Trace
envelope, its derivatives, frequency and phase,
Wavelet Attributes: Computed at peak of trace envelope and
have a direct relation to the Fourier Transform. Instantaneous
Frequency
Physical Attributes: Relate to physical qualities. Frequencies
relate to bed thickness, magnitude of trace envelope relates to
impedance contrast.
Geometrical Attributes: Describe spatial and temporal
relationship of all other attributes. Lateral continuity measured
by semblance is a good indicator of a discontinuity. Assist in the
recognition of depositional patterns and related lithology.
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Seismic Attributes
By their origin in the wave phenomena, we can also subdivide the attributes into two categories:
Reflective Attributes:
Attributes corresponding to the characteristics of
interfaces.
All instantaneous and wavelet attributes can be
included under this category.
Pre-stack attributes such as AVO are also reflective
attributes,
Transmissive Attributes
Relate to the characteristics of a bed between two
interfaces (all physical attributes)
Interval, RMS and average velocities, Q, absorption
and dispersion come under this category.
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Attributes Interpretation
Objectives:
Recognize an hydrocarbon anomaly or lithology
Validate anomalies, revealing the relation rock-seismic
Methodology:
Assume a model
Compute or evaluate the response to the model at known locations
Compare response of model to actual data
Verification in new areas or intervals
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Seismic Attributes
Seismic attributes:
Properties of the seismic trace when thought of as an analytic
(complex) trace with both real and imaginary parts
Quadrature:
imaginary part
seismic trace from
Hilbert transform
Real:
conventional
seismic trace
Hilbert transform
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complex trace from the Real seismic trace
Seismic Attributes
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Instantaneous seismic attributes are derived from the actual seismic

data
Quality of attributes is dependent on signal consistent interpretation
(grid based)
Used as both seismic display (seismic sections), as maps (grids) and
volumes
Why do we generate Seismic Attributes ?
Enhance structural and stratigraphic features for the interpreter on

seismic sections
Enhance structural and stratigraphic features on maps
Locate misinterpretation
Get information on lithology, facies or fluid content
Correlate with other properties
reservoir characterisation
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Display and use of Seismic Attributes

Seismic Amplitude:
Traces amplitude value at the horizon time/depth
Identify bright spots/dim spots
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Reflection Strength/Envelope:
Total envelope of energy at any instant along the trace
High reflection strength is often associated with major change in
acoustic impedance due to lithology, fluid content (gas), or
stratigraphy.
Seismic trace
Envelope
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Quadrature Amplitude:
Imaginary part of the complex seismic trace
Used in conjunction with other attributes to identify
bright spots
Seismic trace
Quadrature trace
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The Trace Envelope is a physical attribute and it can be used as an
effective discriminator for the following characteristics:
Reflectivity, since mainly represents the acoustic impedance contrast
Bright spots, possible gas accumulation,
Sequence boundaries,
Thin-bed tuning effects
Major changes in depositional environment,
Spatial correlation to porosity and other lithologic variations,
Indicates the group, rather than phase component of the seismic wave
propagation.
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Instantaneous Phase
Description of the phase angle at any instant along a trace
Independent of amplitude
Expresses the degree of
lateral continuity or
discontinuity of seismic
reflections, pinchouts,
angular unconformities,
thickening and thinning
zones, offlap, onlap, and
makes weak coherent
reflection clearer.
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Cosine of Phase:
Cosine function applied to the instantaneous phase (+/-1)
May enhance definition of

structural delineation
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Instantaneous Frequency:
Time derivative of the phase
Low: 0 to 1/2 of the Nyquist Frequency
Helps in correlating
reflection along
seismic section and
highlights low
frequency anomalies
below HC
accumulations
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Apparent Polarity:
Sign of the seismic trace where reflection strength has a
local maximum value (+1 or -1)
May help distinguish

different kinds of bright
spots (due to gas,
limestone..)
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Response Phase:
Calculates the instantaneous phase when the reflection
strength has its maximum
Alternate way of displaying

instantaneous attributes, less
subject to noise since
computed where seismic trace
has maximum energy
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Sweetness:
Sweetness is the Envelope
(Reflection Strength) divided
by the square root of the
Instantaneous Frequency.
Variance
It can sometimes help in

delineating subtle discontinuities
Sweetness
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Bump mapping:
Uses illumination and shading to add another dimension to the
normal rendering of the data
This display allows

enhancing of very subtle
structural features, like
small fault patterns
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Too many attributeshighly correlated
Common amplitude
attributes computed
in a 100ms window
Barnes, 2006
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Derivatives:
First derivative calculates the slope of the tangent of the
selected seismic amplitude (QC interpretation on zero
crossing)
Second derivative measures the variation in the tangents of the
selected seismic amplitude, directly above and below the
reflection. High values indicate rapid shift from peak to
trough (short wavelength)
amplitude
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1st derivative
2nd derivative

Application of Amplitude first and second
derivatives:
Original amplitude
Second derivative
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Second derivative can be

used to help guiding the
pick by providing continuity
in areas of where reflections
are poorly resolved on the
raw amplitude.

Band pass filtering:
Original amplitude
High pass > 25 Hz
High pass > 35 Hz

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Display of Attributes
AGC effect on data: good for interpretation and bad for attributes and
reservoir characterization
Original Amplitude
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Time Gain
AGC filter
Heterogeneity:
Curve length of the function within an interval for the given attribute
Shows the heterogeneic nature of any internal reflector in a given

volume
Low heterogeneity
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High heterogeneity

Local Attributes
Upper Loop
Duration
Upper Loop
Area
Lower Loop
Duration
Lower Loop
Area
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Local Attributes
Seismic section crossing

high Upper Loop Area
values
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Local Attributes
Upper Loop Area
Seismic Amplitude
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Surface based attribute maps:
Extracted along or close to an interpreted surface
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Extracted along or
close to a surface

Volume based attribute maps:
Calculated in a time/depth
window:
Between two interpreted
surfaces
Below/above/around an
interpreted surface
Extracted in between two

surfaces or within a constant
time window
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Grid based attribute
maps:
Derived directly
from seismic
interpretation,
independent of
seismic amplitude
data
Dip, Azimuth,
Curvature,
Illumination, Edge,
etc
Courtesy of Norsk Hydro
Dip map Carbonate Buildups, Barents Sea

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Seismic Attributes and Reservoir Characterisation

Combining attributes:
-cross-plotting of attributes against reservoir property of interest
using well data
-selection of the ones that correlate best
-statistics helps defining attribute contribution to the variance
-resultant attributes used in geostatistical kriging to interpolate
the reservoir property between wells (RAVE, LPM).
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Geometric Attributes, Looking for Similarity

in Seismic Data
Geometric attributes - Stratigraphic attributes Multi-trace

attributes
4 families of multi-trace attributes:

Dip/azimuth measures reflector shape
Texture attributes
Discontinuity measures waveform similarity
Amplitude measure lateral changes in impedance contrast
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Geometric Attributes
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Dip/azimuth measures reflector shape

Components of vector dip
Gradient
Curvature
Rotation
Texture attributes
Chaos
Flatness
Divergence
Dip Histogram
Gabor Filter bank
Volume reflection Spectral (VRS) decomposition
Discontinuity measures waveform similarity
Cross correlation coherence
Semblance and variance
Principal component coherence
Principal projected gradient
Amplitude measure lateral changes in impedance contrast
Amplitude gradients
Cohereny energy gradients
Pre- and Post-Conditioning:
Gaussian low-pass smoothing filter
Gaussian dip-guided filter / Layer-Parallel Smoothing
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Pre- and Post-Conditioning:
Gaussian dip-guided filter / Layer-Parallel Smoothing
Amplitude
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Dip guided Gaussian Filter
Dip and Azimuth:
Calculate local
gradient
Estimate the covariance

matrix of the gradient
vectors
Perform principal
component analysis:
Dominating orientation
PCA is a time expensive dip computation, other methods exist such as Event dip and Gradient dip
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Dip and Azimuth:
Dip from estimated event

(0 to 90)
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Dip from instantaneous

local gradient vector
(-90 to 90)
Dip from PCA (0 to 90)
Looking for Similarity
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Coherence Attributes
Example Results
Coherency
as it is most
commonly
displayed;
as time-slices
C1
C1 correlation
C2 semblance
C3 eigenstruct.
C2
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C3
Example Results
C1
C1 correlation
Coherency as it is less commonly displayed; as vertical slices
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Example Results
C2
C2 semblance
We clearly see the effect of the vertical window
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Example Results
C3
C3 eigenstruct.
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Example Results

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3D Automated Fault Mapping

Ant Tracking: Results
Seismic
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Variance
Chaos
Ant track
Ant Tracking
Biology lesson
Nest
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Food
Ant Tracking
Biology lesson: swarm intelligence
Nest
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Food
Ant Tracking
Biology lesson: swarm intelligence
Food
Nest
Conclusion:Dumb ants do smart things!

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Automated Fault Mapping

Ant Tracking
Fault Attribute
Ant Track Cube
Seismic
Fault System Analysis

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Ant Track Faults
Fault Attribute vs. Ant Tracking

Time slice
Variance
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Ant track
Dip/azimuth measure reflector orientation

Partial derivatives of Dip enable to compute curvature (change of
dip as a function of azimuth)
2D Curvature:
Curvature calculated along picked horizons
1. pick horizon
2. smooth horizon
3. calculate curvature on tight grid for short wavelength estimates
4. smooth horizon some more
5. calculate curvature on coarse grid for long wavelength estimates
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Curvature Attributes
Definition of curvature
Second-order derivative of
curve
Curvature describes how

bent a curve is at a particular
point on the curve
Courtesy of Bruce Hart, McGill Univ.

( Roberts, 2001 )
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2D Curvature Attributes
Basement faults
Drainage system on
basement
Sinkhole
N-S trend of
distinctive scarp
and dip slopes
geomorphology
Deep Canyons related to

drainage system
Courtesy of Bruce Hart, McGill Univ.
CurvZ: Negative Curvature (Concave up)
(short length filter)
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Variance
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Time slice at 680ms
3D Mean Curvature
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Time slice at 680ms
3D Maximum Curvature
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Time slice at 680ms
3D Minimum Curvature
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Time slice at 680ms
Seismic Attributes
Some Important Post stack Attributes (Volume Attributes)
Post-stacked attributes ( i.e. not AVO or Velocity) can be calculated as a volume, as a

slice, in a time window, or along a horizon .
The volume can be displayed and interpreted like any other cube of data
however most interpretation packages include the ability to transform the data by
slice
The window can be a constant flat time interval, hung from a structurally
interpreted horizon or between two horizons
Horizon attributes are normally calculated and extracted from a data volume
following automatic spatial tracking or snapping.
Time derived attributes are very helpful for checking your interpretation. If you use
auto-tracking a lot then this step is especially important.
While most horizon attributes are from near the structural top of the reservoir do not
forget that attributes from below the reservoir can also give you valuable information i.e. the gas shadow zone
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Seismic Attributes
Instantaneous Attributes
When considered as an analytical signal a seismic trace can be expressed as a

complex function such as u(t)=x(t)+iy(t) where x(t) is the recorded trace itself
and y(t) is its quadrature (a 90 degree phase-shifted version of the recorded
trace).
There are 3 instantaneous attributes
Amplitude which is proportional to the square root of the of the total
energy of the signal at an instant in time and is used to identify bright
and dim spots.
Phase which is a measure of continuity and is used to delineate features
such as pinchouts, onlaps, and prograding reflectors.
Frequency which is the time rate of change of instantaneous phase and
can help identify condensate and gas reservoirs, which tend to attenuate
high frequencies
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Seismic Attributes
Input Trace with envelope
Quadrature trace with envelope
Instantaneous Phase
Instantaneous Frequency
Envelope attribute also called

instantaneous amplitude or
reflection strength Frequency
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Seismic Attributes
Four principal volume

Post Stack attributes.
Reflection strength,
instantaneous phase and
instantaneous frequency are
complex-trace attributes
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Dr ALI BAKR
Seismic Attributes
Instantaneous Amplitude
Amplitude provides information on :

Sediments and their fluids by virtue of their velocity density contrst.
Amplitude change suggest changes in the nature of rocks and fluids (oil,gas
and water).
Commonly used amplitude based indicators, in hydrocarbon industry
industry , are Bright spots, Dim spots, and Flat spots.
Not all hydrocarbon accumulations produce detectable amplitude changes.
Not all changes in seismic amplitude are associated with changes in fluid saturation.
Changes in lithology, bed thickness, porosity and other factors can cause changes in
seismic amplitude.
It only takes a small amount of gas to generate an impressive looking bright spot;
not all are associated with commercial accumulations of hydrocarbon. Conformity
between structure contours and the limits of a high-amplitude area is often
considered to be an indication that the amplitudes are related to the presence of
hydrocarbons (a bright spot).
However, this correspondence will only be observed if:
the sand is continuous (not compartmentalized by stratigraphic or structural
features),
there are no hydrodynamic factors that tilt the fluid contact.
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Seismic Attributes
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Amplitude provides information on :

Sediments and their fluids by virtue of their velocity density contrst.
Amplitude change suggest changes in the nature of rocks and fluids (oil,gas
and water).
Commonly used amplitude based indicators, in hydrocarbon industry
industry , are Bright spots, Dim spots, and Flat spots.
Not all hydrocarbon accumulations produce detectable amplitude changes.
Not all changes in seismic amplitude are associated with changes in fluid
saturation. Changes in lithology, bed thickness, porosity and other factors
can cause changes in seismic amplitude.
Seismic Attributes
Bright spot : It is associated with strong amplitude contrast
across lithologies and their fluid (oil, gas and water) content.
Dim spot: It is associated with weak amplitude contrast across
lithologies and their fluid (oil, gas and water) content.
Flat spot: Associated with fluid contact.
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Seismic Attributes
Instantaneous Phase
It is phase independent of
amplitude, and its values
are in degrees and range
from +180 to -180. Because
instantaneous phase
contains no amplitude
information, it is
commonly used to examine
reflection (i.e.,
stratigraphic) continuity;
changes in amplitude along
a reflection can sometimes
give the impression of
lateral discontinuity.
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Dr ALI BAKR
Seismic Attributes
Instantaneous frequency is the

rate of change of phase. Its
values are in cycles/second
(Hertz).
Instantaneous frequency is
useful for detecting tuning
effects (although peak frequency
occurs at a different thickness
than for tuning of seismic
amplitude), fractures, gas (see
next slide) and other features.
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Seismic Attributes
Can be used to detect gas however is not really reliable because it
tends to be noisy
Arc Length
total length of the seismic trace over a time window
increase in amplitude gives more trace length as well as
oscillation caused by increased frequency hence is really a
composite of amplitude and frequency
can be used to map depositional facies
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OGCI - SER - Attributes

Intro thru Horizon ... -
232
Seismic Attributes
Amplitude-Bright Spot
Gas SS
Bright Spot
The Sag
Not all Bright Spot prospects are as obvious as this simple model,
but the idea is the same, and most are as subtle as a migraine.
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Seismic Attributes
Amplitude-Dim Spot
Frequently, an increase
in porosity, D > 0,
perhaps accompanied by
a pore fluid change to
hydrocarbons, leads to a
decrease in the
impedance of an
otherwise high
impedance rock such
as a carbonate or older
SS.
Note the high amplitude
exit event - with a time
sag caused by the lower
velocity in the porous
zone
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V (high )
V (low )
Dim Spot
Seismic Attributes
Amplitude-Dim Spot
Generalized curves showing how the
acoustic impedances of gas sand, water
sand and shales increase with depth.
Bright spot occurs above depth A, where is
large contrast in and gas-sand impedances
but a modest difference between shale and
water sand impedances.
Polarity reversals occur between depths A
and B, where water sand impedance is
greater than shale impedance but gas-sand
impedance is less than shale impedance.
Dim spot occur below depth B, where the
three impedance curves converge and there
are only samll impedance contrasts
between shale and either type of sand,
brine-filled or gas filled.
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Seismic Attributes
Amplitude-Flat Spot
Z
Old and venerable, the

flat spot, resulting
from gas-water contact
reflections, is still
widely used in
exploration and
development.
Water
Salt
Note that the flat spot is

tilted on the time section.
Why?
Z
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Gas
The flat spot has regained it

flaticity when converted to depth.
Seismic Attributes
Amplitude-Flat Spot
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3-Seismic Attributes
Amplitude-Flat Spot
Modified from Brown, 1996
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Seismic Attributes
Data specification needed for Attributes
For 8-bit data, amplitudes theoretically range from 128,
16-bit data theoretically range from 32,768 and 32-bit
data range from 4,294,967,296. 32- and 16-bit data have
more dynamic range than 8-bit data, but take up
correspondingly more amounts of storage space.
You should work with 16- or 32-bit data when doing

quantitative attribute analyses.
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Seismic Attributes
Attributes Combination
Attributes may be combined with each other
E.g., amplitude-weighted phase
This helps to combine their effects
Although simple linear correlations between a physical property
and an attribute are sometimes found, relationships are more
often non-linear (e.g., Hart and Chen, 2004) and more than one
attribute is needed predict the physical property of interest
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Seismic Attributes
Attributes Combination
Amplitude
Multiplying coherency
(semblance) by amplitude makes
structural and stratigraphic
features more distinctive - in this
case fault arrays and meandering
turbidities channels
[Shiehallion].
Coherency
Amplitude Coherency
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Dr ALI BAKR
Seismic Attributes
Horizon Attributes
1.
2.
3.
4.
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Identify horizon of interest

Pick horizon on a selected grid of lines
Pick all intermediate traces using an automatic picking
algorithm
Extract horizon attributes:
Time
Amplitude
Dip
Azimuth
Combined dip/azimuth
Seismic Attributes
Horizon Attributes
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Seismic Attributes
Horizon Attributes
Dip & Azimuth
Dip/azimuth cubes only show relative changes in dip and azimuth, since
we do not in general have an accurate time to depth conversion
Dip/azimuth estimated using a vertical window in general provide more
robust estimates than those based on picked horizons
Dip/azimuth volumes form the basis for volumetric curvature, coherence,
and structurally-oriented filtering
Dip/azimuth will be one of the key components for future computeraided 3-D seismic stratigraphy
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Seismic Attributes
Horizon Attributes
Dip& Azimuth
Time
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(Rijks and Jauffred, 1991)
Dip
Azimuth
Seismic Attributes
Horizon Attributes
Horizon Amplitude Extraction
(Rijks and Jauffred, 1991)
0.8
0.9
t (s)
2 km
top
base
1.0
1 km
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Seismic Attributes
Horizon Attributes
Amplitude Keyed to a Horizon or Sequence
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Seismic Attributes
Attributes Extractions
Understand the polarity of your data. If necessary, convert it to zero phase.
Tie expected reservoir response from logs to seismic.
Pick top and bottom of reservoir using autotracking of peaks and troughs.
Picking the top of a stratigraphic unit is usually more indicative of the sequence than the bottom.
Composite amplitude partially compensates for adjacent acoustic impedances adjacent to the top
and bottom of the reservoir by stacking the absolute value of the reflectivity at the top
and bottom.
Be sure to annotate your amplitude extractions!
Polarity
Offset above or below picked horizon
Measure (e.g. composite, top, bottom, average absolute value, etc)
Window length (if any)
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Seismic Attributes
Coherency Attribute
A measure of trace to trace similarity of the seismic wavform
within a samll analysis window.
inline
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Coherence compares the waveforms of neighboring traces
inline
Seismic Attributes
Coherency Attribute
Why we use Coherency
Excellent tool for delineating geological boundaries (faults,l

ateral stratigraphic contacts, etc).
Allows accelerated evaluation of larg data sets.
Provided quantitative estimate of fault /fracture presence.
Often enhance stratigraphic information
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Seismic Attributes
Coherency Attribute
Coherency data volume
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Seismic Attributes
Coherency Attribute
Seismic Time Slice
Coherence Time Slice
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Seismic Attributes
Coherency Attributes
Seismic Time Slice
Coherence Time Slice
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Seismic Attributes
Horizon Slice
Advantages
Focuses on reservoir or other
zone of interest
Illuminates depositional
environment at a fixed geologic
time
Avoids low coherence structural
leakage due to steep dip
Steers coherence calculation
along an interpreter-defined
dip/azimuth, resulting in
generally sharper contact images
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Disadvantages
Analysis limited to only a few
discreet horizons, which are
time consuming to pick
Analysis limited to the extent
of the interpreted horizon
Picking errors can bias the
result or create artifacts
Some geological surfaces
simply cannot be characterized
by peaks, troughs, or zero
crossings
Seismic Attributes
Time Slice
Advantages
Focuses on reservoir or other
zone of interest
Illuminates depositional
environment at a fixed geologic
time
Avoids low coherence structural
leakage due to steep dip
Steers coherence calculation
along an interpreter-defined
dip/azimuth, resulting in
generally sharper contact images
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Disadvantages
Analysis limited to only a few
discreet horizons, which are
time consuming to pick
Analysis limited to the extent
of the interpreted horizon
Picking errors can bias the
result or create artifacts
Some geological surfaces
simply cannot be characterized
by peaks, troughs, or zero
crossings
Seismic Attributes
Coherence volumes
Coherence on a time slice

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Coherence along structure
Seismic Attributes
Uses the discrete Fourier transform to:
quantify thin-bed interference,
and
detect subtle discontinuities.
3-D Seismic Volume
Interpret
Interpreted
3-D Seismic Volume
y
x
Subset
Zone-of-Interest
Subvolume
Zone-of-Interest
Tuning Cube
(cross-section view)
Frequency Slices
through Tuning Cube
(plan view)
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y
x
y
x
Compute
y
x
freq
Animate
y
x
freq
Seismic Attributes
3-D Seismic Volume
y
x
Interpret
Interpreted
3-D Seismic Volume
Subset
Tuning Cube
y
x
freq
y
x
freq
Multiply
Thin Bed Interference
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y
x
freq
Seismic Wavelet
y
x
Zone-of-Interest
Subvolume
Add
Zone-of-Interest
Tuning Cube
(cross-section view)
y
x
freq
Noise
Frequency Slices
through Tuning Cube
(plan view)
y
x
Compute
y
x
freq
Animate
y
x
freq
Seismic Attributes
y
x
freq
Tuning Cube
Split Spectral Tuning Cube

into Discrete Frequencies
Frequency Slices
through Tuning Cube
(plan view)
Frequency 1
y
x
Frequency 2
y
x
Frequency 3
y
x
Frequency 4
y
x
Frequency n
y
x
Independently Normalize
Each Frequency Map
Spectrally Balanced
Frequency Slices
through Tuning Cube
(plan view)
Frequency 1
y
x
Frequency 2
y
x
Frequency 3
y
x
Frequency 4
y
x
Frequency n
y
x
Gather Discrete Frequencies
into Tuning Cube
y
x
freq
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Spectrally Balanced
Tuning Cube
Seismic Attributes
Real Data Example
Offshore Africa
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Dr ALI BAKR
spectral decomposition
80ms analysis window
centred 80ms above
a picked horizon
Red = 60hz amplitude
Green = 50hz amplitude
Blue = 40hz amplitude
hrz - 120ms
hrz - 040ms
ALI BAKR
Dr ALI BAKR
Courtesy of Lantz, Aluvihare and Partyka
80ms analysis window
centred 40ms above
a picked horizon
Red = 60hz amplitude
Green = 50hz amplitude
Blue = 40hz amplitude
hrz - 080ms
hrz - 000ms
ALI BAKR
Dr ALI BAKR
60hz amplitude
analysis window = 80ms
Centred:
80ms above the picked hrz
youngest
higher
hrz
oldest
lower
Red
Green
Blue
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Dr ALI BAKR
Seismic Attributes
Real Data Example
Gulf of Mexico , Pleistocene age equivalent
Of modern day Mississippi River Delta
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Dr ALI BAKR
Seismic Attributes
Channel A
Fault-Controlled Channel
Amplitude
1
Point Bar
Channel B
Gulf of Mexico Example
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10,000 ft
analysis window length = 100ms
Seismic Attributes
Channel A
Amplitude
1
Point Bar
Channel B
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10,000 ft
Seismic Attributes
Channel A
North-South Extent
of Channel A Delineation
Amplitude
1
Point Bar
Channel B
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10,000 ft
4- AVO
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Factors Affecting Amplitudes

Instrument Balance
Geophone
Sensitivity &
Coupling
Superimpose
d Noise
Source
Strength,
Coupling and
Directivity
Interference of
different Events
Peg-Leg multiples
from thin reflectors
Spherical
divergence
Array Directivity
Scattering
Absorption
Reflection
coefficient
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Variation of
Reflection
Coefficient with
Incident Angle
Reflector Curvature
and rugosity
AVO
AVO definition
The variation in the amplitude of a seismic reflection with
source-geophone distance. Depends on the velocity, density
and Poisson ratio contrast. Used as a hydrocarbon
indicator for gas because a large change in Poissons ratio
(as may occur when the pore fluid is a gas) tends to produce
an increase in amplitude with offset.
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4-AVO
AVO Assumptions
AVO Assumption
No seismic attenuation
No transmission loss
No wavelet interference (tuning)
Amplitude vs angle()
Large angles
Pre-stack events flattened
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Seismic Processing
Q compensation
Gain function
Broad amplitude spectrum
Remove wavelet
Zero-phase data
Pre-stack migration
Map offset to angle,
Avoid offset mute
Accurate (high-order) NMO
correction
4-AVO Implications
AVO definition
Amplitude Versus Offset is a
change of reflectivity with
Offset across a CMP gather.
It is determined by the P-wave,
S-wave and density contrast at
the interface
For clastic rocks, these
parameters are dictated by
physical properties such as
porosity, fluid and lithology.
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4-AVO Implications
AVO principles
Seismic waves are reflected
at a boundary between
different rocks
At normal incidence,
the reflected wave
has an amplitude R :
Z2 Z1
R
Z2 Z1
Zi i Vi
density wavespeed
R = 0.1 is a BIG reflection !

ALI BAKR
Layer 1
incident
1
Layer 2
transmitted
T
reflected
R
4-AVO Implications
AVO principles
At every reflection in land section - Pwaves that are not exactly at right-angles
to a reflector partially convert into Swaves which continue on down the
section reflecting and refracting.
AVO: is due to partitioning of

the sound energy at interface
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4-AVO Implications
AVO principles
1.
2.
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The AVO technique for DHI is based on two principles:

When Gas replaces brine in reservoir rocks, Poissons
Ratio (Vp/Vs) Decreases.
When Poissons ratio decreases, Rc and amplitude
becomes more negative with increasing angle.
4-AVO Implications
AVO /AVA principles
Change in Incident Angle ->
Change in Amplitude
Different Offsets, Same Time ->
Different Incident Angles ->
Different Amplitudes
Same Offset, Different Times ->
Different Incident Angles ->
Different Amplitudes
Amplitude changes with Offset
AND Time
Temporal & Spatial change in
velocity complicates the
proceedings!
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4-AVO Implications
AVO /AVA principles
Angle of incidence decreases with depth for constant

offset trace
Angle of incidence constant for all depths on a constant
angle trace.
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4-AVO Implications
P-wave & S-Wave
G
Water
Vp = 1500m/s
Vs = 0m/s
reflected
P wave
incident
P wave

Hard Sea-bed
Vp = 2500m/s
Vs = 1200m/s
ALI BAKR
transmitted
P wave
transmitted
S wave
E CO
O
S L O
L O
N G
VA
4-AVO Implications
AVO Parameters
P-Wave Velocity - Measured :
Well logs
Seismic Velocity Analysis
Density - Measured :
Well logs
Empirically from P-Wave Velocity
S-Wave Velocity - Difficult to Measure
P-Wave velocity/S-Wave velocity Ratio

Poisson's Ratio (Rock Property)
Multi-component data analysis
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4-AVO Implications
AVO principles
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4-AVO Implications
AVO principles
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4-AVO Implications
AVO principles
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4-AVO Implications
Modulus = Stiffness
(Stress/Strain Ratio)
Bulk modulus measure of

compressibility of rocks and fluids
Change in volume, not in shape
Bulk Modulus (incompressibility)

Response to Compressive Stress
Change in Pressure
Relative Change in Volume
Shear Modulus (rigidity)

Response to Shear Stress
Change in Shear Force per unit area
Relative Displacement
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Dr ALI BAKR
Shear modulus measure

reluctance to change shape
Change in shape, not in volume
4-AVO Implications
4 / 3
VP
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VS
4-AVO Implications
At any point in the sub-surface, there are only three independent
acoustic rock properties responsible for seismic reflection :
Vp,
Vs,
density
All attributes we compute will depend on the the spatial distribution
of the above three properties.
From these attributes we would like to infer:
Rock Properties
Fluid type
Porosity/Permeability
Pressure
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4-AVO Implications
AVO principles
Poisson's ratio
Poisson's ratio is simply a measure of how much the
cross-section of a rod changes when it is stretched. In a
fluid, doubling the length halves the width (the volume
is retained) which yields a Poisson's ratio of 0.5. A rod
which never got any thinner, regardless of the amount of
stretching applied, would have a Poisson's ratio of
zero. There is a simple relationship between the P-wave
velocity, the S-wave velocity and Poisson's ratio...
ALI BAKR
4-AVO Implications
AVO principles Poisson ratio
DW
Relative Change in Width

Relative Change in Length
Poisson`s Ratio
0.5 VS / VP
2
1 VS / VP
Poissons ratio is related to VP/VS ratio:
1
VP / VS
0.5
ALI BAKR
Dr ALI BAKR
DL
4-AVO Implications
Poissons Ratio varies :

may be thought of as a measure of Incompressibility
0.0
0.5
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= .4
= .3
Wet Sand
Oil Sand
= .1
Gas Sand
4-AVO Implications
The shear modulus of a rock does not change when
the fluid is changed.
However, the bulk modulus changes significantly
when the fluid changes.
As such, the p-wave velocity of a rock will change as
hydrocarbon saturation changes whereas the s-wave
velocity will change relatively little (there is a slight
density effect).
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4-AVO Implications
AVO principles
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4-AVO Implications
In basins where the geologic section is relatively young and unconsolidatedwater, oil, and/or gas response may be seen in amplitude studies-DHIs.
Gas or light oil can significantly decrease the Acoustic Impedance of

a porous zone versus a brine fill.
The anomalous amplitude should conform to a trap configuration.
The hydrocarbon-water contact may occur as a flat reflection.
ALI BAKR
Area and thickness of a seismic hydrocarbon anomaly may be used

for pre-drill volumetric estimates
4-AVO Implications
AVO Classes
II
III
IV
FN
FN
Top of
Reservo
ir
Offsets
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Far Near
FN
4-AVO Implications
Class 1
AVO Classes
High Impedance Reservoirs
Dimming
Brightening
Class 3
Reflection
Coefficient
Class 2
Class 2 events are encountered in

near zero impedance reservoirs.
The AVO behavior is a weak peak
or trough that brightens to a
stronger trough at far offsets or
incident angles.
Brightening
Low Impedance Reservoirs
Incidence
Angle (offset)
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Class 1 events are

encountered in
high impedance reservoirs.
The
AVO behavior is a peak
that dims.
Class 3 events are encountered

in low impedance reservoirs.
The AVO behavior is a trough
that brightens at far offsets or
incident angles.
4-AVO Implications
AVO Classes
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4-AVO Implications
AVO Attributes
If we measure the amplitude of each reflection amplitude as a function of
offset, and plot them on a graph as a function of the sine of angle of incidence
squared, we
observe a straight line. For any line, the intercept and gradient can be
measured. By linearzing the complicated mathematics behind the AVO
technique, Richards and Frasier (1976) and Wiggins et al (1986) gave us the
following physical interpretation of the intercept and gradient:
Intercept A = the P-wave reflection amplitude.
Gradient B = the P-wave reflection amplitude minus twice the Swave reflection amplitude.
ALI BAKR
4-AVO Implications
AVO Attributes
When you plot the amplitude of the signal
for a reflector (i.e., horizon) against the offset
of the trace (or the calculated angle that the
corresponding sound wave would make
when it met the reflector), the plot yields the
"Intercept", where the trend of the amplitude
measurements meets the zero-offset line (so
it would be equivalent to a geophone directly
next to the source, and a 90 angle to the
reflector). It also yields the "Gradient", which
is the slope of the curve made by the plot
points. The sums or differences of these
gradients and intercept values can then be
used for mapping AVO anomalies.
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B
A
4-AVO Implications
AVO Attributes
Common Angle of
incidence calculated
from smoothed
stacking velocities
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4-AVO Implications
AVO Attributes
Angle
R() P + G sin2
Observed
Linear Fit
slope = G
P
intercept
sin2
Intercept Gradient
trace
trace
ALI BAKR
4-AVO Implications
AVO Attributes
Using the values for VP, VS, and density shown in last
Figure , we can now work out the values for the AVO
intercept and gradient for the wet and gas sands. For the wet
sand, the VP/VS ratio in both the sand and shale layer is
equal to 2. As shown in this leads to the simplification that B
= A for both the top and base of the layer.
Using the parameters shown in the figure gives: ATOP_WET
= BBASE_WET = +0.1 and ABASE_WET =B TOP_WET = -0.1.
For the gas sand, the VP/VS ratio is equal to 1.65, and the
intercept does not simplify as it did the wet sand.
However, the calculation is still straightforward, and leads to
ATOP_GAS = BTOP_GAS = -0.1 and ABASE_GAS =
BBASE_GAS = +0.1. Note that, for the gas case, A=B for both
the top and base of the layer.
The AVO curves for the wet and gas cases are shown in figure
4, for an angular aperture of 0 to 30. It is observed that the
absolute values of the gas sand curves show an increase in
amplitude, whereas the absolute values of the wet sand
curves show a decrease in amplitude. These values do fall
within a reasonable petrophysical range for class 3 anomalies.
ALI BAKR
4-AVO Implications
AVO Attributes
After scaling each of the values of A and B by a factor of 10 (to give values of +1 and -1) they
have been put on an A-B cross plot, as shown in Figure 5. In our example, the wet points
(shown as solid blue circles) establish the wet sand-shale trend, and the top and base gas
(shown as solid red circles) plot in the other two quadrants of the A-B crossplot. This is a
typical class 3 AVO anomaly (Rutherford and Williams, 1989), caused by gas saturation
reducing the sand impedance and the Vp/Vs ratio of the sand encased in the shale.
ALI BAKR
4-AVO Implications
AVO Attributes
When we introduce gas into a sandstone, VP decreases whereas VS increases slightly
We will see that this decrease in VP/VS ratio causes a change in relative amplitude that
will vary with angle of incidence.
By analyzing this variation in amplitude we will try to extract some lithological
information from the data
Poissons Ratio is a useful number to know as it may be a direct hydrocarbon indicator
(DHI)
S-Waves do not travel in water they are converted back to P-Waves at the water
boundary
S-waves are less affected by gas than P-waves
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4-AVO Implications
AVO Attributes
Amplitude
Seismic Gather
B
A
Offset
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sin2q
4-AVO Implications
AVO Attributes
Compressional Impedance Reflectivity
Amplitude
Full Stack
AVO Gradient Section
B (Slope)
A(Y Intercept)
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sin2q
AVO Gradient Section
4-AVO Implications
AVO Attributes
Near offset Stack
Amplitude
Full Stack
Far Offset Stack
B(Slope)
A (Y Intercept)
sin2q
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Far Offset Stack
4-AVO Implications
AVO Attributes
Near offset Stack

Full Stack
Amplitud
e
Far Offset Stack

B (Slope)
A (Y Intercept)
sin2q
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Far Offset Stack
4-AVO Implications
AVO Misconceptions
Myth
AVO does not work
Gas-sand amplitude increases
with offset
AVO can not be used to detect oil
sands
AVO does not work in
carbonates
Land AVO is more difficult than
marine AVO
Vp/Vs is 1.6 for brine sands, 1.8
for dolomites, 1.9 for limestones,
and 2 for shales
Rp and Rs are readily extracted
from R(0)
ALI BAKR
Reality
AVO does work under the right
circumstances
Gas-sand reflection coefficients
generally become more negative
with increasing of offset.
High GOR light oil-saturated
rocks may exibit significant AVO
anomalies
There are some applications
The marine short-period
multiples are still a problem
Vp/Vs varies significantly
Rp and Rs can be extracted from
R(0) and G if Vp/Vs is kbown
5. SEISMIC INVERSION
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Inversion vs Modeling
Synthetic
Logs
Wavelet
Impedance
Seismic
Wavelet
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Post-Stack Inversion
Low impedance zone is interpreted as higher porosity
Gtn
ICI Horizontal Georgetown Field

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Patch Reefs in the Edwards?
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Interpreting an acoustic impedance inversion for

lithology, porosity and fluids is simular to
interpreting a sonic log without the use of any
other logs. Why do it if there is more information?
ALI BAKR
Glen Rose Reef

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Terminology and Background

Acoustic Impedance = Velocity X Density
Vp = Velocity of Compressional wave
Vs = Velocity of Shear wave
Vp/Vs ~ Poissons ratio
-Acoustic Impedance Inversion is a technique for measuring the
Impedance of the Earths sub-surface layers from seismic data
-Using Shear and Compressional Velocities, we can estimate
Physical rock properties from seismic data
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Benefits of 3D Inversion
Lithology and Fluid Discrimination
Used for Reservoir Property Prediction
Best Tool for Reservoir Characterization
Best Method for Optimized Field Development
Increased Reflectivity in Shear Volume
Calibration to Well Data and Rock Properties
Increased Signal Bandwidth
Easier to Interpret
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Rock Property Calibration
Top Reservoir
Laminated Pay
GWC
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Rock Property Summary
From well calibrations, seismic derived attributes can be used to

discriminate between the following rock/fluid classes:
Clean Gas Sands
Ratio
Clean Water Sands
Vp/Vs
Laminated Gas Sands
Vp/Vs
Shales
Intermediate
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Low Pwave Impedance, Low Vp/Vs

High Pwave Impedance, Intermediate
Ratio
Reduced Pwave Impedance and
Ratio
Increased Pwave Impedance,
to higher Vp/Vs Ratio
Deliverables
Acoustic Impedance Volume (Product of Velocity and Density)
Porosity, Geometry and Lithology
Shear Impedance Volume

Lithology, Fluid
Density Volume
Fluid type and fizz water discriminator
Vp/Vs Volume or
Poissons Ratio Volume
Lithology, Fluid type, Net/Gross ratios
Porosity Volume
N/G and Sw Estimations

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Avo Analysis Obtaining Shear Velocity estimates
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Rock Property Calibration
Shear Velocity
Pwave Velocity
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Easier to Interpret
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Inversion Workflow
Rock Physics
Analysis and
Modeling
AVO Analysis and

Processing
Vp/Vs
Model
Pre-Stack Full
Waveform
Inversion
P, S, Density Reflectivity Volumes

IRD
Integrated
Reservoir
Description
P,S, Absolute Impedance & Density
Volumes
Petro-Acoustic Calibration
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Low
Frequency
Models
Quality Control of Inversion Process

Well logs should be examined for suitable relationships between
measured impedance logs (calculated by dividing the density by
the the sonic log) and properties such as porosity and fluid type
Well Logs should be converted to time and edited for borehole
effects, balanced, and classified based upon quality
Synthetics should be generated for all wells. Logs that do not tie
should be investigated for problems in log, wavelet, or seismic
It is generally preferable to run a loosely constrained trace based
inversion first (possibly augmented by non seismic data such as
trend data from velocities or wells) to use for interpretation of a
more tightly constrained model for later use in a model based
inversion
ALI BAKR
Dr ALI BAKR
After R. B. Latimer

The main test of inversion accuracy is how well it ties to the input
data
Volumes that rely heavily on log derived models should match
the logs at the well locations
More model based volumes should match the seismic and the
synthetic created after inversion
To make a valid comparison between log data and inverted
impedance the log data should be filtered t o the range of the
seismic frequencies
In all cases a universal check is to compare the model to well data
that was not included in the processing - a blind accuracy test
ALI BAKR
Dr ALI BAKRAfter R. B. Latimer

If results of the inversion do not tie and you have correctly processed
logs then check the wavelet
an inversion should be done over a time target with a wavelet
extracted from that interval
if a wavelet from deeper is used it may have too low of frequency
and can result in ringing
if a higher frequency wavelet from a shallower interval is used
deeper than results will appear smeared
wavelets with an incorrect phase or amplitude spectrum can result
in erroneous time shifts that contain extra side lobes an create
false geological features
ALI BAKR
Dr ALI BAKR
After R. B. Latimer

Lack of low frequency can also be a problem. Sources other than
logs include pre-stack time or depth migration velocities
The final AI product should also be checked against a relative
impedance result (low frequencies have been filtered out). While
this model is limited structurally and stratigraphically any
feature that is only seen on the broadband volume but not
apparent on the band-limited target should be carefully examined.
It could be the result of a poorly implemented low frequency
model.
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After R. B. Latimer
Dr ALI BAKR
A Question of Scale
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Dr ALI BAKR
Question of Heterogeneous Reservoirs
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Dr ALI BAKR
Establishing a Relationship Between AI and Lithology
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DrFrom
ALI
BAKR et al
C. Torres-Verdin
6-SEISMIC STRATIGRAPHY
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Seismic Stratigraphy
Why doing Seismic straigraphy?
Geological age correlations

Thickness estimates
Environment of deposition
Paleobathymetry
Burial history
Relief
Topography on unconformities
Lithology
Porosity/permeability
Fluid content
Insight into source and seal
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Scale of Study
There are three scales for seismic straigraphy studies:
Regional Scale Seismic Strat-Interpretation Large-scale

stratigraphic interpretation of data seismic stratigraphy.
Prospect Scale Seismic Strat-interpretation. Localized

interpretation to define a prospect. May include use of
reflection configurations, wave shape, amplitude, etc.
Reservoir scale Seismic Strat-interpretation. Quantitatively

characterize reservoir (net sand, phi-H, etc.) to permit reserve
determination, reservoir simulation ,etc
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ALI BAKR
Why doing seismic stratigraphy?
Scale of seismic stratigraphy study
Assumptions
Categories
Assumptions for Reflection Character Analysis
Reflections are boundaries of impedance contrast.
Reflections have areas in excess of the first Fresnel zone or .
Reflections are from bedding surfaces.
Reflections parallel time/age lines.
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2-Seismic Stratigraphy
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Definitions
Why doing seismic stratigraphy?
Scale of seismic stratigraphy study
Assumptions
Categories
Categories
Seismic stratigraphy is divided into two main categories:
Reflection- character analysis
Seismic facies analysis
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Categories- Reflection Character Analysis
Reflection character analysis

Analyse the lateral variation of an individual reflection
unit or units in order to localise where stratigraphic
changes are found and identify their nature.
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Reflector terminations defining the upper and lower boundary
of a sequences
23
24
23
22
21
23
21 22
5
4
3
2
1
Concordant above
Erosional: angular, structural
21 22 23 24 25 26
9
8
7 6 5 4 3
2 1
Downlap above
24
23
9
22
8
21
7 6 5 4
3 2 1
Onlap above
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6
5
4
3
2
1
Onlap above
Erosional: angular, nonstructural
21 22
23 24 25 26
6
5
4
3
2
1
Downlap above
Erosional: angular, nonstructural
24
23
22
21
4
1
2
3
Onlap above
Tilting or original depositional
attitude
22
21
8
7
Concordant above
Toplap below
21
22
23
24
25 26
3
21
Downlap above
Concordant below
23
4
22
21
32
Concordant above
Concordant below
Reflector terminations defining the upper and lower boundary
of seismic sequences
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Toplap (Upper Boundaries)
It is a termination of strata, or seismic marker, against an overlying surface
mainly resulting of non-deposition (sedimentary bypassing) with perhaps
only minor erosion. Each unit of strata laps out in a landward direction at
the top of the unit, and each successive termination lies progressively
seaward.
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Toplap
1- Coastal toplap
2- Marine toplap
3- Non-marine toplap
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Reflection Character Analysis
Toplap
1- Coastal toplap
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Toplap
2- Marine toplap
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Toplap
3- Non-marine toplap
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Mark Toplap (Upper Boundaries)
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Erosional truncation (Upper Boundaries)
Where inclined strata terminate against an erosional surface.
An unconformity is an erosional surface that separates younger strata from older rocks and
represents a significant hiatus (at least a correlatable part of a geochronologic unit is not
represented by strata). In very particular cases, an unconformity can corresponds to an nondepositional surface. Periods of erosion and non deposition occur at each global fall of sea level
producing interregional unconformities. Although in some areas of continuous deposition, the
hiatus may be too small to be detected paleontologically or seismically, and the surface is defined
as a conformity.
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Erosional truncation (Upper Boundaries)

.
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Mark Erosional truncation (Upper Boundaries)
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Onlap (Lower Boundaries)
If a period of deposition dominated by bedload transport ( sand
sized materials) ceases and is followed by a period of deposition
from suspended load, then filling the latter ususally produces an
onlapping sequence.
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Onlap
1-Proximal onlap
2-Distal onlap
3-Coastal onlap
4-Marine onlap
5-Apparent onlap
6-Nonmarine onlap
7-True onlap
8-Tilted onlap (Apparent downlap)
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Onlap
1- Proximal onlap : is onlap in the direction of the source of

clastic supply.
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Onlap
2-Distal onlap onlap in the direction away from the source of

clastic supply.
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Onlap
3-Coastal onlap is the progressive landward onlap of the coastal

deposits in a given stratigraphic unit.
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Onlap
4- Marine onlap is the onlap of marine strata, primarily deep

marine (deposited seaward of the shelf break) in nature.
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Onlap
5- Apparent onlap is the onlap observed in any randomly oriented

vertical section, which may or may not be oriented parallel to
depositional dip.
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Onlap
6- Non-marine onlap is the onlap observed in non-marine

environments, that is to say, landward of the depositional
coastal break.
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Onlap
7- True onlap : when two apparent onlaps are observed on two

sections intersecting at right angles, the true onlap is likely to be
observed on the section parallel to the depositional dip.
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Onlap
8- Tilted onlap is an apparent geometrical relationship, that looks

like a downlap. Generally, it is induced by tilting, compensatory
subsidence and salt or shale flowage.
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Mark Onlap (Lower Boundaries)
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Mark Onlap
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Onlap
Faulted units beneath the NW continental margin of Australia, blanketed by a post-tectonic sedimentary
cover of late Mesozoic and younger age. The faults are shown here as showing normal throws. However,
there may be partial inversion of these structures to create the antiformal structure on the NW side of the
section. The post kinematic section lies on an erosional unconformity and onlaps significant relief across
the section. Author: Rob Butler
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Mark Onlap
Profile across part of the Central Basin, Iran, NE of the city of Qom. Image from Morley et al.
(in press, 2009) Structural development of a major Late Cenozoic basin and transpressional
belt in Central Iran: the Central Basin in the Qom-Saveh area. Author: Chris Morley
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Onlap
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Mark
1-Onlap
2- Erosional Truncation
A dipline (see the associated regional project for location) with a well location marked. Note the
angular truncation and erosion of the carbonates below the major unconformity associated with
the karstification of the carbonates. This erosion formaed a distinct penenplain, that is readily
traced across basement rocks (right) into the karsted carbonates at the well location.
ALI BAKR
Mark Onlap
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Onlap
An interpretation of the
fault geometry and basin
fill in part of the Inner
Moray Firth. This
interpretation was done
using 2D seismic data
alone (see related
regional line) and
without reference to
external data or models.
The arrows denote stratal
terminations (onlap).
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Mark
1-Onlap
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Mark
1-Onlap
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Downlap (Lower Boundaries)
Seismic reflection of inclined strata terminate downdip
against an inclined or horizontal surface
Surfaces are present at the base of prograding packages. They are commonly associated with
maximum flooding surfaces produced by a rise in relative sea level
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Downlap
1- Distal downlap
2- False downlap
3- Shelf downlap
4- Basin downlap
5- Opposite (local) downlap
6- Apparent downlap
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Downlap
1- Distal downlap is a downlap in the direction away from the source of clastic
supply. The majority of downlaps are distal downlaps.
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Downlap
2- False downlap is a downdip tangential stratal termination. Strata flatten

and continue as units, which, often, are so thin that they fall below the
seismic resolution.
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Downlap
3- Shelf downlap is a downlap recognized in a shelf. Often, it underlies the

slope of a depositional coastal break. The water depth is less than 200
meters (prodelta).
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Downlap
4- Slope downlap is a downlap associated with a continental slope.

The water depth is higher than 200 meters.
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Downlap
5- Opposite downlaps are characteristics of overbank deposits,

whether associated with fluvial or turbiditic levees
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Downlap
6- (Apparent downlaps) : original onlap terminations when deformed

by tectonics or halokinesis (salt tectonics) can become apparent
downlaps.
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Mark Downlap (Lower Boundaries)
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Categories
Seismic stratigraphy is divided into two main categories:
Reflection- character analysis
Seismic facies analysis
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Categories- Seismic Facies Analysis
Why Seismic facies analysis
Estimating deposition environment using the

character of the seismic reflections.
Understand depositional history.

Locate and predict potential hydrocarbon reservoir
and stratigraphic traps.
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Categories-Seismic Facies Analysis
Seismic facies
It is the group of reflections bounded by top and base boundaries.
Seismic parameters used for facies detection are
1)-Reflection configuration
2)-Reflection amplitude
3)-Frequency
4)-Continuity
5)-Interval velocity
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Facies Parameters
Geologic Interpretation
1- Reflection Configuration Bedding patterns

a) Internal config forms
b) External config forms
2- Reflection Continuity
Depositional processes
Fluid contacts
Bedding continuity
3- Reflection Amplitude
AI contrast
Bed thickness (tuning)
Fluid content
4- Reflection Frequency
Bed thickness
Fluid content
5- Interval Velocity
Lithology estimation
Porosity estimation
Fluid content
Pressure
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1- Reflection Configuration
Internal & External Forms Configurations
The overall geometry of a stratigraphic, or seismic unit, consists of the internal form
and the external reflection configuration of the unit. Both must be described to
understand the geometric interrelation and depositional setting of the units.
Internal Forms of Reflection Configuration (Filling pattern)

1-Onlap
2-Prograding
3-Mounded onlap
4-Divergent
5-Complex
6-Chaotic
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Internal Reflection Configuration (Filling Pattern)
Onlap
Low-energy filling of erosional

channel
Divergent
Compactable (shale-prone)
low-energy sediments
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Prograding
Low-energy filling of
erosional channel
Complex
Sediment transport over the edge of the

channel or along channel at a bend.
Mounded onlap
Higher-energy fill
in at least two stages.
Chaotic
Very high-energy fill,

possibly sand-prone.
Mounded onlap
Chaotic
Prograding
Complex
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Onlap Divergent
Mounded onlap
Apparent Dip
relation to the
channel
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Internal & External Forms Configurations
The overall geometry of a stratigraphic, or seismic unit, consists of the internal
form and the external reflection configuration of the unit. Both must be described
to understand the geometric interrelation and depositional setting of the units.
Internal Forms of Reflection Configuration (Filling pattern)

1-Onlap
2-Prograding
3-Mounded onlap
4-Divergent
5-Complex
6-Chaotic
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Prograding Pattern types
Sigmoid
Oblique
Tangential
Oblique
Parallel
Hummocky Clinoforms
Complex Sigmoid-Oblique
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Shingled
External Reflection Configuration
sheet
drape
mound
Trough fill
Basin fill
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wedge
fan
bank
front slope fill
lens
channel fill
External forms of reflection configuration
Mound
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Trough Fill
Seismic example illustrating

the complicated stratigraphy
of a submarine slope valley
fill with adjacent levee
deposits. Image taken from
Mayall et al., 2006.
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Front Slop Fill
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Basin Fill
This 2D seismic line (BGS1993_02_C) is aligned NW-SE across the Hatton Basin. Buried volcanic
escarpments are imaged on both margins of the basin. Each has a relief of c. 1 second TWT. The escarpments
are buried beneath the Tertiary sedimentary fill of the Hatton Basin, which thins towards the basin
margins, onlapping the flanks.
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Fan
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Channel fill
2.1
2.2
W
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---684m--
A
C
A: Braided (low sinuosity, multi-channel stream)
B: Meandering (high sinuosity, single channel stream)
C: Straight (low sinuosity, single channel stream)
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Channel fill
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Incised Valley System
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Seismic Facies Analysis
Submarine Channel
S SW
W
NE
NE
2.5
SW
2.75
Deposition occurs on inner

bends (point bars) and
erosion on outer bends.
Cross-over reaches between
bends are largely area of
sediment transfer
High
Pliocene submarine channel-Nile Delta

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Low
2.5 km
Incised Valley System
5 km
Incised Canyons sourcing sediment down slope Off shore Mediterranean
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Mark Incised Valley System
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Lens
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Bank
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Drape
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2- Reflection continuity:
Bedding continuity
High Continuity
(continuous strata deposited in
widespread and uniform
environment, (marine
conditions)
Difference in
continuity du to
different shooting
parameters
Low Continuity
(sediments deposited with
variable energy (by fluvialAlluvial currents)
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3- Amplitude
Amplitude is the height of
reflection peak and it dependent
on the reflection coefficient.
Vertical change in amplitude can

be used to locate unconformities.
Lateral change can be used to help

distinguish seismic facies.
Lateral changes in amplitude can

help delineate the edges of bright
spots
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High amplitude
Low amplitude
4- Frequency (Spacing)
High frequency-small spacing
It describes the number of reflections

per unit time .
It is a function of both frequency of

seismic signal and interference effects.
Vertical change in spacing can be used

to locate boundaries between
depositional sequences.
Lateral change can be used to infer

facie
Low frequency-long spacing
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5- Interval velocity:
Push down
Estimation of lithology
Estimation of porosity
Fluid content
V2
V1
V2
Velocity Anomaly - pull down
V2 V1
V2
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V1 < V2
Velocity: V=(/c)4
Push down (velocity sag) due

to gas accumulation
Fluid content
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Fluid content
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Fluid content
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Push down Gas Chimney
Sea
Floor
PlioPleistocene
turbidities
Sea floor
~ 100 ms
Top Reservoir
(= Top A)
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Gas chimney emanating from sinkhole;

amplitude reduction and structural / gas sag
5-Interval velocity:
Fluid content
Pull up & Pull down
V2 V1
V2
Velocity Anomaly - pull down
V1 < V2
Velocity: V=(/c)4
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On this seismic line from offshore Angola, the pull-down of

the yellow marker (bottom of the evaporitic interval) is
induced by the lateral change of the interval-velocity created
by the normal fault which limits a Upper Tertiary depocenter.
Indeed, such a fault put limestones (upthrown block) and
shales (downthrown block in juxtaposition.
V2
V1
V2
Velocity Anomaly - pull up
V1 < V2
Velocity: V=(/c)4
On this reef geological model, above a planar limestone sole (light blue), a reef with a compressional wave
velocity of 5490 m/s, is laterally bounded by shaly sediments (yellow) with a much lower velocity (3660 m/s),
which are overlain by even slower sediments (brown interval, 3050 m/s). The seismic answer of such a model is
roughly depicted on the right. The horizon associated with the bottom of the reef shows a significant pull-up.
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V2
V1
V2
Velocity Anomaly - pull up
Palaeozoic carbonate reef build-ups (Barents Sea)
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PSDM Migration No pull up
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Time Migration- pull up anomaly from reef
sheet
prograding
parallel, even,
high amplitude
wedge
parallel, discontinuous,
low amplitude
sheet
subparallel
front
slope
fill
chaotic
prograding
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mound
7- 4D
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What is 4D Seismic?
Is the analysis of differences found in seismic surveys repeated in
an area where substantial changes in the subsurface have
occurred, due to production processes
Qualitative
Quantitative
Provides information with lateral continuity that provides a
VISION of actual changes in the reservoir
Fluid substitution
Temperature

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4D Seismic - the Concept

Also known as Seismic Reservoir Monitoring or Time-Lapse
Seismic
Consists of 3D seismic surveys, repeated after intervals of
substantial production
Successive surveys analysed for differences
Observes fluid changes in the reservoir
Available between & beyond the wells
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Classification of Gullfaks data

1985
1995
Difference
Large change
SHCindicator
No change
0
1
34 well locations selected; additional 600 million bbl producible reserves
found as result of 4D
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Continual Improvement
Foinaven Data, Norwegian Sea
W
E
1993
93 reprocessed 95
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Flat Spot
95 towed
Pioneer Examples: Duri Field
Seismic image of DURI field, where

effects of steam injection are easily
visualized in the seismic data
D. Lumley, 1995
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4D Interpretation Workflows
Fluid substitution modelling

Seismic repeatability assessment
Seismic interpretation
Seismic attribute extraction
Classification (Inversion)
Reservoir optimisation
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4D Workflow
Fluid
substitution,
AVO
modelling
Interpretation
Seismic
repeatability
assessment,
wavelet, etc..
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InversionClassification
Seismic attribute
extraction
Reservoir
optimisation
Fluid Substitution
Synthetic Response to Change in Rock Physics
Change of
of physical
physical
Change
parameters
parameters
dependence
TTdependence
Fluid factor
factorisis very
Fluid
very
important
important
TEMPERATURA
24,00
3,10
40,00
60,00
80,00
2,90
100,00
125,00
2,70
150,00
25A
2,92
2,74
2,52
2,36
2,27
2,17
2,08
7A
2,65
2,54
2,38
2,22
2,08
1,99
1,91
1A
2,67
2,56
2,40
2,20
2,11
2,02
1,95
3A
3,01
2,87
2,70
2,60
2,50
2,41
2,30
4A
2,81
2,68
2,44
2,31
2,17
2,06
1,98
8A
2,84
2,64
2,46
2,27
2,15
2,05
1,97
10A
2,81
2,68
2,53
2,42
2,32
2,19
2,11
LS-2203
Serie1
Serie2
Serie3
Serie4
Serie5
2,50
Serie6
Serie7
Serie8
2,30
Serie9
Serie10
2,10
1,90
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NExT all rights reserved
1,70
23
24,00
Serie11
28 %
40,00
60,00
80,00
Serie12
Serie13
T
100,00
125,00
150,00
4D (Time-Lapse) Seismic
Gullfaks Field, North Sea
Mapping fluid movements and identifying unswept hydrocarbons
1989
0
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1996
SHC indicator
No change
Large change
Time Lapse Seismic

Sleipner CO2 Storage
1994
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1999
Monitoring of C02 injection in aquifer
Data courtesy of Statoil
2001
Time Lapse Seismic

Sleipner CO2 Storage
Seismic 1999
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Seismic 2002
Amplitude difference and vertical time shift due to cumulated gas effect
conduct to erroneous 4D effect if not compensated
Data courtesy of Statoil
4D Summary
4D seismic provide important information for decision making analysis
in reservoir management
Tailor made interpretation tools and workflows for 4D analysis
Demonstrated the use of qualitative or semi-quantitative 4D analysis
for updating reservoir models
Seismic to Simulation and Simulation to Seismic (S2S) are established
workflows
Beyond qualitative interpretation, the link between reservoir
engineering and geophysics via rock physics enables quantitative 4D
analysis for reservoir management
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What is a Neural Network?

Neural Networks:
recognize ill-defined patterns without an explicit set of rules
may adaptively infer heuristic knowledge from sample data
unlike statistical estimators, they estimate a function without a
mathematical model of how outputs depend upon inputs
they are model free estimators, they learn from experience with
numerical and , sometimes, linguistic sample data
like brains, they recognize patterns we can not define, or what is
called recognition without definition
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OGCI - SER - Neural

Networks and Seismic Facies -
429
Stratigraphic Interpretation
Seismic Facies Analysis using NNT: What Is It ?
Seismic Facies: The description and geologic interpretation of seismic
reflection patterns including configurations, (continuous, sigmoidal, etc.),
frequency, amplitude, and continuity.
Neural Network Technology (NNT): The ability to analyze and classify
trace shapes using a discriminating process.
Seismic Facies Map: This is a similarity map of actual traces to a set
of model traces that represents the diversity of various trace shapes
present in an interval.
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Example for using NNT- Texas Ranch 3D

Well A
(~0.1
MMCFD)
3D Survey - DeWitt Co., Texas
Well B
(~1
MMCFD)
360 inlines - 382 crosslines

82.5x82.5 bin spacing (34 sq.miles)
4 seconds of data @ 4 msec
N
Well Data
E
S
Two wells drilled in main channel

Well A - 15ft wet sand (fizzy water)
Well B - 30ft gas sand
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SW
Well B
1
mil
e
1
mil
e
NE
The Play: Frio Channel Sandstones

Gas production comes from Oligocene Frio sandstones
described as fluvial channel fills, point bars, and splay deposits
deposited in a plain mudstone.
Well A
Well B
Random Line
Reference
Horizon
Frio
Channel
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Horizon Attributes
Time Horizon Map combined
with seismic amplitude at
reference horizon.
Mixed map: Time (in color) and amplitude (in B&W)
Note Channel systems.

Stratigraphic play with
several braided fluvial
systems with bright spots.
structure-independent.
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Time Slice
Taken at 824 msec.
Main Channel clearly

identified by bright spots.
Is there a break in the

channel?
Why are the wells different?
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Horizon Slice
Parallel to Reference
Horizon - 92 msec below.
Continuous channel now

clearly seen.
Still cannot adequately
explain differences at
wells.
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Seismic Facies Analysis using NNT: What Is It ?
Seismic Facies: The description and geologic interpretation of seismic
reflection patterns including configurations, (continuous, sigmoidal, etc.),
frequency, amplitude, and continuity.
Neural Network Technology (NNT): The ability to analyze and classify
trace shapes using a discriminating process.
Seismic Facies Map: This is a similarity map of actual traces to a set
of model traces that represents the diversity of various trace shapes
present in an interval.
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Stratigraphic Interpretation Part I

A
Unsupervised
Regional Seismic
Facies Analysis
Horizon slices indicate vertical
channel extent of approx. 40 msec.
Seismic Facies map of entire area

over the 40-msec interval and 15
model traces.
Channel system characterized by
model traces 1,2, and 3.
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A
Conventional Amplitude
Vs. Seismic Facies Approach
The seismic facies map is very

colorful, but we still cannot
differentiate between the two
wells.
Why use seismic facies technology
if it provides the same results as an
amplitude-based approach ?
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A
B

Unsupervised
Channel Seismic
Facies Analysis
Seismic facies map over the

channel system shows a trace
shape difference between the A
and B wells
What is the meaning of this
trace shape variation ?
Lithology ?
Porosity ?
Fluid content ?
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Petro-Acoustic Modeling
Modeling at Well A
Well A
1
Input is well logs, seismic

facies model trace, and
seismic traces.
Synthetic Seismogram
generated and calibrated to
seismic traces.
Model now modified with
properties observed at Well
B (30-ft sand). Trace shape
change replicates variation
between A and B.
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Red=Sonic
Blue=Density
Well B
6
Stratigraphic Interpretation Part II

3D Model-Based
Propagation of the
Main Channel
Time map of channel

horizon generated using
seismic character at wells
A and B.
Note: Well A structurally
higher than well B in the
time domain.
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A
Supervised Seismic
Facies Analysis
Focused interpretation, based on

petro-Acoustic modeling results and
areal isolation of channel system.
Model indicates that interval affected
by sand property changes is wider increase to 72 msec (12 model classes).
Note difference in trace shape at wells.
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Random line through
wells.
BEFORE shows
unsupervised seismic
facies (similar at
wells).
AFTER shows
supervised seismic
facies (different at
wells).
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BEFORE
AFTER
Final Seismic Facies Map of

channel system (in color), mixed
with average amplitude (in B&W)
over same interval.
Note channel to south of Well B.
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Neural Networks Consist of:

numerous, simple processing units or neurons that we can
globally program for computation.
They can be programmed or trained to store, recognize, and
associatively retrieve patterns or database entries to solve
combinatorial optimization problems, to filter noise from
measurement data, to control ill-defined problems - to
estimate sampled functions when we do not know the form of
the functions
artificial neural systems may contain millions of nonlinear
neurons and interconnecting synapses and future systems
may contain billions of real or virtual model neurons
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445
Natural Fracture Classification

(A Genetic Classification)
Tectonic Fractures
Fold-related, Fault-related
Regional Fractures
Joints, Cleat
Contractional Fractures
Chickenwire, Diagenesis-related, Columnar Joints
Surface-related & Induced
Unloading, Spall, Weathering
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Fractures Surrounding a Normal

Fault in Miocene Ss
East
West
Hangingwall
S1
S3
S3
10 ft
Footwall
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Western Sinai,
Egypt
Fractures Around a Normal Fault

Clastics, Brunei
1 ft
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Variations in Fracture Intensity Associated with

Faults are Due To:
1.
2.
3.
Pre-Slip Effects
Fracture zone preparing the rock mass for fault slip (halo zone).
Precedes propagating fault.
Interactions between propagating fault tips and halos.
Effects Occurring During Slip
More fracturing as hanging wall moves over an irregular fault
surface.
Intense deformation occurs at the slip surface leading to a
damage zone.
Post-Slip Effects
The presence of faults can warp todays reservoir stress state
giving local changes in fracture permeability.
More fractures could be created if the faults are reactivated &/or
inversion takes place (local fracture overprinting).
ALI BAKR
R.A. Nelson 9/02
Process zone fracturing surrounding a Normal Fault

kmax
Volume of rock
fractured prior to
through-going fault
slip
kmin
Background
fractures related
fractures due to
to scale
normalNot
stress
state.
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Damage zone is usually

low in permeability.
Damage Zone (c. a few

feet)
Effective Process Zone (a few hundred feet)
Effective process zone is

the zone that is
significantly greater than
matrix flow.
Pre-Slip Fracturing Forming the Process Zone
Fracture Swarm
Background
Fracturing
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Onset of Fault Slip: Propagating Slip Through

Process Zone
Extending
Process Zone
Process
Zone
Propagating Slip
Surface
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Fault Propagation Interaction in 3-D Creating

New Fractures
Interacting Faults
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Slip-Related Effects:
Fracturing Related to Fault Slip
Additional fractures are generated as the hanging wall displaces
over topography of the fault surface.
Once generated at the asperity these fracture zones are translated
down the slip direction along the fault.
If fault slip is small, little slip-related fracturing will take place.
Curvature maps of the fault surface can be used as a guide for
this prediction.
Accurate fault plane mapping is critical in predicting these zones
of kinematic fracturing.
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R.A. Nelson 9/02
Slip-Related Fracturing in Map View
Outside bend
High extensional strain
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Inside bend
High compressional strain
Local Stress Variations at Fault Steps & Bends

Displacement
transfer
Left-Stepping
Left-Lateral
RightStepping
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Schematic Map View of an Inversion Fault

with Changes in Fault Strike
Zone of maximum local
compressional strain
Inversion-related
compression direction
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Schematic Map View of an Inversion Fault with

Changes in Fault Strike
Zone of maximum
local extensional
strain
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Schematic View of Fracture Systems Associated with Secondary

Faults Along Inversion Faults with and without Strike-slip
Major Inversion
Fault
Secondary
Antithetic Faults
No Strike-slip
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Major Inversion
Fault
Secondary Faults in a
strike-slip scenario
With Strike-slip
Kinematic Fracture Zones Associated with

Fault Topography in Cross Section View
Normal Fault With Dip
Changes in Cross Section
Extension Zone
Fracturing
Compression Zone
Fracturing
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Schematic Cross Section of an Inversion Fault

with Changes on Fault Dip
Zone of local
compressional strain
Zone of local
extensional strain
Post-rift
Syn-rift
Overprinted normal
& reverse fault
fracture sets?
Basement
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Only reverse
fault fracture
sets
Local Fracturing Due to Slip on an Irregular fault

Surface
Compression Zone
Fracturing
Extension Zone
Fracturing
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Slip-Related Effects:
Deformation at the Slip Surface

Once through-going fault slip occurs, the zone immediately
surrounding the slip surface can experience intense
deformation. (Damage Zone)
This deformation is quite variable and can range from purely
ductile to purely brittle.
There is a relationship between the properties of this zone
and amount of slip.
The width of these zones can be variable between faults and
along faults but range generally between 1 to 10 m.
The width and properties of these zones are difficult to

predict or image in the subsurface. Observational data based
on cores leads to the best predictions.
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R.A. Nelson 9/02
Fracture Process Zone Surrounding a Planar

Normal Fault
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Normal Fault Reactivated as a Reverse Fault
Overprinting
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Mapping Fault Zone Properties

Geometry, Width and Intensity
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
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Gather exploration & show history

Compile mechanical, petrophysical & production characteristics of
section
Acquire and map surface & subsurface fracture distributions
Determine fracture origin and make mechanical predictions of
orientation & intensity
Determine in situ reservoir stress directions and magnitudes
Constrain subsurface fracture intensity, width, & zone widths and
lengths from image logs, core, and geophysical Attributes
Predict fracture distribution sweet spots from the above
Model reservoir volumes of the fracture system
High-grade and prioritize potential locations via checklist
Select well paths to optimize fracture intercept rate and choose
optimum completion technique
Fold-Related Fractures
Phosphoria Ls, Black Canyon Anti., WY

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Fold-Related Fractures
Paleozoic Carbonate, W. Wyoming Thrust Belt

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Seismic Interpretation by Dr. Ali Bakr

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SEISMIC INTERPRETATION

Dr. ALI BAKR

4D seismic (Time Laps)

An air gun towed behind the survey

Onshore seismic acquisition requires an energy input from a

Seismic horizons represent changes in density and allow the subsurface

Wiggle trace to CDP gather

Graphs of intensity of sound as received by

Graphs of intensity for one location collected

Data for one point from different signals to different receivers

First, gather sound data for one

Next, take all the sound traces for

Finally, place stacks for

There are many reflectors on a

Common Depth Points (CDPs)

Common midpoint above CDP

Common reflecting point or

Two way time (TWT)

In this example the TWT is

Distinguish the major reflectors and geometries of seismic

Some energy will be reflected, some will be

Amount reflected (amplitude of reflection)

If AI2 > AI1 positive RC

Not all changes in lithology associated with

Subsurface at any one location as consists of a one-dimensional

Subsurface at any one location as consists of a one-dimensional

Each RC gives rise to a separate reflection event, the amplitude of

Check Shot / T-D relationship

Seismic Acquisition and Processing Info

Top & Base

Top & Base

Seismic ability to define top

Where: V is the velocity in unit distance per second and

Vertical Resolution Example (HFI Processing from Geotrace)

Vertical Resolution is the ability to detect and map thin events

It is determined by the average frequency and bandwidth of the

We can typically resolve down to wavelength

Wavelength is determined by frequency and velocity:

The seismic signal contains a range of frequencies (left)

Fourier analysis may be used to see the bandwidth

Amplitude spectrum on left shows a broad bandwidth,

What is the dominant frequency of the seismic data in the interval

Horizontal Resolution is the ability to map lateral changes in reservoir

Seismic energy is reflected from a patch rather than a point. Migration

Prior to migration horizontal resolution is poor

Horizontal resolution can approach vertical resolution if aperture is

Lateral resolution described by Fresnel Zone

Fresnel zone diameter (F) depends upon:

Migration collapses diffractions and gives us horizontal resolution

Fresnel Zone example:

Basic Structural Geology Background

Plate Tectonic conceptual model of basin evolution

LISTRIC FAULT MODEL

Only on gravitational structuresnot tectonics?

Then banked in with sediment

False fault pick

Various Folds (cont'd)

Various Folds (cont'd)

Various Folds (cont'd)

Axial plane near axis should be close to horizontal