Interpretation

Training on Seismic data interpretation (1)
Training on
Seismic data interpretation
by
Dr. Harilal, DGM (GP)

INTEG, GEOPIC
July 2010 Dehradun

Interlink in Seismic API in Exploration

Data Acquisition
(Geophysical services)
Data Processing and

Imaging
Data Visualization, Interpretation and

modeling, Prospects and Locations
Drilling
(Hydrocarbon and Data)
(log, VSP, Model, test data)
Data interpretation
D
GEOPHYSICAL
A
T (Seismic and Non-seismic)
A
GEOLOGICAL
T
Y
P
E PETROPHYSICAL
Drilling and reservoir

Software
• Interpretation/Processing software
– Landmark Graphic Corporation
• Interpretation, Interpretive processing and mapping
– Geoquest, Schlumberger
• Interpretation, Interpretive processing and mapping
– Paradigm
• 3D visualization, Interpretation, Interpretive processing,
Mapping and special studies
– Hampson Russell/Jason
• Special studies, AVO and Inversion
– GX Technology corporation
• Geophysical modelling
– Miscellaneous
• Printing/plotting, ZEH
What is seismic interpretation?

• Interpretation is telling the geologic story
contained in seismic data.
• It is correlating the features we see in seismic
data with elements of geology as we know them.
– Depositional environments and depositional history
– Structure
• Anticline, syncline
– Faults
– Stratigraphy
• unconformity
• Pinch-out
• Channels, reefs, salt domes
Objective
• Prospect generation and identification of suitable locations
for drilling by interpreting subsurface geo-data
– Petroleum system
• Reservoir rock
– Porous and permeable sandstone, limestone
– Any other rock type forming trap, e.g., fractured shales
• Source rock
– Shale/carbonates
• Cap rock
– Shale/carbonates
• Trap
• Migration
• Reservoir characterization
– Estimation of reservoir parameters
• Area, thickness, porosity, saturation etc.
• The primary goal of seismic interpretation is to make maps that
provide geologic information (reservoir depth structure,
thickness, porosity, etc.).
Pre-requisite of interpretation
• Knowledge of geology and geophysical processes
– Type of data and type of information which can be extracted
• Poststack / Prestack, Time (PSTM), Depth (PSDM) Domain
• Objective of interpretation and amenability of seismic data
• Elements of seismic trace data
– Modes of display
– Amplitude, time and frequency
– Role of colours and colour bar
• Contrasting (map) and gradational (sections) colour scheme
• Polarity and phase conventions
• Resolution and detectability
• Seismic to well tie
– Character based matching between synthetic and seismic
– Depth to time conversion (T-D curves)
• Check shots, VSP, Synthetics
Basic Concepts in Seismic interpretation

Geophysical
 Reflection of seismic waves
 Impedance and Reflection coefficients
 Polarity and phase
 Vertical Resolution
 Horizontal Resolution
 Effects of depth on resolution
Geologic
 Occurrence of petroleum in subsurface
 Source, Reservoir and trap
 Stratigraphy
 Depositional environments and processes
 Basic structures
Reflection of seismic waves
Basic techniques of seismic reflection exploration consists of
generating seismic waves and measuring the travel-time from
source to reflecting-subsurface to the receiver.
The travel-time mainly depends on the velocity and depth of
overlying medium and character of reflection depends upon
physical properties of both overlying and underlying mediums.
The objective is to determine the location and attitude of
reflectors and to infer the geologic structure and stratigraphy.
Reflectivity of an interface is defined as the ratio of the amplitude of
the displacement of a reflected wave to that of the incident wave.
The normal-incidence reflection coefficient (Ro) at an interface is:
 2V2  1V1 Medium 1 (velocity * density) 1 V1
R0 
 2V2  1V1 Medium 2 (velocity * density) 2 V2
Reflection of seismic waves
Receiver (hydrophone) Source
1
2
3
4
Marine reflection seismic acquisition system
Seismic waves are reflected back from subsurface interfaces
(boundaries) having impedance contrast. Recorded and processed
seismic data reveals the subsurface geologic model (structure and
other intrinsic properties) on interpretation.
Polarity Convention
American polarity is American

described as: An increase in
impedance yields positive
amplitude normally displayed in
blue. A decrease in impedance
yields negative amplitude
normally displayed in red.
European (or Australian) European
polarity is described as the
reverse, namely: An increase in
impedance yields negative
amplitude normally displayed in Top and bottom of a gas reservoir
red. A decrease in impedance (low impedance zone) in (a)
yields positive amplitude American polarity and (b) European
normally displayed in blue. polarity
Phase The task of tying seismic

data and well data together
and hence identifying
seismic horizons is often
oversimplified. The task
requires knowledge of
velocity, phase, polarity and
tuning effects.
In an extremely simplified way
A minimum-phase pulse has its seismic pulses displayed on
energy concentrated at its front, seismic sections can be grouped
and is thought to be typical of into two main types, minimum
many seismic signals. The pulse phase and zero phase.
is said to be "front loaded," with
its onset at the acoustic-
impedance boundary.
Phase
Zero-phase pulses consist of a central peak and two side lobes of
opposite sign and lesser amplitude. Here the boundary is
located at the central peak and not at the wavelet onset as is the
case for minimum-phase pulses.
Zero phase data makes all aspects of interpretation
easier and it is desirable. However, zero phase is difficult
to accomplish and often it is not achieved in processing.
Hence interpreters always need to check the phase and
polarity of their data.
Given the same amplitude spectrum, a zero-phase signal is
always shorter and always has greater amplitude than the
equivalent minimum-phase signal; it therefore has a greater
signal/noise ratio.
Resolution
The ability to separate two features that are close
together
The minimum separation of two bodies before their
individual identities are lost on resultant map or
cross-section
The resolving power of seismic data is always
measured in terms of seismic wavelength (λ=V/F)
Limit of separability = λ/4
The predominant frequency decreases with depth because
the higher frequencies in the seismic signal are more
quickly attenuated. Wavelength increases with depth.
Resolution decreases with depth
For thinner intervals amplitude is progressively attenuated
until Limit of visibility=λ/25 is reached when reflection
signal becomes obscured by the background noise
Resolution: Factors affecting

has both horizontal
and vertical aspects Broad bandwidth by horizontal and
maximum effort in vertical resolution
data acquisition
Attenuation of noise Horizontal

minimum size
in data processing Resolution
Fresnel zone
sampling
Vertical minimum
Thickness Seismic migration
deconvolution Wavelet
enhances vertical Migration improves
resolution Deconvolution horizontal resolution
Maximum
Reflection from top of wedge
Interference
Amplitude decreases
No interference
below 1/30 l Reflection from

no reflection bottom of wedge
Shale 3000 m/s
1/4 l
½2 l (50 m) no
interference Sandstone 4000 m/s
tuning thickness Shale 3000 m/s
Amplitude
l 100
Wavelet 40 hertz
1 wavelength
Frequency = Number of waves per second

1 wave per second = 1 Hz
λ = Velocity/Frequency
Wave Attribute
Time
Resolution of the reflections from the top and
bottom of a bed is dependent on the interaction of
closely spaced wavelets
Limit of Separability
Age of rocks Very young medium old Very old
young
Depth Very shallow medium deep Very deep
shallow
Velocity 1600 2000 3500 5000 6000
(m/s)
Predominant 70 50 35 25 20
frequency
Wavelength 23 40 100 200 300
Separability 6 10 25 50 75
Limit of visibility
• Factors affecting the
visibility Limit of visibility
– Impedance contrast of S/N Example Limit
the geologic layer of
interest relative to the
Poor Water sand poor λ/8
data
embedding material
– Random and
Moderate Wayer or oil sand λ/12
fairly good data
systematic noise in the
data
– Phase of the data or
High Gas sand good λ/20
data
shape of seismic
wavelet Outstanding Gas sand λ/30
– It may be less than 1 excellent data
m to more than 40 m
Horizontal resolution
On an un-migrated section, horizontal resolution is determined
by the size of the Fresnel zone. The magnitude of Fresnel zones
can be approximated from the relationship
where
v t
rf  rf = radius of the Fresnel zone.
v = average velocity.
2 f
t = two-way time in seconds.
f = dominant frequency in hertz.
Post – migration Fresnel zone size is given by λ /4 = V/4F
On migrated section vertical and horizontal resolutions are of

the same order
Both velocity and frequency
influence on our ability to interpret
features in the seismic section.
Velocity tends to increase with
depth due to compaction and
diagenetic effects. Frequency
decreases due to attenuation of the
seismic wave-there is an almost
constant fractional energy loss per
cycle of the seismic wave; and
higher frequencies are attenuated
more than lower frequencies for a
particular path length.
With increasing depth vertical and
lateral resolution decreases, and
interference effects become more
Relationship among wavelength, pronounced as the pulse length
frequency and seismic velocity increases ( due to lower frequency).
Occurrence of petroleum in subsurface
Cap rock
oil
Petroleum System
Petroleum (23)
Training on Seismic data interpretation System

Seismic interpreters are aimed to find elements of petroleum system
to decide whether they will find oil: source, reservoir, top-seal, trap,
migration pathways and timing
Source: Oil, gas and coal form out of decayed organic matter that has been
thermally altered. The best environment for formation of source rock is a stratified
ocean basin, with an oxygen- and nutrient-rich upper water layer where the
plankton bloom happily, and an anoxic lower layer where the dead plankton are
preserved. Organic-rich source rocks produced in this way are known as black
shales. Dead plant matter that accumulates in swamps and mires produces peat and
coal. Most oil comes from dead marine plankton in black shales and most gas
comes from dead plant material in coal.
Reservoir: porous and permeable rocks. Sandstones, Limestone, Dolomite etc.
The top-seal acts to seal the oil in the trap; non-porous and impermeable:
shales. A useful top-seal must directly overlie the reservoir rock. Good seals are
often ductile, so that they tend not to deform by fracturing, and regionally
extensive, to prevent leakage round the edges of the trap.
Oil generation occurs when the source rock matures, i.e. when it is
heated to the correct temperature (80-1500 C), if oil is heated further
it cracks into Gas (150-1800 C ). Trap is any configuration of
reservoir and top-seal that will pond oil as it rises buoyantly from a
mature source rock.
Migration consists of two components. First, the hydrocarbons must
escape the source rock, which is usually a relatively non-porous,
impermeable. Formation of hydrocarbons from organic matter
involves a volume increase. The resulting over-pressure probably
allows the hydrocarbons to generate small fractures and escape the
source rock. Once out of the source rock, the hydrocarbons must be
able to rise under their own buoyancy to the trap. They may migrate
through porous, permeable reservoir-type rock. Fault zones can act
either as fluid conduits or fluid seals depending upon the detailed
nature of the fault rock and damage zone, which depend in turn on
the rock-types cut by the fault.
Timing: The timing of maturation of the source rock with respect to

formation of the trap is absolutely critical. Timing of source
maturation can be estimated from a cumulative stratigraphy plot.
Timing of trap formation requires knowledge of the geological
history of the area, derived from a variety of sources such as maps,
cross-sections, seismic pro-filing and subsidence analysis. It is
important to decide how many phases of tectonic deformation and
trap formation have taken place. If more than one phase has occurred,
early traps are likely to have been breached and oil and gas are most
likely to remain trapped in the most traps formed by the most recent
phase of deformation.
DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENTS
Glacial
Alluvial Lacustrine
Deltaic Deep water
marine
Aeolian
Beach
Continental: Alluvial, Aeolian, Fluvial, Lacustrine
Transitional: Deltaic, Tidal, Lagoonal, Beach
Marine: Shallow water marine, Deep water marine Reef
Braided channel
River dominated delta
Meander channel
NORMAL FAULTS REVERSE FAULTS
THRUST FAULTS STRIKE SLIP FAULTS
Different types of Fault

Decolloment and detachment in Extentional and Compressional regime

Interpretation functionalities
(through workstation)
• Project and data management
– (Project and survey)
• Data conditioning (interpretive processing)
– Scaling, filtering, wavelet processing etc.
• Integration of various types of data (seismic, well etc.)
• Calibration (well to seismic tie)
– Synthetic seismogram generation and correlation with seismic
• Visualization
• Horizon and fault Correlation
• Generation of time maps
• Depth conversion and generation of depth maps
• Special studies
– Seismic Attributes
– Direct hydrocarbon indicators (DHI) and AVO
– Seismic Inversion
– Time lapse reservoir monitoring
• Integration of structure, attributes, impedance, geologic model etc.
• Prospect generation and location identification
• Reports/proposals
Map
projection,
Name measurement,
datum
information
and bounding
CRS coordinates
are required
for creation of
project data
base.
Map projection
STRUCTURAL INTERPRETATION
Elements of seismic data display

Calibration (Well-to-seismic-tie)
Correlation (horizons and faults)
Map generation (gridding and contouring)
Elements of display
Double gradational scheme

Positive amplitude Blue
Negative amplitude Red
A seismic section showing colour convention and other display elements

Elements of display
- max + max
+/- zero crossing
-/+ zero crossing
Variable area wiggle display

Elements of display
Time slice
cross-line In-line
3-D Cube of
seismic data
Elements of display
Time 2390
Successive time
slices depict the
anticlinal closures
Time 2430
Vertical section
and time slices
Well to seismic tie (Synthetic Seismograms)

For geologic information from seismic data, nearby wells are
correlated to seismic reflectors. Synthetic seismograms
(synthetics) provide this link by converting rock properties from
well logs to a synthetic trace.
Synthetics make “rocks look like wiggles,” using the convolution
model (T = RC * W), which states that traces (T) are the result of
convolving (*) the reflection coefficient series (RC) with the
wavelet (W). When seismic data are acquired, a source wavelet is
sent into the earth, reflected back (convolved) to the surface at
geologic boundaries (RC), and recorded as a trace (T).
RC is calculated from velocity and density logs

RC for normal incidence is
RC = (r1v1- r2v2) /(r1v1+ r2v2)
where v1, v2 are P-wave velocities (sonic
log) and r1, r2 are densities (density log) in
the layer above (1) and below (2) the
reflecting boundary. The normal incidence
assumption is generally valid, except where
velocity and density contrasts are very large (1) r1,v1
(gas sands, coal, hard streaks, etc.). When (2) r2,v2
these exceptions are critical to the
interpretation, RC needs to be calculated as
a function of angle (AVA) from more
complex equations and a third parameter, S-
wave velocity (shear log).

Correlation of the synthetic traces to seismic sections is a trial-and -
error procedure but the results are often extremely helpful in tying a
well to a seismic section.
To tie, the synthetic seismogram should be displayed in the same
polarity and have a similar wavelet shape to the real seismic data. If
the seismic record has been processed successfully, most of the long-
term multiples should have been removed. In such cases a synthetic
seismogram display showing primaries and short-term multiples
(those which affect the pulse shape but do not generate new
reflections) often provides the best match to the seismic section. The
synthetic seismogram can also give a valuable guide to diagnostic
reflection character.
Black
traces
DT RHOB IMP GR LLD RC
Seismic
Red
traces
synthetic
Synthetic to seismic matching before starting the interpretation. Understand

geologic elements (model) and their geophysical responses (Trace).
Horizon Correlation
– Identification of log markers on seismic section
– Identification of sequence boundaries
• Reflection configuration and termination pattern, Onlap,
Top lap and Down Lap
– Tracking
• Auto and manual mode
– Auto dip and correlation
• 3D voxel tracking
• Voxel detection and horizon converter
Fault correlation
– Picking on vertical and horizontal sections
– Visualizing DAT, coherency, Event similarity and
instantaneous attribute volumes
– Analyzing Dip Azimuth and other attributes
extracted along horizon
– Fault plane correlation
– Computing Heave and throw of faults
-/+ zero crossing

max
+/- zero crossing

min
Illustration of Points Specified by Onset Type
Minimum. Autopicking along the minimum amplitude values of the event.

Zero. Autopicking along the zero crossing of the event.
Maximum. Autopicking along the maximum amplitude values of the event.
Zero (+/-). Autopicking zero amplitudes where the signal crosses from positive
to negative.
Zero (-/+). Autopicking zero amplitudes where the signal crosses from
negative to positive.
Overlay of synthetic
and logs on seismic
sections. Here synthetic
is shown by yellow trace
Seismic signatures of pay sands in B12-11. Sandstone pays are marked

by troughs. Pay1 and Pay3 high negative amplitudes
Identification of log markers on seismic section through synthetic
Seismic reflection patterns
Seismic reflections follow impedance contrasts that coincide

with stratal surfaces, which are surfaces where depositional
processes occur at a fixed moment in geologic time (Chrono
stratigraphic surfaces)
Nature of cycle terminations at boundaries may be identified and

can be taken for correlation
Typical seismic section showing terminations and relationships at

boundaries. Unconformity, Incision, Toplaps, Onlaps Downlaps,
progradation can be interpreted on the section
Self, slope also can be seen
Picking on the waveform
flank may be good for
structure map but amplitude
extracted from that point is
inadequate and may be
meaningless for stratigraphic
interpretation.
Principles of seismic
resolution tell us that all the
reflecting interfaces within an
interval equal to one-quarter
For stratigraphic and reservoir wavelength will contribute to
interpretation, the correct point to each reflection. Thus we
should identify the relevant
pick on the waveform is the crest. reflection and pick on the
crest of it. The crest of the
waveform is the correct point
to pick for zero-phase data.
Fault correlation
We expect to detect fault from alignment of event termination.
Alignment of termination can be seen from vertical sections,
horizontal sections and slices of attributes.
Map-based fault interpretation offers new possibilities
for establishing fault trends. A horizon is displayed in
Map View and fault segments are picked where the
horizon’s z values change abruptly. The map-based fault
segment is a continuous line marking the fault’s
intersection with that horizon. These segments will
appear as fault intersection points on the vertical
seismic sections and can guide to interpret fault cuts and
correlate segments from line to line.
Reconnaissance of the survey to determine fault trends
Picking major faults on a network of lines
Calculating fault heaves and using gap ticks to reveal trends
Creating faults and correlating segments, verifying correlation

in Map and Perspective Views
Triangulating planes to see faults projected on uninterpreted lines
Edit or reassign fault segments as necessary
Verify by checking fault contours in Perspective View
Pick and correlate secondary faults
Fault correlation workflow using Landmark software

Normal faults
A Seismic section showing Normal faults

A’
Inversion structure Reverse Fault
Upthrown block
Reverse fault and inversion structures in Tapti-Daman area

Reverse fault (thrust) in Geleki area Assam

Horizon is displayed in map view. Major faults can be picked from the
abrupt change in values
Strikeslip faults
B B’
Seismic section showing strikeslip faults. Change in seismic
facies across the vertical fault is distinctly seen on the section
Strike slip fault

(dextral)
B’
Coherency time slice at

1600 ms showing strike
slip and normal faults.
Signatures on vertical A A’
sections are shown on
sections AA’ and BB’ Normal fault
Map generation
– Base map generation
• Depicting seismic
• Well location
• Cultural data
• Block boundaries
• Scale, coordinates and legends
– Griding
• Various method with faults and without faults
– Incorporating heaves and throw
– Contouring
– Over lay of attributes
– Map analysis
Volume LKM
Umrat 97,000
M-Tapti 12,000
Umrat
S-Tapti 24,000
M-Tapti C25 2,900
C22 34,700
C37 38,000
CA-CD 9,300
S-Tapti C23
C37 C23 85000
Total (data grid):

C22
3,02,200
C25
CA-CD
2D : 12500 LKM Wells 120
Location Map
Time map generated from horizon and fault correlation

Summary structural interpretation
 Review of data on various displays
 Horizon identification at wells. Assessment of polarity and
phase of data
 Initial horizon and fault correlation on widely spaced
vertical sections
 Automatic spatial horizon tracking on every point
 Scrutiny of horizon correlation
 Fault framework by sections and time-horizon attributes
 Computation of throw and heaves
 Revision of horizon and faults, and return of auto tracking
 Final time structure and horizon slices
 Isochron, isopach and depth maps
 Detailed stratigraphic and reservoir studies
Stratigraphic interpretation
 Stratigraphic interpretation is based on the identification
and mapping of changes in reflection character and
correlating it with analogues.
 A shape or pattern which is unrelated to structure may be due to
depositional, erosional, lithologic or other features of interest
 Horizontal sections and horizon slices can provide a bird’s-
eye-view of ancient stratigraphy.
 Seismic attributes improve the mapping of stratigraphic
features which may be “hidden” on normal sections.
(In this course Stratigraphic interpretation is covered in the attribute section)

Seismic attributes
Reflection seismic data helps to recognize and characterize
stratigraphic entities in two ways-first via seismic responses, and
second via their intrinsic seismic properties (e.g., reflectivity,
velocity, acoustic impedance). Both have limitations so the best
approach is to use both of them, if possible.
Seismic attributes are important for stratigraphic interpretation and
reservoir characterization.
Seismic attributes
• Attributes are derivatives of basic seismic
measurements/Information
– Seismic attributes extract information from seismic data that is
otherwise hidden in the data
– These information can be used for predicting, characterizing,
and monitoring hydrocarbon reservoirs
• Basic information
– Time
– Amplitude
– Frequency
– Attenuation
– Phase
• Most attributes are derived from normal stacked and
migrated data volume
• Can be derived from Pre-stack data (AVO)
Seismic attributes
Attribute Information
Time-derived Structural information
Amplitude-derived Stratigraphic and

reservoir
Frequency-derived Stratigraphic and
reservoir
Attenuation Permeability (future)
(After A. R. Brown)
Seismic attributes
• Post-stack attributes can be extracted along one horizon
or summed over window
– Window attributes provide the concept of formation attributes
– Computation window may be constant flat time interval (stat slice)
– Constant time hung from one structurally-independent horizon
depicting proper reservoir interval
– Window between two structurally-independent horizons (e.g. , top
and base of reservoir)
– Within window gross or selection attributes
– Hybrid attributes :combination of amplitude and frequency
Seismic attributes (instantaneous)

The basis for all the complex trace attributes is the idea of a complex trace.
Complex-trace analysis separates amplitude and phase information.
Taner et al. (1979) show that a seismic trace f(t) can be considered as the real
part of a complex trace, F (t) = f ( t) + ih(t). The h(t), quadrature or
imaginary component is determined from f(t) by Hilbert Transform
Attribute name Mathematical definition
Refection strength A(t) =√ { f2 (t) + h2 (t) }
Instantaneous phase θ (t) = tan-1 { h(t) / f(t) }
Instantaneous frequency w (t) = d θ / dt
Quadrature Trace h(t) is Hilbert transform of f(t),
a 90 degree phase shift of f(t)
Seismic attributes (instantaneous)

Name Description Applicability
Instantaneous real Default expression of Structural and stratigraphic,

amplitude seismic trace data Isolate high and low amplitude
areas such as bright and dim spots
Instantaneous Time domain vibration To identify some AVO anomalies
quadrature amplitude with phase from thin-layer reservoirs since
amplitude delay of 90 degree from they may only be observable at
instantaneous real specific phase
amplitude
Instantaneous phase Angle whose tangent is Enhances weak intra-reservoir
h(t) / f(t) events. One of the hydrocarbon
indictors
Instantaneous Derivative of To estimate seismic attenuation.
frequency Instantaneous phase Drop of high frequencies due to
oil and gas reservoir. Measure
cyclicity of geologic intervals
Seismic attributes (Reflection strength)

Amplitude independent of phase. It is the envelope of the seismic trace.
Always positive and always in the same order of magnitude as the real
trace data.
Provides information about contrasts in acoustic impedance.
Lateral changes are often associated with major lithologic changes or
with hydrocarbon accumulations. Gas reservoirs, in particular, frequently
appear as high-amplitude “bright spot” reflections.
Sharp changes may be associated with faults or depositional features
such as channels.
Also useful in identifying subcropping beds and may aid in
distinguishing one massive reflector, such as an unconformity, from a
composite group of reflectors.
Also provides a means of detecting and calibrating thin-bed tuning
effects, which may result from the constructive and destructive
interference of reflector wavelets.
Seismic attributes (quadrature)

Quadrature data is simply the input data phase-rotated by 90°, it
contains no new information, but it gives another perspective.
Because of the phase rotation, peaks and troughs from the input data
appear as zero crossings in the quadrature data, and zero crossings
from the input data appear as peaks and troughs in the quadrature
data. The difference in wavelet appearance may be enough to
highlight certain features that were obscured on the real data.
Also, a comparison of the quadrature data and the real data may
indicate that neither is zero phase and a phase rotation is needed.
Furthermore, quadrature data may help to understand and check other
data attributes since all complex trace attributes are merely different
mathematical combinations of the real trace and the quadrature trace.
Seismic attributes (quadrature)
Quadrature Trace Data Derived from Real Data using the

Hilbert Transform
Seismic attributes (Phase)

Instantaneous phase describes the angle between the phasor or (a
rotating vector formed by the real and imaginary components of the
time-series) and the real axis as a function of time. Therefore, it is
always a number between -180 and +180.
Because it is independent of reflection strength, instantaneous phase
tends to clarify weak coherent events. It emphasizes the continuity
of events and is therefore helpful in revealing faults, pinchouts,
angularities, channels, fans, and internal depositional geometries.
Seismic attributes (Frequency)

It represents the rate of change of instantaneous phase as a function
of time. It can be positive or negative and can vary widely.
Typically instantaneous frequencies greater than the Nyquist
frequency of the real trace are meaningless noise.
It can provide information about the frequency signature of events,
the effects of absorption and fracturing, and depositional thickness.
Low-frequency shadows may be associated with reflectors below
gas sands, condensate, and oil reservoirs. Generally this shift to
lower frequencies occurs only on reflectors immediately beneath the
producing zone; deeper reflectors appear normal. Also, loss of
higher frequencies may indicate the onset of formation pore fluid
overpressure.
Seismic attributes (Frequency)

It also provides a means of detecting and calibrating thin-bed tuning
effects, which may result from the constructive and destructive
interference of reflector wavelets.
Because it represents a value at a point rather than averaged over an
interval, instantaneous frequency can reveal abrupt changes that
would otherwise get lost in the averaging process. Such changes
could indicate pinchouts or the edges of hydrocarbon-water
interfaces.
Instantaneous frequency is, therefore, a good check-and-balance to
use in combination with other measurements.
Real amplitude
Instantaneous amplitude
Real amplitude and instantaneous amplitude (reflection strength)

Instantaneous frequency
Instantaneous phase
Frequency and phase instantaneous attributes

Time derived Horizon attributes

• Residual
– Arithmetic difference between high precision automatically-tracked time
map and its spatially-smoothed equivalent
• Subtle faults and data collection irregularities
• Dip (dip magnitude)
– Ms/trace
– Provides structural details (faults)
– Quality control the performance of horizon tracking process
• Azimuth (direction of dip)
– Subtle faults
• Dip-Azimuth
– Combines dip and azimuth attributes onto the one display
• Subtle faults
• Curvature
– Derivative of dip and azimuth
• Subtle faults
Time derived Horizon attributes (Dip)
A dip map shows the magnitude of the time gradient. It is constructed
by comparing each sample of the horizon with two adjacent samples in
orthogonal directions. A plane is fit through the three points. The plane
has a magnitude of dip in milliseconds per unit distance x 1000.
dt/dx is the dip in the x direction, and dt/dy is the dip in the y
direction, with x and y as real-world coordinates.
Individual dip values are not particularly meaningful. but the

relative difference between various dip values is significant which
can be effectively displayed by a simple dichromatic ramp color
map (black and white)
Time derived Horizon attributes (Azimuth)
The azimuth map is closely associated with the dip map. It
shows the direction of maximum dip. Like the dip map, it is
constructed by comparing each sample of the horizon with two
adjacent samples in orthogonal directions. A plane is fit through
the three points. The plane has a direction of dip in degrees.
Where :dt/dx is the dip in the x
direction, and dt/dy is the dip in the y
direction, with x and y as real-world
coordinates.
An azimuth value of 0o is
aligned with true north as
shown in the figure.
The 0o axis always coincides with North,
90o coincides with East, 180o with South,
and 270o with West.
Time derived Horizon attributes (Dip Azimuth)

It provides a technique for maximizing the effectiveness of a
single structural attribute map. Its usefulness is based on the fact
that, when mapped on standard azimuth maps and standard dip
maps, faults may or may not appear, depending on the relationship
of their dip and azimuth to the dip and azimuth of the horizons.
Azimuth maps exhibit the following tendencies:
•Faults show up best where dip direction of the fault is
opposite the dip direction of the beds.
•Faults show up poorly where dip direction of fault is similar
to dip direction of the horizons.
Dip maps exhibit the following tendencies:
•Faults show up best where dip angle of fault plane is opposite
direction of beds.
•Faults show up poorly where dip angle is close to that of
horizon.
Red ➛ yellow indicates dip to the northeast.
Red ➛ blue indicates dip to the northwest.
Green ➛ yellow indicates dip to the southeast.
Green ➛ blue indicates dip to the southwest.
The dip-azimuth map generalizes azimuth values to four quadrants of an

azimuth map. Variations of value within each of the quadrants represent
variation in dip. For example, a value of 1 indicates a shallow dip in the
northern quadrant. A value of 15 indicates an extremely steep dip in the
same quadrant.
Time derived Horizon attributes (edge detection)

Edge detection highlights discontinuities in an image. It detects
differences in dip across a horizon. It involves the mathematical
comparison of points around a single sample point in an original
image.
TWT map showing polygonal faults. With help of colour and light
auto correlated horizons depict all the details
TWT Map. Structural trends are depicted by colour variation and

major faults are also seen
residual Map
Dip Map
Dip-azimuth Map
Edge detection Map

Time derived Window attributes

• Coherence
– Volume of discontinuity (faults and other
boundaries) free from interpretive bias
• Subtle faults
• Stratigraphic features (channel edges)
• Lithologic boundaries
– Coherence horizon slice extracted along
smoothed picked horizon
• Enhanced visibility for Channel and faults
Coherence slice
Coherence slice
Coherency
slice
at 1500 ms
Top of Carbonate
build up
• Discontinuity volumes
Carbonate buildup
coherency
Carbonate build up
boundary
Stratigrahic features, boundaries and faults are better depicted by
coherency/discontinuity volumes derived from seismic volumes. In this
example carbonate buildup boundary is depicted by horizon slice from
coherency volume.
Post-stack amplitude attributes

• Reflection strength
– identifying bright / dim / flat spots. Often used to
determine lateral fluid, lithologic, and stratigraphic
variations in reservoirs. As the absolute value of the
complex trace magnitude, it loses some vertical resolution.
• Maximum positive amplitude (MPA) and Maximum negative
amplitude (MNA)
– Used to identify amplitude anomalies due to changing
lithology or hydrocarbon accumulation.

• Root mean square (RMS) amplitude
– The square root of the sum of time-domain energy (square of
amplitude) within the window interval.
– Indicates isolated or extreme amplitude anomalies. Used to
track lithologic changes such as deltaic channel and gas sand.
• Apparent Polarity
– Apparent polarity is defined as the sign of the real trace, f(t),
when the reflection strength, A(t), has a local maximum.
This calculation assumes a zero-phase wavelet and assigns a
positive sign when the reflection coefficient is positive or a
negative sign when the reflection coefficient is negative.
– Apparent polarity can sometimes help in distinguishing
between different types of amplitude anomalies. “Bright
spots associated with gas accumulations in clastic sediments
usually have lower acoustic impedance than surrounding
beds and hence show one polarity for reservoir top
reflections and opposite polarity for reflections from gas-oil
or gas-water interfaces (often called ‘flat spots’).”
Frequency-derived attributes
• Instantaneous frequency
– Stratigraphic and reservoir studies
• Geologic frequency is simply the number of reflecting layers
within unit thickness of rocks
• Geologic layering is expressed in seismic frequency
measurements
• More layering may be indicative of more sands
• Dominant frequencies
– First dominant – properties of wavelet
– Second dominant- geologic frequency-most useful
Hybrid attributes
• Seismic character is mixture of amplitude
and frequency
• Hybrid attributes are good descriptor of
seismic character
– Wave shape
• Seismic facies (Depositional facies-channel systems)
– Arc length
• Total length of seismic trace over a time window
• Shows depositional facies
Seismic facies
map showing
differences in
lithofacies at
well C-37-1(gas)
and C-37-2(dry).
The Analysis
interval is -24 to
+24 ms with
reference to C-
37-1 Mahuva
pay.
C-37-2
Seismic facies overlay on RC line through C-37-1 and 2

Seismic facies
map with
Neural
Network
technique of
a channel
showing
facies within
and on the
banks of
channel
Mapping of
channel through
3-D visualization
techniques.
Opacity
rendering of
channel in the
western portion
of the area.
Selected range of
voxels was made
opaque and
others were kept
transparent.
B3500 Channel
Pay anomaly
Sweetness within -20 to 0 ms

window w.r.t. Pay bottom
reflector showing extension of
pay and channel
Sweetness:
Amplitude/ sqr root of
frequency
Effective in sandstone
reservoirs
Sand
dispersal
trends
Example showing 3-D visualization of derived frequency volume depicting sand

dispersal trends in Mahuva Formation in C-37 area of Tapti-Daman Sub Basin
Overlay of seismic attribute on structure map. Channel systems

are depicted by attribute. Southern channels girdles the structure
• Channel
Horizon slice mapping
through
horizon slice
Flattened section
Channel
l
Channels Coherency
brought out
by horizon
and
coherency
slice
Horizon slice
Amplitude based net-pay mapping
Seismic attributes (amplitudes) may be used for mapping of

pay thickness for thin beds (below tuning thickness). Here a
case history from Tapti-Daman area of Mumbai Offshore is
presented. In the area, sandstone pays are below 20 m.
Object Depth Choke Rate

(m)
III 2292-2304 3/8” Gas 2,36,353 M3/d
(PAY-1) QCON 691 BOPD
½” Gas 3,83,467M3/d
QCON: 1056 BPD
II 2423-2431.5 ½” GAS: 3.66,768 M3’D
2432-2436.5 QCON 855 BPD
(PAY -2)
I 2467.5- 3/8” GAS :2,23,302 M3/D
2473.5 QCON 227 BPD
2474.5- ½” Sand Choked.
2482.5
(PAY-3)
Gross Net Net/gross

Pay1-sand 17 17 1.0
Water-sand 17 17 -
Pay2-sand 15 6 0.4
Pay3-sand 14 12 .85
Log signatures and testing details of pay sands in B12-11.
Reflections from pay3. Sand thicknesses are about or below tuning

thickness. Top and bottom reflections are not distinguished. Composite
troughs have been taken for geometry and thickness mapping
Maximum negative (MNA) Amplitude

Tuning thickness 12-14 ms =
6-7ms OWT
Tuning bed thickness = 18-
21 ms at interval velocity of
3000 m/s
Thickness (ms)
Cross plot between thickness (ms) and maximum negative amplitude

Pay thickness map
derived from amplitude
thickness method.
Thickness of amplitude in ms
were computed by counting
the no of samples in the
given time interval (-10 to
+10 ms with reference to
correlated horizon) having
the specified amplitude
range. Small negative and all
positive amplitudes were
excluded from the
computation. Amplitude
thickness in ms was
multiplied by interval
velocity (2950 m/s) to get the
thickness in m. After
calibrating the estimated
thickness at well, final
thickness map was prepared.
DHI or HCI
• Direct hydrocarbon indicator

– A measurement that suggest the presence of
a hydrocarbon accumulation
• “Dry hole indicator”
– Applying it inappropriately without
completely understanding it
Hydrocarbon indicators. All indicators can have causes other than

hydrocarbons; a case for hydrocarbon accumulation is stronger where
several indicators agree
• Bright spot
– Water sand has lower
DHI
impedance than
embedding medium
and impedance of gas
sand is further
reduced.
– Top and base
reflections show
natural pairing Peak on
– If sand is thick synthetic
enough, flat spot or seismogram
fluid contact
reflection should be
visible between gas
sand and water sand
– Flat spot will have
opposite polarity than
bright spot at top
– More common in
shallower sandstone
reservoirs ( Mio-Plio)
DHI
A flat spot associated with a bright spot offshore Indonesia. The

flat spot is fairly flat, but actually dipping slightly to the left --
that is, against structure.
• Dim spot DHI

– Water sand has
higher impedance
than embedding
medium and water is
replaced by water
impedance is reduced
– Contrast is reduced at
upper and lower
boundaries and
reservoir is seen as
dim spot
– Flat spot can be
expected at the point
where the dimming
occurs.
– More common in
deeper sandstone
reservoirs where shale
impedance is lower
than sandstone
impedance
• Polarity reversal DHI

– Water sand is of
higher impedance than
enclosing medium and
gas sand impedance is
lower than enclosing
medium
– The polarity of
reflections from water-
sand-shale interface
and gas-sand-shale
interface have opposite
sign and thus polarity
reversal
– Flat spot from GWC
may show bright
amplitude .
– More common in
medium depth range
sandstone reservoirs
Low impedance
reservoir embedded
in high impedance
DHI High impedance

reservoir embedded
in medium
impedance
High impedance
reservoir
embedded in Low
impedance
Hydrocarbon fluid
effects in seismic data
DHI
• Frequency
– Gas reservoir
attenuate high
frequencies more than
do rocks without gas
saturation
– Low instantaneous
frequency below a
suspected reservoir
can be a good
indicator of gas
– It is rather unreliable
indicator as frequency
lowering can often be
caused by broadening
of gas reservoir
reflections
• Interval velocity DHI

– Interval velocity is
reduced due to gas
saturation
– RMS velocities derived
from NMO cab be
used from
computation of
interval velocity
– Stability of interval
velocity worsen with
depth and thinness of
of beds
– Not sufficient for
validation of bright
spots
Pay-1
Pay-3
Amplitude slice at 24 ms w.r.t.

Daman4 reflector
RMS-Amplitude anomaly maps showing envisaged pay sands

2106 ms (2290 m) Pay-1

2140 ms (2331 m) watert sand
2196 ms (2423 m) Pay-2
2224 ms (2467.5 m) Pay-3
(2537.5 m) Pay-4
Seismic signatures of pay sands in B12-11. Sandstone pays are marked

by troughs. Pay1 and Pay3 high negative amplitudes
Horizon slice showing distribution of pay sands

Maximum negative amplitude (MNA) within -10 to +10 ms

Low
impedance Peak on
synthetic
seismogram
Log and seismic response of the Pay. Pay sands are characterized by low impedance
generating strong peak (blue) on normal polarity seismic section
Validation of DHI
• AVO
– In many practical cases gas sands show an
increase of amplitude with offset
– Many difficulties of theoretical and practical
nature
• Data is pre-stack hence lower S/N
• Multidimensional, many mode of display
Validation of DHI
• Shear wave
– Shear wave amplitude in conjunction with P-wave
amplitude can validate bright spot
– For “true” bright spot P-wave show high
amplitude but correlative S-wave amplitude is not
high
– For “false” bright spot P- and S-wave both have
high amplitude
– P-wave dim spot would correlate on an S-wave
higher amplitude reflection
Schematic illustration of porosity-depth trends for sands and shales. Both the sand and shale trends
can vary significantly due to composition, texture, pore fluids, temperature, and pressure gradients.
Hence, no attempt is done to assign absolute scales. However, there are a few rules of thumb: (1) The
depositional porosity of shales is normally higher than that of sands. (2) The porosity gradient with
depth is steeper for shales than for sands during mechanical compaction (i.e. at shallow depths). (3)
The porosity gradient with depth will be steeper for sands than for shales during chemical compaction
(i.e. quartz cementation of sands normally occurs at greater burial depth,beyond 2-3 km).
Occurrence of DHI
• Nature of DHI (bright, Dim
or Phase change) depends on
relative impedance of
hydrocarbon sand, water
Depth of maximum burial

sand and shales
• Impedance increases with
depth and age of rock
• Visibility of indicators
decreases with depth
• There is a cut-off below
which no hydrocarbon
observations will be
possible
• DHI may occur at great
depth for younger rock
• Older rocks may show
indicators at shallower
depth.
Occurrence of DHI
Gas sand, water sand and
shale acoustic impedances
all increase with depth and
age at different rates. The
crossover points define
whether the hydrocarbon
indication is bright spot,
phase change or dim spot.
Overpressure moves the
shale line to lower
impedance, thus increasing
the effect of dim spot and
decreasing the effect of
bright spot
Pitfalls in DHI
Exploration prospects based on a sound geologic model
and supported by seismic amplitude anomalies are highly
prospective and are usually assigned a high probability of
success. However, a fraction of such prospects, perhaps
10-30%, result in dry holes. Postdrill appraisal can usually
assign these results to one or more of the following
factors:
• Unusually strong lithologic variations
• Fizz water and low gas saturation
• Superposition of seismic reflections, and tuning effects
• Contamination of the seismic signal by multiples or other
undesired energy
G L I Sandstones
R L M Well H drilled here (trough (red)
D P
M1 Daman Top
M2 Daman1
M3
High amplitude Daman2
shales
Well-C (peak (blue) Well-D
Arbitrary line (NW-SE) across the channel and

passing through wells C and D. Well to seismic tie Well-C
is good and seismic markers are correlatable
through spatial autotracking methods.
Well-D
Example of “False” DHI from Tapti-Daman area. Bright spot

was found water bearing after drilling.
High
impedance
sand
Impedance
log
In the area high amplitudes are deceptive. The drilled well confirmed thick
sandstones (16 m) but no hydrocarbon accumulation. The high amplitude
was caused by high impedance of water bearing sandstones
Validation through AVO modelling
AVO curve at top of water sand
in well H. AVO anomaly is not
seen. (Shear wave log not
recorded)
AVO curve at top of gas sand

(at deeper level) in well G. AVO
anomaly is present. (Recorded
Shear wave log is available)
Principle of AVO Analysis
In seismic gather reflection coefficient at an incidence angle θ

is given by: R(θ ) = A + BSin2θ
Where: Ro: RC at zero offset and R (θ) : RC at angle θ
B is a gradient term which produces the AVO effect. It is
dependent on changes in density, ρ, P-wave velocity, VP, and S-
wave velocity, Vs.
The AVO response is dependent on the properties of P-wave
velocity (VP), S-wave velocity (VS), and density (ρ) in a
porous reservoir rock. This involves the matrix material, the
porosity, and the fluids filling the pores.
Poisson’s Ratio
K = the bulk modulus, or the reciprocal of compressibility,

μ = The shear modulus, modulus of rigidity
Vp/Vs vs Poisson's Ratio
0.5
0.4
0.3 If VP/VS = 2, then  = 0
Poisson's Ratio
0.2
If VP/VS = 1.5, then  = 0.1 (Gas Case)
0.1
0 If VP/VS = 2, then  = 1/3 (Wet Case)
-0.1 If VP/VS = , then  = 0.5 (VS = 0)

-0.2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Gas Case Wet Case Vp/Vs
Stack
Gather
Increase of
amplitude with
offset
With increase
in gas
P-wave saturation, P-
wave velocity
drops
dramatically,
Velocity (m/s)
but S-wave
velocity only
S-wave increases
slightly.
Water Saturation
Estimating intercept (A) and gradient (B)
Converting from offset to angle


The pick amplitudes are extracted at all
times, two of which are shown.
Offset
+A
+B
sin2q
Time -B
-A
The Aki-Richards equation predicts a
linear relationship between these
amplitudes and sin2θ.
Regression curves are then
calculated, to give A and B values for
each time sample. A(θ) = Ao + BSin2θ
Intercept and gradient section

Gradient (B)
Base II P Base II
Base I
Base III
Top IV
Intercept (A)
Base IV
Top III Top I
Crossplot
Showing “Wet” Trend
Anomalies  Vp 
Top II Top II P   2 
 Vs 
Rutherford/Williams Classification
•Rutherford and Williams (1989) derived the following
classification scheme for AVO anomalies, with further
modifications by Ross and Kinman (1995) and Castagna (1997):
• Class 1: High impedance gas sand with decreasing AVO

• Class 2: Near-zero impedance contrast
• Class 2p: Same as 2, with polarity change
• Class 3: Low impedance gas sand with increasing AVO
• Class 4: Low impedance sand with decreasing AVO
The generic AVO curves at the top of the gas sand

AVO attributes
(1) AVO Product : A*B
(2) Scaled Poisson’s Ratio Change : A+B
(3) Shear Reflectivity : A-B
The AVO product shows a positive response at the top and base
of the reservoir For Class-III Anomaly
The sum A+B is proportional to the change in Poisson’s Ratio.

This shows a negative response at the top of the reservoir and a
positive response at the base
The difference A-B is proportional to the Shear Reflectivity. This

shows an increase in Shear Impedance at the top of the reservoir.
Angle stacks on line 1863 showing increase in amplitude with angle
GC26-B(shift
Near
Far
Daman 3
Daman4
Increase in amplitude
Near
Far
Only this area is showing increase in amplitude
RMS amplitude slice for an window 30 ms above bright daman horizon

with near angle stack (left) and far angle stack (right)
Daman 3
Daman 4
Mahuva top
PSTM gather and AVO curves showing class-II/III type of anomaly

Inversion
• Inversion is the process of extracting, from the
seismic data, the underlying geology which gave rise
to that seismic.
• Traditionally, inversion has been applied to post-
stack seismic data, with the aim of extracting
acoustic impedance volumes.
• Recently, inversion has been extended to pre-stack
seismic data, with the aim of extracting both acoustic
and shear impedance volumes. This allows the
calculation of pore fluids.
• Another recent development is to use inversion
results to directly predict lithologic parameters such
as porosity and water saturation.
Inversion Non-Uniqueness
• All inversion algorithms suffer from “non-
uniqueness”.
• There is more than one possible geological model
consistent with the seismic data.
• The only way to decide\between the possibilities is to
use other information, not present in the seismic
data.
• This other information is usually provided in two
ways:
– The initial guess model
– constraints on how far the final result may deviate from the
initial guess
• The final result always depends on the “other
information” as well as the seismic data
Acoustic Impedance
Geology Seismic
Surface
Seismic  2V2  1V1

raypath R0 
 2V2  1V1
1 V1
Shale
t
Gas Sand 2 V2
Interface at
depth = d Reflection at time Seismic
t = 2d/V1 Wavelet
The definition of the zero-offset reflection coefficient, shown in the

figure above. R0 , the reflection coefficient, is the amplitude of the
seismic peak shown and represents relative impedance contrast.
General Forward Model for Inversion
Wavelet
Impedance Reflectivity Seismic trace

Acoustic
Shear Elastic
The common forward model for all inversions
Inverse Model
Inverse
Wavelet
Seismic Reflectivity Impedance

Acoustic
Shear Elastic
Inversion tries to reverse the forward model

QC plot showing accuracy of inversion process. Error between

synthetic generated from real and inverted impedance is
insignificant
Differentiating different lithology types through acoustic

impedance inversion
Limestone
Sandstone
Basement
Impedance profile distinguishing between different rock types

Acoustic impedance Channel

within -20 to 0 ms
Low
window w.r.t.
impedance
correlated reflector Pay anomaly
showing pay
mapping (gas
saturation) through
inversion. The
channel is filled with
high impedance
shales and not
interesting for
hydrocarbon
accumulation
Time Lapse Reservoir Monitoring (4D)

• Study of two or more 3-D surveys over the same
reservoir for observing changes with time caused
by petroleum production
• Results are often displayed as difference sections or
maps
• 4-D surveys are mostly studied for secondary
recovery
• Based on acoustic impedance changes due to
common production process
• Easier to monitor
– Steam injection for heavy oil and tar
– Water flood for light oil
– Gas injection
– Oil production involving gas cap expansion

• Critical parameters
– Frame elastic properties of reservoir rocks
– Contrasts in pore fluid compressibility
– Nature of recovery process
– Reservoir parameters
• Depth, pressure, Temperature etc.
Cases of possible high contrasts in pore fluid compressibility
Reservoir fluids Changes from/to Reservoir fluids
Liquid (water, oil) Gas (hydrocarbon gas, steam)
Oil/water Co2 (liquid or gas)
Live oil Water/brine
Oil (live or dead) High salinity brine
Live oil Dead Oil
Low temperature oil High temperature oil
• Good candidate reservoirs for monitoring

– Reservoir with weak rocks
• Unconsolidated or poorly consolidated sands
– Reservoirs undergoing large pore fluid
compressibility changes
• Thermal recovery
– Reservoirs undergoing large rock compressibility
changes
• Thermal recovery, fracturing
– Reservoirs undergoing large temperature changes
• Thermal recovery, water injection

• Time-lapse seismic images can identify bypassed oil
to be targeted for infill drilling, and add major
reserves to production to extend a field’s economic
life.
• 4-D seismic can monitor the progress of costly
injected fluid fronts (water, gas, steam,CO2, etc.)
and optimizing injection programs.
• 4-D seismic can map reservoir compartmentalization
and the fluid-flow properties of faults (sealing versus
leaking), which can be extremely useful for optimal
design of production facilities and well paths in
complex reservoir flow systems.
What is Pitfall ?
• Any concealed danger or trap for an
unsuspecting person
Webster
• A pitfall is a situation or circumstance in which
you can easily make a mistake if you proceed
with erroneous assumptions or observations or
incorrectly apply problem-solving technique
Pitfalls in Seismic Interpretation
• Why Pitfall ?
– Earth crust is not a well-ordered system and
that the seismic events resulting therefrom are
even less well-ordered.
– Some pitfalls are dug by nature or some are of
our own doing

Seismic section with dry
hole and good well
penetrate high amplitudes,
but only the latter
with red-over blue (trough-
over-peak) is representative
of low-impedance
prospective sand. The
blue-over-red amplitude
represents a poor prospect.
DHI
Typical effect of gas saturation on P-velocity of

rocks under shallow conditions.
DHI-fizz water
Hypothetical example of Pitfalls in DHI
The difference in amplitude behavior between the near- and far-trace

stacks in (a) implies the changes in elastic properties shown in (b).
These properties are not known with certainty, but even if they were,
there might be multiple geologic models (c).
Hypothetical example of Pitfalls in DHI
The difference in
amplitude behavior
between the near- and
far-trace stacks in (a)
implies the changes in
elastic properties shown
in (b). These properties
are not known with
certainty, but even if they
Pitfall: Low gas saturation
DHI: Low impedance sands were, there might be
multiple geologic models
C. Possible (c) that have those
geologic models. properties. All models
explain the observation,
All models explain but only one contains
the observation, but hydrocarbons.
Pitfall: anomalous lithologic variation
only one contains the
hydrocarbons.

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Training on Seismic data interpretation (1)

Dr. Harilal, DGM (GP)

July 2010 Dehradun

Interlink in Seismic API in Exploration

Data Processing and

Data Visualization, Interpretation and

Drilling and reservoir

What is seismic interpretation?

Basic Concepts in Seismic interpretation

Receiver (hydrophone) Source

American polarity is American

Phase The task of tying seismic

Resolution: Factors affecting

Attenuation of noise Horizontal

below 1/30 l Reflection from

Frequency = Number of waves per second

Post – migration Fresnel zone size is given by λ /4 = V/4F

On migrated section vertical and horizontal resolutions are of

Occurrence of petroleum in subsurface

Timing: The timing of maturation of the source rock with respect to

River dominated delta

NORMAL FAULTS REVERSE FAULTS

THRUST FAULTS STRIKE SLIP FAULTS

Different types of Fault

Decolloment and detachment in Extentional and Compressional regime

Elements of seismic data display

Double gradational scheme

A seismic section showing colour convention and other display elements

+/- zero crossing

-/+ zero crossing

Variable area wiggle display

Well to seismic tie (Synthetic Seismograms)

Well to seismic tie (Synthetic Seismograms)

Well to seismic tie (Synthetic Seismograms)

Synthetic to seismic matching before starting the interpretation. Understand

-/+ zero crossing

+/- zero crossing

Illustration of Points Specified by Onset Type

Minimum. Autopicking along the minimum amplitude values of the event.

Seismic signatures of pay sands in B12-11. Sandstone pays are marked

Seismic reflection patterns

Seismic reflections follow impedance contrasts that coincide

Nature of cycle terminations at boundaries may be identified and

Typical seismic section showing terminations and relationships at

Reconnaissance of the survey to determine fault trends

Picking major faults on a network of lines

Calculating fault heaves and using gap ticks to reveal trends

Creating faults and correlating segments, verifying correlation

Triangulating planes to see faults projected on uninterpreted lines

Edit or reassign fault segments as necessary

Verify by checking fault contours in Perspective View

Pick and correlate secondary faults

Fault correlation workflow using Landmark software

A Seismic section showing Normal faults

Inversion structure Reverse Fault

Reverse fault and inversion structures in Tapti-Daman area

Reverse fault (thrust) in Geleki area Assam

Strike slip fault

Coherency time slice at

Total (data grid):