Bitumen in Road Pavements

What do you think of these statements?

Do you agree or disagree? And why?
A Bituminous Pavement is only as good as
the Bitumen!
A Bituminous Pavement will only last as
long as its Bitumen!
Bituminous Pavement fails when its
Bitumen fails!

What is Bitumen?
BS3690: Part 1: 1989 defines bitumen as:

A viscous liquid, or a solid, consisting essentially of

hydrocarbons and their derivatives, which is soluble in
trichloroethylene and is substantially non-volatile and softens
gradually when heated.
It is black or brown in colour and possesses waterproofing
and adhesive properties.
It is obtained by refinery processes from petroleum, and is
also found as a natural deposit or as a component of naturally
occurring asphalt, in which it is associated with mineral
matter.

Bitumen = Tar?
NO!
Bitumen is produced/ derived from crude
oil while tar is from coal.
The properties and applications are similar
but their origin and chemical constituents
are different

A brief note on semantics:

In Europe, asphalt refers to a mixture of
bitumen and mineral aggregate.
In North America, asphalt means bitumen.

Use of Bitumen from History

For over 5,000 years bitumen in one form or another has
been used as a waterproofing and/or bonding agent; the
earliest recorded use was by the Sumerians around
3,800 B.C.
At Mohenjo Daro in the Indus valley there is a
particularly well preserved water tank which dates back
to around 3,000 B.C. In the walls of this tank not only are
the stone blocks bonded with a natural bitumen but
there is also a vertical bituminous core in the centre of
the wall. This same principle is used today in modern
dam design.

Use of Bitumen from History (2)

It is believed that Nebuchadnezzar was an able
exponent of the use of bitumen because there is
evidence that he used the product for
waterproofing the masonry of his palace and as
a grout for stone roads.
The process of mummification used by the
ancient Egyptians also testifies to the
preservative qualities of bitumen, although it is a
matter of dispute whether bitumens or resins
were used.

Use of Bitumen Today

More than 250 known uses of bitumen in:
Agriculture
Buildings
Hydraulics and erosion control
Industrial applications
Paving
Railways
Recreation

Types of Bituminous Binders

Lake asphalt
Rock asphalt
Tar
Bitumen

Lake Asphalt
Trinidad island, best known form of natural
asphalt.
Discovered in 1595 by Sir Walter Raleigh.
100 acres, 90m deep, 10-15 million tons.
Composition: binder (54%), mineral matter
(36%), organic matter (10%).
Very hard, pen. 2, S.P. 950C
Use in 50/50 blend with 200 pen bitumen to
produce 50 pen bitumen mixture

Rock Asphalt
Rock asphalt is formed by the impregnation of
calcareous rocks such as limestone or
sandstone with seepages of natural bitumen.
This product can be mined or quarried and
contains up to 12% by mass of bitumen. The
principal sources of this deposit are from the
Gard district in France, Neuchtel in the Val de
Travers region in Switzerland and at Ragusa in
Italy.

Rock Asphalt (2)

Such products were the earliest materials used
for road paving.
After crushing they were heated and then
compacted into layers on site.
Today there is only minor usage of such natural
asphalts in road paving or industrial applications.
In nearly all cases it is combined with a flux oil or
soft bitumen.

Tar
Tar is a generic word for the liquid obtained
when natural organic materials such as coal or
wood are carbonised or destructively distilled in
the absence of air.
It is customary to preface the word tar with the
name of the material from which it is derived: the
products of this initial carbonisation process are
referred to as crude coal tar; crude wood tar; etc.

Tar (2)
Two types of crude coal tar are produced as a
by-product of the carbonisation of coal:

Coke oven tar

This material is produced at high temperatures
(about 1200C) in coke ovens during the
manufacture of metallurgical or domestic coke.
These coal tars have a high aromatic
hydrocarbon content and a pitch content of
around 50%.

Tar (3)

Low temperature tar

This material is produced at comparatively low
temperatures (600C to 700C) during the
manufacture of smokeless solid fuel.

This type of coal tar is less viscous than the

high temperature coke oven tar, is paraffinic in
nature and has a pitch content of about 35%.

Bitumen
Bitumen is manufactured from crude oil.
It is generally agreed that crude oil originates
from the remains of marine organisms and
vegetable matter deposited with mud and
fragments of rock on the ocean bed.
Over millions of years, organic material and mud
accumulated into layers hundreds of meters
thick, the immense weight of the upper layers
compressing the lower layers into sedimentary
rock.

Bitumen (2)
Conversion of the organisms and vegetable
matter into the hydrocarbons of crude oil is
thought to be the result of the application of heat
from within the earths crust, pressure applied by
the upper layers of sediments, possibly aided by
the effects of bacterial action and radio-active
bombardment.
As further layers of sediment were deposited on
the sedimentary rock where the oil had formed,
the additional pressure squeezed the oil
sideways and upwards through porous rock.

Bitumen (3)
Where porous rock extended to the earths
surface, oil seeped through, resulting in the
surface seepages described earlier.
Fortunately, the majority of oil and gas was
trapped in porous rock which was overlain by
impermeable rock forming gas and oil
reservoirs.
Here the oil remained until its presence was
detected by seismic surveys and recovered by
drilling through the impermeable rock.

Bitumen Constitution,
Structure and Rheology
The rheology of a bitumen at a given temperature is
determined by both the constitution (chemical
composition) and structure (physical arrangement) of the
predominantly hydrocarbon molecular structures in the
material.
Changes to either the constitution, structure or both will
result in a change in the rheology.
Thus to understand changes in bitumen rheology, it is
essential to understand how the structure and
constitution of a bitumen interact to influence rheology.

Bitumen constitution
Bitumen is a complex chemical mixture of molecules of a
predominantly hydrocarbon nature, with a minor amount of other
groups.
Generally most bitumens contain:
Carbon
82 88%
Hydrogen
8 11%
Sulphur
0 6%
Oxygen
0 1.5%
Nitrogen
0 1%
The precise composition varies according to the source of the crude
oil, and the subsequent modification induced by blowing during
manufacture and subsequent ageing in service.

Bitumen constitution
The chemical composition of bitumen is extremely
complex.
However, it is possible to separate bitumen into 2 broad
chemical groups, namely, asphaltenes and maltenes.
The maltenes can be further subdivided into saturates,
aromatics and resins.
The 4 groups are not well defined and there is some
overlap between them.
However, it does enable bitumen rheology to be
compared with broad chemical composition.

Asphaltenes
These are n-heptane insoluble black or brown
amorphous solids.
Contains, in addition to H and C, some Nitrogen,
Sulphur and Oxygen.
Highly polar, complex aromatic material of fairly
high molecular weight (1,000 100,000)
Particle size 5nm - 30nm, H/C atomic ratio 1:1

Asphaltenes
Asphaltenes constitute 5% - 25% of bitumen
Asphaltene content has large effect on
rheological characteristics of bitumen.
Increasing the asphaltene content produces a
harder bitumen with lower penetration, higher
SP, and higher viscosity.

Resins
Resins are soluble in n-heptane, largely H
and C, some N, S, O.
Dark brown in colour, solid or semi-solid
Molecular wt: 500 50,000;
particle size: 1nm 5nm
an H/C atomic ratio: 1.3 1.4

Resins
Very polar in nature, thus make them
strongly adhesive.
They are the dispersing agents or
peptisers for the asphaltenes.
The proportion of resins to asphaltenes
governs to some degree the solution
(SOL) or gelatinous (GEL) type character
of the bitumen.

Aromatics
Comprise the lowest molecular wt naphthenic aromatic
compounds in the bitumen
Represent the major proportion of the dispersing
medium for the peptised asphaltenes
Constitute 40% - 65% of the total bitumen
Dark brown viscous liquid
Molecular wt: 300 2,000
Consist of non-polar carbon chains in which the
unsaturated ring system dominate
High dissolving ability for other high molecular wt
hydrocarbons

Saturates
Comprise straight and branch-chain aliphatic
hydrocarbons, together with alkyl-naphthenes
and some alkyl-aromatics.
Non-polar viscous oils, straw or white in colour
Molecular wt similar to aromatics
Components include both waxy and non-waxy
saturates
Forms 5% - 20% of the bitumen

Bitumen constitution
An elementary analysis of the 4 groups from a 100
pen bitumen is given in Table 6.1

Bitumen Structure
Bitumen is traditionally regarded as a colloidal system
consisting of high Mol. Wt. asphaltene miscelles
dispersed or dissolved in a lower Mol. Wt. oily medium
(maltenes).
The miscelles are considered to be asphaltenes together
with an absorbed sheath of high Mol. Wt. aromatic resins
which act as a stabilizing solvating layer.
Away from the center of the miscelle there is a gradual
transition to a less polar aromatic resins, extending
outwards to the less aromatic oily dispersion medium.

Bitumen Structure
In the presence of
sufficient quantities of
resins and aromatics of
adequate solvating
power, the asphaltenes
are fully peptised, and
the miscelles have good
mobility within the
bitumen.
These are known as
solution or SOL type
bitumen.

Bitumen Structure
If the aromatic/resin fraction is not
present in sufficient quantities to
peptise the miscelles, or has
insufficient solvating power, the
asphaltenes can associate further
together.
This can lead to an irregular open
packed structure of linked
miscelles, in which the internal
voids are filled with an
intermiscellar fluid of mixed
constitution.

This bitumen is known as

gelatinous or Gel type
bitumen.
In practice, most bitumen are
of intermediate character.

Bitumen Structure
The colloidal behaviour of the asphaltenes in the
bitumen results from aggregation and solvation.
The degree to which they are peptised will considerably
influence the resultant viscosity of the system.
The viscosities of the saturates, aromatics and resins
depend on their Mol. Wt. distributions; the higher the
M.Wt. the higher the viscosity.

Bitumen
Structure
Air blowing of bitumen from a
given vacuum residue or
fluxed vacuum residue
considerably increases the
asphaltene content and
decreases the aromatics
content (Fig. 6.4)
Saturate and resin contents
remain substantially of the
same order as before
commencing blowing.

Bitumen Structure
In Table 6.2 a comparison of the chemical compositions is given for
bitumen derived by distillation or blowing of the same feedstock.

Bitumen
Structure
Long term full-scale road
trial studies have been
undertaken to determine if
the chemical composition
of bitumen changes with
time.
Asphaltene increases with
time
Resin & Aromatic
decreases with time
Results shown in Fig. 6.5

Bitumen Structure
Whilst chemical composition can be related to physical
properties given specific components, it should be noted
that bitumens of very different chemical compositions
can have very similar physical properties.

It is therefore impossible to describe bitumens generally

in terms of chemical component concentrations, and
defining individual components, such as a minimum
asphaltene content, has little, if any, relevance.

Bitumen Quality
The performance of asphalt mixes on the road depends
considerably on the performance of the bitumen.
Performance on the road depends on many factors,
including the design, application and the quality of the
individual components.
Although bitumen is, in terms of its volume, a relatively
minor component of a bituminous mix, it has a crucial
role acting as a durable binder and conferring viscoelastic properties to the mix.
With increasing traffic loadings and more demanding
performance requirements the need to be able to predict
long-term behaviour of bitumen is essential.

Bitumen Quality
Essentially, satisfactory performance of bitumen on
the road can be ensured if four properties are
controlled:

rheology
cohesion
adhesion
durability

Cohesion
The cohesive strength of
penetration grade bitumens
is characterised by low
temperature ductility (ASTM
test method D 113).
In this test three dumb-bells
of bitumen are immersed in
a water bath and stretched at
a constant speed of 50 mm
per minute until fracture
occurs.
The distance the specimen
is stretched before failure is
reported as the ductility.

Cohesion
The test temperature is adjusted depending on
the penetration of bitumen, eg 10C for 80 pen
to 100 pen, 13C for 60 pen to 70 pen and 17C
for 40 pen to 50 pen.
Under these conditions the test has been found
to discriminate between bitumens of different
cohesive strengths.

Adhesion
The adhesion characteristics of bitumen are assessed by
a retained Marshall test.
8 Marshall specimens are produced using a prescribed
aggregate, aggregate grading and bitumen content.
The 8 specimens are divided into 2 groups of 4 so that
the average void content of the two groups is equal.
One group of 4 is tested immediately using the standard
Marshall method and the remaining 4 specimens are
vacuum treated under water at a temperature of between
0C to 1C, to saturate as far as possible the pore
volume of the mix with water.
Subsequently, the specimens are stored in a water bath
at 60C for 48 hours.

Adhesion
The Marshall stability of these 4 specimens is then
determined.
The ratio of the Marshall stability of the treated
specimens divided by the initial Marshall stability is
termed the retained Marshall stability.
Although a relatively wide scatter in absolute stability
values and poor reproducibility are inherent in Marshall
testing, it has been found that consideration of the
percentage relative to the result from the standard
procedure reduces the differences between results from
different laboratories.

Adhesion
From both laboratory tests and observation of
performance in practice, key links have been
identified between functional properties and the
constitution of the bitumen.
If the molecular weight distribution and chemical
constitution of the bitumen is unbalanced it can
exhibit non-homogeneity which may adversely
affect both the cohesive and adhesive properties
of the bitumen.

Durability
Durability can be defined as the ability to
maintain satisfactory rheology, cohesion and
adhesion in long-term service.
As a part of the quality criteria for bitumen the
following have been identified as the prime
durability factors:
oxidative hardening
evaporative hardening
exudative hardening

Oxidative and Evaporative

Hardening
Hardening due to oxidation has long been held to be the
main cause of bitumen ageing.
In mixes where the finely structured voids are
interconnected, hardening in-situ by oxidation is
important.
However, under such circumstances hardening due to
evaporation of the more volatile components of the
bitumen can also be significant.
The rolling thin film oven test (ASTM test method D
2872) measures hardening by both oxidation and
evaporation.

Oxidative and Evaporative

Hardening

Oxidative and Evaporative

Hardening (2)
In this test a thin film of bitumen is continuously
rotated around the inner surface of a glass jar at
163C for 75 minutes, with an injection of hot air
into the jar every 3 to 4 seconds.
The amount of bitumen hardening during the
test, i.e. drop in penetration and increase in
softening point, correlates well with that
observed during the manufacture of a
bituminous mix.

Oxidative and Evaporative

Hardening (3)
The hardening due to oxidation and evaporation of a thin
film of bitumen in contact with aggregate can also be
assessed by two mix tests: the hot mix storage test and
by the change in the softening point of the bitumen
during commercial mix manufacture.
The hot mix storage test simulates ageing conditions
during mixing and hot storage.
A prescribed mix is manufactured in the laboratory and a
specified quantity of this mix is stored for 16 hours at
160C in a sealed tin.
Thus the volume of air entrained in the sample is known
and is constant from test to test.

Oxidative and Evaporative

Hardening (4)
The bitumen is recovered from both the as-mixed and
stored material and the penetration and softening points
are determined on these two recovered bitumens.
The ageing of the bitumen during mixing and storage is
expressed as the difference between the softening
points of the bitumen after storage and that of the
original bitumen.
At laboratory scale this is a very severe test and the
change in softening point is very much larger than that
found during actual bulk storage.
Nevertheless, the test correlates with the hardening
tendency of a mix at high temperature when in prolonged
contact with air.

Exudative Hardening
If the constitution of a bitumen is unbalanced it may,
when in contact with a porous aggregate, exude an oily
component into the surface pores of the aggregate,
resulting in a hardening of the bitumen film remaining on
the aggregate surface.
Exudation is primarily a function of the amount of low
molecular weight paraffinic components present in the
bitumen relative to the amount and type of asphaltenes.
To measure quantitatively the exudation tendency of
bitumen, Shell Research Limited developed the
exudation droplet test.

Exudative Hardening (2)

In this test bitumen droplets are applied to the
recesses in specially made white marble plates.
The plates are stored at 60C for4 days under a
nitrogen blanket.
During this period oily rings develop around the
bitumen droplet which can be measured under
ultra-violet light using a microscope.
Ring widths vary from a few tenths of a
millimeter for a balanced bitumen to several
millimeters for an unbalanced one.

Exudative Hardening (3)

Hardening in service as a result of exudation
can be substantial and depends not only on the
exudation tendency of the bitumen but also on
the porosity of the aggregate.
If the aggregate is of low porosity the quantity of
exudate absorbed is negligible, irrespective of
the exudation tendency of the bitumen.
Similarly, if the exudation tendency of the
bitumen is low, the exudate absorbed will be
negligible, irrespective of the porosity of the
aggregate.

Mechanical testing and

properties of bitumen
A wide range of tests is performed on bitumen,
from specification tests to more fundamental
rheological and mechanical tests.
Bitumen is a complex material with a complex
response to stresses.
The response of bitumen to stress is dependent
on both temperature and loading time.
Thus, the nature of the test and what it indicates
about the properties of the bitumen must be
interpreted in relation to the nature of the
material.

Standard specification tests

for bitumen
The conventional tests used in many countries to
characterize bitumen are the penetration and softening
point tests.
As these are empirical tests, it is essential that they are
always performed under exactly the same conditions.
Lately, as an outcome of the SHRP a performancebased characterization of bitumen has also been in
place.
The specification tests on bitumen include the flash
point, Brookfield viscosity and dynamic shear.

Standard specification tests

for bitumen
The performance-based binder
specifications according to SHRP of the
US are given in the next two slides.

Penetration test (ASTM D5, BS

2000: Part 49, IP 49)
The consistency of the bitumen can be measured by the
penetration test.
In this test, a needle of specified dimensions is allowed
to penetrate a sample of bitumen, under a known load
(100g), at a fixed temperature (250C), for a known time
(5 sec.).
The distance the needle penetrates in units of tenths of a
millimeter is termed the penetration.
The average of three values is recorded to the nearest
whole unit.
The recorded penetration is reported if the difference
between the individual three measurements does not
exceed a specified limit.

Penetration test
(ASTM D5, BS
2000: Part 49, IP
49)

Softening Point test (ASTM D36,

BS 2000: Part 58, IP 58)
The consistency of the bitumen can also be
measured by determining its softening point.
In this test, a steel ball (3.5g) is placed on a
sample of bitumen contained in a brass ring
suspended in water or glycerol bath.
Water is used for bitumen with a softening point
of 800C or below while glycerol is used for
softening points greater than 800C.
The bath temperature is raised at 50C per
minute, the bitumen softens and eventually
deforms slowly with the ball through the ring.

Softening
Point test
(ASTM D36,
BS 2000: Part
58, IP 58)

Softening Point test (ASTM D36,

BS 2000: Part 58, IP 58)
At the moment the bitumen and steel ball
touch a base plate 25mm below the ring, the
temperature of water/glycerol is recorded.
The test is performed in duplicate and the
mean of the two measured temperatures is
reported to the nearest 0.20C.
If the difference between the two results
exceeds 1.00C, the test must be repeated.

Softening Point test (ASTM D36,

BS 2000: Part 58, IP 58)
The reported temperature is designated the
softening point of the bitumen.
In the ASTM version of the SP test the bath is
not stirred, whereas in the IP method it is stirred.
The ASTM result is generally 1.50C higher than
for the IP or BS methods.

The Fraass breaking point

test (IP 80)
One of very few tests that can
be used to describe behaviour
of bitumen at very low
temperature (as low as -300C).
A research tool which
determines temperature at
which bitumen reaches a
critical stiffness and cracks.
Bitumen critical stiffness (at
fracture) is 2.1x109 Pa.
Bitumen penetration at
breaking point is 1.25

Viscosity
Fundamental characteristics of bitumen; it determines
how the material behaves at a given temperature and
over a temperature range.
The absolute or dynamic viscosity of bitumen in Pa.s is
the shear stress (Pa) applied divided by the shear rate
(per sec.)
Measured using a sliding plate viscometer which
comprise a loading system which applies a uniform
shear stress (Pa) to a film of bitumen (5 50 micron
thick) sandwiched between two flat plates and measures
the resulting rate of strain (per sec.)
1 Pa.s = 10 Poise

Viscosity
Viscosity can also be determined by measuring the time
required for a fixed quantity of material to flow through a
standard orifice in a capillary tube viscometer at a given
temperature => kinematic viscosity
Flow time x viscometer calibration factor = kinematic
viscosity
Unit: mm2/s, 1 mm2/s = 1 centistoke (cSt)
Kinematic viscosity = (dynamic viscosity) / (mass
density)

Viscosity

Bitumen test data chart (BTDC)

Heukelom developed a system to enable
penetration, SP, Fraass and viscosity data to be
described as a function of temperature on one
chart (Fig 5.2)
Temperature scale is linear, penetration scale is
logarithmic
Viscosity scale is devised so that penetration
grade bitumens with normal temperature
susceptibility or PIs give straight-line
relationships.

Bitumen test data chart (BTDC)

The BTDC shows how the viscosity of bitumen depends
on temperature, but it does not account for loading time.
However, since the loading times for penetration, SP and
Fraass breaking point tests are similar, these test data
can be plotted with viscosity test data on the BTDC as in
Fig 5.2
As the test results on this chart forms a straight-line
relationship it is possible to predict the temperature/
viscosity characteristics of a penetration grade bitumen,
over a wide range of temperatures, from only the
penetration and softening point.

Bitumen test data

chart (BTDC)

Bitumen test data chart (BTDC)

During the manufacture and compaction of asphalt mix
there are optimum bitumen viscosities.
Fig 5.3 is an example for a dense bitumen macadam mix
manufactured using 100 pen bitumen.
If the viscosity of bitumen is too high during mixing, the
aggregate will not be properly coated.
If the viscosity is too low, the bitumen will coat the
aggregate easily but may drain off the aggregate during
storage or transportation.
For satisfactory coating the viscosity should be approx.
0.2 Pa.s

Bitumen test data chart (BTDC)

During compaction, if the viscosity is too low, the
material will be pushed in front of the roller.
High viscosities will significantly reduce the
workability of the mix and little compaction will
be achieved.
It is widely recognized that the optimal viscosity
for compaction is between 2 Pa.s and 20 Pa.s
Thus, the BTDC is a useful tool to ensure that
appropriate operating temperatures are selected
to achieve the appropriate viscosity for any
grade of bitumen.

Bitumen test data

chart (BTDC)

Bitumen test data

chart (BTDC)

Bitumen test data

chart (BTDC)

Temperature susceptibility
Penetration Index (PI)
All bitumens display thermoplastic properties, i.e.
become softer when heated and harder when cooled.
One of the expressions to define the way viscosity (or
consistency) changes with temperature is developed by
Pfeiffer an Van Doormaal.
If the log of penetration, P, is plotted against
temperature, T, a straight line is obtained such that:
Log P = AT + K
Where, A is the temperature susceptibility of the log of
penetration, and K is a constant

Temperature susceptibility
Penetration Index (PI)
The value of A varies from about 0.015 to 0.06 showing
that there may be a considerable difference in
temperature susceptibility.
Pfeiffer and Van Doormaal developed an expression
for the temperature susceptibility which would assume
a value of about zero for all road bitumens.
For this reason they defined penetration index (PI) as:

20 PI
= 50 A
10 + PI

Temperature susceptibility
Penetration Index (PI)
Or explicitly,

20(1 25 A)
PI =
1 + 50 A

The value of PI ranges from about -3 for

highly temperature susceptible bitumens to
about +7 for highly blown low temperature
susceptible (high PI) bitumens.
The PI is an unequivocal function of A and
hence it may be used for the same purpose.

Temperature susceptibility
Penetration Index (PI)
The values of A and PI can be derived from
penetration measurements at two
temperatures, T1 and T2 using the equation:

log pen at T1 log pen at T2

A=
T1 T2

Temperature susceptibility
Penetration Index (PI)
The consistency at the softening point can be
expressed in terms of penetration, both by linear
extrapolation of the log of pen vs temperature,
and by direct measurement with an extra long
penetration needle at the ASTM softening point
temperature.
Pfeiffer and Van Doormaal found that at the
ASTM softening point temperature most
bitumens had a penetration of about 800.

Temperature susceptibility
Penetration Index (PI)
Replacing T2 in the equation above by the
ASTM softening point temperature and
the penetration at T2 by 800 they
obtained the equation:

log pen T1 log 800

A=
T1 ASTM softening pt

Temperature susceptibility
Penetration Index (PI)
Substituting this equation in the
above PI equation and assuming a
penetration test temperature of 250C,
we have:

1952 500 log pen 20 SP

PI =
50 log pen SP 120

Temperature susceptibility
Penetration Index (PI)
The assumption of a penetration of 800 at
the softening point temperature is not valid
for all bitumens.
It is advisable to calculate the temperature
susceptibility using penetration at two
temperatures, T1 and T2

Temperature susceptibility
Penetration Index (PI)
The nomographs shown in Fig 5.6 and 5.7
enable the PI to be deduced approx from either
the penetration and SP, or the penetration at two
different temperatures.
Due to the spread of the actual value of
penetration at the SP temperature, the value of
PI calculated from one penetration and one SP
may vary from the precise value calculated from
two penetrations.

Temperature susceptibility
Penetration Index (PI)
One drawback of the PI system is that it uses
the change in bitumen properties over a
relatively small range of temperatures to
characterize bitumen.
Extrapolations to extremes of temperature can
sometimes be misleading.
PI can be used to give a good approx of the
behaviour to be expected but confirmation by
stiffness or viscosity measurements is desirable.

Temperature Susceptibility
Penetration Index (PI)

The stiffness concept

Bitumen is a visco-elastic material and its
deformation under stress is a function of both
temperature and loading time.
At high temperatures or long loading times they
behave as viscous liquids, whilst at very low
temperatures or short loading times they behave
as elastic (brittle) solids.
The intermediate range of temperature and
loading times, more typical of conditions in
service, results in visco-elastic behaviour

The stiffness concept

Thus, for bitumen the stiffness modulus:

S t ,T

=
t ,T

The effect of changes in temperature and loading

time on the stiffness modulus of three different
bitumens is shown in Fig 5.8a, 5.8b, 5.8c.

The stiffness
concept

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