Tutorials

AIP4Win Tutorials
We have written these tutorials to help you master the

AIP4Win image-processing software program included with
The Handbook of Astgronomical Image Processing. Each tutorial walks you through activities designed to clarify and reinforce the concepts that you have learned in the book. For the
best learning experience, we recommend that you first follow
each tutorial exactly as we have written it. Then repeat the tutorial while experimenting and trying out new processing
variations using your own CCD images.
We find the best way to use these tutorials is to run
AIP4Win on your computer as you follow the instructions in
the book. You will find test images on the accompanying CDROM in the Tutorials directory. Each tutorial covers a specific set of program features and builds a specific set of imageprocessing skills; and, of course, each builds on the skills you
have acquired in the previous ones. The tutorials are listed in
Table .
How to Install AIP4Win. If you have not installed
AIP4Win on your computer, you must do so before you can run
any tutorial. To install AIP4Win on your computer, remove the
CDROM from its pocket in the back of the book. Insert the
CDROM in your CDROM reader and the installation package
will run automatically. If it does not run automatically, use the
Windows Explorer to browse to the CDROM and double-click
on the file Setup.exe and the installer will start.
The first time you run AIP4Win, the program will ask for
your name plus the serial number. You will find your serial
number on a sticker in the back of the book, below the
CDROM. You MUST register your copy of AIP4Win within
30 days. To register, go to the Willmann-Bell website (http://
www.willbell.com) and browse to the AIP4Win webpage. You
will be asked to enter your name and serial number as well as
the Installation Code provided by AIP4Win. You will receive a
Registration Code that you should enter into the program.
AIP4Win will run for up to 30 days if it has not been registered.
1
After that it will not run until you have registered
it.
Important: If you purchased the first edition of this
book and installed AIP4Win 1.x on your computer, there is no
need to remove it. You can keep the earlier version while installing and running AIP4Win 2.x. This allows you to learn
AIP4Win 2.x without losing the familiar AIP4Win 1.x environment.
Using the Tutorials. To make the tutorials easier to follow, the typography highlights menu items and control buttons. Menu selections are printed in an italic typeface, and
buttons are shown in sans-serif bold to make them stand out.
Whenever we suggest that you select an item on a dropdown menu, we write it as Menu|Submenu, meaning that you
should select the Submenu item in the Menu. To open a file,
well say, click on File|Open Image. This means that you
should click on File in the top menu bar, and then click on the
Open Image item that appears on the drop-down menu. For
deeper menu levels, we write, Menu|Submenu|Submenu.
When you select menu items in AIP4Win, you often call
a tool window. We think of tool windows (or tools, for
short) as the basic units of AIP4Win, just as each item in a carpenters tool chest performs one of the basic functions of carpentry. The tool windows in AIP4Win operate on the
currently selected image, using the settings that you make using the text boxes, sliders, check boxes, and buttons on the
tool window. To make the names of buttons and other controls stand out clearly, we refer to them like this: Select
Dark(s). Used in concert, the tool windows provide a powerful yet flexible software package.
Clicking on a menu item or a tool window button often
brings up a dialog box, such as the familiar Windows dialog
for opening a document or file. You must enter the information requested and then click the Okay or Cancel button.
When a process is running, AIP4Win sometimes displays a
progress bar to let you know how much longer it will take, or
a message box with information that you should be aware of.
If you are familiar with the Windows operating system, these
are undoubtedly already familiar features.
Many of the tool windows that you can access from the
menus are also available on the toolbar. Although we tell you
to make menu selections in these tutorials, you will probably
want to learn and use the icons on the toolbar as well.
Before You Start remember that AIP4Win is unique.
It is a program conceived, designed, and optimized for processing astronomical images. AIP4Win therefore offers
unique tools and powerful functions for calibrating, trackand-stacking, image enhancement, and processing images in
the spatial domain. AIP4Win was designed to handle both the
dynamic range of deep-sky images and the restricted contrasts of planetary images. Its suite of measurement tools includes astrometric, photometric, and spectroscopic functions
that are specific to celestial images. If you have used image
processing programs designed for photographers and graphic
artists, set aside your preconceptions and prepare to enter the
world of Astronomical Image Processing.
About the images used in these tutorials. The images
have been chosen to illustrate specific features of the pro-
AIP4Win Tutorials
Table 1
Begins on Page
11
13
17
19
24
26
28
29
32
33
Subject(s) covered by tutorial
Basic Skills: Learn how to open images and control their appearance
on the screen of your computer. If youve never done image processing before, this is a real eye-opener! Run this tutorial before you try
anything else.
Calibration: Demonstrates how you can subtract dark frames and
apply flat-field frames either manually or automatically. Calibration
is an essential step in the creation of every CCD image. For background information, consult Chapter 6.
Image Evaluation: Dig into the numerical nuts and bolts of images
using AIP4Wins comprehensive suite of software tools for measuring and evaluating images. For background, see Chapter 7.
Astrometry: Make precise measurements of right ascension and
declination for objects in your images. See Chapter 9.
Photometry: Learn how you can derive precise magnitudes from
your CCD images, and make light curves for variable stars. For
background reading, check out Chapter 10.
Spectroscopy: Discover hands-on what astronomers see when they
classify stars by spectral type. See Chapter 11.
Image Enhancement: Discover how to extract detail from otherwise bland images. More than producing pretty pictures, the techniques you will demonstrate to yourself enhance details and show
structures that, due to their low contrast, might otherwise be invisible. These techniques are covered in Chapters 13, 14, 15 and 18.
Fast Fourier Transform: Experiment with the power of spatial filtering to enhance and analyze your images. See Chapter 17.
Multiple Image Processing: Here is power at your fingertips! Calibrate an entire observing sessions worth of images at one time automatically. Align and enhance a set of images in preparation for
creating a movie. Align and combine a group of images to create a
single, deeper image. Process hundreds of planetary images.
Image Registration and Blinking: Registration and blinking are
key tools in searching for asteroids and patrolling for supernovae. In
this tutorial, youll see how its done. See Chapter 16.
Deep-Sky Images: Learn the best ways to process a wide variety of
deep-sky images, including the calibration and enhancement of a
typical track-and-stack one.
Planetary Images: In this tutorial, you process an outstanding image of Jupiter using brightness scaling, unsharp masking, and deconvolution tools.
Building Color Images: Learn how the AIP4Win color tool helps
you to create stunning color imageshassle-freefrom sets of red/
green/blue filtered images. For background, see Chapter 20.
gram. All of the images were all taken by amateur astronomers using modest equipment. None were taken using
expensive, high-end gear. Our goal in doing this was to give
novice CCD imagers a feeling for what they can expect to accomplish with equipment that a novice might own. You will
also notice that some of the images are on the small side. This
was done so that your time can be spent learning from the tutorials rather than watching your computer crunch numbers in
an 11 megapixel image.
Handbook of Astronomical Image Processing
Basic Skills
In this tutorial you will load, display, and save images using
AIP4Win. This one is the longest of all because it covers most
of the basic functions of the program. You will learn these
specific skills:
How to load and display CCD images and

other images using standard PC file formats,
Basic Skills
Figure 1
As you load an image, the Image Display Control appears at the upper left
side of the screen. This tool never changes your image data, it controls every
aspect of how your images appear on the computer screentheir size,
shape, brightness, contrast, and display mode.
how to control the way an image is displayed,

how to customize some of the features of
AIP4Win,
how to save images in FITS format, and
how to export images using standard PC
file formats.
The files for this tutorial are found in the Tutorials directory
on the CD-ROM under the Using AIP4Win subdirectory.
Step 1: Starting the Program. Start AIP4Win by either clicking on the desktop icon or by running AIP4Win from
the Start Menu. The program will load and display its introduction panel.
Step 2: Loading an Image. Well begin by loading a
CCD image that has been stored in the FITS format. Besides
FITS, AIP4WIN supports all well-documented proprietary
CCD camera formats. Click File|Open Image, a dialog box
will pop up. Use it to select your CD-ROM drive and navigate
to the Basic Skills subdirectory of the Tutorials directory on
the CD-ROM, select the file m22.fts, and click Open. The
file should display on the screen.
Step 3: Auto-Stretch. If the image appears all black,
click the Auto button on the Image Display Control on the left
side of the screen. The image should now display in a continuous range of gray tones. The auto-stretch feature automatically determines the range of gray levels best suited to display
an image by examining the histogram of the image. It then
stretches the image linearly to display the greatest contrast.
To unstretch the image, click Auto Min/Max on the Display
Control. The image should now appear mostly black, with

only the brighter stars visible. Click Auto again and the image
will reappear. By default, images are stretched when they are
loaded to make them visible. The Default Display Mode buttons on the Defaults tab can turn the automatic stretching feature on and off. You can also change the default to one of the
other stretch modes using these buttons. It is important to note
that none of the controls on the Display Control window affect the original image, they only affect the way it is displayed
on the screen.
Step 4: Display Controls. The Display Control window contains a group of controls which give you complete
flexibility in how an image is displayed. The Black/White
control determines the lower cutoff value, below which any
pixel is displayed as black and the upper cutoff value, above
which any pixel is displayed as white. Any pixels between
these two values will be linearly stretched between black and
white. Above these controls is a small display of the portion
of the image histogram that is currently viewed. This display
shows you in real time what changes you are making as you
adjust the controls.
As you increase the Black control, dimmer stars and the
sky background will start to disappear; and at the same time
you will see the histogram stretch out off the left end of its
display. As you decrease this control, faint stars, sky background and noise will start to appear. Decreasing the White
control will cause brighter stars to saturate the display, burning in the center of the image. You will see the histogram
stretch off the right end of its window. Increasing the White
Richard Berry and James Burnell 3
AIP4Win Tutorials
Figure 2
The three tabs on the Image Display Control control different aspects of the
image. The Display tab controls how an image appears right now, the
Defaults tab controls the initial settings when you open a new image, and the
Imager tab sets the pixel size and camera characteristics.
control causes the display to dim. Brightness and contrast of

the image can be varied using these two controls.
You can set the default Gamma value using the control
on the Defaults tab of the Display Control.
The Change slider is used to adjust the sensitivity of

these controls. Moving it toward the fast end makes the controls increase in large steps when the up and down arrow buttons are clicked. Moving the Change slider toward the slow
end allows you to make changes in small steps.
Step 6: The Zoom Control. Try clicking the Zoom

control. As expected, the image is displayed larger or smaller.
You can also type in a desired zoom value (with or without
the % sign) and the image will zoom to that ratio. The range
of the zoom is from 16.67% to 1600%. As with the other controls, the default value can be set on the Defaults tab. Reset
the Zoom to 100% and click the Auto button to return the image to its original state. Now go to the Defaults tab.
You can also adjust the brightness and contrast using the
+B, -B, +C and -C buttons. These buttons affect both the black
and white values, and their sensitivity is also controlled by the

setting of the Change slider.
Finally, you can type numerical values into the Black
and White text boxes. When you press the enter key, the image display is updated using the values you have entered.
When you have finished experimenting with the Black and
White setting, click the Auto button.
Step 5: The Gamma Control. Try clicking the up and
down buttons on the Gamma control. It initially defaults to
1.00, and as you decrease its value, the dimmer stars in the
image start to disappear. Increase it and more stars will appear. The Gamma control makes the stretch between the minimum and maximum pixel values non-linear, either boosting
or dropping the mid-tone values using a power-law scaling.
This control is useful for searching out faint objects in an image, as it increases the brightness of faint details while leaving the existing brighter areas alone.
Step 7: The Defaults Tab. For a more complete description of this tab, just hit the F1 key while the mouse is in
this window to bring up the help system. AIP4Win provides a
complete, context-sensitive help system. At any time, hitting
the F1 key will bring up the page in the help file corresponding to the currently selected tool or control.
The Default Display Mode is used to control the way an
image is displayed when it is first loaded. You have a choice
of stretching the image automatically between a low point
and a high point, stretching it between the minimum and maximum values found in the image, or between a set of userspecified values.
The Auto Low/High Stretch settings are a pair of text
boxes where you enter the fraction of the image pixels used
to set the black value and the fraction of the image pixels used
to set the white value used by the Auto button.
Basic Skills
The Black/White Stretch settings are used to specify a
fixed black and white value, used by the Default B/W button
on the Display tab.
The Default Zoom textbox is used to set the magnification of the image when it is first loaded into AIP4Win.
The Default Gamma textbox is used to set the gamma of
the image when it is first loaded into AIP4Win.
The Ignore Edge textbox contains a percentage of the
image border that is to be ignored when the statistics are collected to determine the auto low/high stretch. This is often
necessary with CCD images that contain artifacts around
their borders that can throw off the display calculations.
You can save your favorite values for these defaults
when you click the Save button to store your settings in the
Windows Registry for when you next start-up AIP4Win. If
you mess up your settings, and want to return to your previously saved defaults, click the Recall button to retrieve them
from the Windows Registry. Clicking the Reset button returns the values in the settings to the original AIP4Win defaults, but does not affect the settings in the Windows
Registry.
Step 8: Loading Images. In addition to FITS and proprietary CCD camera formats, AIP4Win opens over 40 different PC graphics formats, plus raw files from a number of
different digital cameras.
AIP4Win reads the image files and loads them into an
internal 32-bit floating point storage array. CCD camera files
are in formats such as FITS, STx, Cookbook, etc., which preserve all the image data read from the CCD chip. Almost all
PC image file formats can record, at most, only 256 gray levels. Even if the format is capable of representing 16 million
colors, only 256 gray levels are available. This means that information is lost when a 14- or 16-bit CCD camera stores an
image in one of these formats. Regardless of the source of the
image, AIP4Win promotes the incoming image to its internal
format.
For those formats that provide color information,
AIP4Win also stores the color channels using its internal
floating point format. To indicate to a user whether an image
contains color data, the icon in the upper left corner of the image window is shown in color. Grayscale images show a
grayscale icon.
To load an image, you need only to select Open Image from the File menu, or click the folder icon on the toolbar. The image will load, and the appropriate menu items and
toolbar buttons will be enabled.
Step 9: Saving Images. Click on the m22.fts image
to select it. Clicking on an image makes it the active or
currently selected one. To save this image as a FITS file, to
preserve its full range of data, click File|Save as FITS, this
will bring up the Save FITS File dialog box. Select a directory
(not on the CD-ROM) in which to save the image and type in
a name for it, with an extension of .fts or .fit, the two
standard file extensions for FITS files. Click Save and the
Save as FITS File window will appear. This window provides

a means for you to select the FITS format you want to use, as
well as the means to coerce the numbers in your image to
fit into any formats which cannot handle the range of values
contained in it. The default format is 32-bit floating point (the
data format that AIP4Win uses internally), but you also have
the option to save images in a variety of other FITS data formats. Take care to store your images in a format that supports
the range or numerical resolution of their data; if you do not,
information data will be lost when you save the image. By
saving your images using 32-bit floating point, your data will
be preserved.
It is important to remember that other image processing
programs, even some that support FITS, may not support 32bit floating-point FITS files; so it is wise to make sure before
using this format to share your files with them. The most universal implementation of FITS is the 16-bit signed integer
format; so if in doubt use this format if you have to. Whatever
format you select will be remembered for the next time you
save an image.
Another feature that is provided when saving FITS files
is the ability to edit the file header. To use this capability, click
the Examine/Edit FITS Header button, and the FITS Header
Editor window will pop up. This window is a simple editor that
will allow you to view the Fixed Lines (those which contain
data that, if modified, could render the file unreadable), and a
group of User Editable Lines. AIP4Win will have pre-loaded a
set of lines for you, which you can modify as you see fit. If you
change any lines, or insert your own, make sure you follow the
FITS specification and maintain the keyword usage if you want
to be able to read the data back in the future. In general, you can
type anything you want after a COMMENT or HISTORY keyword, as long as the line does not exceed 80 characters (the
width of the FITS Header Editor box).
Step 10: Exporting Images. Most graphics arts programs such as PhotoShop and PaintShop Pro can only read PC
format files (unless special plug-ins are installed). Most internet web browsers read just a limited variety of files, none of
them CCD camera or FITS files. If you want to publish images
or send them to friends, you will need to export them in a PC
file format such as JPEG, TIFF, etc. AIP4Win supports over
40 PC file formats. To output a file in one of these, select the
image of the M22 globular cluster we have been using and select File|Export. This will bring up the Export File dialog. Select the directory and type in the name you want to export the
image as with an extension of .jpg. Click Save and the JPEG
Options window will pop up. Here you will be able to select
the compression and image quality you want. Click OK and
the file will be stored in JPEG format, a good one for web publishing. Click File|Open Image... and select the image you
just saved from the Open Image dialog, and the image will be
loaded and displayed.
Conclusion. This tutorial has shown you how you can
use AIP4Win to load and display several types of images and
AIP4Win Tutorials
how to control the way they are displayed on the screen. You
have also seen how to save images in several file formats. In
the next tutorials you will see how we can use AIP4Win to
calibrate, analyze and enhance images.
Calibration
This tutorial demonstrates how to use AIP4Win to calibrate
CCD images. The supporting images for it are contained in
the Calibration subdirectory of the Tutorials directory on the
CD-ROM.
A frame produced by a CCD camera contains a lot more
than an impression of the light that fell on it. As described in
Chapter 6, the frame also contains noise and artifacts. Using
AIP4Wins calibration tools we can remove most of this noise
and generate an image with scientifically useful information,
which is usually more pleasing to the eye as well.
Step 1: Opening and Examining a Raw CCD
Image. From the Calibration Tutorial directory, open the file
m13.fts. Use the File|View Header... menu item to examine the header of this FITS file, which contains useful information about the image. In this case, you can see that it is a
15-second exposure of the globular cluster M13. Close the
FITS header display when you are finished.
Click the Auto button on the Display Control if the image appears all black. To automatically stretch each image as
it is loaded, just check the Auto Low/High Stretch button on
the Defaults tab. This tutorial and those that follow will assume that this button is checked.
Examine the image and note all the single-pixel stars.
Use the Zoom function in the Display Control to see them
better. These are hot pixels in the CCD frame that are brighter
than the rest because of the higher rate at which they accumulate thermal charge.
Step 2: Opening and Examining a Dark Frame.
From the calibration tutorial directory, open the file
dark00001.fts. An examination of the FITS header for this
file will show that it is a 15-second dark frame, taken around
the same time as the m13.fts image frame. A dark frame
should be taken for the same duration as the image frame and
should be taken around the same point in time in hopes that
the CCD will be at the same temperature for both exposures.
Click the Auto Min/Max button and examine the dark
frame. Notice that it appears as a basically black frame with a
scattering of white pixels. This particular dark frame was taken with a Cookbook CCD camera using the Low Dark Current feature. The Cookbook camera with the LDC feature
shut off and other CCD cameras often produce dark frames
with a salt-and-pepper look.
Notice the Black/White boxes on the display control.
Click the Measure|Statistics|Image... menu item to display
the statistics for this image. (If the Data Log window pops up,
minimize it using the button on its titlebar.) The Image Status
window shows that this dark frame has a small dynamic range,
from 95 to 124, just 30 ADUs. The background is right around

97 ADUs. This is the image bias, plus a small amount of dark
current. As you pass the cursor over the frame, the pixel value
under it is shown at the bottom of the Display Control, along
with the pixel coordinates. As you move the cursor around the
dark frame, notice how the values change. Dismiss the info
window by clicking the X button on its title bar.
Each hot pixel in the dark frame corresponds to a hot
pixel in the image frame. An image accumulates on top of
the dark frame. That means that the dark frame can be simply
subtracted from the image. When you do this, you are also
subtracting the bias.
To subtract the dark frame from the image manually,
click the Multi-Image|Image Math... menu item and select
m13.fts for the top text box, minus for the middle text
box and drk00001.fts in the bottom text box. Click Perform
Math Operation and a new image is created, which is the M13
image with the dark frame removed. Notice how the hot pixels are gone. What you have done here is to calibrate your image manually. As you will see, AIP4Win provides a much
more sophisticated way of performing basic calibration.
Close the drk00001.fts image and the calibrated image you just created.
Step 3: Basic Calibration. AIP4Win provides an automated tool, AutoCalibrate, for calibrating your images. This
tool needs to be initialized before you apply it to an image.
There are three kinds of calibration protocols provided by
AIP4Win. In this step we will use the most basic protocol,
which simply subtracts a composite dark frame from an image.
Select the Calibrate|Setup... menu item and the Calibration Setup window will appear. This window can also be
invoked using the Setup Calibration button on the toolbar.
The floating text that appears over each button when you pass
the mouse cursor over it will show you which button is which.
The Calibration Setup Tool has a drop-down listbox at
the top with which you select the calibration protocol you
wish to use. For this exercise, select Basic.
The Basic Calibration tab has three buttons of which
only the Select Darkframe(s) one is enabled. It also has a pair
of radio buttons that allows you to select Average Combine or
Median Combine of dark frames. Next to the Select Darkframe(s) button is a red light. This light will turn green once
you have selected one or more dark frames. A text box below
this button shows you how many dark frames you have selected.
Click the Select Darkframe(s) button. When the dialog
box opens, navigate to the Calibration Tutorials directory and
click on the file drk00001.fts. Hold down the shift key and
click on the file drk00008.fts. Now click the Open button;
the dialog box will disappear, and the Basic Calibration window will display a green light next to the Select Darkframe(s)
button and show that eight dark frames have been selected.
Combining multiple dark frames allows you to reduce
the noise in the master dark frame that you will subtract
Calibration
from your image (see Chapter 6). AIP4Win provides two
ways of combining these images: averaging them together or
taking a median of the corresponding pixels in each frame. Of
the two methods, median-combining them is more processing-intensive, but it will remove artifacts that appear in only
a few frames, such as cosmic ray hits. Average-combining
dark frames is quicker, but random noise is not completely
suppressed and may leave artifacts in your calibrated images.
Since we only have eight dark frames for this tutorial, we will
use median combine. Click the Median Combine radio button.
Now click the Process Dark Frame(s) button. You will
see a status bar that will display the progress of the median
operation. When the operation is done, a green light appears
next to the Process Dark Frame(s) button, and the Save as
Master Dark... button is enabled.
AIP4Win allows you to save your master dark frame so
that you dont have to median-combine or average-combine
a set of dark frames all over again when you want to re-use
them. You can save your master dark frame as a FITS file and
just load it as a single file when you click the Select Darkframe(s) button. This can save a lot of time, especially when
you have median-combined a large number of dark frames.
For now we will not save the master dark frame. When
you created it, it was automatically loaded into the darkframe buffer maintained by the program. Whenever you want
to see what frames constitute the master dark, just select the
Calibrate|Master Frames|Master Dark Contents menu item,
and it will display a list of the current contents of the master
dark buffer. Dismiss the Calibration Setup window.
Now that the setup has been completed, we can calibrate
the image. Click the Calibrate|AutoCalibrate menu item or
click the AutoCalibrate button on the toolbar. A new image
will be displayed, which is a calibrated version of the M13
image. Notice that the hot pixels have been removed.
Step 4: Opening and Examining a Flat Frame. As
described in Chapter 6, not all pixels on a CCD chip respond
to light and build up charge at the same rate. Also, dust and
vignetting in the optical system can cast shadows on the CCD
chip. Taking a flat-field exposure allows you to calibrate out
these effects.
Open the file flat00001.fts in the calibration tutorial
directory. When this image is stretched, you will see a lighter
area in the center of the field, gradually darkening towards the
edges, and a bunch of variously sized black donuts. The darkening around the edge is due to vignetting, and the donuts are
dust specks on various optical surfaces in the system.
Step 5: Standard Calibration. This protocol is very
similar to Basic Calibration, but adds the step of dividing the
image by the flat field. Click the Calibrate|Setup... menu
item and the Calibration Setup window will appear. This
time, select Standard in the dropdown box.
In addition to the Dark tab you saw when Basic Calibration was selected, there is now a Flat tab that has a set of similar controls used to manage the flat frames. As with the dark
frames, you can average- or median-combine multiple flats to

reduce noise, and you can also subtract a special flat-dark
frame from the flat frame in order to remove the dark current
and hot pixels from it. Note that this flat-dark corresponds to
the flat frame and not to the image frame. Dont get them confused.
The Dark tab should still be set up from before; if it isnt,
select the same dark frames you used above using the Select
Darkframe(s) button and process the dark by median-combining those frames. Now go to the Flat tab and select the files
flat00001.fts through flat00008.fts for use as flat frames
and select Median Combine for them. Click the Subtract FlatDark checkbox and the Select Flat-Darks button will be enabled. Select the files flatdrk00001.fts through flatdrk00008.fts for use as flat-darks, and select Median Combine
for them.
Now click the Process Flat Frame(s) button, and
AIP4Win will calibrate your flat frames, combine them and
load them into the flat buffer for you. As with the master dark
frame, you have the option of saving it as a FITS file for later
use. Dismiss the Calibration Setup window.
Now click on the raw M13 image and use the AutoCalibrate button on the toolbar to create a new image that has
been calibrated using both dark subtraction and flat-fielding.
Step 6: Advanced Calibration. This calibration method builds on the previous protocols, but it allows you to use a
single master dark frame for all of your images, given that
they are taken using the same camera operating mode and that
the dark frame is at least as long in duration as the longest image it will be used to calibrate (preferably at least 5 times
longer). The availability of this feature means that you can
take one set of dark frames at any time during the night and
use it on any of your images taken on that night, or, possibly,
any other night (hot pixels tend to be pretty constant, though
it does pay to check your dark frames from time to time to see
if they have changed).
Click the Calibrate|Setup... menu item, or click the Calibration Setup button on the toolbar, and the Calibration Setup window will appear. Select Advanced in the drop-down
box. Similar to the Basic and Standard Calibration protocols,
there are tabs for each type of calibration frame.
The Bias tab contains a set of controls used to manipulate the bias on the calibrated image. It has three bias options
selected by mutually-exclusive radio buttons:
1. No Bias Removal. Selecting this button will disable
the bias functions and the dark-matching and darkscaling capabilities.
2. Use Constant. Selecting this button will allow you
to enter a fixed bias value to be used instead of a
bias frame.
3. Use Bias Frame. Selecting this button will allow
you to select one or more bias frames which can be
averaged or median-combined to create a master
bias frame.
AIP4Win Tutorials
For this tutorial, select the Use Bias Frame button.
Load the bias frames by clicking the Select Bias
Frame(s) button and the bias frame selection dialog box will
appear. Navigate to the calibration tutorial directory and select the files bias00001.fts through bias00008.fts and
click Open. The green light next to the Select Bias Frame(s)
button will turn on and the text box will indicate that eight
bias frames have been selected. Click the Median Combine radio button for the bias frames. Now click the Process Bias
Frame(s) button, and the program will median-combine the
eight bias frames into a single master bias frame. You have
the option of saving this frame as a FITS file for later use, just
as in the case of master dark or flat frames.
On the Dark tab, dark frames are handled just like in the
Basic and Standard calibration protocols, but you now have
options to scale the dark frame to match it to the image frame.
Select the dark frames dark00001.fts through
dark00008.fts, and select Median Combine for them. For
this tutorial, we will use automatic dark matching, so click the
Automatic Dark Matching radio button. Now click the Process Dark Frame(s) button, and the program will load your
dark buffer. You will notice that it runs through a series of
processing steps, including identifying the hot pixels in the
dark frame. When it is finished, the green light next to the
Process Dark Frame(s) button will turn on. Again, you have
the option of saving this master dark frame.
If the Flat tab is not already set up from earlier, select the
files flat00001.fts through flat00008.fts as your flat
frames and select Median Combine. You also have the option
here of using Normalize Median Combine, which is meant
for processing sky flats taken from a twilight sky. For that
type of flat frame, each image has a widely varying average
pixel value, as the twilight sky dims rapidly. Normalize Median Combine allows you to scale all your flats to the same
average level before they are combined. It doesnt hurt to
combine dome flats (or flatbox flats) this way, but the extra
processing can take time.
Check the Subtract Flat-Dark checkbox and select the
files fltdrk00001.fts through fltdrk00008.fts as your flatdarks. Select Median Combine for them and click the Process Flat Frame(s) button; the program will load the flat buffer for you, which you have the option of saving.
Select the Defect tab, and you will be presented with a
single button with which you can select a defect map. A defect map is a specially prepared image that identifies each defect in your CCD image and provides a code that tells
AIP4Win how to deal with it. For the purposes of this tutorial,
we will not perform defect correction. Because a defect map
was not selected, the Correct Defects checkbox at the bottom
of the form is not checked and is grayed out. However, all the
other checkboxes should be checked. At this point the advanced calibration is set up and ready to go to work, but dont
dismiss the Calibration Setup window yet.
If not already loaded, load the m13.fts image and then
click the AutoCalibrate button on the toolbar. A new, calibrated image of M13 will appear, and in the titlebar of the new
image the display Dark Coeff = 1.008 is shown. This value
is the scaling applied to the master dark frame after the bias
has been removed and before it is subtracted from the raw image. Had you selected Constant Dark Scaling when setting up
the dark frame for this calibration, that is the fixed value you
would have entered in the Dark Scaling Constant text box.
Step 7: Partial Calibration. At the bottom of the Calibration Setup form you will see four checkboxes, one for each
step in image calibration. When the corresponding box is
checked, each calibration step will be taken on your image. If
you have your calibration set up, and decide not to perform
one or more of these calibration steps, just uncheck the corresponding box. You can turn it back on again later by opening
this form and checking the box. If a particular step has not yet
been set up, its box will be grayed out. You can re-enable it
by setting up the corresponding bias, dark or flat frames, or
the defect map.
This completes the image calibration tutorial. If you
want more practice, you will find a variety of additional images in the Images\Berry, Images\Burnell and the Images\McMickle subdirectories on the CD-ROM. Be sure to read
the file About_These_Images.txt in each directory to see
what calibration frames are associated with what images.
Image Evaluation
In this tutorial, you will learn how to use AIP4Wins measurement tools for evaluating image characteristics. The images
for this tutorial can be found in the Image Evaluation subdirectory of the Tutorials directory on the CD-ROM.
AIP4Win provides a series of tools used to examine and
evaluate your images. The tools calculate image statistics,
graphically display characteristics of an image, and provide a
means of comparing two images.
Step 1: Reading Individual Pixel Values. Lets start
by opening an image for evaluation. Open ngc0891j.st6 in
the Image Evaluation subdirectory. This is an image of NGC
891 taken by Tim Puckett using an ST6 CCD camera.
The most basic image evaluation capability is to be able
to read the value of a specific pixel at a specific location in it.
To do this, just move the cursor over the image to the point
you wish to measure, and the Current Pixel frame in the Image Display Control window will display the X and Y coordinates of the pixel you are over, along with its value. If this
were a color image, the red, green and blue values would also
be displayed, while the PV indicates the luminance value.
Step 2: Image Statistics. Click on the Measure|Statistics|Image menu item. The Image Status window will be displayed. The information that appears in the Info window is
also stored in the AIP4Win Data Log. The Data Log is a separate window of the AIP4Win program and keeps a running
log of all the measurements you make using the measurement
Image Evaluation
Figure 3
Tools in the Measure menu produce information about an image, from its
statistical properties, processing history, and histogram to brightness profiles
through the image. Because effective image processing begins with
measuring image characteristics, youll often apply these measuring tools.
tools. It appears in the icon tray at the bottom of your screen

when AIP4Win starts up. It can be minimized by clicking the
minus () button in the upper right corner, and it will retire to
the taskbar where it can be recalled later. This window is editable, it can be cleared, and it can be saved to a file. The tools
that write to this window do so in a format that makes the contents easily parsed into a spreadsheet program such as Excel
or Lotus. This permits you to perform further analysis on data
you extract using AIP4Win. For now you can just minimize
the Data Log. If you should accidentally close it, no problem;
it will be restarted the next time it is needed.
of the models AIP4Win knows about. You can override

AIP4Wins choice using the Imager tab on the Display Control window. Select your camera type using the drop-down
list and click Set Imager Parameters, and the image will be
automatically redisplayed with the correct aspect ratio. If
yours is not listed, just enter the pixel size directly in microns.
You can also edit the file Cameras.ini located in the directory where AIP4Win is installed. This file can be edited with
any ASCII text editor to add your own camera, if it is not
there already, or to remove cameras you are not interested in.
Directions for editing the file are included in its file header.
The Image Status window provides a list of statistics

measured from the currently active image. If another image is
loaded, the Image Status window can be updated by clicking
the Update button. Some processing operations will generate
a new image and will automatically update the Info window.
Close the Info window now using the X button in the

upper right corner.
The basic statistics measured from the image are the

minimum and maximum pixel values present, and the mean,
median, average deviation and standard deviation, and skew
of the pixel values.
A second tab of statistics tells you what image and pixel
dimensions AIP4Win thinks the image has. The pixel dimensions are fundamental to correctly displaying the image on
the screen, and are very important in astrometry and photometry. AIP4Win recognizes the image dimensions of most of
the popular CCD cameras and makes a best guess at the pixel
dimensions based on the file type and the number of pixels on
each axis. The Preferences dialog even has a tab that allows
you to enter the pixel size for your own camera, if it is not one
Step 3: Image Histogram. Click on the Measure|Histogram menu item and the histogram of the image will appear. This is a graph of the pixel value versus the number of
pixels of that value in the image. For convenience it also displays their minimum and maximum values, and as you pass
the cursor over the graph, the number of pixels at each value
is displayed, along with its percentage of the total pixel count.
Note that due to the wide range of possible pixel values afforded by floating point data, this histogram is binned proportionally to the range of pixel values in the image, so that the
value you see is not the actual pixel value, but rather the pixel
value associated with the selected bin. The histogram for this
image shows a peak around 6000, dropping off rapidly and
then peaking again at a much lower level around 43800. This
is a pretty typical shape for a deep-sky object, in which most
of the pixels show the sky background, with a few bright stars
AIP4Win Tutorials
at the upper end. Close the Histogram window now using the
X button in the upper right corner.
Step 4: The Profile Tool. Click on the Measure|Profile Tool... and the Profile Tool window will appear. Take the
mouse and press the left mouse button on one edge of the image and drag a line across the image and release the button.
The view in this window will plot the relative pixel values
crossed by the line you drew. This view represents a slice taken through the image. A pair of radio buttons controls how the
profile view is scaled to fit its window. Try clicking on each
one to see how it affects the display. This tool is useful for exposing detail which might otherwise be hidden in very bright
or very dark areas of an image. It also gives a view into the
structure of an object. Dismiss this window by clicking on the
Close button.
Step 5: The Star Image Tool. This is a very basic tool
that allows you to extract information about a star in an image, including the ability to determine the exact center of a
stellar centroid to !/100 of a pixel. Open it by clicking on the
Measure|Star Image Tool... menu item. The Star Image Tool
window will appear.
This is a good time to mention that when you have a preferred location where you wish to see a tool window appear
when it is invoked, you can save that location by dragging the
tool window to where you want it and clicking on the Window
|Save Current Tool Window Positions menu item. The next
time you invoke this tool it will appear in the same place. Try
it by dragging the Star Image Tool window to the upper right
corner of the screen and then click on the Window|Save Current Tool Window Positions menu item. Close the Star Image
tool and then re-invoke it from the menu. It will appear in the
place where it was when you saved its position.
The Star Image Tool contains three tabs, Result, Shape
and Settings. Select the Settings tab and you will see a trio of
text boxes with associated up/down arrows. This is a good
time to introduce you to the concept of a photometer window.
These three textboxes and their associated up/down arrows
control the radii of three concentric circles that will be drawn
around any star you select in the image. The inner circle defines the aperture, a region containing light from the star plus
the sky background. The annular (doughtnut-shaped) region
between the middle circle and the outer circle is used to measure the brightness of the sky background. To find the brightness of the star, AIP4Win totals pixel values in the aperture
and then subtracts the contribution form the sky based on the
light in the annulus.
To get accurate measurements, you must set the radius
of the aperture so that it completely contains the image of the
star you are interested in. For a CCD image with reasonably
good sampling, a radius of 6 pixels for the central circle
works quite well. The sky annulus must be larger than the aperture and include a reasonable number of sky pixels. Radii
of 9 and 15 pixels work well for most images.
Move your cursor over a star in the image and click the
10
left mouse button. A set of circles will appear. You do not

have to click the exact center of the star; the program will locate it, determine its centroid, and position the circles automatically. Click on the Results tab, and the stars X, Y
centroid coordinates appear in the Position box. This information is also written to the Data Log window for later use.
Other data, such as the size, peak pixel value and brightness
are also displayed and saved in the Data Log. Try selecting a
series of stars one at a time. Change the radii and see how this
affects the programs ability to detect and measure centroids.
If you set the radii large enough to contain several stars,
AIP4Win will compute the center of mass of the group of
stars.
Click on the Shape tab, and you will see a plot of the
stars profile. This plot is generated in the program by determining the centroid of the star and then sweeping radially
around it, plotting the pixel values. It is a good way to assess
the cleanliness of the star image. Also displayed on this tab
is information about the stars elongation.
This tool is very simple, but it forms the foundation for
the rest of the measurement tools. When you are finished, dismiss the Star Image Tool by clicking the Close button.
Step 6: The Distance Tool. This tool builds on the basic capabilities of the Centroid Tool, providing the ability to
measure distances and angles between any two stellar centroids in an image.
Open it by clicking on the Measure|Distance Tool...
menu item, and the Distance Tool window will appear. It contains several text boxes used to set up the measurements.
The first is the Telescope Focal Length text box. This is
used to enter the focal length of the telescope used to acquire
the image, and must be expressed in millimeters. This information is used to measure distances at the focal plane in microns. The NGC 891 image was taken with a 12-inch f/10
telescope having a focal length of 3,048 mm. Enter 3048 mm
in the Telescope Focal Length text box.
The next text box is the Parallactic Angle text box and
is used to indicate the deviation, in degrees, from true north
for a column on the CCD image, increasing in the clockwise
direction. In the case of this image, north is 90 to the left, so
enter 90 in the Parallactic Angle text box. This value will be
used to determine the position angle for pairs of centroids.
Now select a pair of stars in the image using the cursor.
A circle will appear when the left mouse button is pressed,
just as with the Centroid Tool. Select the upper of a pair of
equally bright stars just above the center of the image, at
X = 152, Y = 71 and click the Star 1 button. Next, select the
star at X = 149, Y = 87 and click the Star 2 button. The Distance and Position Angle data will be calculated and filled in
showing a distance of 16.97 pixels = 456.16 microns = 30.87
arc-sec. These data were calculated knowing the pixel size
and the telescope focal length. The position angle is calculated at 278.56 degrees, based on knowing the parallactic angle.
Type in a different value in the Parallactic Angle text box and
Astrometry
see how the value for the position angle is recomputed.
You can click the New Stars button and select several
pairs to experiment with. Every time the data are calculated,
they are written to the Data Log for later use.
To dismiss the Distance Tool, click the Close button.
Step 7: The Pixel Tool. The last of the measurement
tools we will be covering in this tutorial is the Pixel Tool.
This provides a means for gathering the statistics of a selected
region of interest (ROI) in an image. It forms the basis for a
set of photometry tools we will cover in a later tutorial.
Click on the Measure|Pixel Tool... menu item to open
it. The first thing you will notice is that there are two radii
available, an outer radius and an inner one. Click anywhere
on the image window and a single circle will appear with the
default outside radius of 6 and inside radius of 0. Change the
outside radius to 12 with the Out slider and the inside radius
to 6 with the In slider. When you click on the image, a bullseye pattern will appear. In this case, the ROI is the area between the inner and outer radii. This is useful for gaining
information about the background sky immediately surrounding a star. Center the bullseye on a star and click, and the Region Statistics frame will display the data for that region.
Note that unlike the Centroid and Distance Tools, the cursor
does not snap to the centroid of the star. The shape of the
ROI can also be changed from a circle to a square, which can
be useful for some types of measurements.
As an example for how to use the Pixel Tool, select a
circular region of outside radius 6, inside radius 0, centered
on X = 305, Y = 107. It shows a mean pixel value of 6024.23
and a standard deviation of 46.94. The signal-to-noise ratio
(SNR) is defined as the mean divided by the standard deviation, giving an SNR of 128.34 for this specific region of the
image. Other regions will tend to give different results, depending on the how much light struck the pixels there.
When you are finished, dismiss this window by clicking
on the Close button.
Step 8: The Data Log. Examine the contents of the
Data Log window and see how all the measurements you
made were recorded there. If you wished to import the contents of this log to a spreadsheet, you would just click the
Save to File menu item in this window and a dialog box
would appear asking you for a file name. The file is saved as
ASCII text and can be edited with any text editor.
To import your data into an Excel spreadsheet, load the
file into Excel as fixed-width ASCII text. The labels will appear in one column and the data will appear in the next column. It is probably easiest to save the Data Log after each
type of measurement and then clear it before adding new data
of a different type. This makes it simpler for the spreadsheet
to parse it into columns, since each tool outputs a different
type of data.
This concludes the general image evaluation tutorial. In
later tutorials we will cover specific types of measurements
used in photometry and astrometry.
Astrometry
This tutorial demonstrates how to use AIP4Win to make precise positional measurements of objects in your CCD images.
The files for it are located in the Astrometry subdirectory of
the Tutorials directory on the CD-ROM.
In recent years a number of ever more accurate astrometric databases has become available, making it easy to precisely determine the celestial coordinates of objects in
electronic images. AIP4Win supports several CD-ROM databases including:
The Hubble Guide Star Catalog (GSC),

the first of the CD-ROM databases to
become widely available.
The United States Naval Observatory A2.0
database, which was created by scanning
the Palomar Sky Survey (POSS) plates,
and precisely locating the stars on each
plate using data from the Hipparcos satellite.
The subsampled version of the A2.0 database, the SA2.0.
The MegaStar CD-ROM, which is based
on the GSC.
Knowing the coordinates of the center of your image, you can
generate an overlay of known stars from any of these databases and, once the overlay is registered to the image, determine
the precise coordinates and stellar magnitude of any object in
it.
You can also use MegaStar to find the coordinates of
your image and save a list to disk of all the stars in its immediate vicinity for use as an overlay.
In this tutorial, you will load a CCD image in which
there are several asteroids, and then load a pre-generated reference star data file corresponding to that image. You will
then generate and align the overlay to it, select a set of reference stars from the overlay, and then determine the coordinates and magnitude of the asteroids on the image.
Step 1: Load the Image. If any images are currently
open, click the Window|Close all Images menu item to close
them. You can also click the Window|Close all open Tool
Windows menu item to close any tools you may have left
open. These features are handy for quickly clearing your
screen of old tools and images.
Load the image Ah102dad.fts. Click the Measure|Astrometry... menu item and the Astrometry Tool will appear.
Drag it to a convenient location on the screen.
Step 2: Create an Overlay. For this tutorial, several
reference star files have been prepared for this image, one using the Hubble GSC (via MegaStar) and one using the USNO
SA2.0. The first one you will load will be the GSC version.
Before you load the reference data, you want to input
the telescope focal length in mm in the Focal Length text box.
This will scale the generated overlay so that it matches the
AIP4Win Tutorials
Figure 4
Astrometry enables you to determine precise right ascension and declination

coordinates for any object in a image. The first step is to link reference stars
in your image to reference star coordinates. The next step is to designate a
target, and the last step is to solve for the coordinates of the target object.
scale of the image. For some images you may also need to use
the Mirror X and/or Mirror Y buttons to reorient it so that north
is to the top (roughly) and east is to the left, to match the overlay.
The telescope used to make this image had a focal
length of approximately 1,909 mm. Input this value in the Focal Length text box. Later, the software will determine a precise value for the focal length.
It is not necessary to mirror this image about either axis.
Now you can create the overlay. Click on the Load Ref
Data button and the Select Overlay window will appear. At
the top you will see a set of five radio buttons corresponding
to the different database types that AIP4Win can read. In addition to the four CD-ROM databases, there is a Reference
File button. Click it and click OK, and a dialog box will appear. Navigate to the Astrometry subdirectory, select the file
Ah102.ref and click Open; the reference data file will be
loaded and an overlay will be generated.
To use an astrometric catalog stored on CD-ROMs, select the appropriate database; and input the Right Ascension
and Declination of the field center along with the size of the
field. AIP4Win will prompt you for the correct CD-ROM and
create a list of all the stars in the selected region brighter than
the magnitude limit set in the Magnitude Limit text box. You
are then prompted to save the generated listthat is how the
reference data files for this tutorial were generated. Chapter 9
provides information on obtaining these databases.
Click the Toggle Overlay button until the overlay appears. It will appear as a collection of red circles, with a blue
12
cross marking the center of the field.

Step 3: Align the Overlay. For this image, the overlay
needs to be shifted to line up with the stars. Look for a conspicuous trapezoid of stars just above and to the right of center. Just above and to the left of the trapezoid, you will see a
set of four circles in a matching trapezoidal pattern.
In the Shift Overlay frame you will see a set of four arrowed buttons grouped around a center button marked X1.
Click the X1 button, and it will show X10; this is the rate at
which the arrow buttons will shift the overlay. Click the left
arrow button twice and the down arrow button twice; the
overlay will shift so that the trapezoid of circles nearly overlays the trapezoid of stars. Click the X10 button so that it
shows X1, and refine the position with the arrow keys until the
overlay matches the stars as closely as possible.
At this point you will notice that the trapezoid matches
the overlay, but many of the other stars do not. This is because
the image is slightly rotated with respect to the overlay. Correct this by typing 2.5 in the Parallactic Angle textbox, or use
the associated slider. A few clicks of the Shift Overlay arrow
buttons and the overlay and the image will come into perfect
alignment. Once you identify the reference stars in the field,
the overlay can be brought into perfect alignment automatically.
Step 4: Select a set of Reference Stars. Select the circled star in the center of the image with the mouse and click
the Select as Reference button. A green circle will surround the star with the label R1 below and to the right of it.
This marks the star as a reference for measurement. When se-
Photometry
lecting a reference star, try to pick a clean star image that will
give a good centroid. Avoid selecting stars in the middle of
nebulosity or ones that show blooming trails. Clean star images will yield more accurate position and brightness measurements.
Select two more reference stars. Use the top right one in
the trapezoid and the bottom right one in the image. Remember only to select stars that appear on the overlay. If you attempt to select a star that doesnt appear on it, an error
message will appear, prompting you to try again.
As soon as all three reference stars are selected, the program will automatically refine the overlay alignment to subpixel accuracy. You will see that the telescope focal length is
updated to about1906 mm and the parallactic angle is updated
to about 2.46 degrees. (This is a useful way to determine the focal length of your telescope/CCD camera configuration very
accurately, by the way.) The program will continue to refine
the overlay as each additional rreference star is added.
Select a few more reference stars. You will need at least
four in order for AIP4Win to calculate a set of residuals associated with the calculated plate constants for the CCD image.
You will see that as soon as a set of plate constants is calculated, the RA and Dec of the cursor position is updated at the
bottom of the Astrometry Tool window whenever the cursor
is moved over the image. As you add more refernce stars the
accuracy of the solution increases.
Step 5: Select the Object to be Measured. In this image there are three asteroids. One of them, ah102, is at
X = 115, Y = 45. Click on this faint object with the left mouse
button. Click the Select as Target button, and the Enter Target Name window will appear. Enter the name Ah102 for
the target and click OK, and a yellow circle will appear
around the target with the label Ah102 below and to the
right. If the circle centers on the brighter star below this object, click the Clear Target(s) button and try again. It might
help either to reduce the search radius using the Search Radius slider on the Settings tab, or position the circle so that
it includes the asteroid but not the star. Your cursor position
doesnt have to be accurately centered; AIP4Win will find the
centroid of the object inside the search radius and align to it
automatically. If two objects are inside the search radius,
AIP4Win may attempt to center on their common center of
mass.
Step 6: Generate a Report. Now click the Send Report to Data Log button. If it is not already visible, open the
Data Log window from the taskbar. In it you will see the a report on the object, containing a list of the reference stars used
and the calculated RA and Dec of the object, the error for both
RA and Dec, and the magnitude of the object.
If you wish to generate a report file, click the Save Report as Disk File button and the Enter Astrometry Report
Data window will appear. You are presented with two options
here: a verbose (multi-line) report, or a single-line report in
the form required by the Minor Planet Center (MPC). Select
the verbose format and type in an object name, and an arbitrary time and date. Click OK, and you will be prompted for
a location to save this report. Choose a convenient place (not
on the CD-ROM!), and click Save to save it.
You can examine the report if you click the File|Open
Log (text) File menu item. This will open a file select dialog. Select the file you saved and it will be displayed in a
small text window. You can also examine or edit this file with
any ASCII text editor.
You can clear the reference stars and targets and select
a new overlay if you want to experiment further. Try using the
file ah102.gsc. It was generated from the USNO A2.0 database. This is a phenomenally deep database with more than
half a billion stars in it. You will see that the overlay includes
nearly every object in the image, with the exception of the
three asteroids.
This concludes the astrometry tutorial.
Photometry
In this tutorial, you will learn how to use AIP4Win to measure
the magnitude of stars in a CCD image.
We will explore three photometry tools:
Single-Star Photometry determines the

brightness of a star by summing its light
and subtracting the sky background light.
Single-Image Photometry determines the
magnitudes of two or more stars and gives
the magnitude difference between them.
Multiple-Image Photometry is an automated tool that measures either raw instrumental
magnitudes
or
differential
magnitudes from a series of images.
Each of these tools builds on the others to provide everything you need to perform some pretty ambitious projects.
Single-Star Photometry
From the Photometry subdirectory under the Tutorials directory, load and display the image M82-x20.fts. If you view
the FITS header for this image, you will see that it is a stack
of twenty 60-second exposures of the galaxy M 82.
Step 1: Open the Single-Star Photometry Tool. Open
the Single-Star Photometry Tool by clicking the Measure|
Photometry|Single Star menu item. On the Settings tab, you
will see three sets of text boxes and up/down controls for setting the star aperture and the inner and outer radii of the sky annulus. Set the aperture radius large enough to capture all the
light from the star you wish to measure.
Step 2: Test the Suitability of a Star for Photometry. You can test a star to determine its suitability by selecting one and clicking on it. Try it by clicking on the star at
X = 250, Y = 89 in the M82-x20.fts image and then checking the Show Analysis checkbox.
AIP4Win Tutorials
Figure 5
The photometry tools enable you to measure the brightness of stars. The
Single Star Photometry tool is a basic tool that determines the raw
instrumental magnitude of starsone star at a time. The image profile and
curve of growth help you assess the suitability of a star for measurement.
This will cause a tabbed window to appear. (Like all the

other tool windows, you can save their start-up positions by
clicking the Window|Save Current Tool Window Positions
menu item.) Each tab displays a graph.
The Profile tab shows a brightness cross-section of the
selected star, with the values of individual pixels plotted
against their distance from the center of the star image. Ideally, what you want to see here is a smooth curve falling off
from a peak at the center of the star image. The star we selected displays just this type of profile. You can estimate the halfwidth half-maximum of the star image by noting the radius at
which the profile reaches half its peak value.
The Curve of Growth tab plots magnitude versus the
star aperture radius. This is useful for determining a good setting for the star aperture. For this image, the default radius of
6 pixels works well. A level region on the graph indicates that
the aperture captures all the light from the star. The inner and
outer annulus radii should be set to about twice the value of
the inner, unless it is necessary to make it smaller to avoid including other stars. The default values of 9 and 15 pixels work
well with this image.
Step 3: Input the Image Data. Below the radii controls on the Settings tab is a frame containing text boxes for
entering the Integration Time, the Zero-Point Magnitude,
Readout Noise, Gain, and Dark Current. Although the total
integration time for this image was 1200 seconds (20 expo-
14
sures of 60 seconds each), the images were averaged (i.e., divided by 20) to improve the signal-to-noise ratioso the
effective integration time is 60 seconds. Enter this value in
the Integration Time text box.
The zero point depends on your telescope, filters, and
CCD camera. It represents the magnitude of the sky background, and usually turns out to be a value between 15 and 25.
For this image, the default value of 25 will suffice.
The Readout Noise, Gain and Dark Current are dependent on the CCD camera used to make the image. For the purposes of this tutorial, we will leave them set to their default
values.
Step 4: Select and Measure a Star. Select the Result
tab. Now click on the star at X = 250, Y = 89. You will see the
results of measuring the star. The Measurement Log is updated as well, allowing you to export these values to a spreadsheet later. The raw instrumental magnitude is the sum of
pixel values in the star image corrected for the sky background converted to magnitudesnot the real magnitude
of the star.
Chapter 10 explains how astronomers convert raw instrumental magnitudes into accurate magnitude measurements. The Details tab displays information used to determine
the standard deviation of the magnitude determination.
Try selecting and testing some other stars in this image.
For an example of a star not well suited for photometry, try
Photometry
Figure 6
The Single Image Photometry tool compares the brightness of a variable star
against the brightness of one or more non-variable comparison stars.
Because it determines only the difference between stars, results from
differential photometry are relatively unaffected by atmosphere and thin
clouds.
selecting one in the halo of the galaxy, or one that has another
star within a few pixels of it. You will see that its profile will
have a lot of extra light around it, adding uncertainty to the
measurement of the stars brightness.
Finally, check the Data Log; you will see that it has
faithfully recorded the position and magnitude of each of the
stars you have clicked on.
Single-Image Photometry
The Single-Star Photometry Tool provides a means of measuring the light from a single star and removing the sky background from it. You could use this tool to take measurements
of a variable star and a star of constant brightness. By comparing their values you can then detect tiny changes in the
brightness of the variable. This is differential photometry
the difference in brightness between two stars. Differential
photometry is a powerful technique because thin clouds,
haze, and atmospheric extinction may dim the stars, but their
difference is barely affected.
Step 1: Open the Single-Image Photometry Tool.
Close the two graphs, if they are still open, and close the
Single-Star Photometry Tool. Click the Measure|
Photometry|Single Image menu item and the Single-Image
Photometry Tool window will appear. Like the previous one,
this tool provides a Settings tab that allows you to set the pho-
tometer radii.
Step 2: Select the Stars. Select the Result tab. Open
the M82 image if it is not already open, and click on any star
in the field to select the variable star. You will see that in the
Variable and Comp Stars box, the Variable setting now reads
Yes, and the Raw Instrumental Magnitude box gives a magnitude reading for the star. Click the Clear button, and the setting will read No.
Click on the star at X = 250, Y = 89. Next choose the
first comparison star. Click the star at X = 83, Y = 71. You
will now see that the Comp Stars setting reads 1. Each time
you will see a display of the raw instrumental magnitude.
Click the Get Magnitude button, and AIP4Win will calculate the differential magnitude. The Differential Magnitude box
shows that the variable is 0.563 magnitudes fainter than the
comparison star.
To improve the quality of their data, astronomers select
additional comparison star. As you add more comparison
starsclicking the Get Magnitude button as you select each
onenote that the standard deviation decreases, meaning you
are getting a more precise magnitude reading.
The information you obtain from these measurements is
logged in the Data Log, but only when you click the Get Magnitude button. In normal practice you would select the variable star, select a series of comparison stars, and then click
the Get Magnitude button to record one differential photome-
AIP4Win Tutorials
Figure 7
The Multi-Image Photometry tool can perform differential photometry on

hundreds of images, one right after another, automatically. With this tool,
amateurs have detected planets orbiting other stars by measuring the slight
dip in light when the exoplanet passes in front of its star.
try reading.
If you wanted to monitor a supernova as its light faded,
you could take a new image of it every clear night. You could
then use the Single Image Photometry Tool to measure the
difference between the supernova and a comparison star (V
C1) in each image. Over a period of a few months, you
would obtain the supernovas light curve.
When you are finished, dismiss all the tools by clicking
on the Window|Close all open Tool Windows menu item, and
close the M82 image.
two minutes apart using a Cookbook 245 CCD camera. During

this time, the eclipsing binary system Z Draconis reached minimum light. This directory also contains a composite master
dark frame and a composite master flat frame.
Multiple-Image Photometry
Step 2: Invoke the Multiple Image Photometry

Tool. Invoke the tool by clicking the Measure|Photometry|
Multiple Image menu item.
Though the Single-Image Photometry Tool provides a fast

and accurate means of measuring stellar magnitudes, the real
power of a computer comes into play when you have a series
of images taken over time of a variable star and want to automatically extract the brightness data to create a brightness
curve. AIP4Win provides this capability via the Multiple Image Photometry Tool.
For this tutorial, unlike the others, the images can be
found in the Sullivan subdirectory of the Images directory on
the CD-ROM. This collection of images was obtained on April
3, 2000, by Phil Sullivan. It consists of a series of images taken
16
Step 1: Set Up Image Calibration. The images in the

Sullivan directory are raw CB245 image frames that need to
be calibrated before any useful photometric information can
be extracted from them. Click on the Calibrate|Setup menu
item and select the standard calibration protocol. Use the file
DKAVE.FIT for the dark frame and MSTRFLT6.FIT for
the flat frame.
Step 3: Select the Image Set to be Measured. Check

the Calibrate Images checkbox. Click the Select Images button, and then select all of the files in the Sullivan directory
that have a .p1 extension. It is easier if, when you have invoked the Select Files dialog, you use the Files of Type select
box and select Any CB245 File (*.pa,*.p1) from the list.
Then click on the first file in the directory, shift-click on the
last file in it, and then click the Open button. This will select
the .p1 files but ignore the .fts files in the directory. The
Spectroscopy
images are named such that they are in alphabetical order, in
order of time. AIP4Win sorts the images in alpha-numeric order; it is a good idea to name your datasets this way so as to
preserve the order of your data.
Step 4: Select the Photometer Radii. Once you have
opened the image set, the first image will be displayed in an
image window. Click anywhere in it and a bullseye representing the photometer aperture will be drawn. You can use
the Radii controls on the Settings tab to adjust the aperture,
just as in the previous tools. For these images, the default values of 6, 9 and 15 work well.
If your were doing photometry on stars that were trailed
or out of focus, you would adjust the aperture to capture all
the starlight, and set the annulus radii to exclude any of the
stars light. It is a good idea to scan through your images using the File|Sort Images tool before you run the Multi-Image Photometry Tool, to make sure you spot any bad images
ahead of time. These problems do not render an image unsuitable for photometry, but it is necessary to adjust the radii.
Step 5: Select the Search Radius. The Multiple Image
Photometry Tool performs individual measurements on a series of images of the same star field. Once a V (variable) star
and set of C (comparison) stars has been identified, the tool
will attempt to track these stars from image to image. As there
is the possibility that the field will shift between exposures, it
is necessary to identify a radius, centered around the C1 star,
that will be searched to find the star centroid on each subsequent image in the set. This is done using the Track Search
Radius control on the Tracking tab. For this image set, a value
of 20 pixels accommodates the rather large drift between exposures without locking onto a neighboring star by mistake.
Step 6: Select the C and V Stars. Now you can select
your V and C stars. For this tutorial you need to select the star
at X = 215,Y = 102 (Z Draconis) for the V star,
X = 112,Y = 65 for the first comparison star, C1, and the one
at X = 335,Y = 98 for a second comparison star, C2. When
selecting stars, the first one you select is always the variable,
and the rest are numbered comparison stars. When you select
each one, a bullseye is drawn showing the inner, middle and
outer radii of the photometer aperture and a label, either V or
Cn (where n is the number of the comparison star).
You can delete a comparison star by clicking on it a second time. The star will be removed from the list, and the other
comparison stars will be renumbered. However, if you click
the variable star a second time, the entire list will be cleared.
You can also clear the list by clicking the Clear All Stars button on the Setup tab.
AIP4Win allows you to select up to 32 comparison stars,
and will track each one. If a comparison star drifts out of the
image, an error message is displayed at the conclusion of the
measurement run.
Step 7: Set the Tracking Mode. The Tracking Mode
radio buttons on the Tracking tab allow you to select the
tracking mode. If the images are well tracked, select Automat-
ic tracking. As the stars drift from one image to the next,
AIP4Win finds them by searching one target search radius in
all directions from the stars location in the previous image.

If the tracking error between images is greater than the
tracking radius, select the Manual tracking mode. Manual
tracking is cumbersomeit really pays to have a telescope
with a good clock drivebut it allows you to do good photometry even though your telescope has poor tracking.
Although the star images wander quite a bit, automatic
tracking will follow the stars in this data set, so click the Automatic radio button.
Step 8: Set the Target Tracking Mode. The
Target
Tracking Mode radio buttons control whether the V and C
stars are tracked individually, or whether the C1 star only is
tracked, using a fixed offset to identify the V and remaining
C stars. The Track C1 mode is for fixed targets such as variable stars. The Track C1 & V mode is for photometry of moving objects such as comets and asteroids. The Independent
mode tracks every star individually, should that ever be necessary.
For this tutorial we are following the light curve of an
eclipsing binary star, so the C Track mode should be selected.
Step 9: Start the Photometry Operation. Start
the
Multiple Image Photometry operation by clicking the OK button. You will be prompted for a location to save the photometry
data that will be generated. Choose a directory and file name on
your hard drive (not on the CD-ROM) for this purpose.
Each successive image in the set will now appear on the
screen, the V and Cn stars will be found and marked, and their
relative magnitudes logged. When the operation has finished,
a graph is displayed showing data plots for the differential
magnitude (V C1) and for the difference between the first
two comparison stars (C2 C1), to provide a quick check of
your data.
In thius exercise, you have measured the difference between the variable and comparison stars to find the moment
when the variable was in maximum eclipse.
Step 10: Import the Data into a Spreadsheet. When
the tool has finished, you will be left with a report file in the
Data Log that, like the output of other tools, can be imported
into most of the popular spreadsheet programs.
Chapter 10 explains how astronomers use standardized
color filters and carefully calibrated standard stars to measure
stellar magnitudes.
Spectroscopy
This tutorial demonstrates how to use AIP4Win to extract the
spectral curve from a star image obtained using an objective
prism. The same techniques can also be used with a slit or fiber-fed spectrograph.
The file we will use is called VegaSpectrum.fts and
can be found in the Spectroscopy subdirectory of the Tutorial
directory on the CD-ROM. This file is a spectrum of the zero-
AIP4Win Tutorials
Figure 8
By analyzing the starlight disbursed into wavelengths by a prism or diffraction

grating, astronomers can tell the temperature and composition of distant
stars. Seen here, the Spectroscopy tool is converting an enigmatic smear of
light into a graph displaying the characteristic pattern of hydrogen atoms.
magnitude type A0V star Vega in the constellation Lyra. This

image was acquired using a 6-inch objective prism mounted
on a 6-inch f/5 Newtonian telescope using a CookBook 245
CCD camera in 756-wide mode. The file has already been
calibrated via dark frame subtraction and flat-fielding; it has
been cropped to save space.
Step 1: Load the Spectrum Image. Open the VegaSpectrum.fts image and adjust the Display Control to best
view the spectrum. The image will appear as a streak stretching across the middle of the display, with the wavelength increasing from left to right.
Step 2: Invoke the Spectroscopy Tool. Click on the
Measure|Spectroscopy... menu item to invoke the Spectroscopy Tool. Position the spectrum image and the Spectroscopy
Tool so that both are visible on the screen.
Step 3: Select the region of the image containing the
spectrum. The Spectroscopy Tool has a set of text boxes and
sliders used to define three regions on the image. These regions are:
the background sky above the spectrum,

the region of the spectrum itself, and
the background sky below the spectrum.
The Spectroscopy Tool performs a median over the areas
identified as sky background and subtracts them from the
spectrum in order to remove the spectral contribution of those
areas from the stellar spectrum.
With an objective spectrum, the median is taken over the
entire sky background, since it may contain light from numerous other sources, especially in the case of a crowded star field.
18
In the case of a slit spectrograph, the median is taken on

a column-by-column basis, and subtracted from the spectrum
only in the corresponding column.
In the Spectrum Itself Box, move the Spect Top slider
until the Spect Top text box shows a value of 54. You will see
a line slide down the image until it just sits on top of the spectrum region. Move the Spect Bot slider until the Spect Bot
text box shows a value of 66. These two lines now define the
region of the image containing the spectrum.
Move the remaining sliders to the following positions:
Above Top: 10
Above Bot: 30
Below Top: 80
Below Bot: 100.
These two regions contain sky background with no visible
stellar contribution. Note that it is not always necessary to set
up the background sliders, especially if all you want to do is
to quickly view a spectral curve. They are provided principally as a means of calibrating the spectrum to remove the sky
background.
Step 3: Select the Spectrometer Mode. As mentioned
above, the Spectroscopy Tool handles the sky background removal for objective and slit spectrographs in different ways.
For this image you should select the Objective mode.
Step 4: Select the Vertical Scale Type. You have the
option of displaying the amplitude on either a Linear or a Logarithmic scale. For now, select the Linear one. You can experiment with a log display later.
Step 5: Generate the Spectral Curve. Click the OK
Image Enhancement
button and the spectrum will be displayed.
Step 6: Save the Spectrum to a File. Click the Save
button, and you will be prompted to save the spectrum data to
a file. This file is spreadsheet friendly, and can be easily
parsed into any standard program such as Microsoft Excel or
Lotus 123.
Once the spectral data have been loaded into a spreadsheet, you can use the same steps listed above to load the
spectrum of a calibration source taken with the same spectrograph. To calibrate the wavelengths of the unknown spectrum, you must calibrate the wavelength curve of the
spectrograph against a set of known spectral lines. Although
grating spectra are nearly linear, they are not perfectly so; and
prism spectra are strongly nonlinear.
Image Enhancement
This tutorial demonstrates a few of the image enhancement
tools in AIP4Win. In it and those that follow, you will learn
how to use these tools to extract detail from otherwise bland
images. More than just producing pretty pictures, these
techniques can be used to enhance details and show structures
that, because of their low contrast, would otherwise be invisible. Later tutorials show you which tools and processes to
use on deep-sky and planetary images.
You may have noticed that the arrangement of the
menus and the toolbar, the book itself, and to some extent
these tutorials, is such that the flow moves through the following steps:
1. Bring an image into the program,
2. view information contained within the image file
header,
3. calibrate the image,
4. make measurements on the image, and
5. enhance the image, including geometric transformations.
This is not accidental. This flow of operation is necessary to
preserve scientifically useful information. Up to this point in
the tutorials we have not made any changes to the information
contained in the image other than to remove noise and uneven
illumination effects caused by the optical system or sensitivity variation across the CCD detector.
The types of operations you will perform in this tutorial
will, for the most part, modify the data in a non-linear manner, rendering them useless for photometric purposes. You
will also be able to modify the spatial distribution of the data,
reducing their astrometric validity. It is for this reason that we
covered the measurement capabilities first, in keeping with
this flow.
The types of operations you will exercise in this tutorial
are some of the most fun capabilities of AIP4Win. With these
enhancement tools you can make pretty pictures as well as
display the hidden structure of astronomical objects you have
imaged with your CCD camera. These operations work well

on scanned photographs as well, and provide capabilities that
just arent possible in the darkroom.
A final note before starting: preserve your original files.
You cannot unenhance a processed image and recover the
original data. Now, lets get started.
Brightness Scaling
This is the most basic of image enhancement functions, and
is the most frequently used. AIP4Win uses brightness scaling
operations when displaying data on your computer screen.
Having the Auto Low/High Stretch capability selected causes
the program to examine the range of pixel values in the image
and assign the lowest value found to black and the highest one
to white. All the other values are spread across the 254 available gray levels in between.
Step 1: Load an Image. To make the results of this tutorial more visible, we are going to set the default image
stretch mode to Black/White Stretch. You do this by selecting
the Black/White Stretch button on the Defaults tab of the Image Display Control. (You will need to load an image first, in
order for this window to come up.) Make sure that the Black/
White Stretch values are set to 0 and 65535. First load the image file m16.fts from the Image Enhancement subdirectory
of the Tutorial directory on the CD-ROM. When the image
loads, click the Default B/W button on the Image Display Control.
You will see that the image is completely black, or only
faintly displays the brighter stars and blooming trails, and
gives no hint at all at what faint objects hide in it. In this view,
the pixel value of zero is assigned to the gray level of zero,
and the value of 65535 (the maximum value for a 16-bit CCD
camera) is assigned the gray level of 255. If you right-click
on the image, the Image Status window will open, displaying
(among other things) the minimum and maximum pixel values present in it.
For now, leave the Black/WhiteStretch as the Default
Display Mode, as it will make the effects of the various enhancement tools much more apparent.
Step 2: Invoke the Brightness Scaling Tool. Click on
the Enhance|Brightness Scaling menu item to bring up the
Scale Image window. Leave the Info window on the screen;
you will be using it later.
The Brightness Scaling tool window has the following
controls and displays:
Transfer Function display, which shows

the histogram of the image, overlaid with
the transfer function curve being applied.
a set of tabs labelled Inputs, Transfer, Outputs, and Options,
an Inputs tab, which contains the Low and

High Pixel Values controls, used to set the
AIP4Win Tutorials
black and white pixel values in the image.
The Low and High Pixel Values controls
are automatically updated by clicking the
Auto button after adjusting the Black Point
and White Point controls. They can also be
set manually,
Transfer tab, which contains buttons to

set the Scaling Type and its associated
parameters. This controls the shape of the
transfer function,
an
Outputs tab, which contains the Low

Output PV and High Output PV controls,
used to set the output range of the pixel

values in the image,
an
Options tab, which contains controls

that allow you to adjust what information
is displayed in this tool,
a Preview display, allowing you to see the

results of a scaling operation before it is
performed on the whole image. This is
updated by clicking the Preview button, or
by changing any of the parameters on this
tool.
Step 3: Set the Scaling Range. Initially, the Min PV
and Max PV values are set to the values determined by the default settings of the Black Point and White Point controls.
Leaving the Scaling type set at Linear for now, set the Black
Point to 0.01 and the White Point to 0.98, and then click the
Auto button. You will see that Low/High Pixel Values change
to near 51 and 172. If the preview display hasnt updated yet,
click the Preview button to see what the image will look like
with these values. Suddenly, the familiar form of the Eagle
Nebula appears in the preview display. The preview capability operates on a reduced-size version of the CCD image. (It
may not display the entire image.) It is much faster than trying
out different combinations of Low/High Pixel Values, and
Scaling Types and generating a new image for each one. This
is especially important if you have limited memory, a slower
CPU, or a large image loaded.
Step 4: Create a Scaled Image. Click the Apply button and a new image will be created from the original, scaled
using the parameters you entered. Click on the Info window
to bring it to the foreground and click its Update button; you
will see that the Min PV is now zero, the Max PV is 65535.
Examine the two images side by side and notice how much
more detail is visible.
Step 5: Gamma Scaling. Click on the original
m16.fts image to make it current. Set the Black Point and
White Point values to 0.01 and 0.98 and select Gamma scaling
on the Transfer tab. Click on the buttons to the right of the
Gamma control in the Scaling Parameters box to obtain a value of 1.8. Notice that as the value increases from its default of
20
zero, the low-level detail is now more prominent. Click the

Apply button to create a new image and compare it to the one
created using linear scaling. Notice the difference in the small
histogram displayed on the Image Display Control as you
click on the titlebar of the linear scaled image and then the titlebar of the gamma scaled image. See how the lower values
in the histogram have been spread out.
Step 6: Gammalog Scaling. Perform the previous step
again, but this time select Gammalog scaling. Remember to
re-select the m16.fts image to make it the current image.
Use the default GammaLog value of 0.350. Compare the image you created to the Gamma scaled image. Notice how the
low-level detail is enhanced, but the background contrast has
increased.
Step 7: Sawtooth Scaling. Select Sawtooth scaling.
Use the default value for Sawteeth of 5. Remember to select
the original image and to reset the Low Point and High Point
values to 0.01 and 0.98 and to click the Auto button. The Preview display will show you a grayscale that repeats itself over
and over to show up a great deal of detail in the structure of
this nebula. This type of scaling is not always very pretty, but
it is hard to beat when you want to see the subtle details.
Step 8: Experiment. Try out the different scaling techniques and play with the parameters to get a feel for how the
tool affects different images.
Close all the open images and tools when you are finished. You can do this in one step by clicking on the Window|
Close all Images menu item.
Histogram Shaping
The previous tool, Brightness Scaling, operates on an image
by examining the range of pixels in it and assigning new pixel
values based on where each lies in the range between the values selected for black and white. Histogram Shaping, while
looking superficially similar, works in an entirely different
way. While both tools reassign each pixel value in the original image to a new value, Histogram Shaping does it by trying
to force the histogram of the image, as a whole, to a new
shape. While we used the Statistics Tool to examine the effects of the Brightness Scaling Tool, we will use the Histogram Display to show the effects of Histogram Shaping.
Step 1: Load the Image. For this tutorial, we will
again use the image of the Eagle Nebula, m16.fts from the
Image Enhancement tutorial directory. Load it, and click the
Default B/W Stretch button for this display mode.
Step 2: Examine the Image Histogram. Create a histogram of the image by clicking the Measure|Histogram...
menu item. Examine it and notice how the spectrum peaks at
47 ADUs and falls off in an exponential fashion until it hits
10 pixels at a pixel value of around 1000 ADUs. It has a narrow peak at about 1500 and then a broader one at 3000. Most
of the image structure is buried in that initial peak, and its
only about 600 ADUs wide. What we will do is to change the
shape of this histogram in various ways to bring out the struc-
Image Enhancement
ture of the nebula.
Step 3: Invoke the Histogram Shaping Tool. Click
on the Enhance|Histogram Shaping menu item to invoke
the Histogram Shaping Tool. This tool window contains several tabs and a Preview display, just as with the Brightness
Scaling Tool. Preview allows you to experiment with different histogram shapes until you find one that suits the image
and features you are trying to bring out.
The Transfer tab contains a Scaling Type box with buttons showing ten types of histogram shaping available. Some
of the different histogram shapes have a parameter which is
set with the slider underneath the Scaling Type box, while
others take no parameters.
Step 4: Preview an Exponential Histogram Shape.
The default histogram shape is the Exponential Histogram. This option has proven to be effective for many faint
deep-sky objects. Examine the Preview display and see how it
works on the image of the Eagle Nebula. Slide the Peak Skew
slider around and notice how the pre-calculated histogram
shape changes. This is intended to help you visualize how you
are shaping the image histogram. The red curve shows the histogram of the original image, while the blue curve shows the
histogram that will result from the application of this tool, and
the Preview display shows how the image will look.
Step 5: Create a New Image with an Exponential
Histogram Shape. Set the Sigma Spread to a value of 42 and
click Apply; a new image will be created with the Exponential
histogram shape.
Step 6: Compare the Histograms of the Two
Images. Now examine the histogram of the new image. Click
on the still-open Histogram window and click the Refresh
button. This histogram is radically different from that of the
original image. First, it now stretches from down around zero
to up around 65535, the maximum value represented in 16
bits. Second, it is evenly spread across the whole range. Because of the exponential shape, the range of values containing
the nebula now stretches from about 10,000 to roughly
50,000, a full two-thirds of the histogram. As a result the nebula is very prominent in the image.
Step 7: Try Other Histogram Shapes. Close all the
images, which will close all the tools, and reopen the
m16.fts image. Try the different histogram shapes on it.
Also try other images in the collection on the CD-ROM. See
how planetary images benefit from different histogram
shapes than those used for deep-sky objects.
When you are finished, close all the open images.
blocks of more complex operations.

For this tutorial, be sure that Auto Lo/HiStretch is selected as the default display mode in the Image Display Control
window.
Step 1: Load an Image. From the Image Enhancement
Tutorial subdirectory, load the image moon.pa. This is an
image taken with a Cookbook 245 CCD camera through a
telescope with a tiny 6-millimeter aperture, so the image appears rather soft. We will use this image later with some more
powerful techniques.
Step 2: Apply the Noise Filter. The Noise Filter is not,
in a strict sense, a convolution filter, but rather a local median
filter. It is useful in this case because a dark frame was not acquired with the image, and there are a few hot pixels that affect the processing. If you look around X = 80,Y = 180, you
will see one of them. The Noise Filter can be useful in cleaning up images like these; but take care, it does remove fine detail.
Click the Enhance|Noise Filter menu item and the
Noise Filter window will appear. Leave the Deviation control
set at 1 and click Apply. A new image will appear in which
the hot pixels are gone.
Step 3: Apply the Crispen Filter. Click the titlebar of
the noise filtered image to make sure it is active. Then click
the Enhance|Convolution Filters|Crispen... menu item. A
new image will appear in which the detail has been greatly
enhanced. See how the contrast has increased and the detail
in the craters has become more prominent.
Now try the crispen filter on the original moon.pa image by clicking its titlebar and invoking the crispen filter again.
You will see a new image appear in which the lunar details are
more prominent, as before; but also notice that the hot pixels in
the image are enhanced along with the others. The filter enhances everything; it has no way of knowing which pixels are
pure and which have been corrupted by noise. High-pass filters enhance noise.
Step 4: Apply the Sharpen Filter. Try the same steps
you used in Step 2 but using the Sharpen Filter. Notice how
the resulting image is much harsher. This is a fairly strong filter.
Step 5: Apply the Low-Pass Smooth and Blur Filters. Try the same steps using the Smooth and Blur filters and
notice how the fine details in the image are suppressed.
When you are finished experimenting, close all the open
images.
Convolution Filtering
Convolution filters are rather coarse devices used to sharpen
or soften an image. You can use them on lunar and planetary
images to help remove the softness caused by poor focus and
bad seeing. You can also use them to build your own unsharp
masks, although AIP4Win provides several ways to do this
automatically. Essentially, these filters are useful building
Unsharp Masking
Unsharp masking is a powerful technique for exposing detail
in an image where bright regions tend to wash it out. It is especially useful with planetary images, bright nebulae and
overexposed galaxy cores. It is the real workhorse of the planetary imager.
AIP4Win Tutorials
window.
Step 1: Load an Image. From the Image Enhancement
Tutorial subdirectory, load 03119204.ccd. This is a nice
clean lunar image that has been affected by the turbulent atmosphere during the exposure. We will compare the unsharp
masking technique to the crispen filter we used in the last tutorial section.
Step 2: Invoke the Unsharp Masking Tool. Click on
the Enhance|Unsharp Mask menu item to open the Unsharp
Mask Tool. Leave the Mask Type set to Gaussian with a Radius of 2 and set the Contrast to 5 and click Apply. See how
much more detail is visible in the crater floor.
Try it again with the Parabolic mask. Be sure to click on
the original image first. See how the Parabolic mask has a
slightly more contrasty result. Try the other mask types and
compare the results.
Try adjusting the Radius and Contrast controls as well
to become familiar with their effects.
As the screen fills up with images, you may get confused as to what image has had what kind of processing applied to it. To see the history of any image on the screen,
right-click on it, or click on the Measure|Statistics|Image...
menu item. The Image Status window will pop up. Select the
History tab, and you will be presented with a list showing the
original image name and all the processing steps in the order
in which they were applied to the image. This history is saved
in the FITS header when you save an image as a FITS file.
Step 3: Open the Next Image. Open
the
image
J0703075.ccd. This one, by expert planetary imager Don
Parker, shows Jupiter taken in white light. As you can see,
there is a hint of detail there, but the contrast is very low. If
you adjust the Black and White controls on the Image Display
Control window, you can get a feel for how much detail is
there that is not readily visible because of the wide dynamic
range of the image. Unsharp Masking compresses the dynamic range to make it more visible to the eye.
Step 4: Apply an Unsharp Mask to the Image. Invoke the Unsharp Mask Tool and apply a Gaussian mask with
a radius of 3 and a contrast of 4. Click the Auto Min/Max button on the Image Display Control window to see the entire
range of brightness in the image. See how much hidden detail
was brought out using the Unsharp Mask Tool.
When you are finished, close any open images.
Deconvolution
Deconvolution as a technique for restoring astronomical images became really well known when it was discovered that
the Hubble Space Telescope mirror was flawed. The near miraculous ability of this computationally intensive technique
saved the day for NASA, and, judiciously applied, can be
used to reduce the effects of atmospheric seeing and slightly
less-than-perfect focus in your own images. In this tutorial we
22
will use the two types of deconvolution provided by AIP4Win

to enhance the detail in both planetary and deep-sky CCD images.
window.
Step 1: Load a Planetary Image. Load the image
03119204.ccd that we used in the previous session. You
can compare the results of using deconvolution with the unsharp masking technique we covered earlier.
Step 2: Set Up the Deconvolution Parameters. Deconvolution is a much more complex process than any we
have used up to this point and, depending on how the parameters are set up, can take a very long time to run. The execution time is dependent on the size of the image, the size of the
mask used, the deconvolution algorithm applied, and the
number of iterations. We have purposely selected a small image in order to allow you to experiment with the various processing parameters to get a feel for how they affect the results.
Invoke the Deconvolution Tool by clicking the
Enhance|Deconvolution menu item. The Deconvolution
Tool will open, and you will see a series of three tabs containing the following displays and controls.
On the Point Spread tab:
Point Spread Function. Three options for
controlling the point spread function used
in the deconvolution are provided.
Gaussian PSF is the default, and it provides a text box in which you enter the
sigma of the PSF (the sigma is half of the
FWHM of the star image). This is the
option we will use for this tutorial. Set the
PSF to a value of 2.0.
Gaussian PSF based on selected stars
allows you to determine the sigma of the

PSF by selecting a series of stars to average together.
PSF constructed from selected stars
allows you to create a custom PSF by

selecting a series of stars, whose profiles
are averaged together to create a kernel
used in the deconvolution.
PSF Display. Here you are presented with
a view of the actual kernel used in the
deconvolution process.
On the Deconvolution tab:
Select Process. There are three options
here: van Cittert, Lucy-Richardson (Fast)
and Lucy-Richardson (Slow). Van Cittert
is the best for planetary details, while L-R
works best on deep-sky objects. It is worth
experimenting on your images, but these
are good starting points. For this image,
select the van Cittert algorithm.
Image Enhancement
Number of Iterations. Each of the decon-
volution routines is iterative, meaning it

gets applied over and over. Five to ten iterations usually work the best, but larger
numbers can be very effective (if somewhat time-consuming) for some images.
For this first run, set to a value of 16.
Relaxation Parameter. This controls the
damping of noise. For this first run leave it
set at the default value of 0.1.
On the Settings tab:
Display Iterations. Checking this box will

allow you to monitor the progress of the
deconvolution. During this process, a status box will be displayed which contains a
Stop button. Clicking on this button will
stop the deconvolution at the current number of iterations. This can be handy when
you are not sure how many iterations you
want it to execute. For this tutorial, make
sure the Display Iterations box is checked.
Process
high-frequency
components
only. In general, deconvolution has its
greatest effect on the high-frequency components of an image. Low-frequency parts

can be removed from the image, the
deconvolution applied to the high-frequency components that remain, and then
the original low-frequency part can be recombined with the result. For now leave
this unchecked.
Step 3: Run the Deconvolution. Now click the Execute Deconvolution button to begin the process. A status bar
will appear to let you know the progress. Five iterations on a
small image should take only a few seconds.
When it finishes, you will be left with a new image that
looks a bit sharper than the original. With only five iterations,
the results are slightly less sharp than the unsharp masked
version we created earlier. Run an unsharp mask on the original image to compare the two.
Try running the deconvolution on the original image
with more iterations but the same other parameters. For a
start, try 32 iterations. The image initially becomes sharper
with more iterations. However, at some pointtypically several hundred iterationsincreasing the number will produce
no further improvement.
Close all the open images when you are done.
Step 4: Try a Deep-Sky Object. Load the image
NGC6888.fts from the Image Enhancement tutorial subdirectory. This is an image of the Crescent Nebula imaged
through a Hydrogen-alpha filter by one of the authors. We
will use L-R deconvolution to sharpen up the star images. Invoke the Deconvolution Tool (it helps to move it off to the left
side of the screen) and set it up as follows:

Point Spread Function: Gaussian PSF based on selected
stars
Deconvolution Type: Lucy-Richardson (Slow)
Relaxation Parameter: 0.1 (default)
Number of Iterations: 32 (default)
Display Iterations: checked (default)
Process high-frequency components only: checked
(default).
Now select a few stars with the mouse and click on each
one. Try to choose stars that are not too bright or saturated
what we are looking for is average stars. As you click on
each, you will see the PSF value changing as its PSF is averaged into the group. The PSF Display will show you the PSF
that will be used in the deconvolution. The value you get for
the PSF is dependent on the profiles of the selected stars, and
varies depending on the optics, the camera pixel size, and the
seeing conditions present when the image was acquired.
Then click Execute Deconvolution to start the deconvolution. Because this image is larger, iterations take longer
than they did with the small planetary image. When it is done,
you will need to change the display parameters to compare
the two. Select each image and click on the Auto button. You
will also find it helps to set the Gamma to a value of 2 to bring
out the faint nebulosity. Notice how much sharper the star images are, and how the bright star at X=288, Y=280 is much
less bloated. Detail in the nebula is also enhanced.
The value for sigma used in the PSF needs to be carefully chosen in order to avoid dark ring artifacts around stars.
The rings are characteristic of Lucy-Richardson deconvolution with the PSF value set too large. By specifying this value
through the selection of typical stars in the image, these artifacts can be all but eliminated.
Wavelet Spatial Filtering
One of the most exciting image processing technologies to
come along in recent years is wavelet processing. AIP4Wins
Wavelet Spatial Filter provides unique capabilities for image
enhancement not matched by other processing techniques. To
get the most out of this tutorial it is recommended that you
read Chapter 18, so you will have a better idea of what is happening, as well as a better understanding of the terminology.
window.
Step 1: Load an image.
Load
the
image
IC5070HaStack.fts from the Image Enhancement tutorial
subdirectory. This image is a Hydrogen-alpha filtered image
of the Pelican Nebula. (The pelican namesake is recognizable
if you use the Transform|Translate-Rotate-Scale... tool to
perform a quick 90 degree counterclockwise rotation of the
image. Try it and see.)
Step 2: Invoke the Wavelet Spatial Filter tool. Click
AIP4Win Tutorials
on the Enhance|Wavelet Spatial Filter... menu item, and the
Wavelet Spatial Filter tool will open. This tool is divided into
four panels with the following controls:
Maximum Wavelet Scale. Sets the limit of

the largest pixel scale that will be processed.
Wavelet Profile sliders. Set the amount of
enhancement for each pixel scale.
Add Constant checkbox. Allows you to
add a bias to the image, to help keep the
processed values from going negative.
No Dark Rings around Stars checkbox.
Does just what it says; checking this box
prevents the dark rings that can occur during aggressive filtering operations.
Select/Un-Select All. These buttons can be
used to control whether the entire range of
pixel scales is processed or not.
Settings. Allows you to save and recall
your favorite filter settings.
Apply Filter button. Starts the wavelet filtering process.
To make this tutorial easier, we have saved a filter using

the Save button and will recall it to quickly set up the tool.
Step 3: Load a predefined filter. Click the Recall button to load the filter that has already been set up. This tool allows you to configure a filter and save the settings in a file so
that you can recall it later. In this way you can create a library
of your favorite filters and share them with other users. The
filter is called Sharpen.wlt and is located in the Enhancement tutorial subdirectory where you found the current image
file.
Step 4: Run the Wavelet Spatial Filter. Now click
the Apply Filter button. A status bar will appear to let you
know the progress. Wavelet filtering demands an enormous
amount of computation, so filtering a really large image can
take several minutes. The status bar provides a Cancel button
if you need to stop the process before completion.
You will see that when stretched to the same range as
the original image, the resulting image has much greater contrast. This tool tends to enhance brighter features and abrupt
edges and is wonderful for enhancing nebulae. It works particularly well on images taken through a Hydrogen-alpha filter.
Try an experiment, and compare the result with the Unsharp Mask and Deconvolution tools.
Morphological Processing
Morphological processes are not the usual stock-in-trade of
astronomical image processing, but some of them do have
their uses from time to time. AIP4Win provides a whole suite
of these functions, the most useful of which are the featuredetection operators. In this tutorial, we will explore several of
24
those functions. However, the Contour Map is probably the

most fun. Our test image shows the Whirlpool Galaxy, M51.
Step 1: Load the Image. Load
the
image
file
m51.fts from the Image Enhancement subdirectory of the
Tutorial directory on the CD-ROM. Check the Auto button on
the Image Display Control to make sure the image is fully
stretched.
Step 2: Invoke and Setup the Contour Map Tool.
Click the Enhance|Morphological Operations|Contour Mapping menu item to bring up the Contour Map
Tool. There are two mapping options: Outline Regions of
Equal Area, or One Contour Line at a Given Pixel Value. Select the first one, which will create a display like a topographic map. There is a slider/text box labelled How Many Contour
Lines?. The more lines you have, the longer the map will take
to generate. For a slow PC, this can be quite a while. For this
example, pick 5 (unless you have a fast machine; then, choose
10).
Step 3: Create the Contour Map. Click the Apply
button and a window will pop up that shows the status of the
mapping operation. When it is done, a new image will appear
containing the contour map of the original image.
Step 4: Adjust the Display. You can use the Image
Display Control to remove the gray sky background by increasing the Black value until the background darkens. What
you are doing here is to turn off the contour lines around the
background image noise.
Step 5: Blur the Original Image. Click on the original
image, and then invoke the Blur Tool by clicking on the
Enhance|Blur... menu item. We will use the Blur Tool to apply a Gaussian blur to the image to smooth it. This will reduce
the jaggedness of the contour lines.
Select a Radius of 3 pixels, click Apply, and a fuzzy version of M51 will be created.
Step 6: Rerun the Contour Map. Invoke the Contour
Map Tool and set it up as in Step 3, but this time using the
blurred version of the image, and click Apply. You will notice
that the contour lines are much smoother in the resulting map.
Experiment with the various settings and try resampling
the image to 200% (resample using Transform|Resample).
This will leave more room for the contour lines in the map.
Close all open images when you are done.
Fast Fourier Transform

AIP4Win implements one of the most powerful of all image
processing tools: spatial filtering. The Fast Fourier Transform
(FFT), the basic process behind most spatial processing, is
covered in Chapter 17. Before running this tutorial, read this
chapter to gain an understanding of spatial filtering.
The Fast Fourier Transform is a computationally accelerated technique for determining the frequency spectrum of a
signal. In two dimensions, it can be applied to an image. The
reason for transforming an image from the spatial domain to
Fast Fourier Transform

the frequency domain is that some operations, most notably
filtering operations, become much simpler. In filtering an image, we are usually trying to enhance or suppress detail that
occurs when pixels make a transition in intensity. Transitions
that happen rapidly contain high frequencies, and transitions
that happen more gradually contain low ones.
When we applied the Crispening Filter to the image of
the Moon in Section C.7.3, we were enhancing the high frequencies to bring out detail. The Crispening Filter is a convolution filter, which is limited in what it can do, and tends to
be rather coarse. The FFT filters we will demonstrate in this
tutorial are extremely flexible, and allow you to exercise
much more control over the filter characteristics.
The basic steps in filtering an image using FFT techniques are:
1. Convert the image to suitable dimensions.
2. Perform a forward FFT to transform it to the frequency domain.
3. Create a filter mask suitable to the filtering desired.
4. Multiply the image by the filter mask.
5. Perform an inverse FFT on the result.
This tutorial will demonstrate these steps using the manual FFT tools, and then demonstrate the use of the Auto FFT
feature of AIP4Win. The images to be used can be found in
the Fast Fourier Transform subdirectory of the Tutorials directory on the AIP4Win CD-ROM.
Step 1: Load an Image and Convert the Dimensions. The FFT technique has an inherent limitation. Any image you wish to apply it to needs to be square (i.e., have an
equal number of pixels in each dimension), and the dimensions need to be integer powers of 2 (e.g., 2 x 2, 4 x 4, 8 x 8,
16 x 16, and so on) These are requirements of the FFT algorithm. It is also desirable that the pixels in the image be
squared up prior to the processing.
Load the image triangle.fts. It is a simple 128 x 128
image consisting of a white triangle on a black background.
This image is of suitable dimensions already. Later on we will
apply the technique to a more real world example.
Step 2: Perform a Forward FFT. Perform a forward
FFT on this image by clicking the Enhance|Manual FFT|
Forward FFT menu item. An image appears which is a bunch
of diagonal lines. This image container holds the frequencydomain version of the triangle image. The picture it shows is
a plot of the frequencies in the image versus their amplitude.
The frequency plot has zero in the center with positive frequencies to the right and negative ones to the left. This is
called the real axis. Running vertically through the center of
the plot is the imaginary axis. Amplitude is plotted as intensity of the pixels in the picture. Low frequencies are clustered
around the center of the plot and increase in frequency as you
move outward.
Step 3: Create a Butterworth Filter Mask. Click
the
Enhance|Manual FFT|Butterworth Filter Mask menu
item and the Butterworth Filter Generator window will pop

up. This window is used to generate a filter mask to be applied to the image. The filter mask is multiplied by the FFT
image to change the distribution of frequencies in the image.
If the filter mask has very small values around its center, the
masked FFT will have severely reduced low-frequency components. If the mask is dark around the edges, the masked
FFT will have reduced high frequency components. One big
advantage this approach gives us is that we can also generate
band pass and band stop filters, which leave the low and
high frequencies and remove those in between, or vice-versa.
The Butterworth Filter Generator window has a display
showing a plot of the frequency characteristics of the filter it
will generate, along with controls to change the shape of it.
There is also a control to affect the size of the filter mask. This
mask must be the same size as the image you are filtering.
Click the Low Pass, High Pass, Band Pass and Band
Stop radio buttons to see what the various filter shapes look
like. Move the Filter Order slider back and forth, and you will
see the filter get steeper and shallower. When the low pass filter is selected, a Low Pass Radius control is visible which
changes the cutoff point for the filter. Each of the other options enables a different control. The band pass and band stop
filters have an additional control to adjust the width of the
pass or stop band.
Now lets generate a mask. Set the filter mask for a Low
Pass filter with a Filter Size of 128 x 128. Set the Filter Order
to 1 and a Low Pass Radius of 16. Click Generate Filter, and
a filter mask will be displayed as an image. As you can see, it
is bright in the center, gradually fading to the edges. This tells
us that the low frequencies will be relatively unaffected, but
that high ones will be attenuated more and more as frequency
increases.
Step 4: Mask the FFT. Now lets apply the mask to the
FFT. Click the Enhance|Manual FFT|Mask Fourier Transform... menu item. The Mask FFT window will appear.
This window contains four controls:
Fourier Image. Selects the Fourier Trans-
form image that you want to mask.

Masked With. Selects which image to use
as a mask. Choose the Low-Pass Filter
image.
Base Value. When the base value is 0, frequencies blocked by the filter remain
blocked; when the base value is 1, all frequencies present in the original image are
passed through the filter. For now, leave
this set to 0.
Contrast. Multiplies the transmission of
the filter by the contrast factor. This means
that the filter does not merely attenuate
unwanted frequencies, but can also
amplify desired ones, increasing the effec-
AIP4Win Tutorials
tive contrast of the image. For now, leave
this set to 1.
Now click Apply and a copy of the FFT image appears,
but it is bright in the center and darker toward the edges,
showing the effects of having been multiplied by the filter
mask. Remember, this display is just a representation of the
FFT of the image. The real FFT is a pair of complex, floating
point arrays containing the real and imaginary frequency
components of the triangle image. You cannot directly edit
the FFT.
Step 5: Perform an Inverse FFT. Now click on the
Butterworth Filter masked version of the FFT that was just
produced to make sure it is active and then click the Enhance
|Manual FFT|Inverse FFT menu item. A fuzzy version of
the original triangle will appear. This fuzziness is caused
by the high frequencies associated with the abrupt transition
from pure white to pure black at the edges of the triangle.
Step 6: Experiment. You can use the FFT Mask Generator to create different filters that have a number of effects
on the triangle image. Just repeat steps 3, 4 and 5 above, using
different parameters for the Butterworth Filter.
Close all the images except for the original triangle.fts
image when you are done.
Step 7: Auto FFT. Performing FFT filtering manually
is a complicated process. AIP4Win provides an automated
tool to do this for you. Click the Enhance|FFT Filter menu
item. The Butterworth FFT Filter window will appear.
At first glance this looks just like the FFT Mask Generator window, but note that the Filter Size radio buttons are
missing, and the controls from the Mask FFT window have
been added. This tool will automatically take the selected image and float it on a larger one, if necessary, to bring it to the
required square, power-of-2 dimensions needed by the FFT
algorithm. It will then automatically run each of the steps listed above, and you will be able to see the individual windows
appear as the steps are performed.
Select the triangle.fts image, and then set up the filter
as follows:
Filter Shape: Low Pass
Filter Order: 4
Low-Pass Radius: 4
Base Value: 0
Contrast: 1
Click Apply and watch what happens. The result should be a
series of images flashing by, leaving a very fuzzy version of
the original image.
Step 8: Try a Real Image. Open the 030119204.ccd
image from the Image Enhancement tutorial directory. Invoke the Auto FFT Tool and set it up as follows:
Filter Shape: High Pass
Filter Order: 1
High-Pass Radius: 16
Base Value: 0
26
Contrast: 1
Click Apply. A new image will be generated which is a greatly sharpened version of the original. You may want to raise
the Min. Pixel Value control on the Display Control window
to improve the contrast. You can use the Brightness Scaling
Tool to adjust the contrast as well.
Try out different settings on the Auto FFT Tool to see
how they affect the appearance of the final image. Like all the
other tools, it pays to experiment to get comfortable with how
it will perform.
Close all open images when you are finished.
Multiple Image Processing

AIP4Win provides a set of multiple-image processing features that allow you to perform repetitive operations on a
specified set of images. These processes provide the ability
to:
Calibrate an entire observing sessions

worth of images at one time automatically.
Align and enhance a set of images in preparation for creating a movie.
Align and combine a group of images to

create a single, deeper image.
Enhance a set of planetary images.

This tutorial demonstrates creation of images with Track &
Stack, one of the most useful of the multiple-image operations.
Track and Stack
Track and stack is a technique by which multiple shorter-exposure images are aligned with each other and added together
to achieve the effect of a single, deeper image. This method
is useful when short exposures are desired to prevent bright
stars in the field from blooming. It is also frequently used
with CCD cameras attached to telescopes that dont track by
themselves long enough to avoid trailing on longer exposures. Some people even use this method to avoid guiding images altogether.
Nothing comes for free, however. While the image on a
CCD adds directly, making the final image value equal to a
single exposure with the same total integration time, the
quantization and readout noise adds with the square root of
the number of images combined. So a stack of images is noisier than the equivalent single exposure.
In this tutorial we will walk through the steps used to
combine a stack of eight exposures into a single image. The
relevant files are found on the CD-ROM in the Tutorials\Multiple Images directory and comprise a series of images of the
Veil Nebula along with their corresponding calibration
frames.
Step 1: Set up the Image Calibration. You need to
have the calibration set up before you begin the AutoProcess-
Multiple Image Processing

ing. Click on the Calibrate|Setup menu item to open the
Calibration setup window. Select Advanced for the Calibration Protocol.
Select the Bias tab and click the Use Bias Frame radio
button. Click the Select Bias Frame(s) button and when the
file selection dialog pops up, navigate to the Tutorials\Multiple Images directory on the CDROM and select the file
named 1x1SXVMasterBias.fts and click Open. Now that
the bias frame has been loaded, click the Process Bias
Frame(s) button; you will see that the Subtract Bias checkbox
is now checked.
Select the Dark tab and click the Select Dark Frame(s)
button. Use the file 1x1SXVMasterDark480.fts for the dark
frame. Click the Automatic Dark Matching radio button and
then click the Process Dark Frame(s) button; a status bar will
pop up as the dark frame is processed. When it finishes, you
will see that the Subtract Dark Frame box is now checked.
Select the Flat tab and click the Select Flat Frame(s) button. Use the file 1x1SXVMasterFlat.fts for the flat frame.
Click the Process Flat Frame(s) button; you will see that the
Apply Flatfield Correction box is now checked.
Select the Defect tab and click the Select Defect Map
button. Use the file 1x1SXVDefectMap040714.fts for the
defect map; you will see that the Correct Defects box is now
checked.
Now dismiss the Calibration setup window by clicking
Close.
Step 2: Invoke the Deep Sky AutoProcess Tool.
Click on the Multi-Image|Auto-Process|Deep Sky
menu item, and the AutoProcess Multiple Images window
will appear. This is definitely one of the most complex windows in the entire program, but for this tutorial we will only
be using a few of its features.
The Deep Sky AutoProcess window is arranged in a series of tabs, in the order in which each is used. Rather than describe each one here, we urge you to read the help file
associated with this window. You can access the context-sensitive help screen for this window by clicking its titlebar and
then pressing the F1 key. You dont need to read it now, but
be aware that this tool is completely described in the on-line
help, as are all the others.
Until a set of files is selected, the tabs are disabled, in
order to prevent unintended user actions.
Step 3: Select the Files to be Stacked. Click the Select Files button and select the files NGC6992Ha_001.fit
through NGC6992Ha_008.fit by clicking the first of the
files, holding down the shift key, and clicking the last of the
files and click Open.
Step 4: Setup the AutoProcess Parameters. For this
tutorial you will need to select the following options:
Process Type. Select Average Stack if it is

not already selected. It will cause the
images to be combined in a stack and aver-
aged together. Other possibilities are Sum

Stack, Median Stack, k-sigma Stack and
Individual Files.
Calibrate Image. Check this box on the
Pre-Process tab to use the calibration we
just set up.
2X Resample. Check this to preserve as
much of the image resolution as possible
when the image is shifted. Leave it
unchecked for this tutorial.
Prescale. Check this box to cause pixel
values in each image to be multiplied by
the Scale Factor before the image is added
to the stack. Leave it unchecked for this
tutorial.
Scale Factor. Leave this set to the default
of 10.
Noise Filter. Check this box and set the
Deviation to its maximum value of 3. This
will remove any remaining hot pixels or
cosmic ray hits in the images as they are
stacked.
Step 5: Select the Master Frame. On the Alignment

tab, use this drop-down list to select one of the images for use
as a master when doing an alignment. Generally, you will
have fewer difficulties tracking if you select the first image in
the series; in this case you would select
NGC6992Ha_001.fit. The image will now be calibrated,
noise filtered and displayed. You can see that it is a bit noisy.
By lowering the White value on the Image Display Control,
you will be able to more easily visualize the noise. This is a
large image. To make room on your screen, you can set the
Zoom on the Image Display Control to some convenient value less than 100%. Now when each subsequent image is displayed, it will be zoomed to this size.
Step 6: Select the Alignment Mode. For this image
stack you will be using the 2 Star alignment mode. This gives
results superior to 1-star alignment, but it involves a little bit
of additional work, since two stars need to be selected. It has
the advantage of correcting field rotation between images.
Click on the 2 Star alignment radio button, and you will
see a set of alignment star selection buttons appear. There is
also a Track Radius control, which is used to adjust the size
of the region in which the program will attempt to find a stellar centroid. In dense areas it helps to make this small enough
so that only a single star fits inside. In sparser starfields it can
be set larger to make it easier to capture a centroid. For this
tutorial you should set it to a value of 12.
Step 7: Choose the Alignment Stars. The alignment
stars in the image consist of a pair of stars as widely separated
as possible, which exhibit nice round images. The only serious requirement for selecting each star is that it be present in
all of the images you are trying to stack. To this end you will
want to keep well away from the edges of the image. Gener-
AIP4Win Tutorials
ally, selecting stars in opposite corners works the best.
There is an excellent candidate at X = 286,Y = 138. If
the image covers the Display Control window, you can move
it over a bit until the window is visible, or reduce the image
size by zooming to a value less than 100%. Click on this star,
and a circle will appear around it. Now click the Star 1 button,
and a yellow circle with the number 1 below it will appear
around the star.
There is another good candidate at X = 1136,Y = 916.
Click this star, and then click the Star 2 button. A yellow circle
will now appear around this star with the number 2 below it.
If for some reason you decide to try a different set of
stars, the Clear button allows you to clear your selection and
start over. Go ahead and click the Clear button and select the
same stars again.
Dont worry about selecting the exact center of the star;
AIP4Win has an excellent centroiding routine that mathematically determines the exact center of the star. It can, however,
be fooled if the track radius is set so large that multiple stars
fall within inside its boundaries. In this case, it will find the
center of mass of the group of stars and center on that.
Notice that as you select each star, a message displaying
the stars elongation is displayed in the Status box. Knowing
this value can be used to help you select a value for the Elongation Limit when the Skip frames with elongated stars box
is checked. This feature of AIP4Win will automatically reject
frames with tracking errors. We will not be using this feature
in this tutorial, as the set of images we are using is quite well
tracked.
Notice also that the Track Radius control is disabled
once you select the first alignment star. If you need to adjust
this value, you will need to click the Clear button in order
make this control active again.
If you wish to manually inspect your star images as you
select them, use the Magnifying Glass tool to zoom in on a selected region of the image without changing how it is displayed.
Step 8: Start the Track & Stack Operation. Now we
are ready to start the Track & Stack operation. For this tutorial
we will use the Manual Slave Alignment Star Selection option. Make sure the Manual button is clicked. In manual
mode, the user must select the alignment stars in each subsequent image. A guide is provided to show you where
AIP4Win thinks the guide star is. If the images are welltracked, and the Track Radius is set large enough, you can use
Automatic mode and AIP4Win will find the stars for you.
Now click the OK button, and you will be presented with
each of the remaining images in turn. A Manual Alignment
panel will also appear as an extension at the bottom of the AutoProcess Multiple Images tool window. The stars you selected on the master image are displayed with numbered yellow
circles.
If the yellow circles contain your alignment star selections, all you need to do is to click OK. If they dont line up,
28
just click the correct stars and the Star 1 or Star 2 button, and
then click OK. You can correct the position of either star.
If an image shows signs of obvious tracking errors, satellite trails, or has other defects, you can click Skip to skip it.
Skipped images are not added to the stack.
This image set was nicely guided, and AIP4Win will follow the alignment stars as best it can as they drift across the
frame from image to image, so you will most likely be able to
click OK for each image without needing to correct the alignment star position.
When it is finished you will see a nice, deep image of
the Waterfall portion of the Veil Nebula that has much less
noise than any of the individual images in the set. Right-click
on the image to bring up the Image Status window and select
the History tab. A description of the Track and Stack operation is stored in the FITS header when you save the file. This
record keeping is performed for each tool in AIP4Win and allows you to see how each image was processed.
Click the Close button to dismiss the Auto-Process window. Restore the Auto-Process Log and scroll down through
it. You will see the coordinates of the alignment stars in each
image and see how the images were translated, rotated and
scaled to bring them into alignment.
Multi-Image Processing
With the Multi-Image feature, AIP4Win provides you with
the ability to process a whole nights worth of images automatically. Multi-Image processing is performed similarly to
the Track & Stack processing. Instead of selecting the Stack
process type, if you select Individual Files, the images will be
calibrated and saved to separate files instead of being
summed together. The Auto-Process Tool provides a set of
the same basic image enhancement functions we used in the
Image Enhancement tutorial, and they can be applied automatically to each image.
When you choose individual image processing, you are
presented with the ability to choose a format to save your images, and to select where they are saved.
Multi-Image Alignment
You can also choose to align a set of images without stacking
them. This is provided so that you can combine the images using the Movie Tool into an AVI movie that can be played
back on any PC running Windows. Several movies have been
provided on the CD-ROM that have been created using this
technique.
Multi-Image Alignment is performed when you select
Individual Files for the Process Type and select 1 Star or 2
Star Alignment and select a Master Frame. Other than that, it
is identical to Multi-Image Processing as described above.
Image Registration and Blinking

In this tutorial you will learn how to align two images into ac-
Deep-Sky Images
curate sub-pixel registration; and then blink them to search
for asteroids.
The image files can be found in the Image Registration
subdirectory of the Tutorial directory on the CD-ROM. We
used one of these files earlier in the Astrometry tutorial (Section C.4). They consist of a pair of images, taken just 26 minutes apart, of a trio of asteroids. We will use the Register
Images Tool to align one image with the other; then we will
use the Blink Images Tool to quickly alternate the view between the two. The result will be that the asteroids will appear
to hop back and forth while everything else stays in place.
window.
Step 1: Load the Images. Load
the
images
ah102dad.fts and ah102dcd.fts from the Image Registration tutorial directory.
Step 2: Invoke the Register Images Tool. Click
on
the Multi-Image|Register Images menu item and the Image
Registration Tool window will appear.
Step 3: Select the Reference and Subject Images. The
Register Images Tool window has a drop-down listbox labelled
Master Image. In this drop-down listbox select the
ah102dad.fts image. Click the Select Slave Images button,
and a dialog pops up with a pair of lists. The left list shows all
the currently loaded images. The right list is empty. Select
ah102dcd.fts from the left list and click the Add>> button.
The Register Images tool can register a number of images to a
common master. For this tutorial we will only be registering
one. Click OK when this is done.
Step 4: Register the images. Click the Register Images button and the master image (Ah102dad.fts) will be activated (its title bar will be highlighted). Find a clean star image
in this image, click on it, and then click the Star 1 button. Next
select a second star and click the Star 2 button. Then click the
OK button. A pair of green circles will identify the stars you
selected. The first slave image will now be activated, and a
pair of yellow circles will identify the positions of the stars
you selected from the master image. If the selected stars are
inside the circles, click OK; otherwise, identify and mark the
correct stars and click OK. The slave image will now be
aligned in register with the master. If multiple slave images
were specified, you would be presented with each image in
turn until they were all aligned.
To get the best image registration, select alignment stars
that are as far apart as possible. When the subject image is
aligned, it is translated, rotated and scaled to match the reference image. Selecting stars that are too close together will reduce the accuracy of the calculations used to determine the
rotation to be applied.
Step 5: Invoke the Blink Images Tool. Click on the
Multi-Image|Blink|Images menu item and the Blink Images Tool window will appear.
Step 6: Select the Images to Blink. The Blink Images

Tool window contains two drop-down list boxes, one for each
image. In the top list, select the original ah102dad image.
In the lower list, select the registered image.
Step 7: Blink the Images. Click Manual several times
and you will see the asteroids in the image hop back and forth.
If you look carefully, you will see three asteroids hopping and
a cosmic ray hit in one of the images blinking on and off.
Step 8: Auto-Blink. Click the Auto button and the images will blink at a rate set by the Blink Interval slider. Clicking the Stop button will return the mode to manual blinking.
Close all open images when you are finished.
Deep-Sky Images
Up to this point, the tutorials have been focussed on specific
features of AIP4Win. This and the following tutorial demonstrate using a group of AIP4Win functions to solve typical image processing challenges. This tutorial focuses on enhancing
deep-sky images.
The task to be performed in this tutorial is the calibration and enhancement of a typical track-and-stacked deep-sky
image. Images of this type share a number of common characteristics.
Since they are images of faint objects, they

are usually fairly long exposures (as CCD
exposures go).
They typically have a wide dynamic range
(especially nebulous objects).
The pixels in the image are dominated by
the sky background (i.e., most of the pixels
are black).
The common characteristics of deep-sky images lend themselves to a standard processing flow which consists of:
1. Calibration
2. Evaluation
3. Enhancement (assuming that the images are not
being acquired for photometric or astrometric purposes).
The type of enhancement that will be performed depends on:
the subject of the image (nebulosity vs.

stars),
the amount of visible noise, and

the dynamic range of the image and how it
is distributed across the range of available
pixel values.
Due to the length of the exposure, and the desire to remove system-related artifacts from the image, the diligent
CCD user will have taken the requisite calibration frames, including:
AIP4Win Tutorials
dark frames of duration at least equal to

the image frames,
flat frames,
flat-dark frames,
and, optionally, a set of bias frames.
Trying to enhance a raw CCD image can be a futile endeavor
without calibration frames. For most CCD cameras, the dark
current pattern tends to overwhelm the low-level detail which
we are trying to bring out, and you end up with a noisy-looking image.
The image set which we are going to work on here consists of four 4-minute exposures of the Helix Nebula taken
with a Cookbook 245 CCD camera w/LDC, attached to an
11-inch f/6.3 telescope. These files are found in the Deep Sky
Images subdirectory of the Tutorial directory on the CDROM. This image set is the white-light portion of a much
larger set of color-component frames which are found in the
Images\McMickle\ColorHelix directory on the CD-ROM. Included with the four exposures are darks, flats and flat-darks.
These CB245 files are saved with a fixed bias value of 100,
so bias frames are not needed.
Step 1: Examine the Raw Images. Click the Load an
Image File button on the toolbar, open the files Helw1.fts
through Helw4.fts, and briefly examine each frame. Make
sure that the Auto Low/High Stretch is the default display mode
and that the image is stretched sufficiently to make its structure
visible. What you will see is a faint image of the Helix Nebula
sprinkled liberally with hot pixels. This is a pretty typical raw
image frame. Notice that the stars are well formed and show no
signs of trailing over the duration of their four-minute exposures. This is an indication of good guiding. Notice the absence
of any pattern noise, such as horizontal banding, which would
indicate electrical interference. Notice the darkening in the
lower corners due to vignetting in the optical system.
It is good to give the raw frames at least a cursory glance
before they are combined into an image, to avoid using
frames with obvious flaws. It is also worthwhile to check
them from time to time just to see how well the camera is
functioning. Close the files when you are finished.
Step 2: Examine the Calibration Frames. In
the
same manner as described above, open the files 1240drk.fts
through 5240drk.fts. Compare them to each other. They
should all appear consistent. They should appear as a field of
white dots on a dark gray or black background, with some
slight electroluminescence from the output amplifier visible
on the left edge. When you are finished examining these files,
close them.
Open the files Flat001.fts through Flat010.fts. You
will see a series of typical flat frames, with the same signs of
vignetting that were visible in the image frames. These flats
are only 11 seconds long, and the camera was well-chilled
and stable, so they show very little dark current noise. When
you are finished examining these files, close them.
Now open Drflt001.fts through Drflt010.fts, and you
30
will see a salt and pepper noise pattern typical of a short dark
frame for the CB245 camera with the Low Dark Current feature turned off. If you run the cursor around the image, you will
see that the variation from pixel to pixel is only a few ADUs. If
you fire up the Pixel Tool and sample groups of pixels randomly, you will see a standard deviation of less than one. This
shows that the frame is pretty consistent. When you are finished examining these files, close any open images.
Examining your calibration frames is a good practice to
make sure that no pathological problems exist. Any problems
that appear in your calibration frames will appear in any images you process with them. Weed out the defective frames
now, before they cause you any trouble.
Fortunately, this is a high-quality image set, and you
will not need to discard any frames.
Step 3: Set Up Advanced Calibration. The advanced
calibration protocol allows us to use the automatic dark
matching feature of AIP4Win, and it is the preferred method
of calibrating images. It only requires that the bias value of
the camera be known, or that a bias frame be available. It allows a set of dark frames to be used that may be of a different
(preferably longer) exposure time or taken at a slightly different temperature.
Click the Setup Calibration button on the toolbar, or use
the menu item to open the Calibration Setup window. When
the window opens, select the Advanced calibration protocol
and activate the Bias tab, and select the Use Constant bias
button and leave the value at its default of 100. Activate the
Dark tab and click the Select Dark frame(s) button; then select
the files 1240drk.fts through 5240drk.fts. After you click
Open in the file dialog box, the green light next to the Select
Dark frames(s) button should go on. Click the Median Combine and Automatic Dark Matching radio buttons; then click
the Process Dark Frame(s) button. The dark frames you selected will now be median-combined, and a table of all the hot
pixels will be created for use in the dark matching function.
Click the Process Dark Frame(s) button, and you will see that
the Subtract Dark Frame box is checked.
Next set up the flat-frame correction. Select the Flat tab
and then click the Select Flat Frame(s) button to invoke the
Select Flat frames dialog. Select the files Flat001.fts
through Flat010.fts and click Open; the dialog box will
close and the green light next to the Select Flat Frame(s) button will turn on. Click the Median Combine radio button in
the Flatframe Correction area to set this mode for combining
the flat frames. Check the Subtract Flat-Dark box, and the Select Flat-Darks button will become enabled. Click it and select the files Drflt001.fts through Drflt010.fts for use as
flat-darks and click Open. Select the Median Combine radio
button in the Flat-Darks area as well. Finally, click the Process Flat Frame(s) button, and the master flat frame will be
created, finishing your calibration setup.
Since we are not performing defect correction for this
exercise, this completes the setup for calibration. Dismiss the
Deep-Sky Images
Calibration Setup window by clicking the Close button.
Step 4: Set Up and Run the Deep Sky Auto-Process
Tool. To bring up the Deep Sky Auto-Process Tool, click on
Multi-Image|Auto-Process|Deep Sky. Select the files
Helw1.fts through Helw4.fts, and set the Process Type to
Average Stack. Initialize the following controls to their indicated settings:
Calibrate Image should be checked
2X Resample should be checked
Prescale should be left unchecked
Scale Factor is not used
Noise Filter should be left unchecked.
Now activate the Alignment tab and select the file Helw1.fts
on the Select Master Frame drop-down list. Select 2 Star for
the alignment mode and set the Track Radius to 12.
The Master Image window should now be visible; click
on the star at X = 58, Y = 67, and click the Star 1 button to
choose it as your first alignment star. Pick the star at
X = 680,Y = 407 as Star 2. If it is not already selected, select
Automatic as the Slave Alignment Star Selection mode.
These images were guided well, so we will let AIP4Win take
care of stacking these images for us. Click OK.
Watch as AIP4Win flashes each image on the screen,
calibrates it, and produces a stacked image. The process is
finished when the image, now two times larger, is displayed
as an image labelled Track & Stack: Average of 4 images.
You can now close the AutoProcess Multiple Images window; it has completed the job you asked it to do.
Step 5: Square Up the Image Pixels. Since this image
has been resampled by 2x during processing, it no longer conforms to any known CCD camera chip size. If this image is
ever read back into this program, or any other image processor, it will be displayed with an incorrect aspect ratio, because
the program will not know the pixel size. To prevent this, we
need to resample the image to square up the pixels.
Click on the Transform|Resample menu item to bring
up the Resample Tool. Make sure the By Percentage tab is active and set the Resample to: value to 100%, if it not already
set. Check the Make Pixels Square box and click Resample
Image. A new image will be created in which the pixels are
square. Because AIP4Win automatically displays images with
the correct aspect ratio, where possible, the image will not
look any different; but if you bring up the Image Status tool
by clicking the Measure|Statistics|Image... menu item and
look on the Specs tab, you will see that the original image
was 756 x 484, and the resampled image is 756 x 562.
Step 6: Save the Stacked Image. Save the image you
just created in your C:\Windows\Temp directory, or another
of your choosing. Click the Save Image in FITS Format button
on the toolbar. (This is the picture of the floppy disk with a
red F on it. A Tool Tip will appear if you float the cursor
over the button.) The Save Image as FITS File window will
appear, giving you a choice of FITS formats, as well as the
option to edit the various FITS header fields and save the file.
If you click on the Examine/Edit FITS Header button,

you will see the contents of the FITS header for the file you
are saving. Included in the FITS header you will see a complete processing history of the file. This is exceptionally useful information to have when you are trying to reproduce a
processing sequence later and need to know how you got a
certain result. You can click on the Edit|FITS Header... menu
item to bring up the FITS header with the processing history
of any image on the screen, whether or not it has been saved
as a FITS file.
Step 7: Evaluate the Image. Now that the image has
been calibrated and stacked, you can evaluate it. Upon visual
examination you see that it is a bit noisy, but not objectionably so. Some of this is due to the stacking process, in which
the noise adds with the square root of the number of images
stacked. This is unavoidable unless you just want to make a
single, longer exposure. You will notice a blooming trail in
the upper right corner of the image. This trail imposes limits
on any single exposure, and will get objectionably longer and
brighter as the exposure time increases. So this exposure is
about as long as you want for an image that has that bright star
in the frame.
Another thing you will notice about the image is the artifacts along the top and left edges due to the stacking process.
The scope drifted about 10 pixels to the right and about 10 pixels down between the first and last exposure. This left an area
along these two edges that does not contain contributions from
all of the images. The pixel values encountered in these regions
throw off the statistics for the image and can often cause the
Auto-Stretch function to display it incorrectly. It will also affect image enhancement tools that rely on image statistics to do
their jobs. You will usually want to crop these edges.
Step 8: Crop Off the Edges. When a series of images
is stacked, there is usually a band of pixels along one or two
adjacent edges that has values inconsistent with those in the
rest of the image. This results from areas where the source images did not completely overlap due to drifting between the
exposures. It helps to crop these edges off so that they do not
affect measurements made on the image. It also results in a
more cosmetically pleasing image.
Invoke the Crop Tool by clicking the Transform|
Crop menu item. You may want to move this tool to the left
edge of the screen to give yourself some room. Make sure that
the Select With Mouse radio button is active, press the left
mouse button and scroll the mouse across a region of the image, excluding the edge pixels. You can repeatedly select the
region until you are satisfied with it. Fine adjustments of its
location can be made using the arrow keys on your keyboard.
When you have selected the area, just click the Apply button
and a new, cropped image will be created.
Step 9: Measure the Image. Lets make some measurements on this image. Invoke the Statistics Tool by rightclicking the image button. This tool will show you some
things about the image that you cannot easily visualize. First
AIP4Win Tutorials
notice the Min and Max Pixel Values. They show a reasonably wide range, over 2,400 ADUs wide, depending on the region that you cropped. This range will give us a good deal of
data to work with. You can better visualize this if you invoke
the Histogram Tool to display the image histogram.
Step 10: Histogram Shaping. You can use the Histogram Shaping Tool to bring out more detail in the image by
redistributing the histogram to create more contrast between
the available brightness levels. Invoke this tool and try some
of the available histogram shapes to see which ones provide
the most pleasing results.
Step 11: Brightness Scaling. This is another useful
technique for bringing out image detail. Invoke this tool and
experiment with the different scaling types while adjusting
the scaling range. The preview feature of this tool and the
Histogram Shaping Tool make it easy to evaluate your settings quickly.
Planetary Images
This tutorial shows you how to process planetary images using AIP4Win. These share characteristics that make them
quite different from deep-sky images:
The exposures are short (although they
still require dark-frame subtraction to

remove bias).
They lack point sources (like stars) which
makes them hard to register to each other.
The planets rotate rapidly enough that features in different exposures may not line
up.
They often contain high-contrast features
blurred by atmospheric seeing.
You usually end up shooting a lot of them
in order to sort out the ones that show the
best seeing.
These features are common to most whole-disk images. Lunar images present their own special challenges.
For this tutorial we will start with processing an image
of Jupiter. This image can be found in the Planetary Images
subdirectory of the Tutorial directory on the CD-ROM.
Step 1: Load the Image. Load
the
image
M0611029.fts. If you have Auto-Scale turned on, the planet
should appear very bright and washed out. You can enhance
the contrast by moving the White control up a bit, and the
Gamma control down a bit, until the belts are more visible.
We will use the Brightness Scaling Tool later to make this
change permanent.
Step 2: Center the Planet. The planet was not centered well on this image. This is pretty typical when you are
shooting large numbers of planetary images, searching for
that fleeting moment of perfect seeing. Click on the
Transform|Center Planet... menu item and a small window
32
will pop up asking you to set the planetary disk threshold.

This sets the threshold percentage of pixels values above
which the edge of the disk is recognized. For this image, the
default of 20% will work just fine. Click the OK button, and
the planets disk will be centered on the image.
Step 3: Square Up the Pixels. This image has highly
non-square pixels, which is not apparent, because AIP4Win
automatically displays images corrected for their pixel aspect
ratio. Invoke Transform|Resample... and square up the pixels
like we did in step 5 of the Deep Sky Images tutorial.
Step 4: Brightness Scale the Image. This image has
literally thousands of gray levels in it. Unfortunately, neither
the computer monitor nor our eyes can distinguish more than
256 levels. Therefore, to see image features, it is necessary to
enhance the image; that is, to bring the features we want to
see within the range of 256 levels that we can see.
We can improve the contrast and bring out the belts by
applying a gamma brightness scaling. For the typical deepsky image, we generally use values of gamma greater than
one to bring out the faint details. Our planetary detail in this
image, however, is darker than the background. For this, values of gamma less than one are more effective.
Invoke the Brightness Scaling Tool using the toolbar
button or the menu. Click the Auto button on the Inputs tab of
the Brightness Scaling window to set the initial Low and High
Pixel Values.
If you click on the sky background in the image somewhere close to X = 15, Y = 30, you will see that its level is
about 0.5 ADUs (as a result of the interpolation that occurred
when the planet was centered). Type the value 0.5 into the
Low text box in the Brightness Scaling Window. Bring the
high end up a bit by increasing the High pixel value to around
3200.
Select the Transfer tab; click on the Gamma scaling button, and the Gamma control will appear. Adjust the Gamma
value down to around 0.7 and observe the Preview display.
You will see a wealth of detail suddenly pop into view. Now
click Apply and a new image will be created.
Step 5: Apply an Unsharp Mask. The planetary features are still a bit washed out and fuzzy in this image. Applying an unsharp mask will increase the contrast. Invoke the
Unsharp Mask Tool, use the default Radius and Contrast values and click Apply. If the resulting image is not contrasty
enough, try it again with a larger radius or with the contrast
level increased.
Step 6: Try Deconvolution. Deconvolution can also
help bring out detail and remove the effects of poor seeing.
Click on the title bar of the Gamma scaled image to make it
the active image again and invoke the Deconvolution Tool.
Set the tool up as follows:
Point Spread Function: Gaussian PSF
Sigma: 2
Deconvolution Type: van Cittert
Number of Iterations: 16
Color Images
Relaxation Parameter: 0.1
M16G.fts for the Green,
Display Iterations: checked
M16B.fts for the Blue, and
Process high-frequency components only: checked
M16L.fts for the Luminance.
Click Execute Deconvolution. Shortly, a new image will appear in which the belts practically jump right off the screen.
This is a very powerful technique for planetary processing.
Compare the original image with the results you obtained using these techniques. An image that you might have
discarded as bland ended up revealing a tremendous amount
of detail.
Color Images
This tutorial demonstrates the basic color operations of
AIP4Win.
The files used in it may be found in the Color subdirectory of the Tutorial directory on the CD-ROM. The files comprise a calibrated RGB image set of the Eagle Nebula, M16,
taken by Neil McMickle of Stanhope, New Jersey, using a
MX716 CCD camera and a set of RGB dichroic filters and an
IR-blocking filter through a 4-inch fluorite apochromatic refractor. In this tutorial we will register four individual filtered
exposures and combine them into a single, color image.
Step 1: Load the Component Images. Load the four
images found in the Color Images tutorial directory. They
consist of the following:
M16B.fts: the blue-filtered exposure,

M16G.fts: the green-filtered exposure,
M16R.fts: the red-filtered exposure, and
M16L.fts: a white-light exposure with an
IR-blocking filter.
The white-light exposure is not required, and can be

synthesized from the red, green and blue images; but using a
separate, deeper white-light image will result in a more detailed final color image.
Step 2: Register the Images. Click on the Multi-Image
|Register Images menu item and the Image Registration
Tool window will appear. Register the red, green and blue images using the white-light image (M16L.fts) as the master, just
as we did in the Image Registration and Blinking tutorial.
Step 3: Invoke the Join Colors Tool. Click on the
Color|Join Colors Tool menu item and the Join Colors
Tool window will open. (You will probably want to move this
tool to the right edge of the screen so it wont obstruct your
view of the image.) When the tool opens you will see a set of
four drop-down list boxes labelled Red, Green, Blue and Luminance. Select, for the respective images:
M16R.fts for the Red,
Step 4: Create a Color Image. AIP4Win provides the

capability of automatically balancing your color images. Create a color image using the color channels you selected by selecting the Automatic Color radio button and then clicking the
Make Color Image button. A color image of M16 is created.
Step 5: Adjusting the Brightness. This image looks
pretty dark. Select the Automatic tab and set the Image Brightness control to ~ 0.993 and the Histogram HiPoint control to
~0.998, and click the Refresh Current Color Image button. The
resulting image should look much brighter. Select the Adjuster
tab and slide the Gamma slider to get a value of ~1.7 and click
the Refresh Current Color Image button again; you will see
that the faint detail is more prominent. Note that while we were
doing this, the color balance remained unaffected. One of the
powerful features of AIP4Wins color tools is the ability to adjust the chrominance components (hue and saturation) independently from the brightness component (luminance).
Step 6: Cleaning Up Color Artifacts. This image looks
nice and bright, and there is a lot of detail in the background,
but some of the stars have blue rings around their centers. Two
things contribute to this: the chromatic aberration present even
in an apochromatic refractor, and the fact that these stars are
saturated. AIP4Win provides a useful tool for controlling these
artifacts, the Highlight Saturation (Stars) Control. Adjust the
Highlight Saturation (Stars) control to a value around 98%
and click the Refresh Current Color Image button. You will
see that the false color has been removed from the brighter stars
(as well as from the brightest parts of the nebula). This can be
adjusted by moving the slider down and clicking the Refresh
Current Color Image button again until the star colors are
pleasing, while leaving the color in the brighter parts of the
nebula.
Step 7: Crop the Color Image. Quite often, there is an
area around the image border in which the color channels did
not overlap when they were registered, due to the shifting of the
telescope between the color-filtered exposures. You can crop
off the edges of the image using the Crop Tool. Just click on the
color image and then click the Transform|Crop menu item;
the Crop Tool window will appear. Use the mouse to select the
region you wish to keep and click the Apply button. A new image will be created from the selected region. You can now
close the Join Colors Tool.
Step 8: Save the Color Image. When you are satisfied
with your results, the color image you just created can be saved
in a huge variety of formats. Just click the File|Export menu
item, and a dialog box will appear to prompt you for the file
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AIP4Win Tutorials

We have written these tutorials to help you master the

Subject(s) covered by tutorial

Handbook of Astronomical Image Processing

How to load and display CCD images and

how to control the way an image is displayed,

Control. The image should now appear mostly black, with

Richard Berry and James Burnell 3

control causes the display to dim. Brightness and contrast of

The Change slider is used to adjust the sensitivity of

Step 6: The Zoom Control. Try clicking the Zoom

and white values, and their sensitivity is also controlled by the

Handbook of Astronomical Image Processing

Save as FITS File window will appear. This window provides

Richard Berry and James Burnell 5

Handbook of Astronomical Image Processing

from 95 to 124, just 30 ADUs. The background is right around

frames, you can average- or median-combine multiple flats to

Richard Berry and James Burnell 7

Handbook of Astronomical Image Processing

tools. It appears in the icon tray at the bottom of your screen

of the models AIP4Win knows about. You can override

The Image Status window provides a list of statistics

Close the Info window now using the X button in the

The basic statistics measured from the image are the

Richard Berry and James Burnell 9

Handbook of Astronomical Image Processing

left mouse button. A set of circles will appear. You do not

The Hubble Guide Star Catalog (GSC),

Richard Berry and James Burnell 11

Astrometry enables you to determine precise right ascension and declination

Handbook of Astronomical Image Processing

cross marking the center of the field.

Single-Star Photometry determines the

Richard Berry and James Burnell 13

This will cause a tabbed window to appear. (Like all the

Handbook of Astronomical Image Processing

Richard Berry and James Burnell 15

The Multi-Image Photometry tool can perform differential photometry on

two minutes apart using a Cookbook 245 CCD camera. During

Step 2: Invoke the Multiple Image Photometry

Though the Single-Image Photometry Tool provides a fast

Handbook of Astronomical Image Processing

Step 1: Set Up Image Calibration. The images in the

Step 3: Select the Image Set to be Measured. Check

ic tracking. As the stars drift from one image to the next,

AIP4Win finds them by searching one target search radius in

all directions from the stars location in the previous image.

Richard Berry and James Burnell 17

By analyzing the starlight disbursed into wavelengths by a prism or diffraction

magnitude type A0V star Vega in the constellation Lyra. This

the background sky above the spectrum,

Handbook of Astronomical Image Processing

In the case of a slit spectrograph, the median is taken on

imaged with your CCD camera. These operations work well

Transfer Function display, which shows

a set of tabs labelled Inputs, Transfer, Outputs, and Options,

an Inputs tab, which contains the Low and

Richard Berry and James Burnell 19