Music Therapy and Autism

Music therapy for autistic spectrum disorder (Review)
Gold C, Wigram T, Elefant C
This is a reprint of a Cochrane review, prepared and maintained by The Cochrane Collaboration and published in The Cochrane Library
2010, Issue 1
http://www.thecochranelibrary.com

Copyright 2010 The Cochrane Collaboration. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
HEADER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ABSTRACT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
PLAIN LANGUAGE SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
BACKGROUND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
OBJECTIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
METHODS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
RESULTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
DISCUSSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
AUTHORS CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CHARACTERISTICS OF STUDIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
DATA AND ANALYSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Analysis 1.1. Comparison 1 Music therapy vs. placebo therapy, Outcome 1 Communicative skills: gestural. . . .
Analysis 1.2. Comparison 1 Music therapy vs. placebo therapy, Outcome 2 Communicative skills: verbal. . . . .
Analysis 1.3. Comparison 1 Music therapy vs. placebo therapy, Outcome 3 Behavioural problems (end of therapy).
Analysis 1.4. Comparison 1 Music therapy vs. placebo therapy, Outcome 4 Behavioural problems (using all measurements
from 2nd day on). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
WHATS NEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
HISTORY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CONTRIBUTIONS OF AUTHORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
DECLARATIONS OF INTEREST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SOURCES OF SUPPORT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
INDEX TERMS
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[Intervention Review]
Music therapy for autistic spectrum disorder

Christian Gold1 , Tony Wigram2 , Cochavit Elefant3
1 Grieg Academy Music Therapy Research Centre (GAMUT), Unifob Health, Bergen, Norway. 2 Institute
of Music and Music Therapy,

University of Aalborg, Aalborg, Denmark. 3 Grieg Academy Department of Music, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
Contact address: Christian Gold, Grieg Academy Music Therapy Research Centre (GAMUT), Unifob Health, Lars Hilles gate 3,
Bergen, 5015, Norway. christian.gold@grieg.uib.no.
Editorial group: Cochrane Developmental, Psychosocial and Learning Problems Group.
Publication status and date: Edited (no change to conclusions), published in Issue 1, 2010.
Review content assessed as up-to-date: 28 January 2006.
Citation: Gold C, Wigram T, Elefant C. Music therapy for autistic spectrum disorder. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2006,
Issue 2. Art. No.: CD004381. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD004381.pub2.
ABSTRACT
Background
The central impairments of people with autistic spectrum disorder (ASD) include social interaction and communication. Music therapy
uses music and its elements to enable communication and expression, thus attempting to address some of the core problems of people
with ASD.
Objectives
To review the effects of music therapy for individuals with autistic spectrum disorders.
Search strategy
The following databases were searched: CENTRAL, 2005, (Issue 3); Medline, (1966 to July 2004); Embase, (1980 to July 2004);
LILACS, (1982 to July 2004); PsycINFO, (1872 to July 2004); CINAHL, (1982 to July 2004); ERIC, (1966 to July 2004); ASSIA,
(1987 to July 2004); Sociofile, (1963 to July 2004); Dissertation Abstracts International, (late 1960s to July 2004). These searches
were supplemented by searching specific sources for music therapy literature and manual searches of reference lists. Personal contacts
to some investigators were made.
Selection criteria
All randomised controlled trials or controlled clinical trials comparing music therapy or music therapy added to standard care to
placebo therapy, no treatment or standard care.
Data collection and analysis
Studies were independently selected, quality assessed and data extracted by two authors. Continuous outcomes were synthesised using
a standardised mean difference (SMD) in order to enable a meta-analysis combining different scales, and to facilitate the interpretation
of effect sizes. Heterogeneity was assessed using the I statistic.
Main results
Three small studies were included (total n = 24). These examined the short-term effect of brief music therapy interventions (daily
sessions over one week) for autistic children. Music therapy was superior to placebo therapy with respect to verbal and gestural
communicative skills (verbal: 2 RCTs, n = 20, SMD 0.36 CI 0.15 to 0.57; gestural: 2 RCTs, n = 20, SMD 0.50 CI 0.22 to 0.79).
Effects on behavioural problems were not significant.
Authors conclusions
The included studies were of limited applicability to clinical practice. However, the findings indicate that music therapy may help
children with autistic spectrum disorder to improve their communicative skills. More research is needed to examine whether the effects
of music therapy are enduring, and to investigate the effects of music therapy in typical clinical practice.
PLAIN LANGUAGE SUMMARY

Music therapy for people with autistic spectrum disorder
People with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) have difficulties with communication, behaviour and/or social interaction. Music therapy
uses music and its elements to enable people to communicate and to express their feelings. In this way music therapy addresses some of
the core problems of people with ASD. This review set out to assess the evidence for the effectiveness of music therapy for individuals
with ASD.
Three small studies were included which examined the short-term effect of brief music therapy interventions for autistic children.
Music therapy was superior to placebo therapy with respect to verbal and gestural communicative skills, but it was uncertain whether
there was an effect on behavioural outcomes. The included studies were encouraging, but of limited applicability to clinical practice.
More research with better design, using larger samples, in more typical clinical settings is needed to strengthen the clinical applicability
of the results and to examine how enduring the effects of music therapy are. When applying the results of this review to practice, it is
important to note that the application of music therapy requires specialised academic and clinical training.
BACKGROUND
Description of the condition

Autistic spectrum disorder (ASD) is the core disorder of the pervasive developmental disorders as defined within the International
Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, tenth edition (ICD-10) (WHO 1992) and the Diagnostic and Statistical
Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM IV) (APA 1994). DSM-IVTR (APA 2000) describes the diagnostic criteria of autism to include three core elements. First it is a qualitative impairment in
social interaction, as manifested by at least two of the following:
marked impairment in the use of multiple nonverbal behaviors
such as eye-to-eye gaze, facial expression, body postures, and gestures to regulate social interaction; failure to develop peer relationships appropriate to developmental level; a lack of spontaneous
seeking to share enjoyment, interests, or achievements with other
people (e.g.,by a lack of showing, bringing, or pointing out objects
of interest) or a lack of social or emotional reciprocity. Second,
it requires there to be qualitative impairments in communication
as manifested by at least one of the following: delay in, or total
lack of, the development of spoken language (not accompanied by
an attempt to compensate through alternative modes of communication such as gesture or mime); in individuals with adequate
speech, marked impairment in the ability to initiate or sustain a
conversation with others; stereotyped and repetitive use of language or idiosyncratic language; or a lack of varied, spontaneous
make-believe play or social imitative play appropriate to developmental level. Finally there must be restricted repetitive and stereotyped patterns of behavior, interests, and activities, as manifested
by at least one of the following: encompassing preoccupation with
one or more stereotyped and restricted patterns of interest that
is abnormal either in intensity or focus; apparently inflexible adherence to specific, nonfunctional routines or rituals; stereotyped
and repetitive motor mannerisms (e.g. hand or finger flapping or
twisting, or complex whole-body movements); or persistent preoccupation with parts of objects.
The age of onset is also a factor, and delays or abnormal functioning
in at least one of the following areas, with onset prior to age 3 years
is necessary: (1) social interaction, (2) language as used in social
communication, or (3) symbolic or imaginative play. DSM-IVTR also require that the disturbance is not better accounted for
by Retts Disorder or Childhood Disintegrative Disorder.
Individuals with autistic spectrum disorders have difficulties in

all aspects of communication. They are said to lack a theory of

mind, sometimes called lacking a sixth sense. They display impairments in social communication and social interaction and a
restricted imagination and social repertoire, the latter characteristically displayed as what seems to others to be obsessional behaviour
and rigidity in their own behaviour as well as in the behaviour
they require from others in response to their own. The key construct is the triad of impairment, which affects social interaction,
language and communication, and behaviour and imagination (
Wing 1997), that can be identified through examination of early
development and current presentation (Wing 2002). People with
autistic spectrum disorder also present with a pervasive inability to
mind-read (Baron-Cohen 1995), where a lack of perception and
understanding of other peoples feelings, beliefs or emotions results in a consequential inability to respond appropriately. This has
particular impact on social skills and interactions (Howlin 1998).
The clinical picture varies because individuals have variable levels
of ability, from profound learning disability to a spiky cognitive
profile where superior skills are present in some areas of functioning. Children and adults with autistic spectrum disorder frequently
pose considerable behavioural challenges to their parents and other
family members (Diggle 2002). Prevalence estimates for autistic
spectrum disorder range from 5 to 63 children per 10,000, with
more recent estimates showing much higher prevalence rates than
those from older studies (Chakrabarti 2001, Fombonne 1999).
At the high functioning end of the autistic spectrum is a disorder known as Asperger Syndrome, with the same fundamental
core impairments as autism, but also some differences in language
development, motor skills and originality of thought (Asperger
1979).
Description of the intervention

Music therapy has been defined as a systematic process of intervention wherein the therapist helps the client to promote
health, using musical experiences and the relationships that develop through them as dynamic forces of change (Bruscia 1998,
p. 20). Central techniques in music therapy include free and structured improvisation, songs, and listening to music.
How the intervention might work

The processes that occur within musical improvisation may help
people with autism spectrum disorder to develop communicative
skills and their capacity for social interaction. Musical interaction
in music therapy, in particular musical improvisation, is sometimes
understood and described as a kind of non-verbal and pre-verbal
language which enables verbal people to access pre-verbal experiences, enables non-verbal people to interact communicatively
without words, and enables all to engage on a more emotional,
relationship-oriented level than may be accessible through verbal
language (Alvin 1991). Listening to music within music therapy

also involves an interactive process that often includes selecting
music that is meaningful for the person (e.g. relating to an issue
that the person is occupied with) and where possible reflecting on
personal issues related to the music or associations brought up by
the music. For those with verbal abilities, verbal reflection on the
musical processes is often an important part of music therapy (
Wigram 2002).
Music therapy for individuals with autistic spectrum disorders is
usually provided as individual therapy. A rationale for the use of
music therapy for individuals with communication disorders is
based on the findings from infancy researchers such as Stern (Stern
1985, Stern 1989) and Trevarthen (Trevarthen 1999a) who describe sound dialogues between mothers and infants using musical terms. When describing tonal qualities researchers use the
terms pitch, timbre and tonal movement, and when describing
temporal qualities they speak of pulse, tempo, rhythm, and timing (Wigram 2002). Trevarthen (Trevarthen 1999b) describes the
sensitivity of very young infants to the rhythmic and melodic dimensions of maternal speech, and to its emotional tone, as demonstrating that we are born ready to engage with the communicative
musicality of conversation, and this premise allows music to act
as an effective medium for engaging in non-verbal social exchange
for children and adults with autistic spectrum disorder. Necessary
communicative behaviours, such as joint attention, eye contact
and turn-taking are characteristic events in shared, active music
making.
Why it is important to do this review

Clinical reports and pre-experimental studies suggest that music
therapy may be an effective intervention for people with autism
spectrum disorder. For example, Edgerton examined the development of communicative skills in eleven autistic children over the
course of music therapy sessions, finding a continuous increase of
communicative acts and responses in all subjects (Edgerton 1994).
Schumacher described qualitatively how relationship patterns of
autistic children change and develop during long-term music therapy (Schumacher 1999a, Schumacher 1999b). Two systematic reviews pertaining to the scope of this review have yielded conflicting results: One review (Whipple 2004) concluded that music
therapy was effective for people with autistic spectrum disorders;
however, interventions and study designs were too heterogeneous
to allow clinically meaningful and methodologically strong conclusions. The other review (Ball 2004) concluded that effects were
unknown, but failed to identify many possibly relevant studies.
Thus, a more comprehensive systematic review of controlled studies in this area is necessitated.
OBJECTIVES

To review the effects of music therapy, or music therapy added to

standard care, for individuals with autism spectrum disorders.
records.
Data from rating scales were included only if the instrument was
either a self-report or completed by an independent rater or relative
(not the therapist).
METHODS
Criteria for considering studies for this review
Types of studies
All relevant randomised controlled trials (RCTs) and controlled
clinical trials (CCTs).
Types of participants
Individuals of any age who are diagnosed with a pervasive developmental disorder, as defined in ICD-10 or DSM-IV, whether
identified by a psychological assessment or a psychiatric diagnosis. This includes childhood autism (F84.0 in ICD-10), atypical
autism (F84.1), Aspergers syndrome (F84.5), and pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified (F84.9). Individuals
with Retts disorder (F84.2) or childhood disintegrative disorder
(F84.3) are not included as they do not conventionally fall within
the autistic spectrum disorders, given their significantly different
clinical course.
Types of interventions
Music therapy (regular sessions of music therapy as defined above),
delivered by a professional, compared with either placebo (the
concept of attention placebo in psychotherapy research is discussed
in Kendall 2004), no-treatment or standard care control; or music
therapy added to standard care compared with standard care (with
or without placebo).
Types of outcome measures
Measures of the following including:
-Communicative and social skills, social interaction
-Quality of social interaction
-Behavioural problems (e.g. stereotypic behaviour)
-Attention and concentration
-Cognitive ability
-Hyperacusis (hypersensitivity to sound)
-Activity level
-Quality of life in both school and home environments
-Stress in the family
-Adverse events
Data sources could include non-standardised or standardised instruments (for a review of relevant standardised instruments see (
Ozonoff 2005), parent or teacher report, or school
Search methods for identification of studies

The following search terms were used:
#1 MUSIC
#2 MUSIC THERAPY
#3 musi*
#4 gim
#5 ((guided imagery) near music)
#6 vibroacoustic
#7 vibro-acoustic
#8 (#1 or #2 or #3 or #4 or #5 or #6 or #7)
#9 (asperger next syndrome)
#10 autis*
#11 kanner*
#12 (childhood near schizophren*)
#13 (speech near disorder*)
#14 (language near delay*)
#15 pdd
#16 CHILD DEVELOPMENT DISORDERS, PERVASIVE
#17 (#9 or #10 or #11 or #12 or #13 or #14 or #15 or #16)
#18 (#8 and #17)
Where necessary, the search terms were modified to suit the requirements of the other databases searched. An optimal sensitive
search strategy for randomised controlled trials was also used where
necessary.
Relevant trials were identified through searching the following
databases:
Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL,
2005, Issue 3)
Medline (1966 to July 2004)
Embase (1980 to July 2004)
LILACS (1982 to July 2004)
PsycINFO (1872 to July 2004)
CINAHL (1982 to July 2004)
ERIC (1966 to July 2004)
ASSIA (1987 to July 2004)
Sociofile (1963 to July 2004)
Dissertation Abstracts International (late 1960s to July 2004)
The following specific sources for music therapy literature were
also searched:
musictherapyworld.net (accessed July 2004)
Music Therapy Research CD ROM (AMTA 1999)
Music Therapy World Info-CD ROM IV (Aldridge 2002)
References were also retrieved from related review articles (Ball
2004, Whipple 2004).

Data collection and analysis

1. Selection of trials
Two reviewers independently inspected the titles and abstracts
identified from the search. Potentially relevant papers were obtained. Any disagreement was resolved through discussion and/or
consultation with a third reviewer.
2. Assessment of quality
The authors assessed methodological quality independently, and
any disagreements were resolved by discussion. Assessment was
made of all included studies, to consider the following questions:
Was the assignment to treatment groups truly random?
Was allocation adequately concealed?
How complete was follow up?
How were the outcomes considered for people who withdrew?
Were those assessing outcomes blind to the treatment allocation?
Randomisation
Randomisation was judged as adequate when computer-generated random numbers, a random numbers table, or coin-tossing
were used to allocate participants to treatment conditions. Randomised as well as quasi-randomised trials were included in the
review, as noted above.
Allocation concealment
The trials were divided into quality categories as defined in the
Cochrane Reviewers Handbook (Alderson 2004), where:
A: adequate allocation concealment; participants and researchers
were unaware of participants future allocation to condition until
after decisions about eligibility were made and informed consent
was obtained;
B: unclear concealment; allocation concealment measures were
not described in detail;
C: inadequate allocation concealment; allocation was not concealed from either participants before informed consent or from
researchers before decisions about inclusion were
made (this will always be the case for quasi-randomised studies).
As this review aimed to include randomised and quasi-randomised
studies, all three categories were eligible for inclusion. The rating
was only used as a descriptive measure of study quality.
Blindness of assessors
It is not possible to blind either those who deliver music therapy
or those who receive it to the nature of the intervention. Blindness
of assessors, however, can be used and was assessed as a part of this
review. Quality of blindness was determined primarily by whether
those who assessed and coded outcome measures were blind to
condition, and the quality of blindness was categorised where:
Adequate = assessor blind to condition;
Unclear = blinding of assessor not reported and information not
available from researchers; and
Inadequate = assessor not blind to condition.
All of the above were included in the review.
3. Data management
3.1 Data extraction

This was performed independently by two reviewers (CG, TW).
When necessary the reviewers contacted the authors of trials to
provide missing data.
3.2 Loss to follow-up and intention to treat analysis
The included studies had complete data for all participants, and
therefore an intention-to-treat analysis was straightforward. (If
studies with drop-outs had been included, we would have examined the impact of drop-out rates using sensitivity analyses and
imputing the negative outcome as appropriate.)
4. Data analysis
Data from washout periods in crossover studies were excluded
from the analysis.
4.1 Binary data
No binary data were available from the included studies. We had
planned to use risk ratio and number needed to treat statistics with
95% confidence intervals for binary outcomes.
4.2 Continuous data
For studies where outcomes were measured at several occasions
during each treatment condition, we used only the last measurement at the end of treatment.
Where raw data were available, the distributions of values were visually checked in an attempt to detect skewness. Where skewness
was found, we attempted to remove it by log-transformation. We
then examined how log-transformation influenced the effect size
estimate and used the more conservative estimate. The alternative
of using change data which tend to be less skewed was not considered because using change data may be less conservative than
using endpoint data.
We used standardised mean differences (SMD) for the analysis
of all continuous outcomes. When combining different scales for
the same outcome, it was necessary to standardise the effects in
order to make them comparable. When combining results on
the same scale, either non-standardised weighted mean differences
(WMDs) or SMDs could have been used. We decided to use SMDs
even in this case in order to facilitate the interpretation of effect
sizes as small, medium or large according to the guidelines that are
commonly used in the behavioural sciences (Cohen 1988). It is
noted that the choice of SMD versus WMD does not usually affect the significance level of the results, and the authors cautiously
assessed whether such was the case.
All SMDs (regardless of whether the study was a parallel or a
crossover design) were standardised by the pooled standard deviation between participants, rather than the standard deviation of
the difference within participants. This is the standard procedure
which enables comparisons of different scales and facilitates interpretation of the magnitude of effects (Cohen 1988, Gold 2004).
The calculation of the standard error then depended on the study
design. For parallel designs the standard error was calculated using the standard formulae for SMDs as implemented in RevMan
and described in the RevMan handbook. For crossover studies
we took into account the correlations within the participants as

recommended and described in the literature on meta-analysis of

crossover studies (Elbourne 2002).
4.3 Meta-Analysis
A fixed effect model was used in all analyses. Fixed effect models
have the advantage of being simpler and more easily interpretable.
If a common effect size had not been tenable due to heterogeneity,
a random effects model would have been considered. In addition
to the fixed effect analyses, the authors also examined whether
random effects analyses would have altered the results, and any
such difference would have been reported.
5. Assessing heterogeneity
Consistency of results was assessed visually in the forest plot and by
examining I (Higgins 2002), a quantity which describes approximately the proportion of variation in point estimates that is due to
heterogeneity rather than sampling error. We supplemented this
with a test of homogeneity to determine the strength of evidence
that the heterogeneity is genuine. In case of heterogeneity, possible
sources would have been investigated.
6. Assessing bias
Funnel plots were planned to be used to investigate any relationship between effect size and study precision, but were not used in
this review due to the small number of included studies.
7. Sensitivity analyses
Sensitivity analysis were planned to be conducted to determine the
impact of study quality on outcome if studies of different quality
had been identified and included (for example studies with high
attrition rates).
8. Subgroup analyses
The impact of clients age and intensity of therapy (number and
frequency of music therapy sessions) would have been examined
in subgroup analyses had heterogeneity been found.
RESULTS
Description of studies
See: Characteristics of included studies; Characteristics of excluded
studies; Characteristics of ongoing studies.
1. Excluded studies
The search yielded a total of 312 references. 52 of these were
deemed possibly relevant and selected for closer inspection. Of
these, 13 were excluded from the review because they concerned
an assessment rather than an intervention (e.g. assessing traits of
people with ASD using music therapy techniques). 24 studies were
excluded because they did not have an appropriate design (5 studies
with ABAB or similar designs, i.e. studies comparing different
treatments that all participants received in the same order; 10 case
series; 9 case studies). 7 studies employed an intervention involving
only listening to music (e.g. auditory integration training), rather

than music therapy. One study was excluded because the outcome
measure was unclear (see table of excluded studies).
2. Awaiting assessment
Three studies (unpublished master theses) could not be retrieved
and are therefore still awaiting assessment (Laird 1997, ODell
1998, Wood 1991).
3. Ongoing studies
One relevant longer-term study of improvisational music therapy
was still ongoing when this review was written (Kim 2005).
4. Included studies
Three short-term American studies comparing music therapy to
a placebo-type therapy met the criteria for the review (Brownell
2002, Farmer 2003, Buday 1995; see table of included studies).
Two of the studies (Brownell 20002 and Buday 1995) were of
crossover design; the remaining included study (Farmer 2003) was
parallel group. Other characteristics of these studies are described
below.
4.1 Length of trials
The length of all included studies was extremely short, varying
from one (Farmer 2003) to four weeks (Brownell 2002). The duration of each treatment condition was only one week in each
study. No later follow-up assessments were included in any of the
studies.
4.2 Participants
The participants in the included studies were between 2 and 9
years of age, with 80-100% boys in each study. All participants had
received a diagnosis of autism. In one study (Buday 1995), levels
of retardation and severity of autistic traits were also specified.
Participants in this study ranged from mildly to severely mentally
retarded (according to DSM III-R) and from mildly to moderately
autistic (according to the Childhood Autism Rating Scale, CARS).
4.3 Setting
The participants received therapy either at home, at school, or at
an outpatient therapy centre.
4.4 Study size
All three studies had extremely small sample sizes, varying from
four to ten participants per study. Crossover designs were used
in two of the studies (Brownell 2002 and Buday 1995) to partly
compensate for the small sample size.
4.5 Interventions
4.5.1 Music therapy
In all studies, music therapy was provided on a daily basis in an
individual (one-to-one) setting. The duration of the music therapy
condition was only one week in all studies.
All studies used a highly structured approach to music therapy,
which is not unexpected given the American origin of the studies
(see Wigram 2002, Gold 2005, and the discussion section of this
review). All studies used receptive techniques (listening to music);
one study also used active techniques (Farmer 2003).
Songs sung by the music therapist were composed or chosen individually for the participants and were usually used with specific

aims. For example, songs were based on a social story addressing a central problem behaviour of the particular individual in
treatment (Brownell 2002); they contained signs and words to be
learned (Buday 1995); or they were used to build a relationship
and to provide a safe and understandable structure for the participants in the study (Farmer 2003).
Active music-making by the participants, which is often typical for
music therapy in clinical practice (Wigram 2006), was reported
in only one study (Farmer 2003). Participants were allowed to
play guitar and drums. Playing instruments was partly used to
reinforce adjusted behaviour. The report did not specify whether
and in what ways the therapist improvised or otherwise played
music together with the client.
4.5.2 Placebo therapy
All studies compared music therapy to some kind of placebo
activity to control for the non-specific effects of therapeutic attention. Since in all studies music was considered as the specific ingredient of music therapy, the placebo conditions were constructed
to closely match the music therapy condition, only that music was
not used. For example, a social story was read instead of sung to the
participants (Brownell 2002); rhythmic speech was used instead
of singing (Buday 1995); or the same play activities were offered
without using songs or music instruments (Farmer 2003). Therefore, the placebo conditions included many elements similar to
the music therapy conditions, including some potentially active
ingredients (but none that are specific to music therapy). The concept of a placebo therapy designed to control for the therapists
attention has been widely used in psychotherapy research (Kendall
2004), but has also been criticised (Lambert 2004; see the discussion section of this review).
4.5.3 Other conditions
One study (Brownell 2002) also reported the outcomes during a
baseline and a washout period with no intervention. These data
were not used in this review.
4.6 Outcome measures
4.6.1 Communicative skills: gestural
Non-verbal (gestural) communicative skills were examined in two
studies (Buday 1995, Farmer 2003). Both studies addressed the
participants behaviour within therapy sessions. Independent observers counted the number of communicative gestures (e.g. imitating a sign or motion) in the session. In one study (Buday 1995),
the outcome consisted simply of the frequency count of appropriate gestures within a session. In the other study (Farmer 2003) a
completed gesture was given a score of 2 and an attempt a score
of 1, and the outcome consisted of the sum of these scores for all
attempted and completed gestures within a session. The exact criteria for what was seen as a communicative gesture were different
between the two studies. The measures used for this outcome were
not published.
4.6.2 Communicative skills: verbal
Communicative skills in verbal communication were addressed in
the same two studies (Buday 1995, Farmer 2003). Independent

observers rated in-session behaviour in a similar way as in the
previous outcome only that it was the frequency of appropriate
verbal responses that was counted for this outcome. Again, the
measures used were unpublished.
4.6.3 Behavioural problems
One study (Brownell 2002) addressed individually targeted repetitive problem behaviour. Occurrence of behaviour was assessed outside therapy sessions. Independent observers (teachers) counted
how often the targeted behaviour occurred in the classroom. The
frequency count was used as the outcome measure. No published
scale was used.
Risk of bias in included studies

1. Randomisation
Two studies (Buday 1995, Farmer 2003) stated explicitly that randomisation was used to assign participants to conditions. The remaining study (Brownell 2002) used the term counterbalanced
to describe an assignment that was either random or quasi-random, but intended to be random. Methods of randomisation and
allocation concealment were not specified in the studies.
2. Blindness and quality of outcome assessment
There was one single-blind study, with blinded assessors (Buday
1995). It was not reported whether blindness was used in the other
studies. All studies used independent raters to a6ssess outcomes.
All studies reported a high inter-rater reliability for the assessment
of outcomes (Brownell 2002 inter-rater reliability 0.86 to 0.94;
Buday 1995: agreement rate 98%; Farmer 2003: agreement rate
91%).
3. Loss to follow-up
No dropouts were reported in any of the studies.
4. Overall
4.1 Performance bias
Medication levels were not monitored in the included studies.
However, due to the short duration of the studies, it appears unlikely to assume significant differential change in medication might
distort the results. All participants received the full therapy intervention as intended.
4.2 Data reporting and analysis
One study (Buday 1995) reported means, standard deviations,
and F test results for the outcomes described above. From these
statistics it was possible to calculate an SMD with a standard error
as appropriate for crossover studies (see Elbourne 2002 and the
section on continuous data in the method section of this review).
For the other two studies, individual patient data were extracted
from tables or graphs. We screened the data for skewness before
data synthesis. The data of one study (Farmer 2003) showed a
skewed distribution. A log transformation would have removed
the skewness, but would also have increased the effect size estimate.
Therefore we decided to use the more conservative original scale.

Effects of interventions
COMPARISON 1: MUSIC THERAPY versus PLACEBO
THERAPY
1. Communicative skills: gestural
Skills in non-verbal, gestural communication were measured on
continuous scales addressing observed behaviour. The results
showed a significant effect in favour of music therapy, suggesting that improvement in gestural communicative skills was more
likely to occur with music therapy than with a similar therapy not
including music (2 RCTs, n = 20, SMD 0.50 CI 0.22 to 0.79).
Results were consistent between the two studies (I = 0%; see figure 1.1).
2. Communicative skills: verbal
Observed skills in verbal communication were measured on continuous scales. The results showed a significant effect favouring
music therapy over the placebo intervention, suggesting that improvement in verbal communicative skills was more likely to occur
with music therapy (2 RCTs, n = 20, SMD 0.36 CI 0.15 to 0.57).
The results were consistent between studies (I = 0%; see figure
1.2).
3. Behavioural problems
The frequency of observed problem behaviour was measured on
a continuous scale. Data were only available from one trial with
four participants, and results were not significant when examining
only the last day in therapy (figure 1.3). However, when averaging
participants behaviour over all days in therapy except the first one
(figure 1.4), there was a significant effect suggesting that music
therapy may be slightly more beneficial than a similar verbal therapy in reducing behaviour problems (1 RCT, n = 4, SMD -0.24
CI -0.45 to -0.03).
DISCUSSION
size. Considering that the placebo therapy possibly contained

not only non-active but also some of the active ingredients of
music therapy (see the discussion below), this can still be seen as
a clinically relevant magnitude. It is however interesting to note
that non-verbal communicative skills, which may be more closely
related to the non-verbal communication within music therapy,
seemed to show greater change than verbal communicative skills.
However, it may also be that non-verbal communicative skills are
relatively easier to address than verbal communicative skills especially in low-functioning children. Whether the effects of music
therapy on communicative skills are generalisable and persistent
remains to be shown.
The data on behavioural problems were very limited. The outcome
was only addressed in the smallest of the included studies. The
effects were non-significant at the end of the short-term music
therapy programme, and barely significant when averaging over
the course of the therapy. Either way, the effect size was small.
Clearly, more data are needed to draw any conclusions about the
effects of music therapy on behaviour problems.
Applicability of findings
Music therapy conditions
The included studies were of limited generalisability to clinical
practice. Only a limited subset of the music therapy techniques
described in the clinical literature were used in the experimental
treatment conditions. Receptive music therapy techniques with a
high level of structuring predominated in the interventions; improvisational techniques were not mentioned. Approaches with a
high level of structure, including behaviourally oriented and directed interventions, are more often applied in the North American context than in Europe, and the findings will therefore apply
more easily to the former. However, improvisational techniques
are widely used in many parts of the world (Edgerton 1994, Kim
2006, Wigram 2006).
Findings
Music therapy was compared to a placebo therapy which attempted to control for all non-specific elements of music therapy,
such as the attention of a therapist. Outcomes assessed included
communicative skills and behavioural problems, and results were
significant for communicative skills and reached borderline significance for behavioural problems, suggesting a beneficial effect of
music therapy.
The effect sizes found in the results of this review can be interpreted in accordance with common guidelines for interventions
in the behavioural sciences (Cohen 1988). The effect on non-verbal (gestural) communicative skills reached a medium effect size
(SMD 0.50), which is seen as a clinically relevant magnitude when
comparing an active therapy condition to a placebo therapy.
The effects on verbal communicative skills were slightly smaller
(SMD 0.36) and ranged between a small and a medium effect
The included studies illustrate the value of structure, which is

generally an essential element for children with ASD. Music contains rhythmic, melodic, harmonic and dynamic structure which,
when applied systematically and skilfully, can be effective in engaging children with ASD. Intervention strategies employing music improvisation are usually not pre-structured in the sense of
a fixed manual. Flexible but systematic treatment protocols for
music therapy are currently developing in clinical practice and research investigations in autism (Kim 2005, Wigram 2006) as well
as in other fields (Rolvsjord 2005). One small RCT is currently
investigating the effects of improvisational music therapy (Kim
2005). Further such studies which are close to clinical practice will
be needed to improve the applicability of findings.
Control conditions

The included studies used a dismantling strategy to isolate the

effect of the specific ingredients of music therapy by setting up
comparison conditions which were very similar to the music therapy interventions, excluding only the music component. Any conclusion from such comparisons will therefore address the effects of
specific music therapy techniques, rather than the absolute effects
of music therapy. This type of design is justified when exploring
the intervention strategies in which music therapy works. However, such comparison conditions may introduce some artificiality
into the studies through selecting out and applying a single intervention strategy. This is not typically undertaken in clinical treatment, although it does isolate a specific cause-effect relationship.
In the broader field of psychotherapy research, similar constructions of placebo therapy to control for the therapists attention
and the non-specific elements have been broadly used (Kendall
2004, pp. 20-21). However, recent research on the common factors in psychotherapy raise the question of how adequate it is conceptually, and also whether it is technically possible, to separate
the active from the non-active elements of therapy (Lambert 2004,
pp. 150-152). In any case, the results of the included studies are
likely to underestimate the true effects of music therapy, because
the control conditions contain a number of potentially efficacious
techniques which are also used in music therapy.
AUTHORS CONCLUSIONS
Implications for practice
The findings of this review indicate that music therapy may have
positive effects on the communicative skills of children with autistic spectrum disorder. Music therapy has been shown to be superior to similar forms of therapy where music was not used, and
this may be indicative of a specificity of the effect of music within
music therapy. As only short-term effects have been examined, it
remains unknown how enduring the effects of music therapy on
verbal and non-verbal communicative skills are.
When applying the results of this review to practice, it is important
to note that the application of music therapy requires an academic
and clinical training in music therapy. Trained music therapists
are available in many countries. Training courses in music therapy
teach not only the clinical music therapy techniques as described
in the background of this review, but also aim at developing the
therapists personality and clinical sensitivity, which is necessary
to apply music therapy responsibly. Academic training courses in
music therapy exist in many countries, and information is usually
available through the professional associations.
Implications for research

Relation of studies to clinical practice
Duration and population
Time-limited, intensive treatments such as those examined in the
included studies are relevant in acute care, and probably also in
the light of limited available resources. However, ASD is pervasive
developmental disorder leading to a chronic condition which requires sustained therapeutic intervention starting as early as possible. Music therapy is, in clinical reports for ASD, also described
as a longer-term intervention, and given the typical emergence of
entrenched and deteriorating behaviour, therapeutic intervention
relies on consolidating progress over time. Conclusions about the
potential benefits of longer-term music therapy cannot be drawn
from the available studies. With regards to the population addressed, the applicability of the findings is limited to the age groups
included in the studies. No direct conclusions can be drawn about
adults with ASD.
Strength of the evidence

The limited information on randomisation methods and allocation concealment, the limited use of assessor blindness, the lack
of using standardised scales, and the small sample size limit the
methodological strength of the evidence. However, there was no
performance bias (co-intervention) or attrition bias (drop-out),
and inter-rater reliability was high, and these factors contribute
positively to the strength of the evidence.
More research is needed to examine the effects of music therapy

over a longer term. Future studies should involve therapy conditions that are close to clinical practice, especially in terms of frequency, duration, and therapy techniques. This may include further efficacy studies as well as effectiveness studies. Standardised
and published tools should be used to evaluate the outcome of
music therapy.
Sample size, power, and the choice of research design

Future research on music therapy for people with ASD will need
to pay close attention to sample size and power. All included studies had very small sample sizes and included no discussion of test
power, possibly indicating that the issue has been ignored (see
Gold 2004 for a discussion of the issue of test power in music
therapy research). Limited sample size is common in research on
ASD, and crossover designs seem an obvious choice because they
help to improve test power. However, crossover designs entail other
problems. First, longer-term follow-up assessments are not possible with such designs. Second, crossover designs are only adequate
for interventions whose effects are thought to be short-acting (
Elbourne 2002), but for music therapy it is not unreasonable to
assume lasting effects if children learn new modes of behaviour as a
result of therapy. In this case, crossover designs would be inappropriate due to carryover effects which would lead to the effect being
underestimated. Large parallel group trials are necessary to resolve

this dilemma. An informed discussion is needed about what designs are considered appropriate in research on music therapy for
ASD.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to thank Jane Dennis and Jo Abbott of the
Cochrane Developmental, Psychosocial and Learning Problems
Group for their help throughout the process, and Lisa Tjosvold of
the Cochrane Child Health Field for her help in retrieving additional unpublished studies.
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Indicates the major publication for the study

13
CHARACTERISTICS OF STUDIES
Characteristics of included studies [ordered by study ID]

Brownell 2002
Methods
Allocation: quasi-randomised, possibly randomised (counterbalanced)

Blindness: independent assessor (teacher), blinding not reported.
Duration: 4 weeks.
Design: crossover.
Participants
Diagnosis: autism.
N=4.
Age: range 6-9.
Sex: 4 M, 0 F.
Setting: elementary school.
Interventions
1. structured receptive MT (songs with social stories). 5 individual daily sessions. N=4.
2. structured receptive story therapy (reading of social stories). 5 individual daily sessions. N=4.
3. no intervention. 2 x 5 days. N=4.
Outcomes
Repetitive behaviours outside therapy sessions (in classroom). Inter-rater reliability 0.86 to 0.94
Notes
Risk of bias
Item
Authors judgement
Description
Allocation concealment?
Unclear
B - Unclear
Buday 1995
Methods
Allocation: randomised.
Blindness: assessor blinded to the nature of the hypothesis and to treatment condition.
Duration: 2 weeks.
Design: crossover.
Participants
Diagnosis: autism
N=10.
Age: range 4-9.
Sex: 8 M, 2 F.
Setting: public school.
Interventions
1. structured receptive MT (songs used to teach signs). 5 individual sessions. N=10.

2. rhythm therapy (rhythmic speech used to teach signs). 5 individual sessions. N=10.

14
Buday 1995
(Continued)
Outcomes
Imitating behaviour in sessions (rating of a video recording with sound turned off to ensure blinding of
raters; inter-rater agreement 98%).
a) sign imitation
b) speech imitation
Notes
Risk of bias
Item
Authors judgement
Description
Unclear
B - Unclear
Farmer 2003
Methods
Allocation: randomised.
Blindness: not known.
Duration: 5 days.
Design: parallel group.
Participants
Diagnosis: autism.
N=10.
Age: range 2-5.
Sex: 9 M, 1 F.
Setting: homes and therapy centres.
Interventions
1. MT sessions (combined active and receptive: guitar playing, songs. N=5

2. Placebo (no music) sessions. N=5.
Mostly individual sessions of 20 minutes
Outcomes
responses within sessions (inter-rater agreement 91%).

a) verbal responses
b) gestural responses
Notes
Risk of bias
Item
Authors judgement
Description
Unclear
B - Unclear

15
Characteristics of excluded studies [ordered by study ID]
Applebaum 1979
not intervention study (assessment)
Bettison 1996
not MT (AIT/only music listening)
Blackstock 1978
Bonnel 2003
Brown 1994
not RCT/CCT (case series)
Brown 2003
Bruscia 1982
not RCT/CCT (case study)
Carroll 1983
not MT (only sung instructions)
Chilcote-Doner 1982
not MT (rhythmic strobe and drumbeat)
Clauss 1994
not RCT/CCT (case series, ABACA design)
Dawson 1998
Diez 1989
Edelson 1999
Edgerton 1994
Frissell 2001
Goldstein 1964
Gore 2002
not usable (unclear outcome measure)
Griggs 1997
not RCT/CCT (case study), not intervention study (assessment)
Hadsell 1988
not RCT/CCT (case series), not ASD (Rett syndrome)
Hairston 1990
Heaton 1999
Heaton 2003

16
(Continued)
Kolko 1980
Krauss 1982
not RCT/CCT (case series), not ASD (apraxia, language delay)
Lee 2004
Litchman 1976
not MT (listening to recorded nursery rhymes)
Ma 2001
Mahlberg 1973
Miller 1979
Mottron 2000
Mudford 2000
OConnell 1974
OLoughlin 2000
not RCT/CCT - includes 3 case series where all received the same treatment (no. 1, 3, 4) and 1 case series
with an ABA design (no. 2).
Pasiali 2004
not RCT/CCT (case series, ABAB design)
Rao 2001
not MT (headphones with vs. without music)
Saperston 1973
Schmidt 1976
not RCT/CCT (case series, AB design)
Starr 1998
Staum 1984
Stevens 1969
Thaut 1987
Thaut 1988
Toolan 1994
Watson 1979
not RCT/CCT (case series, ABCA design)
Wimpory 1995

17
Characteristics of ongoing studies [ordered by study ID]

Kim 2005
Trial name or title
Joint attention and attunement in improvisational music therapy with the autistic child
Methods
Participants
Diagnosis: Autism (diagnostic consents by two child psychiatrists).

Exclusion criteria: diagnostic comorbidity; previous experience of music therapy or play therapy.
N=15.
Age: range 3-7.
Interventions
1. Music therapy: 12 individual sessions over 3 months.

2. Free play: 12 sessions over 3 months.
Psychiatric medication allowed to change during trial period.
Crossover RCT.
Outcomes
Pre/post (at baseline, crossover, and end of trial):

1. Mother-child free play interaction at home (MPI profile). Pre/post
2. Early Social Communication Scale (ESCS, Mundy et al, 1986, 2003),
3. Pervasive developmental disorder behavior inventory (PDDBI-C, Cohen & Subhalter, 1999)
Within sessions:
4. Treatment measurement: Every session videotaped. Treatment manual used.
Starting date
2003
Contact information
Jinah Kim, Aalborg University, Denmark. Email: kimjinah@hotmail.com
Notes

18
DATA AND ANALYSES
Comparison 1. Music therapy vs. placebo therapy
No. of
studies
Outcome or subgroup title

1 Communicative skills: gestural
2 Communicative skills: verbal
3 Behavioural problems (end of
therapy)
4 Behavioural problems (using all
measurements from 2nd day
on)
No. of
participants
Statistical method
Effect size
2
2
1
SMD (Fixed, 95% CI)

SMD (Fixed, 95% CI)
SMD (Fixed, 95% CI)
0.50 [0.22, 0.79]

0.36 [0.15, 0.57]
-0.14 [-0.42, 0.14]
SMD (Fixed, 95% CI)
-0.24 [-0.45, -0.03]
Analysis 1.1. Comparison 1 Music therapy vs. placebo therapy, Outcome 1 Communicative skills: gestural.
Review:
Comparison: 1 Music therapy vs. placebo therapy

Outcome: 1 Communicative skills: gestural
Study or subgroup
SMD (SE)
SMD
Weight
IV,Fixed,95% CI
SMD
IV,Fixed,95% CI
Buday 1995
0.4756 (0.1504)
95.8 %
0.48 [ 0.18, 0.77 ]
Farmer 2003
1.1676 (0.7159)
4.2 %
1.17 [ -0.24, 2.57 ]
100.0 %
0.50 [ 0.22, 0.79 ]
Total (95% CI)

Heterogeneity: Chi2 = 0.89, df = 1 (P = 0.34); I2 =0.0%
Test for overall effect: Z = 3.43 (P = 0.00060)
-4
-2
Favours placebo
Favours MT

19
Analysis 1.2. Comparison 1 Music therapy vs. placebo therapy, Outcome 2 Communicative skills: verbal.
Review:

Outcome: 2 Communicative skills: verbal
Study or subgroup
SMD (SE)
SMD
Weight
IV,Fixed,95% CI
SMD
IV,Fixed,95% CI
Buday 1995
0.3471 (0.1097)
97.4 %
0.35 [ 0.13, 0.56 ]
Farmer 2003
0.8066 (0.6736)
2.6 %
0.81 [ -0.51, 2.13 ]
100.0 %
0.36 [ 0.15, 0.57 ]
Total (95% CI)

Heterogeneity: Chi2 = 0.45, df = 1 (P = 0.50); I2 =0.0%
-4
-2
Favours placebo
Favours MT
Analysis 1.3. Comparison 1 Music therapy vs. placebo therapy, Outcome 3 Behavioural problems (end of
therapy).
Review:

Outcome: 3 Behavioural problems (end of therapy)
Study or subgroup
SMD (SE)
SMD
Weight
IV,Fixed,95% CI
Brownell 2002
SMD
IV,Fixed,95% CI
-0.141 (0.141)
Total (95% CI)
100.0 %
-0.14 [ -0.42, 0.14 ]
100.0 %
-0.14 [ -0.42, 0.14 ]
Heterogeneity: not applicable

-1
-0.5
Favours MT
0.5
Favours placebo

20
Analysis 1.4. Comparison 1 Music therapy vs. placebo therapy, Outcome 4 Behavioural problems (using
all measurements from 2nd day on).
Review:

Outcome: 4 Behavioural problems (using all measurements from 2nd day on)
Study or subgroup
SMD (SE)
SMD
Weight
SMD
IV,Fixed,95% CI
Brownell 2002
IV,Fixed,95% CI
-0.2405 (0.1091)
Total (95% CI)
100.0 %
-0.24 [ -0.45, -0.03 ]
100.0 %
-0.24 [ -0.45, -0.03 ]
Heterogeneity: not applicable

-1
-0.5
Favours MT
0.5
Favours placebo
WHATS NEW
Last assessed as up-to-date: 28 January 2006.
5 November 2009
Amended
Minor edit in background.
HISTORY
Protocol first published: Issue 3, 2003
Review first published: Issue 2, 2006
10 November 2008
Amended
Converted to new review format.
21 February 2006
Amended
Minor update
29 January 2006
New citation required and conclusions have changed
Substantive amendment

21
CONTRIBUTIONS OF AUTHORS
CG - designed the protocol, co-ordinated the reviewing, searched for studies, extracted and analysed data, and wrote the report.
TW - extracted and analysed data, helped with writing the protocol and the report.
CE - helped with data extraction and analysis and with writing the report.
DECLARATIONS OF INTEREST
The authors of this review are clinically trained music therapists.
SOURCES OF SUPPORT
Internal sources
Sogn og Fjordane University College, Norway.
Aalborg University, Denmark.
External sources
The Research Council of Norway, Norway.
INDEX TERMS
Medical Subject Headings (MeSH)
Autistic Disorder [ rehabilitation]; Child Development Disorders, Pervasive [ rehabilitation]; Communication; Music Therapy
[ methods]; Randomized Controlled Trials as Topic
MeSH check words

Child; Humans

22

Music Therapy and Autism

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Music therapy for autistic spectrum disorder (Review)

Gold C, Wigram T, Elefant C

Music therapy for autistic spectrum disorder (Review)

Music therapy for autistic spectrum disorder (Review)

Music therapy for autistic spectrum disorder

of Music and Music Therapy,

PLAIN LANGUAGE SUMMARY

Description of the condition

Music therapy for autistic spectrum disorder (Review)

all aspects of communication. They are said to lack a theory of

Description of the intervention

How the intervention might work

language (Alvin 1991). Listening to music within music therapy

Why it is important to do this review

Music therapy for autistic spectrum disorder (Review)

To review the effects of music therapy, or music therapy added to

Criteria for considering studies for this review

Search methods for identification of studies

Music therapy for autistic spectrum disorder (Review)

Data collection and analysis

3.1 Data extraction

Music therapy for autistic spectrum disorder (Review)

recommended and described in the literature on meta-analysis of

only listening to music (e.g. auditory integration training), rather

Music therapy for autistic spectrum disorder (Review)

the same two studies (Buday 1995, Farmer 2003). Independent

Risk of bias in included studies

Music therapy for autistic spectrum disorder (Review)

size. Considering that the placebo therapy possibly contained

The included studies illustrate the value of structure, which is

Music therapy for autistic spectrum disorder (Review)

The included studies used a dismantling strategy to isolate the

Implications for research

Strength of the evidence

More research is needed to examine the effects of music therapy

Sample size, power, and the choice of research design

Music therapy for autistic spectrum disorder (Review)

References to studies included in this review

References to studies excluded from this review

Brown 1994 {published data only}

Music therapy for autistic spectrum disorder (Review)

Edelson 1999 {published data only}

Gore AK. The effect of music versus emphasised speech on echolalic

Krauss 1982 {published data only}

Griggs 1997 {published data only}

Mottron 2000 {published data only}

Hadsell 1988 {published data only}

Mudford 2000 {published data only}

Hairston 1990 {published data only}

Hairston MP. Analyses of responses of mentally retarded autistic

OConnell 1974 {published data only}

Music therapy for autistic spectrum disorder (Review)

Rao 2001 {published data only}

related pervasive developmental disorders (masters thesis). Tallahassee:

References to ongoing studies

Kim, J. Joint attention and attunement in improvisational music

References to studies awaiting assessment

Laird 1997 {published data only}

Music therapy for autistic spectrum disorder (Review)

Indicates the major publication for the study