Symbolic TB

Symbolic Math Toolbox
User's Guide
R2014b
How to Contact MathWorks

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Phone:
508-647-7000
The MathWorks, Inc.

3 Apple Hill Drive
Natick, MA 01760-2098
Symbolic Math Toolbox User's Guide
COPYRIGHT 19932014 by The MathWorks, Inc.
The software described in this document is furnished under a license agreement. The software may be used
or copied only under the terms of the license agreement. No part of this manual may be photocopied or
reproduced in any form without prior written consent from The MathWorks, Inc.
FEDERAL ACQUISITION: This provision applies to all acquisitions of the Program and Documentation
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Revision History
August 1993
October 1994
May 1997
May 2000
June 2001
July 2002
October 2002
December 2002
June 2004
October 2004
March 2005
September 2005
March 2006
September 2006
March 2007
September 2007
March 2008
October 2008
October 2008
November 2008
March 2009
September 2009
March 2010
September 2010
April 2011
September 2011
March 2012
September 2012
March 2013
September 2013
March 2014
October 2014
First printing
Second printing
Third printing
Fourth printing
Fifth printing
Online only
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Revised for Version 2

Minor changes
Minor changes
Revised for Version 2.1.3 (Release 13)
Revised for Version 3.0.1
Revised for Version 3.1 (Release 14)
Revised for Version 3.1.1 (Release 14SP1)
Revised for Version 3.1.4 (Release 2006a)
Revised for Version 3.1.5 (Release 2006b)
Revised for Version 3.2 (Release 2007a)
Revised for Version 3.2.2 (Release 2007b)
Revised for Version 3.2.3 (Release 2008a)
Revised for Version 5.0 (Release 2008a+)
Revised for Version 5.1 (Release 2008b)
Revised for Version 4.9 (Release 2007b+)
Contents
Acknowledgments
Getting Started
Symbolic Math Toolbox Product Description . . . . . . . . . . . .
Key Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-2
1-2
Access Symbolic Math Toolbox Functionality . . . . . . . . . . . .

Work from MATLAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Work from MuPAD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-3
1-3
1-3
Symbolic Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Overview of Symbolic Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Symbolic Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Symbolic Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-4
1-4
1-4
1-5
Create Symbolic Variables and Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Create Symbolic Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Create Symbolic Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Create Symbolic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Create Symbolic Objects with Identical Names . . . . . . . . . .
Create a Matrix of Symbolic Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Create a Matrix of Symbolic Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Find Symbolic Variables in Expressions, Functions, Matrices
1-7
1-7
1-8
1-9
1-10
1-11
1-12
1-13
Perform Symbolic Computations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Simplify Symbolic Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Substitutions in Symbolic Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Estimate Precision of Numeric to Symbolic Conversions . . .
Differentiate Symbolic Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-15
1-15
1-16
1-19
1-21
vi
Contents
Integrate Symbolic Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Solve Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Create Plots of Symbolic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-23
1-25
1-26
Assumptions on Symbolic Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Default Assumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Set Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Check Existing Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Delete Symbolic Objects and Their Assumptions . . . . . . . . .
1-32
1-32
1-32
1-33
1-33
Using Symbolic Math Toolbox Software

Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Derivatives of Expressions with Several Variables . . . . . . . .
More Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-3
2-4
2-5
Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
One-Sided Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-9
2-9
Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Integration with Real Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Integration with Complex Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-12
2-15
2-17
Symbolic Summation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-19
Taylor Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-20
Pad Approximant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-23
Find Asymptotes, Critical and Inflection Points . . . . . . . . .

Define a Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Find Asymptotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Find Maximum and Minimum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Find Inflection Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-32
2-32
2-33
2-35
2-37
Simplifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
collect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
expand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
horner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-40
2-41
2-41
2-42
factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
simplifyFraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
simplify . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-42
2-43
2-44
Substitute with subexpr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-46
Substitute with subs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-48
Combine subs and double for Numeric Evaluations . . . . . .
2-52
Choose the Arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-55
Control Accuracy of Variable-Precision Computations . . .
2-56
Recognize and Avoid Round-Off Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Use Symbolic Computations When Possible . . . . . . . . . . . .
Increase Precision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Approximate Parameters and Approximate Results . . . . . . .
Plot the Function or Expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-58
2-58
2-59
2-61
2-61
Improve Performance of Numeric Computations . . . . . . . .
2-63
Basic Algebraic Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-64
Linear Algebraic Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-66
Eigenvalues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-71
Jordan Canonical Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-76
Singular Value Decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-78
Solve an Algebraic Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Solve an Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Return the Full Solution to an Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Work with the Full Solution, Parameters, and Conditions
Returned by solve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Visualize and Plot Solutions Returned by solve . . . . . . . . . .
Simplify Complicated Results and Improve Performance . . .
2-80
2-80
2-81
2-81
2-82
2-84
Select a Numeric or Symbolic Solver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-85
vii
Solve a System of Algebraic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Handle the Output of solve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Solve a Linear System of Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Return the Full Solution of a System of Equations . . . . . . .
Solve a System of Equations Under Conditions . . . . . . . . . .
Work with Solutions, Parameters, and Conditions Returned by
solve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Convert Symbolic Results to Numeric Values . . . . . . . . . . .
Simplify Complicated Results and Improve Performance . . .
viii
Contents
2-86
2-86
2-88
2-89
2-91
2-92
2-95
2-96
Resolve Complicated Solutions or Stuck Solver . . . . . . . . .

Return Only Real Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Apply Simplification Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Use Assumptions to Narrow Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Simplify Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-97
2-97
2-97
2-98
2-100
2-100
Solve a System of Linear Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Solve System of Linear Equations Using linsolve . . . . . . .
Solve System of Linear Equations Using solve . . . . . . . . .
2-101
2-101
2-102
Solve Equations Numerically . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Find All Roots of a Polynomial Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Find Zeros of a Nonpolynomial Function Using Search Ranges
and Starting Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Obtain Solutions to Arbitrary Precision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Solve Multivariate Equations Using Search Ranges . . . . .
2-104
2-104
Solve a Single Differential Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

First-Order Linear ODE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Nonlinear ODE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Second-Order ODE with Initial Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . .
Third-Order ODE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
More ODE Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-115
2-115
2-116
2-116
2-117
2-117
Solve a System of Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-119
Differential Algebraic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-121
Set Up Your DAE Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Step 1: Equations and Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Step 2: Differential Order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Step 3: Differential Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-122
2-123
2-124
2-124
2-105
2-109
2-110
Step 4: MATLAB Function Handles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Step 5: Consistent Initial Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Step 6: ODE Solvers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Solving DAE Systems Flow Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-124
2-125
2-125
2-125
Reduce Differential Order of DAE Systems . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-126
Check and Reduce Differential Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Reduce Differential Index to 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Reduce Differential Index to 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-128
2-128
2-131
Convert DAE Systems to MATLAB Function Handles . . . .

When Solving DAEs with ode15i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
When Solving ODEs with ode15i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
When Solving DAEs with ode15s or ode23t . . . . . . . . . . . .
When Solving ODEs with ode15s or ode23t . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-134
2-134
2-137
2-140
2-143
Find Consistent Initial Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

When Solving DAEs with ode15i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
When Solving ODEs with ode15i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
When Solving DAEs with ode15s or ode23t . . . . . . . . . . . .
When Solving ODEs with ode15s or ode23t . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-147
2-147
2-150
2-153
2-158
Solve DAE System Using MATLAB ODE Solvers . . . . . . . .

Solve a DAE System with ode15i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Solve an ODE System with ode15i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Solve a DAE System with ode15s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Solve an ODE System with ode15s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-163
2-163
2-167
2-171
2-177
Compute Fourier and Inverse Fourier Transforms . . . . . .
2-183
Compute Laplace and Inverse Laplace Transforms . . . . .
2-190
Compute Z-Transforms and Inverse Z-Transforms . . . . . .

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-197
2-199
Create Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Plot with Symbolic Plotting Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Plot with MATLAB Plotting Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Plot Multiple Symbolic Functions in One Graph . . . . . . . .
Plot Multiple Symbolic Functions in One Figure . . . . . . . .
Combine Symbolic Function Plots and Numeric Data Plots
2-201
2-201
2-204
2-206
2-208
2-210
ix
Contents
Explore Function Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-214
Edit Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-216
Save Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-217
Generate C or Fortran Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-218
Generate MATLAB Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Generating a Function Handle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Control the Order of Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Generate a File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Name Output Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Convert MuPAD Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-220
2-220
2-221
2-221
2-222
2-223
Generate MATLAB Function Blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Generate and Edit a Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Control the Order of Input Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Name the Output Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Convert MuPAD Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-225
2-225
2-225
2-226
2-226
Generate Simscape Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Convert Algebraic and Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . .
Convert MuPAD Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-227
2-227
2-229
2-229
MuPAD in Symbolic Math Toolbox

MuPAD Engines and MATLAB Workspace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-2
Create MuPAD Notebooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

If You Need Communication Between Interfaces . . . . . . . . . .
If You Use MATLAB to Access MuPAD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-3
3-3
3-4
Open MuPAD Notebooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

If You Need Communication Between Interfaces . . . . . . . . . .
If You Use MATLAB to Access MuPAD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Open MuPAD Program Files and Graphics . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-6
3-6
3-7
3-9
Save MuPAD Notebooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-12
Evaluate MuPAD Notebooks from MATLAB . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-13
Close MuPAD Notebooks from MATLAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-16
Edit MuPAD Code in MATLAB Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-18
Notebook Files and Program Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-19
Source Code of the MuPAD Library Functions . . . . . . . . . .
3-20
Differences Between MATLAB and MuPAD Syntax . . . . . .
3-21
Copy Variables and Expressions Between MATLAB and

MuPAD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Copy and Paste Using the System Clipboard . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-24
3-26
Reserved Variable and Function Names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Conflicts Caused by MuPAD Function Names . . . . . . . . . . .
Conflicts Caused by Syntax Conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-28
3-28
3-29
Call Built-In MuPAD Functions from MATLAB . . . . . . . . . .

evalin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
feval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
evalin vs. feval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Floating-Point Arguments of evalin and feval . . . . . . . . . . .
3-31
3-31
3-31
3-32
3-33
Computations in MATLAB Command Window vs. MuPAD

Notebook App . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Results Displayed in Typeset Math . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Graphics and Animations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
More Functionality in Specialized Mathematical Areas . . . .
More Options for Common Symbolic Functions . . . . . . . . . .
Possibility to Expand Existing Functionality . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-34
3-35
3-35
3-36
3-36
3-37
Use Your Own MuPAD Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Write MuPAD Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Steps to Take Before Calling a Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Call Your Own MuPAD Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-38
3-38
3-39
3-40
Clear Assumptions and Reset the Symbolic Engine . . . . . .

Check Assumptions Set On Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-43
3-44
xi
Effects of Assumptions on Computations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-45
Create MATLAB Functions from MuPAD Expressions . . . .

Copy MuPAD Variables to the MATLAB Workspace . . . . . .
Generate MATLAB Code in a MuPAD Notebook . . . . . . . . .
3-47
3-48
3-49
Create MATLAB Function Blocks from MuPAD

Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-50
Create Simscape Equations from MuPAD Expressions . . . .

GenerateSimscape Equations in the MuPAD Notebook App .
Generate Simscape Equations in the MATLAB Command
Window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
xii
Contents
3-52
3-52
3-53
Functions Alphabetical List
Acknowledgments
The MuPAD documentation is COPYRIGHT 19972012 by SciFace Software GmbH &
Co. KG.
MuPAD is a registered trademark of SciFace Software GmbH & Co. KG. MATLAB and
Simulink are registered trademarks of The MathWorks, Inc. See www.mathworks.com/
trademarks for a list of additional trademarks. Other product or brand names may be
trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective holders.
ii
1
Getting Started
Symbolic Math Toolbox Product Description on page 1-2
Access Symbolic Math Toolbox Functionality on page 1-3
Symbolic Objects on page 1-4
Create Symbolic Variables and Expressions on page 1-7
Perform Symbolic Computations on page 1-15
Assumptions on Symbolic Objects on page 1-32
Getting Started
Symbolic Math Toolbox Product Description

Perform symbolic math computations
Symbolic Math Toolbox provides functions for solving and manipulating symbolic
math expressions and performing variable-precision arithmetic. You can analytically
perform differentiation, integration, simplification, transforms, and equation solving.
You can also generate code for MATLAB, Simulink, and Simscape from symbolic math
expressions.
Symbolic Math Toolbox includes the MuPAD language, which is optimized for handling
and operating on symbolic math expressions. It provides libraries of MuPAD functions
in common mathematical areas, such as calculus and linear algebra, and in specialized
areas, such as number theory and combinatorics. You can also write custom symbolic
functions and libraries in the MuPAD language. The MuPAD Notebook app lets you
document symbolic math derivations with embedded text, graphics, and typeset math.
You can share the annotated derivations as HTML or as a PDF.
Key Features
Symbolic integration, differentiation, transforms, and linear algebra
Algebraic and ordinary differential equation (ODE) solvers
Simplification and manipulation of symbolic expressions
Code generation from symbolic expressions for MATLAB, Simulink, Simscape, C,
Fortran, MathML, and TeX
Variable-precision arithmetic
MuPAD Notebook for performing and documenting symbolic calculations
MuPAD language and function libraries for combinatorics, number theory, and other
mathematical areas
1-2
Access Symbolic Math Toolbox Functionality
Access Symbolic Math Toolbox Functionality

In this section...
Work from MATLAB on page 1-3
Work from MuPAD on page 1-3
Work from MATLAB

You can access the Symbolic Math Toolbox functionality directly from the MATLAB
Command Window. This environment lets you call functions using familiar MATLAB
syntax.
Work from MuPAD

You can access the Symbolic Math Toolbox functionality from the MuPAD Notebook app
using the MuPAD language. The MuPAD Notebook app includes a symbol palette for
accessing common MuPAD functions. All results are displayed in typeset math. You also
can convert the results into MathML and TeX. You can embed graphics, animations, and
descriptive text within your notebook.
A debugger and other programming utilities provide tools for authoring custom symbolic
functions and libraries in the MuPAD language. The MuPAD language supports multiple
programming styles including imperative, functional, and object-oriented programming.
The language treats variables as symbolic by default and is optimized for handling and
operating on symbolic math expressions. You can call functions written in the MuPAD
language from the MATLAB Command Window. For more information, see Call Built-In
MuPAD Functions from MATLAB
If you are a new user of the MuPAD Notebook app, see Getting Started with MuPAD.
1-3
Getting Started
Symbolic Objects
In this section...
Overview of Symbolic Objects on page 1-4
Symbolic Variables on page 1-4
Symbolic Numbers on page 1-5
Overview of Symbolic Objects

Symbolic objects are a special MATLAB data type introduced by the Symbolic Math
Toolbox software. They enable you to perform mathematical operations in the MATLAB
workspace analytically, without calculating numeric values. You can use symbolic objects
to perform a wide variety of analytical computations:
Differentiation, including partial differentiation
Definite and indefinite integration
Taking limits, including one-sided limits
Summation, including Taylor series
Matrix operations
Solving algebraic and differential equations
Integral transforms
Symbolic objects are symbolic variables, symbolic numbers, symbolic expressions,
symbolic matrices, and symbolic functions.
Symbolic Variables
To declare variables x and y as symbolic objects use the syms command:
syms x y
You can manipulate the symbolic objects according to the usual rules of mathematics. For
example:
x + x + y
1-4
Symbolic Objects
ans =
2*x + y
You also can create formal symbolic mathematical expressions and symbolic matrices.
See Create Symbolic Variables and Expressions on page 1-7 for more information.
Symbolic Numbers
Symbolic Math Toolbox software also enables you to convert numbers to symbolic objects.
To create a symbolic number, use the sym command:
a = sym('2')
If you create a symbolic number with 15 or fewer decimal digits, you can skip the quotes:
a = sym(2)
The following example illustrates the difference between a standard double-precision

MATLAB data and the corresponding symbolic number. The MATLAB command
sqrt(2)
returns a double-precision floating-point number:

ans =
1.4142
On the other hand, if you calculate a square root of a symbolic number 2:

a = sqrt(sym(2))
you get the precise symbolic result:

a =
2^(1/2)
Symbolic results are not indented. Standard MATLAB double-precision results are
indented. The difference in output form shows what type of data is presented as a result.
To evaluate a symbolic number numerically, use the double command:
double(a)
ans =
1-5
Getting Started
1.4142
You also can create a rational fraction involving symbolic numbers:

sym(2)/sym(5)
ans =
2/5
or more efficiently:
sym(2/5)
ans =
2/5
MATLAB performs arithmetic on symbolic fractions differently than it does on standard

numeric fractions. By default, MATLAB stores all numeric values as double-precision
floating-point data. For example:
2/5 + 1/3
ans =
0.7333
If you add the same fractions as symbolic objects, MATLAB finds their common
denominator and combines them in the usual procedure for adding rational numbers:
sym(2/5) + sym(1/3)
ans =
11/15
To learn more about symbolic representation of rational and decimal fractions, see
Estimate Precision of Numeric to Symbolic Conversions on page 1-19.
1-6
Create Symbolic Variables and Expressions

In this section...
Create Symbolic Variables on page 1-7
Create Symbolic Expressions on page 1-8
Create Symbolic Functions on page 1-9
Create Symbolic Objects with Identical Names on page 1-10
Create a Matrix of Symbolic Variables on page 1-11
Create a Matrix of Symbolic Numbers on page 1-12
Find Symbolic Variables in Expressions, Functions, Matrices on page 1-13
Create Symbolic Variables

The sym command creates symbolic variables and expressions. For example, the
commands
x = sym('x');
a = sym('alpha');
create a symbolic variable x with the value x assigned to it in the MATLAB workspace
and a symbolic variable a with the value alpha assigned to it. An alternate way to create
a symbolic object is to use the syms command:
syms x
a = sym('alpha');
You can use sym or syms to create symbolic variables. The syms command:
Does not use parentheses and quotation marks: syms x
Can create multiple objects with one call
Serves best for creating individual single and multiple symbolic variables
The sym command:
Requires parentheses and quotation marks: x = sym('x'). When creating a
symbolic number with 15 or fewer decimal digits, you can skip the quotation marks: f
= sym(5).
1-7
Getting Started
Creates one symbolic object with each call.

Serves best for creating symbolic numbers and symbolic expressions.
Serves best for creating symbolic objects in functions and scripts.
Note In Symbolic Math Toolbox, pi is a reserved word.
Create Symbolic Expressions

Suppose you want to use a symbolic variable to represent the golden ratio
j=
1+ 5
2
The command
phi = sym('(1 + sqrt(5))/2');
achieves this goal. Now you can perform various mathematical operations on phi. For
example,
f = phi^2 - phi - 1
returns
f =
(5^(1/2)/2 + 1/2)^2 - 5^(1/2)/2 - 3/2
Now suppose you want to study the quadratic function f = ax2 + bx + c. One approach is
to enter the command
f = sym('a*x^2 + b*x + c');
which assigns the symbolic expression ax2 + bx + c to the variable f. However, in this
case, Symbolic Math Toolbox software does not create variables corresponding to the
terms of the expression: a, b, c, and x. To perform symbolic math operations on f, you
need to create the variables explicitly. A better alternative is to enter the commands
a = sym('a');
b = sym('b');
1-8
c = sym('c');
x = sym('x');
or simply
syms a b c x
Then, enter
f = a*x^2 + b*x + c;
Tip To create a symbolic expression that is a constant, you must use the sym command.
Do not use the syms function to create a symbolic expression that is a constant. For
example, to create the expression whose value is 5, enter f = sym(5). The command f
= 5 does not define f as a symbolic expression.
Create Symbolic Functions

You also can use sym and syms to create symbolic functions. For example, you can create
an arbitrary function f(x, y) where x and y are function variables. The simplest way to
create an arbitrary symbolic function is to use syms:
syms f(x, y)
This syntax creates the symbolic function f and symbolic variables x and y.
Alternatively, you can use sym to create a symbolic function. Note that sym only creates
the function. It does not create symbolic variables that represent its arguments. You
must create these variables before creating a function:
syms x y
f(x, y) = sym('f(x, y)');
If instead of an arbitrary symbolic function you want to create a function defined by a

particular mathematical expression, use this two-step approach. First create symbolic
variables representing the arguments of the function:
syms x y
Then assign a mathematical expression to the function. In this case, the assignment
operation also creates the new symbolic function:
1-9
Getting Started
f(x, y) = x^3*y^3
f(x, y) =
x^3*y^3
After creating a symbolic function, you can differentiate, integrate, or simplify it,
substitute its arguments with values, and perform other mathematical operations. For
example, find the second derivative on f(x, y) with respect to variable y. The result
d2fy is also a symbolic function.
d2fy = diff(f, y, 2)
d2fy(x, y) =
6*x^3*y
Now evaluate f(x, y) for x = y + 1:

f(y + 1, y)
ans =
y^3*(y + 1)^3
Create Symbolic Objects with Identical Names

If you set a variable equal to a symbolic expression, and then apply the syms command
to the variable, MATLAB software removes the previously defined expression from the
variable. For example,
syms a b
f = a + b
returns
f =
a + b
If later you enter

syms f
f
then MATLAB removes the value a + b from the expression f:

f =
1-10
You can use the syms command to clear variables of definitions that you previously
assigned to them in your MATLAB session. However, syms does not clear the following
assumptions of the variables: complex, real, and positive. These assumptions are
stored separately from the symbolic object. See Delete Symbolic Objects and Their
Assumptions on page 1-33 for more information.
Create a Matrix of Symbolic Variables

Use Existing Symbolic Objects as Elements
A circulant matrix has the property that each row is obtained from the previous one
by cyclically permuting the entries one step forward. For example, create the symbolic
circulant matrix whose elements are a, b, and c, using the commands:
syms a b c
A = [a b c; c a b; b c a]
A
[
[
[
=
a, b, c]
c, a, b]
b, c, a]
Since matrix A is circulant, the sum of elements over each row and each column is the
same. Find the sum of all the elements of the first row:
sum(A(1,:))
ans =
a + b + c
To check if the sum of the elements of the first row equals the sum of the elements of the
second column, use the logical function:
logical(sum(A(1,:)) == sum(A(:,2)))
The sums are equal:

ans =
1
From this example, you can see that using symbolic objects is very similar to using
regular MATLAB numeric objects.
1-11
Getting Started
Generate Elements While Creating a Matrix

The sym function also lets you define a symbolic matrix or vector without having to
define its elements in advance. In this case, the sym function generates the elements of
a symbolic matrix at the same time that it creates a matrix. The function presents all
generated elements using the same form: the base (which must be a valid variable name),
a row index, and a column index. Use the first argument of sym to specify the base for the
names of generated elements. You can use any valid variable name as a base. To check
whether the name is a valid variable name, use the isvarname function. By default, sym
separates a row index and a column index by underscore. For example, create the 2-by-4
matrix A with the elements A1_1, ..., A2_4:
A = sym('A', [2 4])
A =
[ A1_1, A1_2, A1_3, A1_4]
[ A2_1, A2_2, A2_3, A2_4]
To control the format of the generated names of matrix elements, use %d in the first
argument:
A = sym('A%d%d', [2 4])
A =
[ A11, A12, A13, A14]
[ A21, A22, A23, A24]
Create a Matrix of Symbolic Numbers

A particularly effective use of sym is to convert a matrix from numeric to symbolic form.
The command
A = hilb(3)
generates the 3-by-3 Hilbert matrix:

A =
1.0000
0.5000
0.3333
0.5000
0.3333
0.2500
By applying sym to A
A = sym(A)
1-12
0.3333
0.2500
0.2000
you can obtain the precise symbolic form of the 3-by-3 Hilbert matrix:
A =
[
1, 1/2, 1/3]
[ 1/2, 1/3, 1/4]
[ 1/3, 1/4, 1/5]
For more information on numeric to symbolic conversions, see Estimate Precision of

Numeric to Symbolic Conversions on page 1-19.
Find Symbolic Variables in Expressions, Functions, Matrices

To find symbolic variables in an expression, function, or matrix, use symvar. For
example, find all symbolic variables in symbolic expressions f and g:
syms a b n t x
f = x^n;
g = sin(a*t + b);
symvar(f)
ans =
[ n, x]
Here, symvar sorts all returned variables alphabetically. Similarly, you can find the
symbolic variables in g by entering:
symvar(g)
ans =
[ a, b, t]
symvar also can return the first n symbolic variables found in a symbolic expression,
matrix, or function. To specify the number of symbolic variables that you want symvar to
return, use the second parameter of symvar. For example, return the first two variables
found in symbolic expression g:
symvar(g, 2)
ans =
[ t, b]
Notice that the first two variables in this case are not a and b. When you call symvar
with two arguments, it sorts symbolic variables by their proximity to x.
1-13
Getting Started
You also can find symbolic variables in a function:

syms x y w z
f(w, z) = x*w + y*z;
symvar(f)
ans =
[ w, x, y, z]
When you call symvar with two arguments, it returns the function inputs in front of
other variables:
symvar(f, 2)
ans =
[ w, z]
Find a Default Symbolic Variable

If you do not specify an independent variable when performing substitution,
differentiation, or integration, MATLAB uses a default variable. The default variable
is typically the one closest alphabetically to x or, for symbolic functions, the first input
argument of a function. To find which variable is chosen as a default variable, use the
symvar(f, 1) command. For example:
syms s t
f = s + t;
symvar(f, 1)
ans =
t
syms sx tx
f = sx + tx;
symvar(f, 1)
ans =
tx
For more information on choosing the default symbolic variable, see symvar.
1-14
Perform Symbolic Computations

In this section...
Simplify Symbolic Expressions on page 1-15
Substitutions in Symbolic Expressions on page 1-16
Estimate Precision of Numeric to Symbolic Conversions on page 1-19
Differentiate Symbolic Expressions on page 1-21
Integrate Symbolic Expressions on page 1-23
Solve Equations on page 1-25
Create Plots of Symbolic Functions on page 1-26
Simplify Symbolic Expressions

Symbolic Math Toolbox provides a set of simplification functions allowing you to
manipulate the output of a symbolic expression. For example, the following polynomial of
the golden ratio phi
phi = sym('(1 + sqrt(5))/2');
f = phi^2 - phi - 1
returns
f =
(5^(1/2)/2 + 1/2)^2 - 5^(1/2)/2 - 3/2
You can simplify this answer by entering

simplify(f)
and get a very short answer:

ans =
0
Symbolic simplification is not always so straightforward. There is no universal

simplification function, because the meaning of a simplest representation of a symbolic
expression cannot be defined clearly. Different problems require different forms of the
same mathematical expression. Knowing what form is more effective for solving your
particular problem, you can choose the appropriate simplification function.
1-15
Getting Started
For example, to show the order of a polynomial or symbolically differentiate or integrate

a polynomial, use the standard polynomial form with all the parentheses multiplied out
and all the similar terms summed up. To rewrite a polynomial in the standard form, use
the expand function:
syms x
f = (x ^2- 1)*(x^4 + x^3 + x^2 + x + 1)*(x^4 - x^3 + x^2 - x + 1);
expand(f)
ans =
x^10 - 1
The factor simplification function shows the polynomial roots. If a polynomial cannot
be factored over the rational numbers, the output of the factor function is the standard
polynomial form. For example, to factor the third-order polynomial, enter:
syms x
g = x^3 + 6*x^2 + 11*x + 6;
factor(g)
ans =
[ x + 3, x + 2, x + 1]
The nested (Horner) representation of a polynomial is the most efficient for numerical
evaluations:
syms x
h = x^5 + x^4 + x^3 + x^2 + x;
horner(h)
ans =
x*(x*(x*(x*(x + 1) + 1) + 1) + 1)
For a list of Symbolic Math Toolbox simplification functions, see Simplifications on page
2-40.
Substitutions in Symbolic Expressions

Substitute Symbolic Variables with Numbers
You can substitute a symbolic variable with a numeric value by using the subs function.
For example, evaluate the symbolic expression f at the point x=1/3:
syms x
f = 2*x^2 - 3*x + 1;
1-16
subs(f, 1/3)
ans =
2/9
The subs function does not change the original expression f:

f
f =
2*x^2 - 3*x + 1
Substitute in Multivariate Expressions

When your expression contains more than one variable, you can specify the variable for
which you want to make the substitution. For example, to substitute the value x=3 in
the symbolic expression
syms x y
f = x^2*y + 5*x*sqrt(y);
enter the command

subs(f, x, 3)
ans =
9*y + 15*y^(1/2)
Substitute One Symbolic Variable for Another

You also can substitute one symbolic variable for another symbolic variable. For example
to replace the variable y with the variable x, enter
subs(f, y, x)
ans =
x^3 + 5*x^(3/2)
Substitute a Matrix into a Polynomial

You can also substitute a matrix into a symbolic polynomial with numeric coefficients.
There are two ways to substitute a matrix into a polynomial: element by element and
according to matrix multiplication rules.
Element-by-Element Substitution
To substitute a matrix at each element, use the subs command:

1-17
Getting Started
syms x
f = x^3 - 15*x^2 - 24*x + 350;
A = [1 2 3; 4 5 6];
subs(f,A)
ans =
[ 312, 250, 170]
[ 78, -20, -118]
You can do element-by-element substitution for rectangular or square matrices.

Substitution in a Matrix Sense
If you want to substitute a matrix into a polynomial using standard matrix

multiplication rules, a matrix must be square. For example, you can substitute the magic
square A into a polynomial f:
1
Create the polynomial:

syms x
f = x^3 - 15*x^2 - 24*x + 350;
Create the magic square matrix:

A = magic(3)
A =
8
3
4
1
5
9
6
7
2
Get a row vector containing the numeric coefficients of the polynomial f:

b = sym2poly(f)
b =
1
-15
-24
350
Substitute the magic square matrix A into the polynomial f. Matrix A replaces all
occurrences of x in the polynomial. The constant times the identity matrix eye(3)
replaces the constant term of f:
A^3 - 15*A^2 - 24*A + 350*eye(3)
ans =
-10
0
0
1-18
0
-10
0
0
0
-10
The polyvalm command provides an easy way to obtain the same result:
polyvalm(b,A)
ans =
-10
0
0
0
-10
0
0
0
-10
Substitute the Elements of a Symbolic Matrix

To substitute a set of elements in a symbolic matrix, also use the subs command.
Suppose you want to replace some of the elements of a symbolic circulant matrix A
syms a b c
A = [a b c; c a b; b c a]
A
[
[
[
=
a, b, c]
c, a, b]
b, c, a]
To replace the (2, 1) element of A with beta and the variable b throughout the matrix
with variable alpha, enter
alpha = sym('alpha');
beta = sym('beta');
A(2,1) = beta;
A = subs(A,b,alpha)
The result is the matrix:

A =
[
a, alpha,
c]
[ beta,
a, alpha]
[ alpha,
c,
a]
For more information, see Substitution.
Estimate Precision of Numeric to Symbolic Conversions

The sym command converts a numeric scalar or matrix to symbolic form. By default, the
sym command returns a rational approximation of a numeric expression. For example,
you can convert the standard double-precision variable into a symbolic object:
1-19
Getting Started
t = 0.1;
sym(t)
ans =
1/10
The technique for converting floating-point numbers is specified by the optional second
argument, which can be 'f', 'r', 'e' or 'd'. The default option is 'r', which stands
for rational approximation Conversion to Rational Symbolic Form on page 1-20.
Conversion to Floating-Point Symbolic Form
The 'f' option to sym converts double-precision floating-point numbers to exact numeric
values N*2ê, where e and N are integers, and N is nonnegative. For example,
sym(t, 'f')
returns the symbolic floating-point representation:

ans =
3602879701896397/36028797018963968
Conversion to Rational Symbolic Form

If you call sym command with the 'r' option
sym(t, 'r')
you get the results in the rational form:

ans =
1/10
This is the default setting for the sym command. If you call this command without any
option, you get the result in the same rational form:
sym(t)
ans =
1/10
Conversion to Rational Symbolic Form with Machine Precision

If you call the sym command with the option 'e', it returns the rational form of t plus
the difference between the theoretical rational expression for t and its actual (machine)
floating-point value in terms of eps (the floating-point relative precision):
1-20
sym(t, 'e')
ans =
eps/40 + 1/10
Conversion to Decimal Symbolic Form

If you call the sym command with the option 'd', it returns the decimal expansion of t
up to the number of significant digits:
sym(t,'d')
ans =
0.10000000000000000555111512312578
By default, the sym(t,'d') command returns a number with 32 significant digits. To

change the number of significant digits, use the digits command:
digits(7)
sym(t,'d')
ans =
0.1
Differentiate Symbolic Expressions

With the Symbolic Math Toolbox software, you can find
Derivatives of single-variable expressions
Partial derivatives
Second and higher order derivatives
Mixed derivatives
For in-depth information on taking symbolic derivatives see Differentiation on page
2-3.
Expressions with One Variable
To differentiate a symbolic expression, use the diff command. The following example
illustrates how to take a first derivative of a symbolic expression:
syms x
1-21
Getting Started
f = sin(x)^2;
diff(f)
ans =
2*cos(x)*sin(x)
Partial Derivatives
For multivariable expressions, you can specify the differentiation variable. If you do not
specify any variable, MATLAB chooses a default variable by its proximity to the letter x:
syms x y
f = sin(x)^2 + cos(y)^2;
diff(f)
ans =
2*cos(x)*sin(x)
For the complete set of rules MATLAB applies for choosing a default variable, see Find a
Default Symbolic Variable on page 1-14.
To differentiate the symbolic expression f with respect to a variable y, enter:
syms x y
f = sin(x)^2 + cos(y)^2;
diff(f, y)
ans =
-2*cos(y)*sin(y)
Second Partial and Mixed Derivatives

To take a second derivative of the symbolic expression f with respect to a variable y,
enter:
syms x y
f = sin(x)^2 + cos(y)^2;
diff(f, y, 2)
ans =
2*sin(y)^2 - 2*cos(y)^2
You get the same result by taking derivative twice: diff(diff(f, y)). To take mixed
derivatives, use two differentiation commands. For example:
1-22
syms x y
f = sin(x)^2 + cos(y)^2;
diff(diff(f, y), x)
ans =
0
Integrate Symbolic Expressions

You can perform symbolic integration including:
Indefinite and definite integration
Integration of multivariable expressions
For in-depth information on the int command including integration with real and
complex parameters, see Integration on page 2-12.
Indefinite Integrals of One-Variable Expressions
Suppose you want to integrate a symbolic expression. The first step is to create the
symbolic expression:
syms x
f = sin(x)^2;
To find the indefinite integral, enter

int(f)
ans =
x/2 - sin(2*x)/4
Indefinite Integrals of Multivariable Expressions

If the expression depends on multiple symbolic variables, you can designate a variable of
integration. If you do not specify any variable, MATLAB chooses a default variable by the
proximity to the letter x:
syms x y n
f = x^n + y^n;
int(f)
ans =
1-23
Getting Started
x*y^n + (x*x^n)/(n + 1)
For the complete set of rules MATLAB applies for choosing a default variable, see Find a
Default Symbolic Variable on page 1-14.
You also can integrate the expression f = x^n + y^n with respect to y
syms x y n
f = x^n + y^n;
int(f, y)
ans =
x^n*y + (y*y^n)/(n + 1)
If the integration variable is n, enter

syms x y n
f = x^n + y^n;
int(f, n)
ans =
x^n/log(x) + y^n/log(y)
Definite Integrals
To find a definite integral, pass the limits of integration as the final two arguments of the
int function:
syms x y n
f = x^n + y^n;
int(f, 1, 10)
ans =
piecewise([n == -1, log(10) + 9/y], [n ~= -1, (10*10^n - 1)/(n + 1) + 9*y^n])
If MATLAB Cannot Find a Closed Form of an Integral

If the int function cannot compute an integral, it returns an unresolved integral:
syms x y n
f = sin(x)^(1/sqrt(n));
int(f, n, 1, 10)
ans =
1-24
int(sin(x)^(1/n^(1/2)), n, 1, 10)
Solve Equations
You can solve different types of symbolic equations including:
Algebraic equations with one symbolic variable
Algebraic equations with several symbolic variables
Systems of algebraic equations
For in-depth information on solving symbolic equations including differential equations,
see Equation Solving.
Solve Algebraic Equations with One Symbolic Variable
Use the double equal sign (==) to define an equation. Then you can solve the equation
by calling the solve function. For example, solve this equation:
syms x
solve(x^3 - 6*x^2 == 6 - 11*x)
ans =
1
2
3
If you do not specify the right side of the equation, solve assumes that it is zero:
syms x
solve(x^3 - 6*x^2 + 11*x - 6)
ans =
1
2
3
Solve Algebraic Equations with Several Symbolic Variables

If an equation contains several symbolic variables, you can specify a variable for which
this equation should be solved. For example, solve this multivariable equation with
respect to y:
syms x y
1-25
Getting Started
solve(6*x^2 - 6*x^2*y + x*y^2 - x*y + y^3 - y^2 == 0, y)

ans =
1
2*x
-3*x
If you do not specify any variable, you get the solution of an equation for the
alphabetically closest to x variable. For the complete set of rules MATLAB applies for
choosing a default variable see Find a Default Symbolic Variable on page 1-14.
Solve Systems of Algebraic Equations
You also can solve systems of equations. For example:
syms x y z
[x, y, z] = solve(z == 4*x, x == y, z == x^2 + y^2)
x =
0
2
y =
0
2
z =
0
8
Create Plots of Symbolic Functions

You can create different types of graphs including:
Plots of explicit functions
Plots of implicit functions
3-D parametric plots
Surface plots
Explicit Function Plot
The simplest way to create a plot is to use the ezplot command:
1-26
syms x
ezplot(x^3 - 6*x^2 + 11*x - 6)
hold on
The hold on command retains the existing plot allowing you to add new elements and
change the appearance of the plot. For example, now you can change the names of the
axes and add a new title and grid lines. When you finish working with the current plot,
enter the hold off command:
xlabel('x axis')
ylabel('no name axis')
title('Explicit function: x^3 - 6*x^2 + 11*x - 6')
1-27
Getting Started
grid on
hold off
Implicit Function Plot

Using ezplot, you can also plot equations. For example, plot the following equation over
1 < x < 1:
syms x y
ezplot((x^2 + y^2)^4 == (x^2 - y^2)^2, [-1 1])
hold on
xlabel('x axis')
ylabel('y axis')
1-28
grid on
hold off
3-D Plot
3-D graphics is also available in Symbolic Math Toolbox. To create a 3-D plot, use the
ezplot3 command. For example:
syms t
ezplot3(t^2*sin(10*t), t^2*cos(10*t), t)
1-29
Getting Started
Surface Plot
If you want to create a surface plot, use the ezsurf command. For example, to plot a
paraboloid z = x2 + y2, enter:
syms x y
ezsurf(x^2 + y^2)
hold on
zlabel('z')
title('z = x^2 + y^2')
hold off
1-30
1-31
Getting Started
Assumptions on Symbolic Objects

In this section...
Default Assumption on page 1-32
Set Assumptions on page 1-32
Check Existing Assumptions on page 1-33
Delete Symbolic Objects and Their Assumptions on page 1-33
Default Assumption
In Symbolic Math Toolbox, symbolic variables are complex variables by default. For
example, if you declare z as a symbolic variable using
syms z
then MATLAB assumes that z is a complex variable. You can always check if a symbolic
variable is assumed to be complex or real by using assumptions. If z is complex,
assumptions(z) returns an empty symbolic object:
assumptions(z)
ans =
Empty sym: 1-by-0
Set Assumptions
To set an assumption on a symbolic variable, use the assume function. For example,
assume that the variable x is nonnegative:
syms x
assume(x >= 0)
assume replaces all previous assumptions on the variable with the new assumption.
If you want to add a new assumption to the existing assumptions, use assumeAlso.
For example, add the assumption that x is also an integer. Now the variable x is a
nonnegative integer:
assumeAlso(x,'integer')
1-32
assume and assumeAlso let you state that a variable or an expression belongs to one of
these sets: integers, rational numbers, and real numbers.
Alternatively, you can set an assumption while declaring a symbolic variable using
sym or syms. For example, create the real symbolic variables a and b, and the positive
symbolic variable c:
a = sym('a', 'real');
b = sym('b', 'real');
c = sym('c', 'positive');
or more efficiently:
syms a b real
syms c positive
There are two assumptions that you can assign to a symbolic object within the sym or
syms command: real and positive.
Check Existing Assumptions

To see all assumptions set on a symbolic variable, use the assumptions function with
the name of the variable as an input argument. For example, this command returns the
assumptions currently used for the variable x:
assumptions(x)
To see all assumptions used for all symbolic variables in the MATLAB workspace, use
assumptions without input arguments:
assumptions
For details, see Check Assumptions Set On Variables on page 3-44.
Delete Symbolic Objects and Their Assumptions

Symbolic objects and their assumptions are stored separately. When you set an
assumption that x is real using
syms x
assume(x,'real')
1-33
Getting Started
you actually create a symbolic object x and the assumption that the object is real. The
object is stored in the MATLAB workspace, and the assumption is stored in the symbolic
engine. When you delete a symbolic object from the MATLAB workspace using
clear x
the assumption that x is real stays in the symbolic engine. If you declare a new symbolic
variable x later, it inherits the assumption that x is real instead of getting a default
assumption. If later you solve an equation and simplify an expression with the symbolic
variable x, you could get incomplete results. For example, the assumption that x is real
causes the polynomial x2+1 to have no roots:
syms x real
clear x
syms x
solve(x^2 + 1 == 0, x)
ans =
Empty sym: 0-by-1
The complex roots of this polynomial disappear because the symbolic variable x still has
the assumption that x is real stored in the symbolic engine. To clear the assumption,
enter
syms x clear
After you clear the assumption, the symbolic object stays in the MATLAB workspace.
If you want to remove both the symbolic object and its assumption, use two subsequent
commands:
1
To clear the assumption, enter

syms x clear
To delete the symbolic object, enter

clear x
For details on clearing symbolic variables, see Clear Assumptions and Reset the
Symbolic Engine on page 3-43.
1-34
2
Using Symbolic Math Toolbox
Software
Differentiation on page 2-3
Limits on page 2-9
Integration on page 2-12
Symbolic Summation on page 2-19
Taylor Series on page 2-20
Pad Approximant on page 2-23
Find Asymptotes, Critical and Inflection Points on page 2-32
Simplifications on page 2-40
Substitute with subexpr on page 2-46
Substitute with subs on page 2-48
Combine subs and double for Numeric Evaluations on page 2-52
Choose the Arithmetic on page 2-55
Control Accuracy of Variable-Precision Computations on page 2-56
Recognize and Avoid Round-Off Errors on page 2-58
Improve Performance of Numeric Computations on page 2-63
Basic Algebraic Operations on page 2-64
Linear Algebraic Operations on page 2-66
Eigenvalues on page 2-71
Jordan Canonical Form on page 2-76
Singular Value Decomposition on page 2-78
Solve an Algebraic Equation on page 2-80
Select a Numeric or Symbolic Solver on page 2-85
Solve a System of Algebraic Equations on page 2-86
Resolve Complicated Solutions or Stuck Solver on page 2-97

Solve a System of Linear Equations on page 2-101
Solve Equations Numerically on page 2-104
Solve a Single Differential Equation on page 2-115
Solve a System of Differential Equations on page 2-119
Differential Algebraic Equations on page 2-121
Set Up Your DAE Problem on page 2-122
Reduce Differential Order of DAE Systems on page 2-126
Check and Reduce Differential Index on page 2-128
Convert DAE Systems to MATLAB Function Handles on page 2-134
Find Consistent Initial Conditions on page 2-147
Solve DAE System Using MATLAB ODE Solvers on page 2-163
Compute Fourier and Inverse Fourier Transforms on page 2-183
Compute Laplace and Inverse Laplace Transforms on page 2-190
Compute Z-Transforms and Inverse Z-Transforms on page 2-197
Create Plots on page 2-201
Explore Function Plots on page 2-214
Edit Graphs on page 2-216
Save Graphs on page 2-217
Generate C or Fortran Code on page 2-218
Generate MATLAB Functions on page 2-220
Generate MATLAB Function Blocks on page 2-225
Generate Simscape Equations on page 2-227
2-2
Differentiation
Differentiation
To illustrate how to take derivatives using Symbolic Math Toolbox software, first create a
syms x
f = sin(5*x);
The command
diff(f)
differentiates f with respect to x:

ans =
5*cos(5*x)
As another example, let

g = exp(x)*cos(x);
where exp(x) denotes ex, and differentiate g:

diff(g)
ans =
exp(x)*cos(x) - exp(x)*sin(x)
To take the second derivative of g, enter

diff(g,2)
ans =
-2*exp(x)*sin(x)
You can get the same result by taking the derivative twice:
diff(diff(g))
ans =
-2*exp(x)*sin(x)
In this example, MATLAB software automatically simplifies the answer. However,

in some cases, MATLAB might not simplify an answer, in which case you can use the
simplify command. For an example of such simplification, see More Examples on
page 2-5.
2-3
Note that to take the derivative of a constant, you must first define the constant as a
symbolic expression. For example, entering
c = sym('5');
diff(c)
returns
ans =
0
If you just enter

diff(5)
MATLAB returns
ans =
[]
because 5 is not a symbolic expression.
Derivatives of Expressions with Several Variables

To differentiate an expression that contains more than one symbolic variable, specify
the variable that you want to differentiate with respect to. The diff command then
calculates the partial derivative of the expression with respect to that variable. For
example, given the symbolic expression
syms s t
f = sin(s*t);
the command
diff(f,t)
calculates the partial derivative f / t . The result is

ans =
s*cos(s*t)
To differentiate f with respect to the variable s, enter

diff(f,s)
2-4
Differentiation
which returns:
ans =
t*cos(s*t)
If you do not specify a variable to differentiate with respect to, MATLAB chooses a
default variable. Basically, the default variable is the letter closest to x in the alphabet.
See the complete set of rules in Find a Default Symbolic Variable on page 1-14. In the
preceding example, diff(f) takes the derivative of f with respect to t because the letter
t is closer to x in the alphabet than the letter s is. To determine the default variable that
MATLAB differentiates with respect to, use symvar:
symvar(f, 1)
ans =
t
Calculate the second derivative of f with respect to t:

diff(f, t, 2)
This command returns

ans =
-s^2*sin(s*t)
Note that diff(f, 2) returns the same answer because t is the default variable.
More Examples
To further illustrate the diff command, define a, b, x, n, t, and theta in the MATLAB
workspace by entering
syms a b x n t theta
This table illustrates the results of entering diff(f).

f
diff(f)
syms x n
f = x^n;
diff(f)
ans =
n*x^(n - 1)
2-5
diff(f)
syms a b t
f = sin(a*t + b);
diff(f)
ans =
a*cos(b + a*t)
syms theta
f = exp(i*theta);
diff(f)
ans =
exp(theta*i)*i
To differentiate the Bessel function of the first kind, besselj(nu,z), with respect to z,
type
syms nu z
b = besselj(nu,z);
db = diff(b)
which returns
db =
(nu*besselj(nu, z))/z - besselj(nu + 1, z)
The diff function can also take a symbolic matrix as its input. In this case, the
differentiation is done element-by-element. Consider the example
syms a x
A = [cos(a*x),sin(a*x);-sin(a*x),cos(a*x)]
which returns
A =
[ cos(a*x), sin(a*x)]
[ -sin(a*x), cos(a*x)]
The command
diff(A)
returns
ans =
[ -a*sin(a*x), a*cos(a*x)]
[ -a*cos(a*x), -a*sin(a*x)]
2-6
Differentiation
You can also perform differentiation of a vector function with respect to a vector
argument. Consider the transformation from Euclidean (x, y, z) to spherical ( r, l ,j)
coordinates as given by x = r cos l cos j , y = r cos l sin f , and z = r sin l . Note that l
corresponds to elevation or latitude while j denotes azimuth or longitude.
To calculate the Jacobian matrix, J, of this transformation, use the jacobian function.
The mathematical notation for J is
J=
( x, y, z)
.
( r, l , j )
For the purposes of toolbox syntax, use l for l and f for j . The commands
syms r l f
x = r*cos(l)*cos(f);
y = r*cos(l)*sin(f);
z = r*sin(l);
J = jacobian([x; y; z], [r l f])
return the Jacobian

J =
[ cos(f)*cos(l), -r*cos(f)*sin(l), -r*cos(l)*sin(f)]
[ cos(l)*sin(f), -r*sin(f)*sin(l), r*cos(f)*cos(l)]
[
sin(l),
r*cos(l),
0]
and the command

2-7
detJ = simplify(det(J))
returns
detJ =
-r^2*cos(l)
The arguments of the jacobian function can be column or row vectors. Moreover, since
the determinant of the Jacobian is a rather complicated trigonometric expression, you
can use simplify to make trigonometric substitutions and reductions (simplifications).
A table summarizing diff and jacobian follows.
Mathematical Operator
MATLAB Command
diff(f) or diff(f, x)
df
dx
df
da
diff(f, a)
d2 f
diff(f, b, 2)
db2
J=
2-8
( r, t)
(u, v)
J = jacobian([r; t],[u; v])
Limits
Limits
The fundamental idea in calculus is to make calculations on functions as a variable gets
close to or approaches a certain value. Recall that the definition of the derivative is
given by a limit
f ( x) = lim
h 0
f ( x + h) - f ( x)
,
h
provided this limit exists. Symbolic Math Toolbox software enables you to calculate the
limits of functions directly. The commands
syms h n x
limit((cos(x+h) - cos(x))/h, h, 0)
which return
ans =
-sin(x)
and
limit((1 + x/n)^n, n, inf)
which returns
ans =
exp(x)
illustrate two of the most important limits in mathematics: the derivative (in this case of
cos(x)) and the exponential function.
One-Sided Limits
You can also calculate one-sided limits with Symbolic Math Toolbox software. For
example, you can calculate the limit of x/|x|, whose graph is shown in the following
figure, as x approaches 0 from the left or from the right.
syms x
ezplot(x/abs(x), -1, 1)
2-9
To calculate the limit as x approaches 0 from the left,

lim
x 0-
x
,
x
enter
syms x
limit(x/abs(x), x, 0, 'left')
ans =
-1
To calculate the limit as x approaches 0 from the right,

2-10
Limits
lim
x 0+
x
= 1,
x
enter
syms x
limit(x/abs(x), x, 0, 'right')
ans =
1
Since the limit from the left does not equal the limit from the right, the two- sided limit
does not exist. In the case of undefined limits, MATLAB returns NaN (not a number). For
example,
syms x
limit(x/abs(x), x, 0)
returns
ans =
NaN
Observe that the default case, limit(f) is the same as limit(f,x,0). Explore the
options for the limit command in this table, where f is a function of the symbolic object
x.
Mathematical Operation
lim f ( x)
MATLAB Command
limit(f)
x 0
lim f ( x)
limit(f, x, a) or
x a
limit(f, a)
lim f ( x)
limit(f, x, a, 'left')
x a-
lim f ( x)
limit(f, x, a, 'right')
x a+
2-11
Integration
If f is a symbolic expression, then
int(f)
attempts to find another symbolic expression, F, so that diff(F)=f. That is, int(f)
returns the indefinite integral or antiderivative of f (provided one exists in closed form).
Similar to differentiation,
int(f,v)
uses the symbolic object v as the variable of integration, rather than the variable
determined by symvar. See how int works by looking at this table.
Mathematical Operation
log( x) if n = 1
x dx = xn +1
otherwise.
n +1
int(x^n) or int(x^n,x)
p /2
MATLAB Command
sin(2 x) dx = 1
int(sin(2*x), 0, pi/2) or int(sin(2*x), x,

0, pi/2)
g = cos(at + b)
g = cos(a*t + b) int(g) or int(g, t)
g(t)dt = sin(at + b) / a
J1 (z)dz = - J0 ( z)
int(besselj(1, z)) or int(besselj(1, z),

z)
In contrast to differentiation, symbolic integration is a more complicated task. A number

of difficulties can arise in computing the integral:
The antiderivative, F, may not exist in closed form.
The antiderivative may define an unfamiliar function.
The antiderivative may exist, but the software can't find it.
The software could find the antiderivative on a larger computer, but runs out of time
or memory on the available machine.
2-12
Integration
Nevertheless, in many cases, MATLAB can perform symbolic integration successfully.

For example, create the symbolic variables
syms a b theta x y n u z
The following table illustrates integration of expressions containing those variables.

f
int(f)
syms x n
f = x^n;
int(f)
ans =
piecewise([n == -1, log(x)], [n ~= -1, x^(n + 1)/(n + 1)])
syms y
f = y^(-1);
int(f)
ans =
log(y)
syms x n
f = n^x;
int(f)
ans =
n^x/log(n)
syms a b theta
f = sin(a*theta+b);
int(f)
ans =
-cos(b + a*theta)/a
syms u
f = 1/(1+u^2);
int(f)
ans =
atan(u)
syms x
f = exp(-x^2);
int(f)
ans =
(pi^(1/2)*erf(x))/2
In the last example, exp(-x^2), there is no formula for the integral involving standard
calculus expressions, such as trigonometric and exponential functions. In this case,
MATLAB returns an answer in terms of the error function erf.
If MATLAB is unable to find an answer to the integral of a function f, it just returns
int(f).
Definite integration is also possible.
2-13
Definite Integral
Command
int(f, a, b)
int(f, v, a, b)
a f ( x)dx
a f (v)dv
Here are some additional examples.
f
a, b
int(f, a, b)
syms x
f = x^7;
a = 0;
b = 1;
int(f, a, b)
ans =
1/8
syms x
f = 1/x;
a = 1;
b = 2;
int(f, a, b)
ans =
log(2)
syms x
f = log(x)*sqrt(x);
a = 0;
b = 1;
int(f, a, b)
ans =
-4/9
syms x
f = exp(-x^2);
a = 0;
b = inf;
int(f, a, b)
ans =
pi^(1/2)/2
syms z
f = besselj(1,z)^2;
a = 0;
b = 1;
int(f, a, b)
ans =
hypergeom([3/2, 3/2], [2, 5/2, 3], -1)/12
For the Bessel function (besselj) example, it is possible to compute a numerical

approximation to the value of the integral, using the double function. The commands
syms z
a = int(besselj(1,z)^2,0,1)
return
a =
hypergeom([3/2, 3/2], [2, 5/2, 3], -1)/12
2-14
Integration
and the command

a = double(a)
returns
a =
0.0717
Integration with Real Parameters

One of the subtleties involved in symbolic integration is the value of various
parameters. For example, if a is any positive real number, the expression
2
e-ax
is the positive, bell shaped curve that tends to 0 as x tends to . You can create an
example of this curve, for a=1/2, using the following commands:
syms x
a = sym(1/2);
f = exp(-a*x^2);
ezplot(f)
2-15
However, if you try to calculate the integral
- ax 2
dx
without assigning a value to a, MATLAB assumes that a represents a complex number,

and therefore returns a piecewise answer that depends on the argument of a. If you
are only interested in the case when a is a positive real number, use assume to set an
assumption on a:
syms a
assume(a > 0)
2-16
Integration
Now you can calculate the preceding integral using the commands
syms x
f = exp(-a*x^2);
int(f, x, -inf, inf)
This returns
ans =
pi^(1/2)/a^(1/2)
Integration with Complex Parameters

To calculate the integral
1
2
a + x2
dx
for complex values of a, enter

syms a x clear
f = 1/(a^2 + x^2);
F = int(f, x, -inf, inf)
syms is used with the clear option to clear the all assumptions on a. For more
information about symbolic variables and assumptions on them, see Delete Symbolic
Objects and Their Assumptions on page 1-33.
The preceding commands produce the complex output
F =
(pi*signIm(i/a))/a
The function signIm is defined as:
1 if Im( z) > 0, or Im( z) = 0 and z < 0
signIm( z) = 0 if z = 0
-1 otherwise.
2-17
y
signIm = 1
signIm = 1
x
signIm = 0
signIm = -1
signIm = -1
To evaluate F at a = 1 + i, enter
g = subs(F, 1 + i)
g =
pi*(1/2 - i/2)
double(g)
ans =
1.5708 - 1.5708i
2-18
Symbolic Summation
Symbolic Summation
You can compute symbolic summations, when they exist, by using the symsum command.
For example, the p-series
1+
1
2
1
+
32
+ ...
sums to p 2 / 6 , while the geometric series

1 + x + x2 + ...
sums to 1/(1 x), provided x < 1 . These summations are demonstrated below:
syms x k
s1 = symsum(1/k^2, 1, inf)
s2 = symsum(x^k, k, 0, inf)
s1 =
pi^2/6
s2 =
piecewise([1 <= x, Inf], [abs(x) < 1, -1/(x - 1)])
2-19
Taylor Series
The statements
syms x
f = 1/(5 + 4*cos(x));
T = taylor(f, 'Order', 8)
return
T =
(49*x^6)/131220 + (5*x^4)/1458 + (2*x^2)/81 + 1/9
which is all the terms up to, but not including, order eight in the Taylor series for f(x):
(x - a)n
n =0
f ( n) ( a)
.
n!
Technically, T is a Maclaurin series, since its expansion point is a = 0.

The command
pretty(T)
prints T in a format resembling typeset mathematics:

6
4
2
49 x
5 x
2 x
1
------ + ---- + ---- + 131220
1458
81
9
These commands
syms x
g = exp(x*sin(x));
t = taylor(g, 'ExpansionPoint', 2, 'Order', 12);
generate the first 12 nonzero terms of the Taylor series for g about x = 2.
t is a large expression; enter
2-20
Taylor Series
size(char(t))
ans =
1
99791
to find that t has about 100,000 characters in its printed form. In order to proceed with
using t, first simplify its presentation:
t = simplify(t);
size(char(t))
ans =
1
6988
Next, plot these functions together to see how well this Taylor approximation compares
to the actual function g:
xd = 1:0.05:3;
yd = subs(g,x,xd);
ezplot(t, [1, 3])
hold on
plot(xd, yd, 'r-.')
title('Taylor approximation vs. actual function')
legend('Taylor','Function')
2-21
Special thanks is given to Professor Gunnar Bckstrm of UMEA in Sweden for this
example.
2-22
Pad Approximant
Pad Approximant
The Pad approximant of order [m,n] approximates the function f(x) around x=x0 as
m
a0 + a1 ( x - x0 ) + ... + am ( x - x0 )
1 + b1 ( x - x0 ) + ... + bn ( x - x0 )
The Pad approximant is a rational function formed by a ratio of two power series.
Because it is a rational function, it is more accurate than the Taylor series in
approximating functions with poles. The Pad approximant is represented by the
Symbolic Math Toolbox function pade.
When a pole or zero exists at the expansion point x=x0, the accuracy of the Pad
approximant decreases. To increase accuracy, an alternative form of the Pad
approximant can be used which is
( x - x0 ) p
(a
+ a1 ( x - x0 ) + ... + am ( x - x0 )
n
).
1 + b1 ( x - x0 ) + ... + bn ( x - x0 )
The pade function returns the alternative form of the Pad approximant when you set
the OrderMode input argument to Relative.
The Pad approximant is used in control system theory to model time delays in the
response of the system. Time delays arise in systems such as chemical and transport
processes where there is a delay between the input and the system response. When these
inputs are modeled, they are called dead-time inputs. This example shows how to use the
Symbolic Math Toolbox to model the response of a first-order system to dead-time inputs
using Pad approximants.
The behavior of a first-order system is described by this differential equation
dy ( t )
+ y( t) = ax ( t ) .
dt
Enter the differential equation in MATLAB.

syms tau a x(t) y(t) xS(s) yS(s) H(s) tmp
2-23
F = tau*diff(y)+y == a*x;
Find the Laplace transform of F using laplace.

F = laplace(F,t,s)
F =
laplace(y(t), t, s) - tau*(y(0) - s*laplace(y(t), t, s)) == a*laplace(x(t), t, s)
Assume the response of the system at t = 0 is 0. Use subs to substitute for y(0) = 0.
F = subs(F,y(0),0)
F =
laplace(y(t), t, s) + s*tau*laplace(y(t), t, s) == a*laplace(x(t), t, s)
To collect common terms, use simplify.

F = simplify(F)
F =
(s*tau + 1)*laplace(y(t), t, s) == a*laplace(x(t), t, s)
For readability, replace the Laplace transforms of x(t) and y(t) with xS(s) and
yS(s).
F = subs(F,[laplace(x(t),t,s) laplace(y(t),t,s)],[xS(s) yS(s)])
F =
yS(s)*(s*tau + 1) == a*xS(s)
The Laplace transform of the transfer function is yS(s)/xS(s). Divide both sides of the
equation by xS(s) and use subs to replace yS(s)/xS(s) with H(s).
2-24
Pad Approximant
F = F/xS(s);
F = subs(F,yS(s)/xS(s),H(s))
F =
H(s)*(s*tau + 1) == a
Solve the equation for H(s). Substitute for H(s) with a dummy variable, solve for the
dummy variable using solve, and assign the solution back to H(s).
F = subs(F,H(s),tmp);
H(s) = solve(F,tmp)
H(s) =
a/(s*tau + 1)
The input to the first-order system is a time-delayed step input. To represent a step
input, use heaviside. Delay the input by three time units. Find the Laplace transform
using laplace.
step = heaviside(t - 3);
step = laplace(step)
step =
exp(-3*s)/s
Find the response of the system, which is the product of the transfer function and the
input.
y = H(s)*step
y =
(a*exp(-3*s))/(s*(s*tau + 1))
2-25
To allow plotting of the response, set parameters a and tau to their values. For a and
tau, choose values 1 and 3, respectively.
y = subs(y,[a tau],[1 3]);
y = ilaplace(y,s);
Find the Pad approximant of order [2 2] of the step input using the Order input
argument to pade.
stepPade22 = pade(step,'Order',[2 2])
stepPade22 =
(3*s^2 - 4*s + 2)/(2*s*(s + 1))
Find the response to the input by multiplying the transfer function and the Pad
approximant of the input.
yPade22 = H(s)*stepPade22
yPade22 =
(a*(3*s^2 - 4*s + 2))/(2*s*(s*tau + 1)*(s + 1))
Find the inverse Laplace transform of yPade22 using ilaplace.

yPade22 = ilaplace(yPade22,s)
yPade22 =
a + (9*a*exp(-s))/(2*tau - 2) - (a*exp(-s/tau)*(2*tau^2 + 4*tau + 3))/(tau*(2*tau - 2))
To plot the response, set parameters a and tau to their values of 1 and 3, respectively.
yPade22 = subs(yPade22,[a tau],[1 3])
yPade22 =
2-26
Pad Approximant
(9*exp(-s))/4 - (11*exp(-s/3))/4 + 1
Plot the response of the system y and the response calculated from the Pad approximant
yPade22.
hold on
grid on
ezplot(y,[0 20])
ezplot(yPade22,[0 20])
title(['Pad' char(233) ' Approximant for dead-time step input'])
legend('Response to dead-time step input',...
['Pad' char(233) ' approximant [2 2]'],...
'Location', 'Best')
2-27
The [2 2] Pad approximant does not represent the response well because a pole exists
at the expansion point of 0. To increase the accuracy of pade when there is a pole or zero
at the expansion point, set the OrderMode input argument to Relative and repeat the
steps. For details, see pade.
stepPade22Rel = pade(step,'Order',[2 2],'OrderMode','Relative')
yPade22Rel = H(s)*stepPade22Rel
yPade22Rel = ilaplace(yPade22Rel)
yPade22Rel = subs(yPade22Rel,[a tau],[1 3])
ezplot(yPade22Rel,[0 20])
['Relative Pad' char(233) ' approximant [2 2]'], 'Location', 'Best')
stepPade22Rel =
(3*s^2 - 6*s + 4)/(s*(3*s^2 + 6*s + 4))
yPade22Rel =
(a*(3*s^2 - 6*s + 4))/(s*(s*tau + 1)*(3*s^2 + 6*s + 4))
yPade22Rel =
a - (a*exp(-t/tau)*(4*tau^2 + 6*tau + 3))/(4*tau^2 - 6*tau + 3) + (12*a*tau*exp(-t)*(co
yPade22Rel =
(12*exp(-t)*(cos((3^(1/2)*t)/3) + (2*3^(1/2)*sin((3^(1/2)*t)/3))/3))/7 - (19*exp(-t/3))
2-28
Pad Approximant
The accuracy of the Pad approximant can also be increased by increasing its order.
Increase the order to [4 5] and repeat the steps. The [n-1 n] Pad approximant is
better at approximating the response at t = 0 than the [n n] Pad approximant.
stepPade45 = pade(step,'Order',[4 5])
yPade45 = H(s)*stepPade45
yPade45 = subs(yPade45,[a tau],[1 3])
yPade45 = ilaplace(yPade45)
yPade45 = vpa(yPade45)
ezplot(yPade45,[0 20])
['Relative Pad' char(233) ' approximant [2 2]'],...
2-29
['Pad' char(233) ' approximant [4 5]'], 'Location', 'Best')
stepPade45 =
(27*s^4 - 180*s^3 + 540*s^2 - 840*s + 560)/(s*(27*s^4 + 180*s^3 + 540*s^2 + 840*s + 560
yPade45 =
(a*(27*s^4 - 180*s^3 + 540*s^2 - 840*s + 560))/(s*(s*tau + 1)*(27*s^4 + 180*s^3 + 540*s
yPade45 =
(27*s^4 - 180*s^3 + 540*s^2 - 840*s + 560)/(s*(3*s + 1)*(27*s^4 + 180*s^3 + 540*s^2 + 8
yPade45 =
(294120*symsum((r3^2*exp(r3*t))/(12*(9*r3^3 + 45*r3^2 + 90*r3 + 70)), r3 in RootOf(s5^4
yPade45 =
exp(t*(- 1.930807068546914778929595950184 + 0.57815608595633583454598214328008*i))*(1.6
2-30
Pad Approximant
The following points have been shown:

Pad approximants can model dead-time step inputs.
The accuracy of the Pad approximant increases with the increase in the order of the
approximant.
When a pole or zero exists at the expansion point, the Pad approximant is inaccurate
about the expansion point. To increase the accuracy of the approximant, set
the OrderMode option to Relative. You can also use increase the order of the
denominator relative to the numerator.
2-31
Find Asymptotes, Critical and Inflection Points

This section describes how to analyze a simple function to find its asymptotes, maximum,
minimum, and inflection point. The section covers the following topics:
In this section...
Define a Function on page 2-32
Find Asymptotes on page 2-33
Find Maximum and Minimum on page 2-35
Find Inflection Point on page 2-37
Define a Function
The function in this example is
f ( x) =
3 x2 + 6 x - 1
x2 + x - 3
To create the function, enter the following commands:

syms x
num = 3*x^2 + 6*x -1;
denom = x^2 + x - 3;
f = num/denom
f =
(3*x^2 + 6*x - 1)/(x^2 + x - 3)
Plot the function f

ezplot(f)
2-32
Find Asymptotes
To find the horizontal asymptote of the graph of f, take the limit of f as x approaches
positive infinity:
limit(f, inf)
ans =
3
The limit as x approaches negative infinity is also 3. This tells you that the line y = 3 is a
horizontal asymptote to the graph.
2-33
To find the vertical asymptotes of f, set the denominator equal to 0 and solve by entering
the following command:
roots = solve(denom)
This returns to solutions to x2 + x - 3 = 0 :

roots =
- 13^(1/2)/2 - 1/2
13^(1/2)/2 - 1/2
This tells you that vertical asymptotes are the lines
x=
-1 + 13
,
2
x=
-1 - 13
.
2
and
You can plot the horizontal and vertical asymptotes with the following commands. Note
that roots must be converted to double to use the plot command.
ezplot(f)
hold on % Keep the graph of f in the figure
% Plot horizontal asymptote
plot([-2*pi 2*pi], [3 3],'g')
% Plot vertical asymptotes
plot(double(roots(1))*[1 1], [-5 10],'r')
plot(double(roots(2))*[1 1], [-5 10],'r')
title('Horizontal and Vertical Asymptotes')
hold off
2-34
Find Maximum and Minimum

You can see from the graph that f has a local maximum somewhere between the points x
= 2 and x = 0, and might have a local minimum between x = 6 and x = 2. To find the xcoordinates of the maximum and minimum, first take the derivative of f:
f1 = diff(f)
f1 =
(6*x + 6)/(x^2 + x - 3) - ((2*x + 1)*(3*x^2 + 6*x - 1))/(x^2 + x - 3)^2
To simplify this expression, enter

f1 = simplify(f1)
2-35
f1 =
-(3*x^2 + 16*x + 17)/(x^2 + x - 3)^2
You can display f1 in a more readable form by entering

pretty(f1)
which returns
2
3 x + 16 x + 17
- ---------------2
2
(x + x - 3)
Next, set the derivative equal to 0 and solve for the critical points:
crit_pts = solve(f1)
crit_pts =
- 13^(1/2)/3 - 8/3
13^(1/2)/3 - 8/3
It is clear from the graph of f that it has a local minimum at
x1 =
-8 - 13
,
3
and a local maximum at
x2 =
-8 + 13
.
3
Note MATLAB does not always return the roots to an equation in the same order.
You can plot the maximum and minimum of f with the following commands:
2-36
ezplot(f)
hold on
plot(double(crit_pts), double(subs(f,crit_pts)),'ro')
title('Maximum and Minimum of f')
text(-5.5,3.2,'Local minimum')
text(-2.5,2,'Local maximum')
hold off
Find Inflection Point

To find the inflection point of f, set the second derivative equal to 0 and solve.
f2 = diff(f1);
2-37
inflec_pt = solve(f2);
double(inflec_pt)
This returns
ans =
-5.2635 + 0.0000i
-1.3682 - 0.8511i
-1.3682 + 0.8511i
In this example, only the first entry is a real number, so this is the only inflection point.
(Note that in other examples, the real solutions might not be the first entries of the
answer.) Since you are only interested in the real solutions, you can discard the last two
entries, which are complex numbers.
inflec_pt = inflec_pt(1);
To see the symbolic expression for the inflection point, enter

pretty(simplify(inflec_pt))
2/3
1/3
1/3
2/3
1/3
1/3
2
13
(13 - 3 sqrt(13))
2
13
(3 sqrt(13) + 13)
8
- ------------------------------- - ------------------------------- - 6
6
3
Plot the inflection point. The extra argument, [-9 6], in ezplot extends the range
of x values in the plot so that you see the inflection point more clearly, as shown in the
following figure.
ezplot(f, [-9 6])
hold on
plot(double(inflec_pt), double(subs(f,inflec_pt)),'ro')
title('Inflection Point of f')
text(-7,2,'Inflection point')
hold off
2-38
2-39
Simplifications
Here are three different symbolic expressions.
syms x
f = x^3 - 6*x^2 + 11*x - 6;
g = (x - 1)*(x - 2)*(x - 3);
h = -6 + (11 + (-6 + x)*x)*x;
Here are their prettyprinted forms, generated by

pretty(f)
pretty(g)
pretty(h)
3
x
2
- 6 x
+ 11 x - 6
(x - 1) (x - 2) (x - 3)
x (x (x - 6) + 11) - 6
These expressions are three different representations of the same mathematical function,
a cubic polynomial in x.
Each of the three forms is preferable to the others in different situations. The first
form, f, is the most commonly used representation of a polynomial. It is simply a linear
combination of the powers of x. The second form, g, is the factored form. It displays the
roots of the polynomial and is the most accurate for numerical evaluation near the roots.
But, if a polynomial does not have such simple roots, its factored form may not be so
convenient. The third form, h, is the Horner, or nested, representation. For numerical
evaluation, it involves the fewest arithmetic operations and is the most accurate for some
other ranges of x.
The symbolic simplification problem involves the verification that these three expressions
represent the same function. It also involves a less clearly defined objective which of
these representations is the simplest?
This toolbox provides several functions that apply various algebraic and trigonometric
identities to transform one representation of a function into another, possibly simpler,
representation. These functions are collect, expand, horner, factor, and simplify.
2-40
Simplifications
collect
The statementcollect(f) views f as a polynomial in its symbolic variable, say x, and
collects all the coefficients with the same power of x. A second argument can specify the
variable in which to collect terms if there is more than one candidate. Here are a few
examples.
f
collect(f)
syms x
f = (x-1)*(x-2)*(x-3);
collect(f)
ans =
x^3 - 6*x^2 + 11*x - 6
syms x
f = x*(x*(x - 6) + 11) - 6;
collect(f)
ans =
x^3 - 6*x^2 + 11*x - 6
syms x t
f = (1+x)*t + x*t;
collect(f)
ans =
(2*t)*x + t
expand
The statement expand(f) distributes products over sums and applies other identities
involving functions of sums as shown in the examples below.
f
expand(f)
syms a x y
f = a*(x + y);
expand(f)
ans =
a*x + a*y
syms x
expand(f)
f = (x - 1)*(x - 2)*(x - 3);
ans =
x^3 - 6*x^2 + 11*x - 6
syms x
expand(f)
f = x*(x*(x - 6) + 11) - 6;
ans =
x^3 - 6*x^2 + 11*x - 6
2-41
expand(f)
syms a b
f = exp(a + b);
expand(f)
ans =
exp(a)*exp(b)
syms x y
f = cos(x + y);
expand(f)
ans =
cos(x)*cos(y) - sin(x)*sin(y)
syms x
f = cos(3*acos(x));
expand(f)
ans =
4*x^3 - 3*x
syms x
expand(f)
f = 3*x*(x^2 - 1) + x^3;
ans =
4*x^3 - 3*x
horner
The statement horner(f) transforms a symbolic polynomial f into its Horner, or
nested, representation as shown in the following examples.
f
horner(f)
syms x
horner(f)
f = x^3 - 6*x^2 + 11*x - 6;
ans =
x*(x*(x - 6) + 11) - 6
syms x
horner(f)
f = 1.1 + 2.2*x + 3.3*x^2;
ans =
x*((33*x)/10 + 11/5) + 11/10
factor
If f is a polynomial with rational coefficients, the statement
factor(f)
expresses f as a vector of factors of lower degree with rational coefficients. If f cannot be

factored over the rational numbers, the result is f itself. Here are several examples.
2-42
Simplifications
factor(f)
syms x
factor(f)
f = x^3 - 6*x^2 + 11*x - 6;
ans =
[ x - 3, x - 1, x - 2]
syms x
factor(f)
f = x^3 - 6*x^2 + 11*x - 5;
ans =
x^3 - 6*x^2 + 11*x - 5
syms x
f = x^6 + 1;
factor(f)
ans =
[ x^2 + 1, x^4 - x^2 + 1]
As an aside at this point, factor can also factor symbolic objects containing integers.
This is an alternative to using the MATLAB factor function. For example:
N = sym(902834092);
f = factor(N)
f =
[ 2, 2, 47, 379, 12671]
factor can also factor numbers larger than flintmax that the MATLAB factor
cannot. For example, to perform prime factorization of a large number, place it in
quotation marks to represent it accurately.
n = sym('41758540882408627201');
factor(n)
ans =
[ 479001599, 87178291199]
simplifyFraction
The statement simplifyFraction(f) represents the expression f as a fraction where
both the numerator and denominator are polynomials whose greatest common divisor is
1. The Expand option lets you expand the numerator and denominator in the resulting
expression.
simplifyFraction is significantly more efficient for simplifying fractions than the
general simplification function simplify.
2-43
simplifyFraction(f)
syms x
f =(x^3 - 1)/(x - 1);
simplifyFraction(f)
ans =
x^2 + x + 1
syms x
simplifyFraction(f)
f = (x^3 - x^2*y - x*y^2 + y^3)/(x^3 + y^3);
ans =
(x^2 - 2*x*y + y^2)/(x^2 - x*y + y^2)
syms x
simplifyFraction(f)
f = (1 - exp(x)^4)/(1 + exp(x))^4;
ans =
(exp(2*x) - exp(3*x) - exp(x) + 1)/(exp(x) + 1)^3
simplifyFraction(f, 'Expand', true)
ans =
(exp(2*x) - exp(3*x) - exp(x) + 1)/(3*exp(2*x) + exp(3*x) + 3
simplify
The simplify function is a powerful, general purpose tool that applies a number of
algebraic identities involving sums, integral powers, square roots and other fractional
powers, as well as a number of functional identities involving trig functions, exponential
and log functions, Bessel functions, hypergeometric functions, and the gamma function.
Here are some examples.
f
simplify(f)
syms x
f = (1 - x^2)/(1 - x);
simplify(f)
ans =
x + 1
syms a
simplify(f)
f = (1/a^3 + 6/a^2 + 12/a + 8)^(1/3);
ans =
((2*a + 1)^3/a^3)^(1/3)
syms x y
f = exp(x) * exp(y);
simplify(f)
ans =
exp(x + y)
2-44
Simplifications
simplify(f)
syms x
simplify(f)
f = besselj(2, x) + besselj(0, x);
ans =
(2*besselj(1, x))/x
syms x
f = gamma(x + 1) - x*gamma(x);
simplify(f)
ans =
0
syms x
f = cos(x)^2 + sin(x)^2;
simplify(f)
ans =
1
You can also use the syntax simplify(f, 'Steps', n) where n is a positive integer
that controls how many steps simplify takes. By default, n = 1. For example,
syms x
z = (cos(x)^2 - sin(x)^2)*sin(2*x)*(exp(2*x) - 2*exp(x) + 1)/(exp(2*x) - 1);
simplify(z)
ans =
(sin(4*x)*(exp(x) - 1))/(2*(exp(x) + 1))
simplify(z, 'Steps', 30)
ans =
(sin(4*x)*tanh(x/2))/2
2-45
Substitute with subexpr

These commands solve the equation x^3 + a*x + 1 = 0 for the variable x:
syms a x
s = solve(x^3 + a*x + 1)
s =
((a^3/27 + 1/4)^(1/2) - 1/2)^(1/3) -...
a/(3*((a^3/27 + 1/4)^(1/2) - 1/2)^(1/3))
a/(6*((a^3/27 + 1/4)^(1/2) - 1/2)^(1/3)) -...
(3^(1/2)*(a/(3*((a^3/27 + 1/4)^(1/2) - 1/2)^(1/3)) +...
((a^3/27 + 1/4)^(1/2) - 1/2)^(1/3))*i)/2 -...
((a^3/27 + 1/4)^(1/2) - 1/2)^(1/3)/2
(3^(1/2)*(a/(3*((a^3/27 + 1/4)^(1/2) - 1/2)^(1/3)) +...
((a^3/27 + 1/4)^(1/2) - 1/2)^(1/3))*i)/2 +...
a/(6*((a^3/27 + 1/4)^(1/2) - 1/2)^(1/3)) -...
((a^3/27 + 1/4)^(1/2) - 1/2)^(1/3)/2
This long expression has many repeated pieces, or subexpressions. The subexpr function
allows you to save these common subexpressions as well as the symbolic object rewritten
in terms of the subexpressions. The subexpressions are saved in a column vector called
sigma.
Continuing with the example
r = subexpr(s)
returns
sigma =
(a^3/27 + 1/4)^(1/2) - 1/2
r =
sigma^(1/3) - a/(3*sigma^(1/3))
a/(6*sigma^(1/3)) - (3^(1/2)*(a/(3*sigma^(1/3)) +...
sigma^(1/3))*i)/2 - sigma^(1/3)/2
(3^(1/2)*(a/(3*sigma^(1/3)) + sigma^(1/3))*i)/2 +...
a/(6*sigma^(1/3)) - sigma^(1/3)/2
Notice that subexpr creates the variable sigma in the MATLAB workspace. You can
verify this by typing whos, or the command
sigma
2-46
Substitute with subexpr
which returns
sigma =
(a^3/27 + 1/4)^(1/2) - 1/2
You can use other variable names instead of sigma. For example, replace the common
subexpression in s by u:
r1 = subexpr(s,'u')
u =
(a^3/27 + 1/4)^(1/2) - 1/2
r1 =
u^(1/3) - a/(3*u^(1/3))
a/(6*u^(1/3)) - (3^(1/2)*(a/(3*u^(1/3)) + u^(1/3))*i)/2 - u^(1/3)/2
(3^(1/2)*(a/(3*u^(1/3)) + u^(1/3))*i)/2 + a/(6*u^(1/3)) - u^(1/3)/2
subexpr does not let you control which subexpressions need to be replaced.
2-47
Substitute with subs

Use this code to find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of a circulant matrix A:
syms a b c
A = [a b c; b c a; c a b];
[v,E] = eig(A)
v =
[ - (a^2
(a^2
[
(a^2
- (a^2
[
1,
a*b
a*b
a*b
a*b
a*c
a*c
a*c
a*c
+
+
+
+
b^2
b^2
b^2
b^2
b*c
b*c
b*c
b*c
+
+
+
+
c^2)^(1/2)/(a
c^2)^(1/2)/(a
c^2)^(1/2)/(a
c^2)^(1/2)/(a
1,
c)
c)
c)
c)
(a
(a
(b
(b
b)/(a
b)/(a
c)/(a
c)/(a
c),...
c), 1]
c),...
c), 1]
1]
E =
[ (a^2 - a*b - a*c + b^2 - b*c + c^2)^(1/2),
0,
0]
[
0, -(a^2 - a*b - a*c + b^2 - b*c + c^2)^(1/2),
0]
[
0,
0, a + b + c]
Note MATLAB might return the eigenvalues that appear on the diagonal of E in a
different order. In this case, the corresponding eigenvectors, which are the columns of v,
also appear in a different order.
Replace the rather lengthy expression (a^2 - a*b - a*c + b^2 - b*c +
c^2)^(1/2) throughout v and E:
syms S
v = subs(v,(a^2 - a*b - a*c + b^2 - b*c + c^2)^(1/2), S)
E = subs(E,(a^2 - a*b - a*c + b^2 - b*c + c^2)^(1/2), S)
v =
[ - S/(a - c) - (a - b)/(a - c),
S/(a - c) - (a - b)/(a - c), 1]
[
S/(a - c) - (b - c)/(a - c), - S/(a - c) - (b - c)/(a - c), 1]
[
1,
1, 1]
E
[
[
[
=
S, 0,
0]
0, -S,
0]
0, 0, a + b + c]
Simplify v:
v = simplify(v)
v =
2-48
[ -(S + a - b)/(a - c), (S - a + b)/(a - c), 1]

[ (S - b + c)/(a - c), -(S + b - c)/(a - c), 1]
[
1,
1, 1]
Note that subs does not assign (a^2 - a*b - a*c + b^2 - b*c + c^2)^(1/2) to
S:
S
S =
S
Assign this expression to S:

S = (a^2 - a*b - a*c + b^2 - b*c + c^2)^(1/2);
Substitute variables a, b, and c in S with the values 1, 2, and 3:

subs(S, {a, b, c}, {1, 2, 3})
ans =
3^(1/2)
Substitute a, b, and c in v with the same values. Note that you must call subs twice.
The first call, subs(v), replaces S in v with the expression (a^2 - a*b - a*c + b^2
- b*c + c^2)^(1/2). The second call replaces the variables a, b, and c in v with the
values 1, 2, and 3:
subs(subs(v), {a, b, c}, {1, 2, 3})
ans =
[
3^(1/2)/2 - 1/2, - 3^(1/2)/2 - 1/2, 1]
[ - 3^(1/2)/2 - 1/2,
3^(1/2)/2 - 1/2, 1]
[
1,
1, 1]
These substitutions do not modify a, b, c, S, and v:

[a, b, c]
ans =
[ a, b, c]
S
S =
(a^2 - a*b - a*c + b^2 - b*c + c^2)^(1/2)
2-49
v
v =
[ -(S + a - b)/(a - c), (S - a + b)/(a - c), 1]
[ (S - b + c)/(a - c), -(S + b - c)/(a - c), 1]
[
1,
1, 1]
To modify the original values S and v, assign the results returned by subs to S and v.
This approach does not modify a, b, and c.
S = subs(S, {a, b, c}, {1, 2, 3})
S =
3^(1/2)
v = subs(subs(v), {a, b, c}, {1, 2, 3})
v =
[
3^(1/2)/2 - 1/2, - 3^(1/2)/2 - 1/2, 1]
[ - 3^(1/2)/2 - 1/2,
3^(1/2)/2 - 1/2, 1]
[
1,
1, 1]
Alternatively, you can assign values to the variables a, b, and c:

a = 1;
b = 2;
c = 3;
The new values of a, b, and c now exist in the MATLAB workspace:

[a, b, c]
ans =
1
Use subs with one input argument to evaluate S and v for these values:
S = subs(S)
S =
3^(1/2)
v = subs(v)
v =
[
3^(1/2)/2 - 1/2, - 3^(1/2)/2 - 1/2, 1]
2-50
[ - 3^(1/2)/2 - 1/2,
[
1,
3^(1/2)/2 - 1/2, 1]
1, 1]
2-51
Combine subs and double for Numeric Evaluations

The subs command can be combined with double to evaluate a symbolic expression
numerically. Suppose you have the following expressions
syms t
M = (1 - t^2)*exp(-1/2*t^2);
P = (1 - t^2)*sech(t);
and want to see how M and P differ graphically.

One approach is to type the following commands, but the resulting plot does not readily
help you identify the curves.
ezplot(M)
hold on
ezplot(P)
hold off
2-52
Combine subs and double for Numeric Evaluations
Instead, combine subs, double, and plot to produce a multicolored graph that indicates
the difference between M and P.
T = -6:0.05:6;
MT = double(subs(M, t, T));
PT = double(subs(P, t, T));
plot(T, MT, 'b', T, PT, 'r-.')
title(' ')
legend('M','P')
xlabel('t')
grid
2-53
2-54
Choose the Arithmetic

Symbolic Math Toolbox operates on numbers using three types of arithmetic:
Exact computations use exact symbolic numbers, such as 1/3, sqrt(2), or pi. By
default, all computations involving symbolic objects (symbolic numbers, variables,
expressions, or functions) use this arithmetic. The results are exact, so you do not
need to worry about round-off errors. Exact computations are potentially the most
expensive, in terms of both computer time and memory.
Variable-precision arithmetic lets you control the number of significant digits. This is
the recommended approach for numeric approximations in Symbolic Math Toolbox. To
increase the accuracy, increase the number of digits. To speed up your computations
and decrease memory usage, decrease the number of digits. You can set the number
of digits to any value from 1 to 229 using the digits function. To approximate a value
using this kind of arithmetic, use the vpa function.
Double-precision floating-point arithmetic uses the same precision as most numeric
computations in MATLAB. To approximate a value with the double precision, use the
double function. Internally, this arithmetic always uses the 64-bit (8-byte) floatingpoint representation provided by the particular computer hardware. The number of
digits in printed output of MATLAB double quantities is determined by format. This
arithmetic is recommended when you intend to use your computations on a computer
that does not have a license for Symbolic Math Toolbox. Otherwise, exact symbolic
numbers and variable-precision arithmetic are recommended.
2-55
Control Accuracy of Variable-Precision Computations

When you use variable-precision arithmetic, the accuracy of approximations depends
on the value of the global variable digits. This variable determines the number of
decimal digits for numerical computations. By default, the toolbox uses 32 significant
decimal digits, which roughly corresponds to double-precision floating-point accuracy. For
example, approximate this sum using the default number of digits:
vpa(sym(1/3) + 1/2)
ans =
0.83333333333333333333333333333333
Now, approximate the same sum with 5 and 50 decimal digits:

old = digits;
digits(5)
s5 = vpa(sym(1/3) + 1/2)
digits(50)
s50 = vpa(sym(1/3) + 1/2)
digits(old)
s5 =
0.83333
s50 =
0.83333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333
To get the current digits setting, call digits without input arguments:
digits
Digits = 32
To change the accuracy for one operation without changing the current digits setting,
use the vpa function with two input arguments. The second input argument must be
an integer between 1 to 229 specifying the accuracy of approximation. For example,
approximate the value pi with 10 and 50 digits:
vpa(sym(pi), 10)
vpa(sym(pi), 50)
2-56
digits
ans =
3.141592654
ans =
3.1415926535897932384626433832795028841971693993751
Digits = 32
Note that digits and vpa control the number of significant decimal digits. Thus, when
you approximate the value 1/111 with 4-digit accuracy, the result has six digits after the
decimal point. The first two of them are zeros:
vpa(sym(1/111), 4)
ans =
0.009009
2-57
Recognize and Avoid Round-Off Errors

When approximating a value numerically, remember that floating-point results can be
extremely sensitive to numeric precision. Also, floating-point results are prone to roundoff errors. The following approaches can help you recognize and avoid incorrect results:
When possible, use symbolic computations. Switch to floating-point arithmetic only if
you cannot obtain symbolic results.
Numeric computations are sensitive to digits, which determines the numeric
working precision. Increase the precision of numeric computations, and check if the
result changes significantly.
Compute the result symbolically, and then approximate it numerically. Also, compute
the result using the floating-point parameters. Significant difference in these two
results indicates that one or both approximations are incorrect.
Plot the function or expression that you approximate.
Use Symbolic Computations When Possible

Performing computations symbolically is recommended because exact symbolic
computations are not prone to round-off errors. For example, standard mathematical
constants have their own symbolic representations in Symbolic Math Toolbox:
pi
sym(pi)
ans =
3.1416
ans =
pi
Avoid unnecessary use of numeric approximations. A floating-point number

approximates a constant; it is not the constant itself. Using this approximation, you can
get incorrect results. For example, the heaviside special function returns different
results for the sine of sym(pi) and the sine of the numeric approximation of pi:
heaviside(sin(sym(pi)))
heaviside(sin(pi))
ans =
1/2
2-58
ans =
1
Increase Precision
The Riemann hypothesis states that all nontrivial zeros of the Riemann Zeta function (z)
have the same real part (z) = 1/2. To locate possible zeros of the Zeta function, plot its
absolute value |(1/2 + iy)|. The following plot shows the first three nontrivial roots of
the Zeta function |(1/2 + iy)|.
syms y
ezplot(abs(zeta(1/2 + i*y)), 0, 30)
2-59
Use the numeric solver vpasolve to approximate the first three zeros of this Zeta
function:
vpasolve(zeta(1/2 + i*y), y, 15)
ans =
14.134725141734693790457251983562
ans =
21.022039638771554992628479593897
ans =
25.010857580145688763213790992563
Now, consider the same function, but slightly increase the real part,
1000000001
z
+ iy . According to the Riemann hypothesis, this function does not have a
2000000000
zero for any real value y. If you use vpasolve with the 10 significant decimal digits, the
solver finds the following (nonexisting) zero of the Zeta function:
old = digits;
digits(10)
ans =
14.13472514
Increasing the number of digits shows that the result is incorrect. The Zeta function
1000000001
z
+ iy does not have a zero for any real value 14 < y < 15:
2000000000
digits(15)
digits(old)
ans =
14.1347251417347 + 0.000000000499989207306345*i
For further computations, restore the default number of digits:

digits(old)
2-60
Approximate Parameters and Approximate Results

Bessel functions with half-integer indices return exact symbolic expressions.
Approximating these expressions by floating-point numbers can produce very unstable
results. For example, the exact symbolic expression for the following Bessel function is:
B = besselj(53/2, sym(pi))
B =
(351*2^(1/2)*(119409675/pi^4 - 20300/pi^2 - 315241542000/pi^6...
+ 445475704038750/pi^8 - 366812794263762000/pi^10 +...
182947881139051297500/pi^12 - 55720697512636766610000/pi^14...
+ 10174148683695239020903125/pi^16 - 1060253389142977540073062500/pi^18...
+ 57306695683177936040949028125/pi^20 - 1331871030107060331702688875000/pi^22...
+ 8490677816932509614604641578125/pi^24 + 1))/pi^2
Use vpa to approximate this expression with the 10-digit accuracy:

vpa(B, 10)
ans =
-2854.225191
Now, call the Bessel function with the floating-point parameter. Significant difference
between these two approximations indicates that one or both results are incorrect:
besselj(53/2, pi)
ans =
6.9001e-23
Increase the numeric working precision to obtain a more accurate approximation for B:
vpa(B, 50)
ans =
0.000000000000000000000069001456069172842068862232841396473796597233761161
Plot the Function or Expression

Plotting the results can help you recognize incorrect approximations. For example, the
numeric approximation of the following Bessel function returns:
B = besselj(53/2, sym(pi));
2-61
vpa(B, 10)
ans =
-2854.225191
Plot this Bessel function for the values of x around 53/2. The function plot shows that
the approximation is incorrect:
syms x
ezplot(besselj(x, sym(pi)), 26, 27)
2-62
Improve Performance of Numeric Computations

When you perform numeric computations, one of the most difficult tasks is finding the
right balance between accuracy of computations and code performance. If you have
Symbolic Math Toolbox, then the best approach is to use variable-precision arithmetic.
Variable-precision arithmetic provides flexibility in terms of accuracy and performance,
letting you choose the appropriate number of digits for your particular task. You can
always convert the final results of your variable-precision computations to the double
format, if that is needed for further tasks.
While increasing the number of significant decimal digits lets you perform numeric
computations with better accuracy, decreasing that number might help you get the
results in a reasonable amount of time. For example, compute the Riemann Zeta function
of the elements of the 101-by-301 matrix C:
[X,Y] = meshgrid((0:0.0025:.75),(5:-0.05:0));
C = X + Y*i;
Computing the Zeta function of these elements directly takes a long time:
tic
D = zeta(C);
toc
Elapsed time is 340.204407 seconds.
Computing the Zeta function of the same elements with 10-digit precision is much faster:
digits(10)
tic
D = zeta(vpa(C));
toc
Elapsed time is 113.792543 seconds.
For larger matrices, the difference in computation time can be more significant. For
example, for the 1001-by-301 matrix C:
[X,Y] = meshgrid((0:0.00025:.75),(5:-0.005:0));
C = X + Y*i;
executing D = zeta(vpa(C)) with 10-digit precision finishes in several minutes, while

executing D = zeta(C) takes more than an hour.
2-63
Basic Algebraic Operations

Basic algebraic operations on symbolic objects are the same as operations on MATLAB
objects of class double. This is illustrated in the following example.
The Givens transformation produces a plane rotation through the angle t. The
statements
syms t
G = [cos(t) sin(t); -sin(t) cos(t)]
create this transformation matrix.

G =
[ cos(t),
[ -sin(t),
sin(t)]
cos(t)]
Applying the Givens transformation twice should simply be a rotation through twice the
angle. The corresponding matrix can be computed by multiplying G by itself or by raising
G to the second power. Both
A = G*G
and
A = G^2
produce
A =
[ cos(t)^2 - sin(t)^2,
2*cos(t)*sin(t)]
[
-2*cos(t)*sin(t), cos(t)^2 - sin(t)^2]
The simplify function

A = simplify(A)
uses a trigonometric identity to return the expected form by trying several different
identities and picking the one that produces the shortest representation.
A =
[ cos(2*t),
[ -sin(2*t),
2-64
sin(2*t)]
cos(2*t)]
Basic Algebraic Operations
The Givens rotation is an orthogonal matrix, so its transpose is its inverse. Confirming
this by
I = G.' *G
which produces
I =
[ cos(t)^2 + sin(t)^2,
0]
[
0, cos(t)^2 + sin(t)^2]
and then
I = simplify(I)
I =
[ 1, 0]
[ 0, 1]
2-65
Linear Algebraic Operations

The following examples show how to do several basic linear algebraic operations using
Symbolic Math Toolbox software.
The command
H = hilb(3)
generates the 3-by-3 Hilbert matrix. With format short, MATLAB prints
H =
1.0000
0.5000
0.3333
0.5000
0.3333
0.2500
0.3333
0.2500
0.2000
The computed elements of H are floating-point numbers that are the ratios of small
integers. Indeed, H is a MATLAB array of class double. Converting H to a symbolic
matrix
H = sym(H)
gives
H =
[
1, 1/2, 1/3]
[ 1/2, 1/3, 1/4]
[ 1/3, 1/4, 1/5]
This allows subsequent symbolic operations on H to produce results that correspond

to the infinitely precise Hilbert matrix, sym(hilb(3)), not its floating-point
approximation, hilb(3). Therefore,
inv(H)
produces
ans =
[
9, -36,
30]
[ -36, 192, -180]
[ 30, -180, 180]
and
det(H)
2-66
yields
ans =
1/2160
You can use the backslash operator to solve a system of simultaneous linear equations.
For example, the commands
% Solve Hx = b
b = [1; 1; 1];
x = H\b
produce the solution

x =
3
-24
30
All three of these results, the inverse, the determinant, and the solution to the linear
system, are the exact results corresponding to the infinitely precise, rational, Hilbert
matrix. On the other hand, using digits(16), the command
digits(16)
V = vpa(hilb(3))
returns
V =
[
1.0,
0.5, 0.3333333333333333]
[
0.5, 0.3333333333333333,
0.25]
[ 0.3333333333333333,
0.25,
0.2]
The decimal points in the representation of the individual elements are the signal to use
variable-precision arithmetic. The result of each arithmetic operation is rounded to 16
significant decimal digits. When inverting the matrix, these errors are magnified by the
matrix condition number, which for hilb(3) is about 500. Consequently,
inv(V)
which returns
ans =
[
9.0,
[ -36.0,
-36.0,
30.0]
192.0, -180.0]
2-67
30.0, -180.0,
180.0]
shows the loss of two digits. So does

1/det(V)
which gives
ans =
2160.000000000018
and
V\b
which is
ans =
3.0
-24.0
30.0
Since H is nonsingular, calculating the null space of H with the command

null(H)
returns an empty matrix:

ans =
Empty sym: 1-by-0
Calculating the column space of H with

colspace(H)
returns a permutation of the identity matrix:

ans =
[ 1, 0, 0]
[ 0, 1, 0]
[ 0, 0, 1]
A more interesting example, which the following code shows, is to find a value s for
H(1,1) that makes H singular. The commands
syms s
2-68
H(1,1) = s
Z = det(H)
sol = solve(Z)
produce
H =
[
s, 1/2, 1/3]
[ 1/2, 1/3, 1/4]
[ 1/3, 1/4, 1/5]
Z =
s/240 - 1/270
sol =
8/9
Then
H = subs(H, s, sol)
substitutes the computed value of sol for s in H to give

H
[
[
[
=
8/9, 1/2, 1/3]
1/2, 1/3, 1/4]
1/3, 1/4, 1/5]
Now, the command

det(H)
returns
ans =
0
and
inv(H)
produces the message

ans =
FAIL
2-69
because H is singular. For this matrix, null space and column space are nontrivial:
Z = null(H)
C = colspace(H)
Z =
3/10
-6/5
1
C =
[
1,
[
0,
[ -3/10,
0]
1]
6/5]
It should be pointed out that even though H is singular, vpa(H) is not. For any integer
value d, setting digits(d), and then computing inv(vpa(H)) results in an inverse
with elements on the order of 10^d.
2-70
Eigenvalues
Eigenvalues
The symbolic eigenvalues of a square matrix A or the symbolic eigenvalues and
eigenvectors of A are computed, respectively, using the commands E = eig(A) and
[V,E] = eig(A).
The variable-precision counterparts are E = eig(vpa(A)) and [V,E] =
eig(vpa(A)).
The eigenvalues of A are the zeros of the characteristic polynomial of A, det(A-x*I),
which is computed by charpoly(A).
The matrix H from the last section provides the first example:
H = sym([8/9 1/2 1/3; 1/2 1/3 1/4; 1/3 1/4 1/5])
H
[
[
[
=
8/9, 1/2, 1/3]
1/2, 1/3, 1/4]
1/3, 1/4, 1/5]
The matrix is singular, so one of its eigenvalues must be zero. The statement
[T,E] = eig(H)
produces the matrices T and E. The columns of T are the eigenvectors of H and the
diagonal elements of E are the eigenvalues of H:
T =
[ 3/10, 218/285 - (4*12589^(1/2))/285, (4*12589^(1/2))/285 + 218/285]
[ -6/5,
292/285 - 12589^(1/2)/285,
12589^(1/2)/285 + 292/285]
[
1,
1,
1]
E
[
[
[
=
0,
0,
0]
0, 32/45 - 12589^(1/2)/180,
0]
0,
0, 12589^(1/2)/180 + 32/45]
It may be easier to understand the structure of the matrices of eigenvectors, T, and

eigenvalues, E, if you convert T and E to decimal notation. To do so, proceed as follows.
The commands
Td = double(T)
Ed = double(E)
return
2-71
Td =
0.3000
-1.2000
1.0000
-0.8098
0.6309
1.0000
2.3397
1.4182
1.0000
0
0.0878
0
0
0
1.3344
Ed =
0
0
0
The first eigenvalue is zero. The corresponding eigenvector (the first column of Td)
is the same as the basis for the null space found in the last section. The other two
eigenvalues are the result of applying the quadratic formula to x2
64
253
x+
which is
45
2160
the quadratic factor in factor(charpoly(H, x)):

syms x
g = factor(charpoly(H, x))/x
solve(g(3))
g =
[ 1/(2160*x), 1, (2160*x^2 - 3072*x + 253)/x]
ans =
32/45 - 12589^(1/2)/180
12589^(1/2)/180 + 32/45
Closed form symbolic expressions for the eigenvalues are possible only when the
characteristic polynomial can be expressed as a product of rational polynomials of degree
four or less. The Rosser matrix is a classic numerical analysis test matrix that illustrates
this requirement. The statement
R = sym(rosser)
generates
R =
[ 611, 196, -192, 407,
-8, -52, -49,
29]
[ 196, 899, 113, -192, -71, -43,
-8, -44]
[ -192, 113, 899, 196,
61,
49,
8,
52]
[ 407, -192, 196, 611,
8,
44,
59, -23]
[
-8, -71,
61,
8, 411, -599, 208, 208]
[ -52, -43,
49,
44, -599, 411, 208, 208]
[ -49,
-8,
8,
59, 208, 208,
99, -911]
[
29, -44,
52, -23, 208, 208, -911,
99]
2-72
Eigenvalues
The commands
p = charpoly(R, x);
pretty(factor(p))
produce
(
2
x, x - 1020, x
2
- 1040500, x
)
- 1020 x + 100, x - 1000, x - 1000
The characteristic polynomial (of degree 8) factors nicely into the product of two linear
terms and three quadratic terms. You can see immediately that four of the eigenvalues
are 0, 1020, and a double root at 1000. The other four roots are obtained from the
remaining quadratics. Use
eig(R)
to find all these values

ans =
0
1000
1000
1020
510 - 100*26^(1/2)
100*26^(1/2) + 510
-10*10405^(1/2)
10*10405^(1/2)
The Rosser matrix is not a typical example; it is rare for a full 8-by-8 matrix to have
a characteristic polynomial that factors into such simple form. If you change the two
corner elements of R from 29 to 30 with the commands
S = R;
S(1,8) = 30;
S(8,1) = 30;
and then try

p = charpoly(S, x)
you find
p =
x^8 - 4040*x^7 + 5079941*x^6 + 82706090*x^5...
- 5327831918568*x^4 + 4287832912719760*x^3...
2-73
- 1082699388411166000*x^2 + 51264008540948000*x...
+ 40250968213600000
You also find that factor(p) is p itself. That is, the characteristic polynomial cannot be
factored over the rationals.
For this modified Rosser matrix
F = eig(S)
returns
F =
-1020.053214255892
-0.17053529728769
0.2180398054830161
999.9469178604428
1000.120698293384
1019.524355263202
1019.993550129163
1020.420188201505
Notice that these values are close to the eigenvalues of the original Rosser matrix.
Further, the numerical values of F are a result of MuPAD software's floating-point
arithmetic. Consequently, different settings of digits do not alter the number of digits
to the right of the decimal place.
It is also possible to try to compute eigenvalues of symbolic matrices, but closed form
solutions are rare. The Givens transformation is generated as the matrix exponential of
the elementary matrix
0 1
A=
.
-1 0
Symbolic Math Toolbox commands

syms t
A = sym([0 1; -1 0]);
G = expm(t*A)
return
G =
2-74
Eigenvalues
exp(-t*i)/2 + exp(t*i)/2,
(exp(-t*i)*i)/2 - (exp(t*i)*i)/2]
[ - (exp(-t*i)*i)/2 + (exp(t*i)*i)/2,
exp(-t*i)/2 + exp(t*i)/2]
You can simplify this expression using simplify:

G = simplify(G)
G =
[ cos(t), sin(t)]
[ -sin(t), cos(t)]
Next, the command

g = eig(G)
produces
g =
cos(t) - sin(t)*i
cos(t) + sin(t)*i
You can rewrite g in terms of exponents:

g = rewrite(g, 'exp')
g =
exp(-t*i)
exp(t*i)
2-75
Jordan Canonical Form

The Jordan canonical form results from attempts to convert a matrix to its diagonal form
by a similarity transformation. For a given matrix A, find a nonsingular matrix V, so that
inv(V)*A*V, or, more succinctly, J = V\A*V, is as close to diagonal as possible. For
almost all matrices, the Jordan canonical form is the diagonal matrix of eigenvalues and
the columns of the transformation matrix are the eigenvectors. This always happens if
the matrix is symmetric or if it has distinct eigenvalues. Some nonsymmetric matrices
with multiple eigenvalues cannot be converted to diagonal forms. The Jordan form has
the eigenvalues on its diagonal, but some of the superdiagonal elements are one, instead
of zero. The statement
J = jordan(A)
computes the Jordan canonical form of A. The statement

[V,J] = jordan(A)
also computes the similarity transformation. The columns of V are the generalized
eigenvectors of A.
The Jordan form is extremely sensitive to perturbations. Almost any change in A causes
its Jordan form to be diagonal. This makes it very difficult to compute the Jordan form
reliably with floating-point arithmetic. It also implies that A must be known exactly (i.e.,
without round-off error, etc.). Its elements must be integers, or ratios of small integers.
In particular, the variable-precision calculation, jordan(vpa(A)), is not allowed.
For example, let
A = sym([12,32,66,116;-25,-76,-164,-294;
21,66,143,256;-6,-19,-41,-73])
A =
[ 12, 32,
66, 116]
[ -25, -76, -164, -294]
[ 21, 66, 143, 256]
[ -6, -19, -41, -73]
Then
[V,J] = jordan(A)
produces
2-76
Jordan Canonical Form
V =
[ 4, -2,
4, 3]
[ -6, 8, -11, -8]
[ 4, -7, 10, 7]
[ -1, 2, -3, -2]
J
[
[
[
[
=
1,
0,
0,
0,
1,
1,
0,
0,
0,
0,
2,
0,
0]
0]
1]
2]
Therefore A has a double eigenvalue at 1, with a single Jordan block, and a double
eigenvalue at 2, also with a single Jordan block. The matrix has only two eigenvectors,
V(:,1) and V(:,3). They satisfy
A*V(:,1) = 1*V(:,1)
A*V(:,3) = 2*V(:,3)
The other two columns of V are generalized eigenvectors of grade 2. They satisfy
A*V(:,2) = 1*V(:,2) + V(:,1)
A*V(:,4) = 2*V(:,4) + V(:,3)
In mathematical notation, with vj = v(:,j), the columns of V and eigenvalues satisfy the
relationships
( A - l1 I ) v2 = v1
( A - l2 I ) v4 = v3 .
2-77
Singular Value Decomposition

Singular value decomposition expresses an m-by-n matrix A as A = U*S*V'. Here, S
is an m-by-n diagonal matrix with singular values of A on its diagonal. The columns of
the m-by-m matrix U are the left singular vectors for corresponding singular values. The
columns of the n-by-n matrix V are the right singular vectors for corresponding singular
values. V' is the Hermitian transpose (the complex conjugate of the transpose) of V.
To compute the singular value decomposition of a matrix, use svd. This function lets
you compute singular values of a matrix separately or both singular values and singular
vectors in one function call. To compute singular values only, use svd without output
arguments
svd(A)
or with one output argument

S = svd(A)
To compute singular values and singular vectors of a matrix, use three output
arguments:
[U,S,V] = svd(A)
svd returns two unitary matrices, U and V, the columns of which are singular vectors.
It also returns a diagonal matrix, S, containing singular values on its diagonal. The
elements of all three matrices are floating-point numbers. The accuracy of computations
is determined by the current setting of digits.
Create the n-by-n matrix A with elements defined by A(i,j) = 1/(i - j + 1/2). The
most obvious way of generating this matrix is
n = 3;
for i = 1:n
for j = 1:n
A(i,j) = sym(1/(i-j+1/2));
end
end
For n = 3, the matrix is

A
A =
2-78
Singular Value Decomposition
[
2, -2, -2/3]
[ 2/3,
2,
-2]
[ 2/5, 2/3,
2]
Compute the singular values of this matrix. If you use svd directly, it will return exact
symbolic result. For this matrix, the result is very long. If you prefer a shorter numeric
result, convert the elements of A to floating-point numbers using vpa. Then use svd to
compute singular values of this matrix using variable-precision arithmetic:
S = svd(vpa(A))
S =
3.1387302525015353960741348953506
3.0107425975027462353291981598225
1.6053456783345441725883965978052
Now, compute the singular values and singular vectors of A:

[U,S,V] = svd(A)
U =
[ 0.53254331027335338470683368360204,
0.76576895948802052989304092179952,...
0.36054891952096214791189887728353]
[ -0.82525689650849463222502853672224, 0.37514965283965451993171338605042,...
0.42215375485651489522488031917364]
[ 0.18801243961043281839917114171742, -0.52236064041897439447429784257224,...
0.83173955292075192178421874331406]
S =
[ 3.1387302525015353960741348953506,
[
[
0,...
0]
0, 3.0107425975027462353291981598225,...
0]
0,
0,...
1.6053456783345441725883965978052]
V =
[ 0.18801243961043281839917114171742,
0.52236064041897439447429784257224,...
0.83173955292075192178421874331406]
[ -0.82525689650849463222502853672224, -0.37514965283965451993171338605042,...
0.42215375485651489522488031917364]
[ 0.53254331027335338470683368360204, -0.76576895948802052989304092179952,...
0.36054891952096214791189887728353]
2-79
Solve an Algebraic Equation

Symbolic Math Toolbox offers both symbolic and numeric equation solvers. This topic
shows you how to solve an equation symbolically using the symbolic solver solve. To
compare symbolic and numeric solvers, see Select a Numeric or Symbolic Solver.
In this section...
Solve an Equation on page 2-80
Return the Full Solution to an Equation on page 2-81
Work with the Full Solution, Parameters, and Conditions Returned by solve on page
2-81
Visualize and Plot Solutions Returned by solve on page 2-82
Simplify Complicated Results and Improve Performance on page 2-84
Solve an Equation
If eqn is an equation, solve(eqn, x) solves eqn for the symbolic variable x.
Use the == operator to specify the familiar quadratic equation and solve it using solve.
syms a b c x
eqn = a*x^2 + b*x + c == 0;
solx = solve(eqn, x)
solx =
-(b + (b^2 - 4*a*c)^(1/2))/(2*a)
-(b - (b^2 - 4*a*c)^(1/2))/(2*a)
solx is a symbolic vector containing the two solutions of the quadratic equation. If the
input eqn is an expression and not an equation, solve solves the equation eqn == 0.
To solve for a variable other than x, specify that variable instead. For example, solve eqn
for b.
solb = solve(eqn, b)
solb =
-(a*x^2 + c)/x
If you do not specify a variable, solve uses symvar to select the variable to solve for. For
example, solve(eqn) solves eqn for x.
2-80
Return the Full Solution to an Equation

solve does not automatically return all solutions of an equation. Solve the equation
cos(x) == -sin(x). The solve function returns one of many solutions.
syms x
solx = solve(cos(x) == -sin(x), x)
solx =
-pi/4
To return all solutions along with the parameters in the solution and the conditions on
the solution, set the ReturnConditions option to true. Solve the same equation for the
full solution. Provide three output variables: for the solution to x, for the parameters in
the solution, and for the conditions on the solution.
syms x
[solx param cond] = solve(cos(x) == -sin(x), x, 'ReturnConditions', true)
solx =
pi*k - pi/4
param =
k
cond =
in(k, 'integer')
solx contains the solution for x, which is pi*k - pi/4. The param variable specifies
the parameter in the solution, which is k. The cond variable specifies the condition
in(k, 'integer') on the solution, which means k must be an integer. Thus, solve
returns a periodic solution starting at pi/4 which repeats at intervals of pi*k, where k
is an integer.
Work with the Full Solution, Parameters, and Conditions Returned by

solve
You can use the solutions, parameters, and conditions returned by solve to find
solutions within an interval or under additional conditions.
To find values of x in the interval -2*pi<x<2*pi, solve solx for k within that interval
under the condition cond. Assume the condition cond using assume.
assume(cond)
2-81
solk = solve(-2*pi<solx, solx<2*pi, param)

solk =
-1
0
1
2
To find values of x corresponding to these values of k, use subs to substitute for k in

solx.
xvalues = subs(solx, solk)
xvalues =
-(5*pi)/4
-pi/4
(3*pi)/4
(7*pi)/4
To convert these symbolic values into numeric values for use in numeric calculations, use
vpa.
xvalues = vpa(xvalues)
xvalues =
-3.9269908169872415480783042290994
-0.78539816339744830961566084581988
2.3561944901923449288469825374596
5.4977871437821381673096259207391
Visualize and Plot Solutions Returned by solve

The previous sections used solve to solve the equation cos(x) == -sin(x). The
solution to this equation can be visualized using plotting functions such as ezplot and
scatter.
Plot both sides of equation cos(x) == -sin(x).
ezplot(cos(x))
hold on
grid on
ezplot(-sin(x))
title('Both sides of equation cos(x) = -sin(x)')
2-82
legend('cos(x)','-sin(x)','Location','Best')
Calculate the values of the functions at the values of x, and superimpose the solutions as
points using scatter.
yvalues = cos(xvalues)
scatter(xvalues, yvalues)
yvalues =
-0.70710678118654752440084436210485
0.70710678118654752440084436210485
-0.70710678118654752440084436210485
0.70710678118654752440084436210485
2-83
As expected, the solutions appear at the intersection of the two plots.
Simplify Complicated Results and Improve Performance

If results look complicated, solve is stuck, or if you want to improve performance, see,
Resolve Complicated Solutions or Stuck Solver.
2-84
Select a Numeric or Symbolic Solver
Select a Numeric or Symbolic Solver

You can solve equations to obtain a symbolic or numeric answer. For example, a solution
to cos ( x ) = -1 is pi in symbolic form and 3.14159 in numeric form. The symbolic
solution is exact, while the numeric solution approximates the exact symbolic solution.
Symbolic Math Toolbox offers both symbolic and numeric equation solvers. This table can
help you choose either the symbolic solver (solve) or the numeric solver (vpasolve).
A possible strategy is to try the symbolic solver first, and use the numeric solver if the
symbolic solver is stuck.
Solve Equations Symbolically Using solve
Solve Equations Numerically Using vpasolve
Returns exact solutions. Solutions can then Returns approximate solutions. Precision
be approximated using vpa.
can be controlled arbitrarily using digits.
Returns a general form of the solution.
For polynomial equations, returns

all numeric solutions that exist. For
nonpolynomial equations, returns the first
numeric solution found.
General form allows insight into the

solution.
Numeric solutions provide less insight.
Runs slower.
Runs faster.
Search ranges can be specified using

inequalities.
Search ranges and starting points can be

specified.
solve solves equations and inequalities

that contain parameters.
vpasolve does not solve inequalities,

nor does it solve equations that contain
parameters.
solve can return parameterized solutions. vpasolve does not return parameterized
solutions.
vpasolve uses variable-precision arithmetic. You can control precision arbitrarily using
digits. For examples, see Control Accuracy of Variable-Precision Computations.
2-85
Solve a System of Algebraic Equations

This topic shows you how to solve a system of equations symbolically using Symbolic
Math Toolbox. This toolbox offers both numeric and symbolic equation solvers. For a
comparison of numeric and symbolic solvers, see Select a Numeric or Symbolic Solver.
In this section...
Handle the Output of solve on page 2-86
Solve a Linear System of Equations on page 2-88
Return the Full Solution of a System of Equations on page 2-89
Solve a System of Equations Under Conditions on page 2-91
Work with Solutions, Parameters, and Conditions Returned by solve on page 2-92
Convert Symbolic Results to Numeric Values on page 2-95
Simplify Complicated Results and Improve Performance on page 2-96
Handle the Output of solve

Suppose you have the system
x2 y2 = 0
y
x - = a,
2
and you want to solve for x and y. First, create the necessary symbolic objects.
syms x y alpha
There are several ways to address the output of solve. One way is to use a two-output
call.
[solx,soly] = solve(x^2*y^2 == 0, x-y/2 == alpha)
The call returns the following.

solx =
0
2-86
alpha
soly =
-2*alpha
0
Modify the first equation to x2y2=1. The new system has more solutions.
[solx,soly] = solve(x^2*y^2 == 1, x-y/2 == alpha)
Four distinct solutions are produced.

solx =
alpha/2 - (alpha^2 - 2)^(1/2)/2
alpha/2 - (alpha^2 + 2)^(1/2)/2
alpha/2 + (alpha^2 - 2)^(1/2)/2
alpha/2 + (alpha^2 + 2)^(1/2)/2
soly =
- alpha - (alpha^2 - 2)^(1/2)
- alpha - (alpha^2 + 2)^(1/2)
(alpha^2 - 2)^(1/2) - alpha
(alpha^2 + 2)^(1/2) - alpha
Since you did not specify the dependent variables, solve uses symvar to determine the
variables.
This way of assigning output from solve is quite successful for small systems. For
instance, if you have a 10-by-10 system of equations, typing the following is both
awkward and time consuming.
[x1,x2,x3,x4,x5,x6,x7,x8,x9,x10] = solve(...)
To circumvent this difficulty, solve can return a structure whose fields are the solutions.
For example, solve the system of equations u^2 - v^2 = a^2, u + v = 1, a^2 - 2*a
= 3.
syms u v a
S = solve(u^2 - v^2 == a^2, u + v == 1, a^2 - 2*a == 3)
The solver returns its results enclosed in this structure.

S =
a: [2x1 sym]
u: [2x1 sym]
v: [2x1 sym]
2-87
The solutions for a reside in the a-field of S.

S.a
ans =
-1
3
Similar comments apply to the solutions for u and v. The structure S can now be
manipulated by the field and index to access a particular portion of the solution. For
example, to examine the second solution, you can use the following statement to extract
the second component of each field.
s2 = [S.a(2), S.u(2), S.v(2)]
s2 =
[ 3,
5, -4]
The following statement creates the solution matrix M whose rows comprise the distinct
solutions of the system.
M = [S.a, S.u, S.v]
M =
[ -1, 1, 0]
[ 3, 5, -4]
Clear solx and soly for further use.

clear solx soly
Solve a Linear System of Equations

Linear systems of equations can also be solved using matrix division. For example, solve
this system.
clear u v x y
syms u v x y
eqns = [x + 2*y == u, 4*x + 5*y == v];
S = solve(eqns);
sol = [S.x; S.y]
[A,b] = equationsToMatrix(eqns,x,y);
2-88
z = A\b
sol =
(2*v)/3 - (5*u)/3
(4*u)/3 - v/3
z =
(2*v)/3 - (5*u)/3
(4*u)/3 - v/3
Thus,sol and z produce the same solution, although the results are assigned to different
variables.
Return the Full Solution of a System of Equations

solve does not automatically return all solutions of an equation. To return all solutions
along with the parameters in the solution and the conditions on the solution, set the
ReturnConditions option to true.
Consider the following system of equations:
4
5
1
sin ( x ) cos ( y) =
10
sin ( x )+ cos ( y ) =
Visualize the system of equations using ezplot. To set the x-axis and y-axis values in
terms of pi, get the axes handles using axes in a. Create the symbolic array S of the
values -2*pi to 2*pi at intervals of pi/2. To set the ticks to S, use the XTick and
YTick properties of a. To set the labels for the x-and y-axes, convert S to character
strings. Use arrayfun to apply char to every element of S to return T. Set the
XTickLabel and YTickLabel properties of a to T.
syms x y
eqn1 = sin(x)+cos(y) == 4/5;
eqn2 = sin(x)*cos(y) == 1/10;
a = axes;
h = ezplot(eqn1);
h.LineColor = 'blue';
hold on
grid on
2-89
g = ezplot(eqn2);
g.LineColor = 'magenta';
L = sym(-2*pi:pi/2:2*pi);
a.XTick = double(L);
a.YTick = double(L);
M = arrayfun(@char, L, 'UniformOutput', false);
a.XTickLabel = M;
a.YTickLabel = M;
title('Plot of System of Equations')
legend('sin(x)+cos(y) == 4/5','sin(x)*cos(y) == 1/10', 'Location', 'best')
The solutions lie at the intersection of the two plots. This shows the system has repeated,
periodic solutions. To solve this system of equations for the full solution set, use solve
and set the ReturnConditions option to true.
2-90
S = solve(eqn1, eqn2, 'ReturnConditions', true)

S =
x:
y:
parameters:
conditions:
[2x1
[2x1
[1x2
[2x1
sym]
sym]
sym]
sym]
solve returns a structure S with the fields S.x for the solution to x, S.y for the solution
to y, S.parameters for the parameters in the solution, and S.conditions for the
conditions on the solution. Elements of the same index in S.x, S.y, and S.conditions
form a solution. Thus, S.x(1), S.y(1), and S.conditions(1) form one solution to the
system of equations. The parameters in S.parameters can appear in all solutions.
Index into S to return the solutions, parameters, and conditions.
S.x
S.y
S.parameters
S.conditions
ans =
z
z
ans =
z1
z1
ans =
[ z, z1]
ans =
(in((z - asin(6^(1/2)/10 + 2/5))/(2*pi), 'integer') |...
in((z - pi + asin(6^(1/2)/10 + 2/5))/(2*pi), 'integer')) &...
(in((z1 - acos(2/5 - 6^(1/2)/10))/(2*pi), 'integer') |...
in((z1 + acos(2/5 - 6^(1/2)/10))/(2*pi), 'integer'))
(in((z - asin(2/5 - 6^(1/2)/10))/(2*pi), 'integer') |...
in((z - pi + asin(2/5 - 6^(1/2)/10))/(2*pi), 'integer')) &...
(in((z1 - acos(6^(1/2)/10 + 2/5))/(2*pi), 'integer') |...
in((z1 + acos(6^(1/2)/10 + 2/5))/(2*pi), 'integer'))
Solve a System of Equations Under Conditions

To solve the system of equations under conditions, specify the conditions in the input to
solve.
2-91
Solve the system of equations considered above for x and y in the interval -2*pi to
2*pi. Overlay the solutions on the plot using scatter.
Srange = solve(eqn1, eqn2, -2*pi<x, x<2*pi, -2*pi<y, y<2*pi, 'ReturnConditions', true);

scatter(Srange.x, Srange.y)
Work with Solutions, Parameters, and Conditions Returned by solve

You can use the solutions, parameters, and conditions returned by solve to find
solutions within an interval or under additional conditions. This section has the same
goal as the previous section, to solve the system of equations within a search range, but
with a different approach. Instead of placing conditions directly, it shows how to work
with the parameters and conditions returned by solve.
2-92
For the full solution S of the system of equations, find values of x and y in the interval
-2*pi to 2*pi by solving the solutions S.x and S.y for the parameters S.parameters
within that interval under the condition S.conditions.
Before solving for x and y in the interval, assume the conditions in S.conditions using
assume so that the solutions returned satisfy the condition. Assume the conditions for
the first solution.
assume(S.conditions(1))
Solve the first solution of x for the parameter z.

solz(1,:) = solve(S.x(1)>-2*pi, S.x(1)<2*pi, S.parameters(1))
solz =
[ asin(6^(1/2)/10 + 2/5), pi - asin(6^(1/2)/10 + 2/5),...
asin(6^(1/2)/10 + 2/5) - 2*pi, - pi - asin(6^(1/2)/10 + 2/5)]
Similarly, solve the first solution to y for z1.

solz1(1,:) = solve(S.y(1)>-2*pi, S.y(1)<2*pi, S.parameters(2))
solz1 =
[ acos(2/5 - 6^(1/2)/10), acos(2/5 - 6^(1/2)/10) - 2*pi,...
-acos(2/5 - 6^(1/2)/10), 2*pi - acos(2/5 - 6^(1/2)/10)]
Clear the assumptions set by S.conditions(1) using sym. Call asumptions to check
that the assumptions are cleared.
sym(S.parameters,'clear')
assumptions
ans =
[ z, z1]
ans =
Empty sym: 1-by-0
Assume the conditions for the second solution.

assume(S.conditions(2))
Solve the second solution to x and y for the parameters z and z1.
solz(2,:) = solve(S.x(2)>-2*pi, S.x(2)<2*pi, S.parameters(1))
2-93
solz1(2,:) = solve(S.y(2)>-2*pi, S.y(2)<2*pi, S.parameters(2))

solz =
[ asin(6^(1/2)/10 + 2/5),
asin(6^(1/2)/10 + 2/5) [ asin(2/5 - 6^(1/2)/10),
asin(2/5 - 6^(1/2)/10) solz1 =
[ acos(2/5 - 6^(1/2)/10),
-acos(2/5 - 6^(1/2)/10),
[ acos(6^(1/2)/10 + 2/5),
-acos(6^(1/2)/10 + 2/5),
pi - asin(6^(1/2)/10 + 2/5),...
2*pi, - pi - asin(6^(1/2)/10 + 2/5)]
pi - asin(2/5 - 6^(1/2)/10),...
2*pi, - pi - asin(2/5 - 6^(1/2)/10)]
acos(2/5 - 6^(1/2)/10) - 2*pi,...
2*pi - acos(2/5 - 6^(1/2)/10)]
acos(6^(1/2)/10 + 2/5) - 2*pi,...
2*pi - acos(6^(1/2)/10 + 2/5)]
The first rows of solz and solz1 form the first solution to the system of equations, and
the second rows form the second solution.
To find the values of x and y for these values of z and z1, use subs to substitute for z
and z1 in S.x and S.y.
solx(1,:)
solx(2,:)
soly(1,:)
soly(2,:)
=
=
=
=
subs(S.x(1),
subs(S.x(2),
subs(S.y(1),
subs(S.y(2),
solx =
[ asin(6^(1/2)/10 + 2/5),
asin(6^(1/2)/10 + 2/5) [ asin(2/5 - 6^(1/2)/10),
asin(2/5 - 6^(1/2)/10) soly =
[ acos(2/5 - 6^(1/2)/10),
-acos(2/5 - 6^(1/2)/10),
[ acos(6^(1/2)/10 + 2/5),
-acos(6^(1/2)/10 + 2/5),
S.parameters(1),
S.parameters(1),
S.parameters(2),
S.parameters(2),
solz(1,:));
solz(2,:))
solz1(1,:));
solz1(2,:))
pi - asin(6^(1/2)/10 + 2/5),...
2*pi, - pi - asin(6^(1/2)/10 + 2/5)]
pi - asin(2/5 - 6^(1/2)/10),...
2*pi, - pi - asin(2/5 - 6^(1/2)/10)]
acos(2/5 - 6^(1/2)/10) - 2*pi,...
2*pi - acos(2/5 - 6^(1/2)/10)]
acos(6^(1/2)/10 + 2/5) - 2*pi,...
2*pi - acos(6^(1/2)/10 + 2/5)]
Note that solx and soly are the two sets of solutions to x and to y. The full sets of
solutions to the system of equations are the two sets of points formed by all possible
combinations of the values in solx and soly.
Plot these two sets of points using scatter. Overlay them on the plot of the equations.
As expected, the solutions appear at the intersection of the plots of the two equations.
for i = 1:length(solx(1,:))
for j = 1:length(soly(1,:))
scatter(solx(1,i), soly(1,j), 'black')
2-94
scatter(solx(2,i), soly(2,j), 'black')

end
end
Convert Symbolic Results to Numeric Values

Symbolic calculations provide exact accuracy, while numeric calculations are
approximations. Despite this loss of accuracy, you might need to convert symbolic
results to numeric approximations for use in numeric calculations. For a high-accuracy
conversion, use variable-precision arithmetic provided by the vpa function. For standard
accuracy and better performance, convert to double precision using double.
Use vpa to convert the symbolic solutions solx and soly to numeric form.
2-95
vpa(solx)
vpa(soly)
ans =
[ 0.70095651347102524787213653614929, 2.4406361401187679905905068471302,...
-5.5822287937085612290531502304097, -3.8425491670608184863347799194288]
[ 0.15567910349205249963259154265761, 2.9859135500977407388300518406219,...
-6.1275062036875339772926952239014, -3.2972717570818457380952349259371]
ans =
[ 1.4151172233028441195987301489821, -4.8680680838767423573265566175769,...
-1.4151172233028441195987301489821, 4.8680680838767423573265566175769]
[ 0.86983981332387137135918515549046, -5.4133454938557151055661016110685,...
-0.86983981332387137135918515549046, 5.4133454938557151055661016110685]
Simplify Complicated Results and Improve Performance

If results look complicated, solve is stuck, or if you want to improve performance, see,
Resolve Complicated Solutions or Stuck Solver.
2-96
Resolve Complicated Solutions or Stuck Solver

If solve returns solutions that look complicated, or if solve cannot handle an input,
there are many options. These options simplify the solution space for solve. These
options also help solve when the input is complicated, and might allow solve to return
a solution where it was previously stuck.
In this section...
Return Only Real Solutions on page 2-97
Apply Simplification Rules on page 2-97
Use Assumptions to Narrow Results on page 2-98
Simplify Solutions on page 2-100
Tips on page 2-100
Return Only Real Solutions

Solve the equation x^5 - 1 == 0. This equation has five solutions.
syms x
solve(x^5 - 1 == 0, x)
ans =
- (2^(1/2)*(5
(2^(1/2)*(5
5^(1/2)/4 5^(1/2)/4 +
- 5^(1/2))^(1/2)*i)/4 - 5^(1/2)/4
- 5^(1/2))^(1/2)*i)/4 - 5^(1/2)/4
(2^(1/2)*(5^(1/2) + 5)^(1/2)*i)/4
(2^(1/2)*(5^(1/2) + 5)^(1/2)*i)/4
1
1/4
1/4
1/4
1/4
If you only need real solutions, specify the Real option as true. The solve function
returns the one real solution.
solve(x^5 - 1, x, 'Real', true)
ans =
1
Apply Simplification Rules

Solve the following equation. The solve function returns a complicated solution.
2-97
solve(x^(5/2) + 1/x^(5/2) == 1, x)
ans =
1/(1/2 - (3^(1/2)*i)/2)^(2/5)
1/((3^(1/2)*i)/2 + 1/2)^(2/5)
-(5^(1/2)/4 - (2^(1/2)*(5 - 5^(1/2))^(1/2)*i)/4 + 1/4)/(3^(1/2)*(-i/2) + 1/2)^(2/5)
-((2^(1/2)*(5 - 5^(1/2))^(1/2)*i)/4 + 5^(1/2)/4 + 1/4)/(3^(1/2)*(-i/2) + 1/2)^(2/5)
-(5^(1/2)/4 - (2^(1/2)*(5 - 5^(1/2))^(1/2)*i)/4 + 1/4)/(3^(1/2)*(i/2) + 1/2)^(2/5)
-((2^(1/2)*(5 - 5^(1/2))^(1/2)*i)/4 + 5^(1/2)/4 + 1/4)/(3^(1/2)*(i/2) + 1/2)^(2/5)
To apply simplification rules when solving equations, specify the

IgnoreAnalyticConstraints option as true. The applied simplification rules are
not generally correct mathematically but might produce useful solutions, especially in
physics and engineering. With this option, the solver does not guarantee the correctness
and completeness of the result.
solve(x^(5/2) + 1/x^(5/2) == 1, x, 'IgnoreAnalyticConstraints', true)
ans =
1/(1/2 - (3^(1/2)*i)/2)^(2/5)
1/((3^(1/2)*i)/2 + 1/2)^(2/5)
This solution is simpler and more usable.
Use Assumptions to Narrow Results

For solutions to specific cases, set assumptions to return appropriate solutions. Solve the
following equation. The solve function returns seven solutions.
syms x
solve(x^7 + 2*x^6 - 59*x^5 - 106*x^4 + 478*x^3 + 284*x^2 - 1400*x + 800, x)
ans =
1
- 5^(1/2) - 1
- 17^(1/2)/2 - 1/2
17^(1/2)/2 - 1/2
-5*2^(1/2)
5*2^(1/2)
5^(1/2) - 1
Assume x is a positive number and solve the equation again. The solve function only
returns the four positive solutions.
2-98
assume(x>0)
solve(x^7 + 2*x^6 - 59*x^5 - 106*x^4 + 478*x^3 + 284*x^2 - 1400*x + 800, x)
ans =
1
17^(1/2)/2 - 1/2
5*2^(1/2)
5^(1/2) - 1
Place the additional assumption that x is an integer using in(x,'integer'). Place

additional assumptions on variables using assumeAlso.
assumeAlso(in(x,'integer'))
solve(x^7 + 2*x^6 - 59*x^5 - 106*x^4 + 478*x^3 + 284*x^2 - 1400*x + 800, x)
ans =
1
solve returns the only positive, integer solution to x.

Clear the assumptions on x for further computations.
syms x clear
Alternatively, to make several assumptions, use the & operator. Make the following
assumptions, and solve the following equations.
syms a b c f g h y
assume(f == c & a == h & a~= 0)
S = solve([a*x + b*y == c, h*x - g*y == f], [x, y], 'ReturnConditions', true);
S.x
S.y
S.conditions
ans
f/h
ans
0
ans
b +
=
=
=
g ~= 0
Under the specified assumptions, the solution is x = f/h and y = 0 under the condition
b + g ~= 0.
Clear the assumptions on the variables for further computations.
2-99
syms a c f h clear
Simplify Solutions
The solve function does not call simplification functions for the final results. To simplify
the solutions, call simplify.
Solve the following equation. Convert the numbers to symbolic numbers using sym to
return a symbolic result.
S = solve(log(1/x) + log(sym(5)) == 1/x + log(sym(3)), x)
S =
-1/lambertw(0, -exp(log(3) - log(5)))
Call simplify to simplify the result.

simplify(S)
ans =
exp(log(5/3) + lambertw(0, -3/5))
Tips
To represent a number exactly, use sym. For example, use sym(13/5) instead of
13/5. This represents 13/5 exactly instead of converting 13/5 to a floating-point
number. For a large number, place the number in quotes. Compare sym(13/5),
sym(133333/5), and sym('133333/5').
sym(13/5)
sym(133333/5)
sym('133333/5')
ans =
13/5
ans =
3665029596656435/137438953472
ans =
133333/5
Placing the number in quotes and using sym provides the highest accuracy.
If possible, simplify the system of equations manually before using solve. Try to
reduce the number of equations, parameters, and variables.
2-100
Solve a System of Linear Equations

This section shows you how to solve a system of linear equations using the Symbolic
Math Toolbox.
In this section...
Solve System of Linear Equations Using linsolve on page 2-101
Solve System of Linear Equations Using solve on page 2-102
Solve System of Linear Equations Using linsolve

A system of linear equations
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + + a1n xn = b1
a21 x1 + a22 x2 + + a2n xn = b2
L
am1 x1 + am2 x2 + + amn xn = bm
r r
can be represented as the matrix equation A x = b , where A is the coefficient matrix,
a11 a1n
A= M
O
M
a
m1 L amn
r
and b is the vector containing the right sides of equations,
b
r 1
b= M
b
m
If you do not have the system of linear equations in the form AX = B, use
equationsToMatrix to convert the equations into this form. Consider the following
system.
2-101
2x + y + z = 2
-x + y - z = 3
x + 2 y + 3 z = -10
Declare the system of equations.

syms
eqn1
eqn2
eqn3
x
=
=
=
y z
2*x+y+z == 2;
-x+y-z == 3;
x+2*y+3*z == -10;
Use equationsToMatrix to convert the equations into the form AX = B. The second
input to equationsToMatrix specifies the independent variables in the equations.
[A,B] = equationsToMatrix([eqn1, eqn2, eqn3], [x, y, z])
A =
[ 2, 1, 1]
[ -1, 1, -1]
[ 1, 2, 3]
B =
2
3
-10
Use linsolve to solve AX = B for the vector of unknowns X.

X = linsolve(A,B)
X =
3
1
-5
From X, x=3, y=1 and z=-5.
Solve System of Linear Equations Using solve

Use solve instead of linsolve if you have the equations in the form of expressions and
not a matrix of coefficients. Consider the same system of linear equations.
2-102
2x + y + z = 2
-x + y - z = 3
x + 2 y + 3 z = -10
Declare the system of equations.

syms
eqn1
eqn2
eqn3
x
=
=
=
y z
2*x+y+z == 2;
-x+y-z == 3;
x+2*y+3*z == -10;
Solve the system of equations using solve. The inputs to solve are the equations and a
comma separated list of variables to solve the equations for.
sol = solve([eqn1, eqn2, eqn3],x, y, z);
xSol = sol.x
ySol = sol.y
zSol = sol.z
xSol =
3
ySol =
1
zSol =
-5
solve returns the solutions in a structure array. To access the solutions, index into the
array.
2-103
Solve Equations Numerically

The Symbolic Math Toolbox offers both numeric and symbolic equation solvers. For a
comparison of numeric and symbolic solvers, please see Select a Numeric or Symbolic
Solver. An equation or a system of equations can have multiple solutions. To find these
solutions numerically, use the function vpasolve. For polynomial equations, vpasolve
returns all solutions. For nonpolynomial equations, vpasolve returns the first solution
it finds. This shows you how to use vpasolve to find solutions to both polynomial and
nonpolynomial equations, and how to obtain these solutions to arbitrary precision.
In this section...
Find All Roots of a Polynomial Function on page 2-104
Find Zeros of a Nonpolynomial Function Using Search Ranges and Starting Points on
page 2-105
Obtain Solutions to Arbitrary Precision on page 2-109
Solve Multivariate Equations Using Search Ranges on page 2-110
Find All Roots of a Polynomial Function

Use vpasolve to find all the solutions to function f ( x ) = 6 x7 - 2 x6 + 3 x3 - 8 .
syms f(x)
f(x) = 6*x^7-2*x^6+3*x^3-8;
sol = vpasolve(f)
sol =
1.0240240759053702941448316563337
- 0.22974795226118163963098570610724 + 0.96774615576744031073999010695171*i
- 0.22974795226118163963098570610724 - 0.96774615576744031073999010695171*i
- 0.88080620051762149639205672298326 - 0.50434058840127584376331806592405*i
0.7652087814927846556172932675903 + 0.83187331431049713218367239317121*i
- 0.88080620051762149639205672298326 + 0.50434058840127584376331806592405*i
0.7652087814927846556172932675903 - 0.83187331431049713218367239317121*i
vpasolve returns seven roots of the function, as expected, because the function is a
polynomial of degree seven.
2-104
Find Zeros of a Nonpolynomial Function Using Search Ranges and

Starting Points
Consider the function f ( x ) = e(
x / 7)
cos( 2 x) . A plot of the function reveals periodic zeros,
with increasing slopes at the zero points as x increases.
syms x y
h = ezplot(y == exp(x/7)*cos(2*x),[-2, 25, -10, 10]);
grid on;
Use vpasolve to find a zero of the function f. Note that vpasolve returns only one
solution of a nonpolynomial equation, even if multiple solutions exist. On repeated calls,
vpasolve returns the same result, even if multiple zeros exist.
2-105
for i = 1:3
vpasolve(exp(-x/20)*cos(2*x),x)
end
ans =
19.634954084936207740391521145497
ans =
19.634954084936207740391521145497
ans =
19.634954084936207740391521145497
To find multiple solutions, set the option random to true. This makes vpasolve choose
starting points randomly. For information on the algorithm that chooses random starting
points, see Algorithms on the vpasolve page.
for i = 1:3
vpasolve(exp(-x/20)*cos(2*x),x,'random',true)
end
ans =
-226.98006922186256147892598444194
ans =
98.174770424681038701957605727484
ans =
58.904862254808623221174563436491
To find a zero close to x=10 and to x=1000, set the starting point to 10, and then to
1000.
vpasolve(exp(-x/20)*cos(2*x),x,10)
vpasolve(exp(-x/20)*cos(2*x),x,1000)
ans =
10.210176124166828025003590995658
ans =
999.8118620049516981407362567287
To find a zero in the range 15 x 25 , set the search range to [15 25].
vpasolve(exp(-x/20)*cos(2*x),x,[15 25])
ans =
21.205750411731104359622842837137
2-106
To find multiple zeros in the range [15 25], you cannot call vpasolve repeatedly as it
returns the same result on each call, as previously shown. Instead, set random to true in
conjunction with the search range.
for i = 1:3
vpasolve(exp(-x/20)*cos(2*x),x,[15 25],'random',true)
end
ans =
21.205750411731104359622842837137
ans =
16.493361431346414501928877762217
ans =
16.493361431346414501928877762217
If you specify the random option while also specifying a starting point, vpasolve warns
you that the two options are incompatible.
vpasolve(exp(-x/20)*cos(2*x),x,15,'random',true)
Warning: All variables have a starting value for the numeric...
search. The option 'random' has no effect in this case.
> In sym.vpasolve at 166
ans =
14.922565104551517882697556070578
Create the function findzeros below to systematically find all zeros for f in a given
search range, within the error tolerance. It starts with the input search range and calls
vpasolve to find a zero. Then, it splits the search range into two around the zeros
value, and recursively calls itself with the new search ranges as inputs to find more
zeros. The first input is the function, the second input is the range, and the optional third
input allows you to specify the error between a zero and the higher and lower bounds
generated from it.
The function is explained section by section here.
Declare the function with the two inputs and one output.
function sol = findzeros(f,range,err)
If you do not specify the optional argument for error tolerance, findzeros sets err to
0.001.
if nargin < 2
2-107
err = 1e-3;
end
Find a zero in the search range using vpasolve.

sol = vpasolve(f,range);
If vpasolve does not find a zero, exit.

if(isempty(sol))
return
If vpasolve finds a zero, split the search range into two search ranges above and below
the zero.
else
lowLimit = sol-err;
highLimit = sol+err;
Call findzeros with the lower search range. If findzeros returns zeros, copy the
values into the solution array and sort them.
temp = findzeros(f,[range(1) lowLimit],1);
if ~isempty(temp)
sol = sort([sol temp]);
end
Call findzeros with the higher search range. If findzeros returns zeros, copy the
values into the solution array and sort them.
temp = findzeros(f,[highLimit range(2)],1);
if ~isempty(temp)
end
return
end
end
The entire function findzeros is as follows.

function sol = findzeros(f,range,err)
if nargin < 3
err = 1e-3;
2-108
end
sol = vpasolve(f,range);
if(isempty(sol))
return
else
lowLimit = sol-err;
highLimit = sol+err;
temp = findzeros(f,[range(1) lowLimit],1);
if ~isempty(temp)
end
temp = findzeros(f,[highLimit range(2)],1);
if ~isempty(temp)
end
return
end
end
Call findzeros with search range [10 20] to find all zeros in that range for f(x) =
exp(-x/20)*cos(2*x), within the default error tolerance.
syms f(x)
f(x) = exp(-x/20)*cos(2*x);
findzeros(f,[10 20])
ans =
[ 10.210176124166828025003590995658, 11.780972450961724644234912687298,...
13.351768777756621263466234378938, 14.922565104551517882697556070578,...
16.493361431346414501928877762217, 18.064157758141311121160199453857,...
19.634954084936207740391521145497]
Obtain Solutions to Arbitrary Precision

Use digits to set the precision of the solutions. By default, vpasolve returns solutions
to a precision of 32 significant figures. Use digits to increase the precision to 64
significant figures. When modifying digits, ensure that you save its current value so
that you can restore it.
vpasolve(exp(x/7)*cos(2*x))
digitsOld = digits;
digits(64)
vpasolve(exp(x/7)*cos(2*x))
2-109
digits(digitsOld)
ans =
-7.0685834705770347865409476123789
ans =
-7.068583470577034786540947612378881489443631148593988097193625333
Solve Multivariate Equations Using Search Ranges

Consider the following system of equations.
10 ( cos ( x ) + cos ( y) ) = x + y2 - 0.1 x2 y
A plot of the equations for 0 x 3 and 0 y 3 shows that the three surfaces intersect
in two points. To better visualize the plot, use view. To scale the colormap values, use
caxis.
syms x y z
exp1 = 10*(cos(x)+cos(y));
exp2 = x+y^2-0.1*x^2*y;
exp3 = y+x-2.7;
ezsurf(exp1,[0, 2.5])
hold on
grid on
ezsurf(exp2,[0, 2.5])
x1 = @(s,t) s;
y1 = @(s,t) 2.7-s;
z1 = @(s,t) t;
ezsurf(x1,y1,z1,[0,2.5,-20,10])
title('System of Multivariate Equations')
view(69, 28)
caxis([-15 10])
2-110
Use vpasolve to find a point where the surfaces intersect. The function vpasolve
returns a structure. To access the solution, index into the structure.
sol = vpasolve([z == exp1, z == exp2, exp3 == 0]);
[sol.x sol.y sol.z]
ans =
[ 2.3697477224547979209101337160174, 0.33025227754520207908986628398261, 2.293354376823
2-111
To search a region of the solution space, specify search ranges for the variables. If you
specify the ranges 0 x 1 .5 and 1 .5 y 2.5 , then vpasolve function searches the
bounded area shown in the picture.
Use vpasolve to find a solution for this search range 0 x 1 .5 and 1 .5 y 2.5 .
sol = vpasolve([z == exp1, z == exp2, 0 == exp3],[x y z],[0 1.5; 1.5 2.5;NaN NaN]);
[sol.x sol.y sol.z]
ans =
2-112
[ 0.91062661725633361176950031551069, 1.7893733827436663882304996844893, 3.964101572135
To find multiple solutions, you can set the random option to true. This makes vpasolve
use random starting points on successive runs. The random option can be used in
conjunction with search ranges to make vpasolve use random starting points within a
search range. To omit a search range for z, set the search range to [NaN NaN]. Because
random selects starting points randomly, the same solution might be found on successive
calls. Call vpasolve repeatedly to ensure you find both solutions.
clear sol
for i = 1:5
temp = vpasolve([z == exp1, z == exp2, exp3 == 0],[x y z],[0 3; 0 3;NaN NaN],...
'random',true);
sol(i,1) = temp.x;
sol(i,2) = temp.y;
sol(i,3) = temp.z;
end
sol
sol =
[
[
[
[
[
0.91062661725633361176950031551069, 1.7893733827436663882304996844893, 3.96410157213

2.3697477224547979209101337160174, 0.33025227754520207908986628398261, 2.29335437682
0.91062661725633361176950031551069, 1.7893733827436663882304996844893, 3.96410157213
0.91062661725633361176950031551069, 1.7893733827436663882304996844893, 3.96410157213
0.91062661725633361176950031551069, 1.7893733827436663882304996844893, 3.96410157213
Plot the equations using ezsurf. Superimpose the solutions as a scatter plot of points
with yellow X markers using scatter3. To better visualize the plot, make two of the
surfaces transparent using alpha. Scale the colormap to the plot values using caxis,
and change the perspective using view.
clf
ax = axes;
ezsurf(exp1,[-3 2.5 0 2.5])
grid on
hold on
ezsurf(exp2,[0 2.5 0 2.5])
ezsurf(x1,y1,z1,[0,2.5,-20,10])
scatter3(sol(:,1),sol(:,2),sol(:,3),600,'yellow','X','LineWidth',2)
title('Randomly found solutions in specified search range')
2-113
cz = ax.Children;
alpha(cz(2),0)
alpha(cz(3),0)
caxis([0 20])
view(69,28)
vpasolve finds solutions at the intersection of the surfaces formed by the equations as
shown.
2-114
Solve a Single Differential Equation

Use dsolve to compute symbolic solutions to ordinary differential equations. You can
specify the equations as symbolic expressions containing diff or as strings with the
letter D to indicate differentiation.
Note: Because D indicates differentiation, the names of symbolic variables must not
contain D.
Before using dsolve, create the symbolic function for which you want to solve an
ordinary differential equation. Use sym or syms to create a symbolic function. For
example, create a function y(x):
syms y(x)
For details, see Create Symbolic Functions on page 1-9.

To specify initial or boundary conditions, use additional equations. If you do not specify
initial or boundary conditions, the solutions will contain integration constants, such as
C1, C2, and so on.
The output from dsolve parallels the output from solve. That is, you can:
Call dsolve with the number of output variables equal to the number of dependent
variables.
Place the output in a structure whose fields contain the solutions of the differential
equations.
First-Order Linear ODE

Suppose you want to solve the equation y'(t) = t*y. First, create the symbolic
function y(t):
syms y(t)
Now use dsolve to solve the equation:

y(t) = dsolve(diff(y,t) == t*y)
2-115
y(t) =
C2*exp(t^2/2)
y(t) = C2*exp(t^2/2) is a solution to the equation for any constant C2.

Solve the same ordinary differential equation, but now specify the initial condition y(0)
= 2:
syms y(t)
y(t) = dsolve(diff(y,t) == t*y, y(0) == 2)
y(t) =
2*exp(t^2/2)
Nonlinear ODE
Nonlinear equations can have multiple solutions, even if you specify initial conditions.
For example, solve this equation:
syms x(t)
x(t) = dsolve((diff(x,t) + x)^2 == 1, x(0) == 0)
results in
x(t) =
exp(-t) - 1
1 - exp(-t)
Second-Order ODE with Initial Conditions

Solve this second-order differential equation with two initial conditions. One initial
condition is a derivative y'(x) at x = 0. To be able to specify this initial condition,
create an additional symbolic function Dy = diff(y). (You also can use any valid
function name instead of Dy.) Then Dy(0) = 0 specifies that Dy = 0 at x = 0.
syms
Dy =
y(x)
y(x)
y(x)
diff(y);
= dsolve(diff(y, x, x) == cos(2*x) - y, y(0) == 1, Dy(0) == 0);
= simplify(y)
y(x) =
1 - (8*sin(x/2)^4)/3
2-116
Third-Order ODE
Solve this third-order ordinary differential equation:
d3u
dx3
=u
u(0) = 1, u(0) = -1, u(0) = p ,

Because the initial conditions contain the first- and the second-order derivatives, create
two additional symbolic functions, Dy and D2y to specify these initial conditions:
syms u(x)
Du = diff(u, x);
D2u = diff(u, x, 2);
u(x) = dsolve(diff(u, x, 3) == u, u(0) == 1, Du(0) == -1, D2u(0) == pi)
u(x) =
(pi*exp(x))/3 - exp(-x/2)*cos((3^(1/2)*x)/2)*(pi/3 - 1) -...
(3^(1/2)*exp(-x/2)*sin((3^(1/2)*x)/2)*(pi + 1))/3
More ODE Examples

This table shows examples of differential equations and their Symbolic Math Toolbox
syntax. The last example is the Airy differential equation, whose solution is called the
Airy function.
Differential Equation
dy
+ 4 y(t) = e-t
dt
MATLAB Command
syms y(t)
dsolve(diff(y) + 4*y == exp(-t), y(0) ==
1)
y(0) = 1
2x2y + 3xy y = 0
( = d/dx)
syms y(x)
dsolve(2*x^2*diff(y, 2) + 3*x*diff(y) y == 0)
2-117
Differential Equation
MATLAB Command
d2 y
syms y(x)
dsolve(diff(y, 2) == x*y, y(0) == 0,
y(3) == besselk(1/3, 2*sqrt(3))/pi)
dx2
= xy( x)
y(0) = 0, y(3) =
1
K1/ 3 ( 2 3)
p
(The Airy equation)
2-118
Solve a System of Differential Equations

dsolve can handle several ordinary differential equations in several variables, with or
without initial conditions. For example, solve these linear first-order equations. First,
create the symbolic functions f(t) and g(t):
syms f(t) g(t)
Now use dsolve to solve the system. The toolbox returns the computed solutions as
elements of the structure S:
S = dsolve(diff(f) == 3*f + 4*g, diff(g) == -4*f + 3*g)
S =
g: [1x1 sym]
f: [1x1 sym]
To return the values of f(t) and g(t), enter these commands:

f(t) = S.f
g(t) = S.g
f(t) =
C2*cos(4*t)*exp(3*t) + C1*sin(4*t)*exp(3*t)
g(t) =
C1*cos(4*t)*exp(3*t) - C2*sin(4*t)*exp(3*t)
If you prefer to recover f(t) and g(t) directly, as well as include initial conditions,
enter these commands:
syms f(t) g(t)
[f(t), g(t)] = dsolve(diff(f) == 3*f + 4*g,...
diff(g) == -4*f + 3*g, f(0) == 0, g(0) == 1)
f(t) =
sin(4*t)*exp(3*t)
g(t) =
cos(4*t)*exp(3*t)
Suppose you want to solve a system of differential equations in a matrix form. For
example, solve the system Y=AY + B, where A, B, and Y represent the following
matrices:
2-119
syms x(t) y(t)

A = [1 2; -1 1];
B = [1; t];
Y = [x; y];
Solve the system using dsolve:

S = dsolve(diff(Y) == A*Y + B);
x = S.x
y = S.y
x =
2^(1/2)*exp(t)*cos(2^(1/2)*t)*(C2 + (exp(-t)*(4*sin(2^(1/2)*t) +...
2^(1/2)*cos(2^(1/2)*t) + 6*t*sin(2^(1/2)*t) +...
6*2^(1/2)*t*cos(2^(1/2)*t)))/18) +...
2^(1/2)*exp(t)*sin(2^(1/2)*t)*(C1 - (exp(-t)*(4*cos(2^(1/2)*t) -...
2^(1/2)*sin(2^(1/2)*t) +...
6*t*cos(2^(1/2)*t) - 6*2^(1/2)*t*sin(2^(1/2)*t)))/18)
y =
exp(t)*cos(2^(1/2)*t)*(C1 - (exp(-t)*(4*cos(2^(1/2)*t) -...
2^(1/2)*sin(2^(1/2)*t) + 6*t*cos(2^(1/2)*t) -...
6*2^(1/2)*t*sin(2^(1/2)*t)))/18) - exp(t)*sin(2^(1/2)*t)*(C2 +...
(exp(-t)*(4*sin(2^(1/2)*t) + 2^(1/2)*cos(2^(1/2)*t) +...
6*t*sin(2^(1/2)*t) + 6*2^(1/2)*t*cos(2^(1/2)*t)))/18)
2-120
Differential Algebraic Equations
Differential Algebraic Equations

A system of differential algebraic equations is a system of equations involving unknown
functions of one independent variable (typically, the time variable t) and their
derivatives. These functions are often called state variables. A general form of a DAE
system is
F ( x& ( t ) , x ( t ) , t ) = 0
The number of equations F = [ F1 , Fn ] must match the number of state variables
x ( t ) = [ x1 ( t ) , xn ( t )] .
The differential order of a DAE system is the highest differential order of its equations.
The differential order of a differential algebraic equation is the highest derivative of its
state variables.
The differential index of a DAE system is the number of differentiations needed to reduce
the system to a system of ordinary differential equations (ODEs).
2-121
Set Up Your DAE Problem

Often, you can solve a system of differential algebraic equations (DAEs) by converting
it to a system of DAEs with differential index 1 or 0, and then using MATLAB solvers,
such as ode15i, ode15s, or ode23t. These solvers have their own requirements for the
system of equations and initial conditions. Most DAE systems do not directly come in the
form suitable for the MATLAB solvers, but you can convert them to a suitable form.
These preliminary steps help you set up the DAE system using the functions available
in Symbolic Math Toolbox, and then convert the system to numeric function handles
acceptable by MATLAB. After completing these steps, call ode15i, ode15s, or ode23t
specifying the system by the MATLAB function handles, and also providing initial
conditions.
2-122
Step 1: Equations and Variables

A system of differential algebraic equations includes equations, dependent variables
(state variables), and an independent variable t. You can specify equations as symbolic
equations (using the == operator) or as symbolic expressions. If you use symbolic
expressions, the toolbox assumes that these expressions are equations with right sides
equal to 0.
2-123
For example, specify the system of equations that describes a two-dimensional pendulum.
The functions x(t) and y(t) are the state variables of the system that describe the
horizontal and vertical positions of the pendulum mass. The function T(t) is the state
variable describing the force that keeps the mass from flying away. The variables m, r,
and g are the mass, length of the rod, and Earths standard surface gravity, respectively.
syms x(t) y(t) T(t) m
eqs= [m*diff(x(t), 2)
m*diff(y(t), 2)
x(t)^2 + y(t)^2
r g;
== T(t)/r*x(t), ...
== T(t)/r*y(t) - m*g, ...
== r^2];
vars = [x(t); y(t); T(t)];
Alternatively, you can specify the same equations as symbolic expressions.

eqs= [m*diff(x(t), 2) - T(t)/r*x(t), ...
m*diff(y(t), 2) - T(t)/r*y(t) + m*g, ...
x(t)^2 + y(t)^2 - r^2];
Step 2: Differential Order

After specifying equations and state variables, see if the differential order of the system
is 1. For example, the differential order of the two-dimensional pendulum system is 2.
If the system involves higher-order differential equations, use
reduceDifferentialOrder to convert all higher-order equations to first-order
equations by substituting derivatives with additional state variables. See Reduce
Differential Order of DAE Systems on page 2-126.
Step 3: Differential Index

Check the differential index of the system. To be able to use the MATLAB solvers
ode15i, ode15s, or ode23t, your DAE system must be of differential index 1 or 0.
(In the latter case, the system is a system of ordinary differential equations.) If the
differential index of the system is 2 or higher, then reduce it by using reduceDAEIndex
or reduceDAEToODE. See Check and Reduce Differential Index on page 2-128.
Step 4: MATLAB Function Handles

Convert the system to MATLAB functions acceptable by the MATLAB solvers. If you
want to use the ode15i solver, then use daeFunction to convert the system to a
MATLAB function handle. If you want to use the ode15s or ode23t solver, then use
2-124
massMatrixForm to extract the mass matrix and the right sides of the system of
equations. Then, convert the resulting matrix and vector to MATLAB function handles by
using matlabFunction. See Convert DAE Systems to MATLAB Function Handles on
page 2-134.
Step 5: Consistent Initial Conditions

If you reduced the differential index of the system, then find consistent initial conditions
for the new system. See Find Consistent Initial Conditions on page 2-147.
Step 6: ODE Solvers

Use one of the MATLAB solvers, ode15i, ode15s, or ode23t, to solve the system. See
Solve DAE System Using MATLAB ODE Solvers on page 2-163.
Solving DAE Systems Flow Chart

This flow chart shows possible sequences of steps that you might need to take when
solving a DAE system. The flow chart includes the functions that you might need to use.
The process involves MATLAB functions as well as functions available in Symbolic Math
Toolbox.
2-125
Reduce Differential Order of DAE Systems

Specify the system of equations that describes a two-dimensional pendulum. The
functions x(t) and y(t) are the state variables of the system that describe the
horizontal and vertical positions of the pendulum mass. The function T(t) is the state
syms x(t) y(t) T(t) m
eqs= [m*diff(x(t), 2)
m*diff(y(t), 2)
x(t)^2 + y(t)^2
r g;
== T(t)/r*x(t), ...
== T(t)/r*y(t) - m*g, ...
== r^2];
vars = [x(t); y(t); T(t)];
The first and second equations have second-order derivatives of the coordinates x and
y. The third equation is an algebraic equation. Thus, the differential order of this DAE
system is 2. To visualize where the terms with the state variables and their derivatives
appear in this DAE system, display the incidence matrix of the system. The system
contains three equations and three state variables, so incidenceMatrix returns a 3by-3 matrix of 1s and 0s. Here, 1s correspond to the terms containing state variables or
their derivatives.
M = incidenceMatrix(eqs, vars)
M =
1
0
1
0
1
1
1
1
0
Before checking the differential index of the system or solving this DAE
system, you must convert it to a first-order DAE system. For this, use the
reduceDifferentialOrder function that substitutes the derivatives with new
variables, such as Dxt(t) and Dyt(t). You can call reduceDifferentialOrder with
two or three output arguments. The syntax with three output arguments shows which
derivatives correspond to new variables.
[eqs, vars, R] = reduceDifferentialOrder(eqs, vars)
eqs =
m*diff(Dxt(t), t) - (T(t)*x(t))/r
g*m + m*diff(Dyt(t), t) - (T(t)*y(t))/r
x(t)^2 + y(t)^2 - r^2
2-126
Reduce Differential Order of DAE Systems
Dxt(t) - diff(x(t), t)
Dyt(t) - diff(y(t), t)
vars =
x(t)
y(t)
T(t)
Dxt(t)
Dyt(t)
R =
[ Dxt(t), diff(x(t), t)]
[ Dyt(t), diff(y(t), t)]
Display the incidence matrix of the new system. The index reduction process introduced
two new variables and two new equations. As a result, incidenceMatrix now returns a
5-by-5 matrix of 1s and 0s.
M = incidenceMatrix(eqs, vars)
M =
1
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
1
1
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
1
For the next step, see Check and Reduce Differential Index on page 2-128.
2-127
Check and Reduce Differential Index

The MATLAB solvers ode15i, ode15s, and ode23t can solve systems of ordinary
differential equations or systems of differential algebraic equations of differential index
0 or 1. Therefore, before you can solve a system of DAEs, you must check the differential
index of the system. If the index is higher than 1, the next step is to rewrite the system
so that the index reduces to 0 or 1.
In this section...
Reduce Differential Index to 1 on page 2-128
Reduce Differential Index to 0 on page 2-131
Reduce Differential Index to 1
Create a First-Order DAE System

horizontal and vertical positions of the pendulum mass. The function T(t) is a state
syms x(t) y(t) T(t) m r g;
eqs= [m*diff(x(t), 2) == T(t)/r*x(t), ...
m*diff(y(t), 2) == T(t)/r*y(t) - m*g, ...
x(t)^2 + y(t)^2 == r^2];
vars = [x(t); y(t); T(t)];
This is a second-order differential system. Before checking the differential index, rewrite
the system so that it contains only first-order differential equations and algebraic
equations.
[eqs, vars] = reduceDifferentialOrder(eqs, vars)
eqs =
2-128
x(t)^2 + y(t)^2 - r^2

vars =
x(t)
y(t)
T(t)
Dxt(t)
Dyt(t)
Once you have a first-order DAE system, use the isLowIndexDAE function to check the
differential index of the system. If the index is 0 or 1, then isLowIndexDAE returns
1 (logical true). In this case, skip the index reduction and go to the next step. If the
differential index is 2 or higher, then isLowIndexDAE returns 0 (logical false). For this
system of differential algebraic equations, isLowIndexDAE returns 0 (logical false).
isLowIndexDAE(eqs,vars)
ans =
0
There are two index reduction functions available in Symbolic Math Toolbox. The
reduceDAEIndex function tries to reduce the differential index by differentiating
the original equations (Pantelides algorithm) and replacing the derivatives by new
variables. The result contains the original equations (with the derivatives replaced
by new variables) followed by the new equations. The vector of variables contains the
original variables followed by variables generated by reduceDAEIndex.
[DAEs,DAEvars] = reduceDAEIndex(eqs,vars)
DAEs =
m*Dxtt(t) - (T(t)*x(t))/r
g*m + m*Dytt(t) - (T(t)*y(t))/r
x(t)^2 + y(t)^2 - r^2
Dxt(t) - Dxt1(t)
Dyt(t) - Dyt1(t)
2*Dxt1(t)*x(t) + 2*Dyt1(t)*y(t)
2*Dxt1t(t)*x(t) + 2*Dxt1(t)^2 + 2*Dyt1(t)^2 + 2*y(t)*diff(Dyt1(t), t)
Dxtt(t) - Dxt1t(t)
Dytt(t) - diff(Dyt1(t), t)
Dyt1(t) - diff(y(t), t)
2-129
DAEvars =
x(t)
y(t)
T(t)
Dxt(t)
Dyt(t)
Dytt(t)
Dxtt(t)
Dxt1(t)
Dyt1(t)
Dxt1t(t)
Often, reduceDAEIndex introduces equations and variables that can be easily

eliminated. You can simplify the system by eliminating redundant equations.
[DAEs,DAEvars] = reduceRedundancies(DAEs,DAEvars)
DAEs =
-(T(t)*x(t) - m*r*Dxtt(t))/r
(g*m*r - T(t)*y(t) + m*r*Dytt(t))/r
x(t)^2 + y(t)^2 - r^2
2*Dxt(t)*x(t) + 2*Dyt(t)*y(t)
2*Dxtt(t)*x(t) + 2*Dxt(t)^2 + 2*Dyt(t)^2 + 2*y(t)*diff(Dyt(t), t)
Dytt(t) - diff(Dyt(t), t)
DAEvars =
x(t)
y(t)
T(t)
Dxt(t)
Dyt(t)
Dytt(t)
Dxtt(t)
Check the differential index of the new system. Now isLowIndexDAE returns 1, which
means that the differential index of the system is 0 or 1.
isLowIndexDAE(DAEs,DAEvars)
ans =
1
For the next step, see Convert DAE Systems to MATLAB Function Handles on page
2-134.
2-130
Reduce Differential Index to 0

syms x(t) y(t) T(t) m r g;
m*diff(y(t), 2) == T(t)/r*y(t) - m*g, ...
x(t)^2 + y(t)^2 == r^2];
vars = [x(t); y(t); T(t)];
This is a second-order differential system. Before checking the differential index, rewrite
the system so that it contains only first-order differential equations and algebraic
equations.
eqs =
x(t)^2 + y(t)^2 - r^2
vars =
x(t)
y(t)
T(t)
Dxt(t)
Dyt(t)
Once you have a first-order DAE system, use the isLowIndexDAE function to check the
differential index of the system. If the index is 0 or 1, then isLowIndexDAE returns
1 (logical true). In this case, skip the index reduction and go to the next step. If the
2-131
differential index is 2 or higher, then isLowIndexDAE returns 0 (logical false). For this
system of differential algebraic equations, isLowIndexDAE returns 0 (logical false).
ans =
0
The Pantelides algorithm used by reduceDAEIndex can underestimate the differential

index of a system. After index reduction, the reduceDAEIndex function internally calls
isLowIndexDAE to check the differential index of the new DAE system. If the reduced
index is still 2 or higher, it issues the following warning:
Warning: The index of the reduced DAEs is larger...
than 1. [daetools::reduceDAEIndex]
Another index reduction function, reduceDAEToODE, reduces a DAE system to a system

of implicit ordinary differential equations by using a structural algorithm based on
Gaussian elimination of the mass matrix. This function only works on semilinear DAE
systems, and it is typically slower than reduceDAEIndex. The main advantage of using
reduceDAEToODE is that it reliably reduces semilinear DAE systems to ODE systems
(DAEs of index 0).
Use reduceDAEToODE to reduce the differential index of small semilinear DAE systems
or semilinear DAE systems for which reduceDAEIndex fails to reduce the index to 1.
For example, the system of equations for a two-dimensional pendulum is relatively small
(five first-order equations in five variables). The reduceDAEToODE function reduces this
system to a system of implicit ordinary differential equations as follows.
[ODEs,constraints] = reduceDAEToODE(eqs,vars)
ODEs =
m*diff(Dyt(t), t) - (T(t)*y(t) - g*m*r)/r
-(4*T(t)*y(t) - 2*g*m*r)*diff(y(t), t) -...
diff(T(t), t)*(2*x(t)^2 + 2*y(t)^2) -...
4*T(t)*x(t)*diff(x(t), t) -...
4*m*r*Dxt(t)*diff(Dxt(t), t) -...
4*m*r*Dyt(t)*diff(Dyt(t), t)
2-132
constraints =
2*g*m*r*y(t) - 2*T(t)*y(t)^2 - 2*m*r*Dxt(t)^2 -...
2*m*r*Dyt(t)^2 - 2*T(t)*x(t)^2
r^2 - y(t)^2 - x(t)^2
For the next step, see Convert DAE Systems to MATLAB Function Handles on page
2-134.
2-133
Convert DAE Systems to MATLAB Function Handles

At this step, your DAE system must be a first-order system of differential order 0 or 1.
The system is still a system of symbolic expressions and variables. Before you can use the
MATLAB differential solvers, you must convert your DAE or ODE system to a suitable
input for these solvers, that is, a MATLAB function handle.
There are two ways to convert a DAE or ODE system to a MATLAB function handle:
To use the ode15i solver, convert a DAE or ODE system to a function handle by
using daeFunction..
To use the ode15s or ode23t solver, find the mass matrix and vector containing
the right sides of equations by using massMatrixForm. Then convert the result to
function handles by using matlabFunction. Note that you can use this approach
only with semilinear systems.
The following examples show how to convert your DAE or ODE system to function
handles when you use different solvers.
In this section...
When Solving DAEs with ode15i on page 2-134
When Solving ODEs with ode15i on page 2-137
When Solving DAEs with ode15s or ode23t on page 2-140
When Solving ODEs with ode15s or ode23t on page 2-143
When Solving DAEs with ode15i
Create a DAE System

syms x(t) y(t) T(t);
2-134
Create a DAE System
syms m r g
m*diff(y(t), 2) == T(t)/r*y(t) - m*g, ...
x(t)^2 + y(t)^2 == r^2];
vars = [x(t); y(t); T(t)];
This is a second-order DAE system. Reduce it to a first-order system by using

reduceDifferentialOrder.
eqs =
x(t)^2 + y(t)^2 - r^2
vars =
x(t)
y(t)
T(t)
Dxt(t)
Dyt(t)
Reduce the system to a DAE system of differential index 1. Eliminate redundant

equations.
[DAEs,DAEvars] = reduceDAEIndex(eqs,vars);
DAEs =
x(t)^2 + y(t)^2 - r^2
DAEvars =
x(t)
y(t)
2-135
T(t)
Dxt(t)
Dyt(t)
Dytt(t)
Dxtt(t)
The ode15i solver requires its input argument to be a function handle that describes
a DAE system as F(t, y(t), y'(t)) = 0. Thus, you must convert a DAE system
to a function handle F = F(y, y, yp), where t is a scalar, and y and yp are column
vectors.
Once you have a first-order low-index DAE system consisting of a vector of equations
DAEs and a vector of variables DAEvars that is ready for conversion to a MATLAB
function handle, use daeFunction to convert the system. If a DAE system contains
symbolic parameters (symbolic variables other than specified in the vector of state
variables DAEVars), then specify these symbolic parameters as additional input
arguments of daeFunction. For example, the two-dimensional pendulum model
contains the variables m, r, and g. Call daeFunction and provide these variables as
additional arguments.
f = daeFunction(DAEs, DAEvars, m, r, g);
Although daeFunction lets you create a function handle containing symbolic

parameters without numeric values assigned to them, you cannot use these function
handles as input arguments for the ode15i solver. Before calling the solvers, you must
assign numeric values to all symbolic parameters.
m = 1.0;
r = 1.0;
g = 9.81;
The function handle f still contains symbolic parameters. Create the following purely
numeric function handle F that you can pass to ode15i.
F = @(t, Y, YP) f(t, Y, YP, m, r, g);
If your DAE system does not contain any symbolic parameters, then daeFunction
creates a function handle suitable for ode15i. For example, substitute the parameters
m = 1.0, r = 1.0, and g = 9.81 into the equations DAEs. Now the system does not
contain symbolic variables other than specified in the vector of state variables DAEvars.
DAEs = subs(DAEs)
2-136
Create an ODE System
DAEs =
Dxtt(t) - T(t)*x(t)
Dytt(t) - T(t)*y(t) + 981/100
x(t)^2 + y(t)^2 - 1
Use daeFunction to create a function handle. The result is a function handle suitable
for ode15i.
F = daeFunction(DAEs, DAEvars);
For the next step, see Find Consistent Initial Conditions on page 2-147.
When Solving ODEs with ode15i

syms m r g
m*diff(y(t), 2) == T(t)/r*y(t) - m*g, ...
x(t)^2 + y(t)^2 == r^2];
vars = [x(t); y(t); T(t)];

eqs =
2-137
x(t)^2 + y(t)^2 - r^2
vars =
x(t)
y(t)
T(t)
Dxt(t)
Dyt(t)
Reduce the system to an ODE system (differential index 0).

[ODEs, constraints] = reduceDAEToODE(eqs, vars)
ODEs =
-(4*T(t)*y(t) - 2*g*m*r)*diff(y(t), t) -...
diff(T(t), t)*(2*x(t)^2 + 2*y(t)^2) -...
4*T(t)*x(t)*diff(x(t), t) -...
constraints =
2*m*r*Dyt(t)^2 - 2*T(t)*x(t)^2
r^2 - y(t)^2 - x(t)^2
The ode15i solver requires its input argument to be a function handle that describes
an ODE system as F(t, y(t), y'(t)) = 0. Thus, you must convert an ODE system
to a function handle F = F(y, y, yp), where t is a scalar, and y and yp are column
vectors.
Once you have a first-order ODE system consisting of a vector of equations ODEs and a
vector of variables vars that is ready for conversion to a MATLAB function handle, use
daeFunction to convert the system. If an ODE system contains symbolic parameters
(symbolic variables other than specified in the vector of state variables vars), then
specify these symbolic parameters as additional input arguments of daeFunction. For
2-138
example, the two-dimensional pendulum model contains the variables m, r, and g. Call
daeFunction and provide these variables as additional arguments.
f = daeFunction(ODEs, vars, m, r, g);
Although daeFunction lets you create a function handle that contains symbolic
parameters without numeric values assigned to them, you cannot use these function
handles as input arguments for the ode15i solver. Before you call the solvers, you must
assign numeric values to all symbolic parameters.
m = 1.0;
r = 1.0;
g = 9.81;
The function handle f still contains symbolic parameters. Create the following purely
numeric function handle F that you can pass to ode15i.
F = @(t, Y, YP) f(t, Y, YP, m, r, g);
If your ODE system does not contain any symbolic parameters, then daeFunction
creates a function handle suitable for ode15i. For example, substitute the parameters
m = 1.0, r = 1.0, and g = 9.81 into the equations ODEs. Now the system does not
contain symbolic variables other than those specified in the vector of state variables
vars.
ODEs = subs(ODEs)
ODEs =
diff(Dxt(t), t) - T(t)*x(t)
diff(Dyt(t), t) - T(t)*y(t) + 981/100
- (4*T(t)*y(t) - 981/50)*diff(y(t), t) -...
4*Dxt(t)*diff(Dxt(t), t) -...
4*Dyt(t)*diff(Dyt(t), t) -...
diff(T(t), t)*(2*x(t)^2 + 2*y(t)^2) -...
4*T(t)*x(t)*diff(x(t), t)
Use daeFunction to create a function handle suitable for ode15i.

F = daeFunction(ODEs, vars);
2-139
When Solving DAEs with ode15s or ode23t
Create a DAE System

syms m r g
m*diff(y(t), 2) == T(t)/r*y(t) - m*g, ...
x(t)^2 + y(t)^2 == r^2];
vars = [x(t); y(t); T(t)];

eqs =
x(t)^2 + y(t)^2 - r^2
vars =
x(t)
y(t)
T(t)
Dxt(t)
Dyt(t)

equations.
2-140
Create a DAE System
DAEs =
x(t)^2 + y(t)^2 - r^2
DAEvars =
x(t)
y(t)
T(t)
Dxt(t)
Dyt(t)
Dytt(t)
Dxtt(t)
To use ode15s or ode23t, you need function two handles: one must represent the mass
matrix of a DAE system, and the other must represent the vector containing the right
side of the equations. If M is a mass matrix form and F is a vector containing the right
side of equations, then M(t,y(t))*y'(t) = F(t,y(t)).
Once you have a first-order low-index semilinear DAE system consisting of a vector of
equations and a vector of variables, use massMatrixForm to find the mass matrix M and
vector F of the right side of the equations.
[M,F] = massMatrixForm(DAEs,DAEvars)
M
[
[
[
[
[
[
[
=
0, 0,
0, 0,
0, 0,
0, 0,
0, 0,
0, 0,
0, -1,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0, 0, 0]
0,
0, 0, 0]
0,
0, 0, 0]
0,
0, 0, 0]
0, 2*y(t), 0, 0]
0,
-1, 0, 0]
0,
0, 0, 0]
F =
(T(t)*x(t) - m*r*Dxtt(t))/r
-(g*m*r - T(t)*y(t) + m*r*Dytt(t))/r
r^2 - y(t)^2 - x(t)^2
- 2*Dxt(t)*x(t) - 2*Dyt(t)*y(t)
- 2*Dxtt(t)*x(t) - 2*Dxt(t)^2 - 2*Dyt(t)^2
2-141
-Dytt(t)
-Dyt(t)
The result contains the symbolic parameters m, r, and g. Assign numeric values to these
parameters, and then use subs to substitute these numeric values into the mass matrix
M and vector F.
m
r
g
M
F
=
=
=
=
=
1.0;
1.0;
9.81;
subs(M)
subs(F)
M
[
[
[
[
[
[
[
=
0, 0,
0, 0,
0, 0,
0, 0,
0, 0,
0, 0,
0, -1,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0, 0, 0]
0,
0, 0, 0]
0,
0, 0, 0]
0,
0, 0, 0]
0, 2*y(t), 0, 0]
0,
-1, 0, 0]
0,
0, 0, 0]
F =
T(t)*x(t) - Dxtt(t)
T(t)*y(t) - Dytt(t) - 981/100
1 - y(t)^2 - x(t)^2
- 2*Dxt(t)*x(t) - 2*Dyt(t)*y(t)
-Dytt(t)
-Dyt(t)
The mass matrix and the vector containing the right side of the equations contain
function calls, such as y(t), Dyt(t), and so on. Before you can convert M and F to
MATLAB function handles, you must replace these function calls with variables. You can
use any valid MATLAB variable names. For example, generate the following vector of
variables.
tempvars = sym('Y', [numel(DAEvars) 1])
tempvars =
Y1
Y2
Y3
Y4
Y5
2-142
Y6
Y7
Substitute the new variables into the mass matrix M and vector F. The resulting matrix M
and vector F are ready for conversion to MATLAB function handles.
M = subs(M, DAEvars, tempvars)
F = subs(F, DAEvars, tempvars)
M
[
[
[
[
[
[
[
=
0, 0,
0, 0,
0, 0,
0, 0,
0, 0,
0, 0,
0, -1,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0, 0, 0]
0,
0, 0, 0]
0,
0, 0, 0]
0,
0, 0, 0]
0, 2*Y2, 0, 0]
0,
-1, 0, 0]
0,
0, 0, 0]
F =
Y1*Y3 - Y7
Y2*Y3 - Y6 - 981/100
- Y1^2 - Y2^2 + 1
- 2*Y1*Y4 - 2*Y2*Y5
- 2*Y4^2 - 2*Y5^2 - 2*Y1*Y7
-Y6
-Y5
Convert M and F to MATLAB function handles by using matlabFunction. Use two

separate matlabFunction calls to convert M and F.
M = matlabFunction(M, 'vars', {t, tempvars});
F = matlabFunction(F, 'vars', {t, tempvars});
When Solving ODEs with ode15s or ode23t

2-143
syms m r g
m*diff(y(t), 2) == T(t)/r*y(t) - m*g, ...
x(t)^2 + y(t)^2 == r^2];
vars = [x(t); y(t); T(t)];

eqs =
x(t)^2 + y(t)^2 - r^2
vars =
x(t)
y(t)
T(t)
Dxt(t)
Dyt(t)

ODEs =
-(4*T(t)*y(t) - 2*g*m*r)*diff(y(t), t) -...
diff(T(t), t)*(2*x(t)^2 + 2*y(t)^2) -...
4*T(t)*x(t)*diff(x(t), t) -...
2-144
constraints =
2*m*r*Dyt(t)^2 - 2*T(t)*x(t)^2
r^2 - y(t)^2 - x(t)^2
Find the mass matrix of the system and a vector containing the right side of the
equations.
[M,F] = massMatrixForm(ODEs,vars)
M =
[
-1,
0,
0,
0,
0]
[
0,
-1,
0,
0,
0]
[
0,
0,
0,
m,
0]
[
0,
0,
0,
0,
m]
[ -4*T(t)*x(t), 2*g*m*r - 4*T(t)*y(t), - 2*x(t)^2 - 2*y(t)^2, -4*m*r*Dxt(t), -4*m*r*Dyt(t)]
F =
-Dxt(t)
-Dyt(t)
(T(t)*x(t))/r
(T(t)*y(t) - g*m*r)/r
0
M and vector F.
m
r
g
M
F
=
=
=
=
=
1.0;
1.0;
9.81;
subs(M)
subs(F)
M =
[
-1,
0,
0,
0,
0]
[
0,
-1,
0,
0,
0]
[
0,
0,
0,
1,
0]
[
0,
0,
0,
0,
1]
[ -4*T(t)*x(t), 981/50 - 4*T(t)*y(t), - 2*x(t)^2 - 2*y(t)^2, -4*Dxt(t), -4*Dyt(t)]
F =
-Dxt(t)
-Dyt(t)
T(t)*x(t)
T(t)*y(t) - 981/100
0
The mass matrix and the vector containing the right side of equations contain function
calls, such as y(t), Dyt(t), and so on. Before you can convert M and F to MATLAB
2-145
function handles, you must replace these function calls with variables. You can use any
valid MATLAB variable names. For example, generate the following vector of variables.
tempvars = sym('Y', [numel(vars) 1])
tempvars =
Y1
Y2
Y3
Y4
Y5
M = subs(M, vars, tempvars)
F = subs(F, vars, tempvars)
M =
[
-1,
0,
0,
0,
0]
[
0,
-1,
0,
0,
0]
[
0,
0,
0,
1,
0]
[
0,
0,
0,
0,
1]
[ -4*Y1*Y3, 981/50 - 4*Y2*Y3, - 2*Y1^2 - 2*Y2^2, -4*Y4, -4*Y5]
F =
-Y4
-Y5
Y1*Y3
Y2*Y3 - 981/100
0

2-146
Find Consistent Initial Conditions

The next step after index reduction and conversion to function handles is searching for
initial conditions that satisfy all equations of your new low-index DAE or ODE system.
There are two functions that let you find consistent initial conditions:
If you use reduceDAEIndex to reduce the differential index of the system to 1, then
use the MATLAB decic function to find consistent initial conditions for the new DAE
system.
If you use reduceDAEToODE to rewrite the system as a system of implicit ODEs,
then use the decic function available in Symbolic Math Toolbox. As one of its input
arguments, this function accepts algebraic constraints of the original system returned
by reduceDAEToODE and returns consistent initial conditions that satisfy those
constraints.
The following examples show how to find consistent initial conditions for your DAE or
ODE system when you use different solvers.
In this section...
When Solving DAEs with ode15i on page 2-147
When Solving ODEs with ode15i on page 2-150
When Solving DAEs with ode15s or ode23t on page 2-153
When Solving ODEs with ode15s or ode23t on page 2-158
When Solving DAEs with ode15i
Create a DAE System

syms m r g
2-147

m*diff(y(t), 2) == T(t)/r*y(t) - m*g, ...
x(t)^2 + y(t)^2 == r^2];
vars = [x(t); y(t); T(t)];

eqs =
x(t)^2 + y(t)^2 - r^2
vars =
x(t)
y(t)
T(t)
Dxt(t)
Dyt(t)

equations.
DAEs =
x(t)^2 + y(t)^2 - r^2
DAEvars =
x(t)
y(t)
T(t)
Dxt(t)
2-148
Generate a Function Handle
Dyt(t)
Dytt(t)
Dxtt(t)

Assign numeric values to m, r, and g. Then use subs to substitute these numeric values
into DAEs.
m = 1.0;
r = 1.0;
g = 9.81;
DAEs = subs(DAEs);
Because you are going to solve this system with the ode15i solver, convert the system to
a MATLAB function handle using daeFunction.
f = daeFunction(DAEs, DAEvars);
The vector of variables for the first-order DAE system of differential index 1 describing a
two-dimensional pendulum is a 7-by-1 vector. Therefore, estimates for initial values of
variables and their derivatives must also be 7-by-1 vectors.
DAEvars
DAEvars =
x(t)
y(t)
T(t)
Dxt(t)
Dyt(t)
Dytt(t)
Dxtt(t)
Suppose that the initial angular displacement of the pendulum is 30, and the origin
of the coordinates is at the suspension point of the pendulum. Since cos(30) = 0.5 and
sin(30) 0.8, you can specify the starting points for the search for consistent values
of the variables and their derivatives at the time t0 = 0 as the following two 7-by-1
vectors.
y0est = [0.5*r; -0.8*r; 0; 0; 0; 0; 0];
2-149
yp0est = zeros(7,1);
Create an option set that specifies numerical tolerances for the numerical search.
opt = odeset('RelTol', 10.0^(-7), 'AbsTol' , 10.0^(-7));
Find consistent initial values for the variables and their derivatives by using the
MATLAB decic function.
[y0, yp0] = decic(f, 0, y0est, [], yp0est, [], opt)
y0 =
0.4828
-0.8757
-8.5909
0
0.0000
-2.2866
-4.1477
yp0 =
0
0.0000
0
0
-2.2866
0
0
For the next step, see Solve DAE System Using MATLAB ODE Solvers on page
2-163.
When Solving ODEs with ode15i

2-150

syms m r g
m*diff(y(t), 2) == T(t)/r*y(t) - m*g, ...
x(t)^2 + y(t)^2 == r^2];
vars = [x(t); y(t); T(t)];

eqs =
x(t)^2 + y(t)^2 - r^2
vars =
x(t)
y(t)
T(t)
Dxt(t)
Dyt(t)

ODEs =
-(4*T(t)*y(t) - 2*g*m*r)*diff(y(t), t) -...
diff(T(t), t)*(2*x(t)^2 + 2*y(t)^2) -...
4*T(t)*x(t)*diff(x(t), t) -...
constraints =
2-151
2*m*r*Dyt(t)^2 - 2*T(t)*x(t)^2
r^2 - y(t)^2 - x(t)^2

into ODEs and constraints.
m = 1.0;
r = 1.0;
g = 9.81;
ODEs = subs(ODEs);
constraints = subs(constraints);
f = daeFunction(ODEs, vars);
The vector of variables for the first-order ODE system describing a two-dimensional
pendulum is a 5-by-1 vector, therefore, estimates for initial values of variables and
their derivatives must also be 5-by-1 vectors.
vars
vars =
x(t)
y(t)
T(t)
Dxt(t)
Dyt(t)
vectors.
y0est = [0.5*r; -0.8*r; 0; 0; 0];
2-152
Create a DAE System
Find initial values consistent with the system of ODEs and with the algebraic constraints
by using the decic function available in Symbolic Math Toolbox. The parameter
[1,0,0,0,1] in this function call fixes the first and the last element in y0est, so
that decic does not change them during the numerical search. The zero elements in
[1,0,0,0,1] correspond to those values in y0est for which decic solves the constraint
equations.
[y0, yp0] = decic(ODEs, vars, constraints, 0, y0est, [1,0,0,0,1], yp0est, opt)
y0 =
0.5000
-0.8660
-8.4957
0
0
yp0 =
0
0
0
-4.2479
-2.4525
2-163.
When Solving DAEs with ode15s or ode23t
Create a DAE System

syms m r g
2-153

m*diff(y(t), 2) == T(t)/r*y(t) - m*g, ...
x(t)^2 + y(t)^2 == r^2];
vars = [x(t); y(t); T(t)];

eqs =
x(t)^2 + y(t)^2 - r^2
vars =
x(t)
y(t)
T(t)
Dxt(t)
Dyt(t)

equations.
DAEs =
x(t)^2 + y(t)^2 - r^2
DAEvars =
x(t)
y(t)
T(t)
2-154
Find Mass Matrix and Generate Function Handles
Dxt(t)
Dyt(t)
Dytt(t)
Dxtt(t)

Find the mass matrix of the system and a vector containing the right sides of the
equations.
M
[
[
[
[
[
[
[
=
0, 0,
0, 0,
0, 0,
0, 0,
0, 0,
0, 0,
0, -1,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0, 0, 0]
0,
0, 0, 0]
0,
0, 0, 0]
0,
0, 0, 0]
0, 2*y(t), 0, 0]
0,
-1, 0, 0]
0,
0, 0, 0]
F =
r^2 - y(t)^2 - x(t)^2
- 2*Dxt(t)*x(t) - 2*Dyt(t)*y(t)
-Dytt(t)
-Dyt(t)
M and vector F.
m
r
g
M
F
=
=
=
=
=
1.0;
1.0;
9.81;
subs(M)
subs(F)
M =
[ 0,
0, 0, 0,
0, 0, 0]
2-155
[
[
[
[
[
[
0, 0,
0, 0,
0, 0,
0, 0,
0, 0,
0, -1,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0, 0, 0]
0,
0, 0, 0]
0,
0, 0, 0]
0, 2*y(t), 0, 0]
0,
-1, 0, 0]
0,
0, 0, 0]
F =
T(t)*x(t) - Dxtt(t)
T(t)*y(t) - Dytt(t) - 981/100
1 - y(t)^2 - x(t)^2
- 2*Dxt(t)*x(t) - 2*Dyt(t)*y(t)
-Dytt(t)
-Dyt(t)
tempvars =
Y1
Y2
Y3
Y4
Y5
Y6
Y7
M
[
[
[
[
[
[
2-156
=
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0, 0,
0,
0, 0,
0,
0, 0,
0,
0, 0,
0, 2*Y2, 0,
0,
-1, 0,
0]
0]
0]
0]
0]
0]
[ 0, -1, 0, 0,
0, 0, 0]
F =
Y1*Y3 - Y7
Y2*Y3 - Y6 - 981/100
- Y1^2 - Y2^2 + 1
- 2*Y1*Y4 - 2*Y2*Y5
- 2*Y4^2 - 2*Y5^2 - 2*Y1*Y7
-Y6
-Y5

vectors.
y0est = [0.5*r; -0.8*r; 0; 0; 0; 0; 0];
Create an option set that contains the mass matrix M of the system, a vector yp0est
of initial guesses for the derivatives, and also specifies numerical tolerances for the
numerical search.
opt = odeset('Mass', M, 'InitialSlope', yp0est,...
'RelTol', 10.0^(-7), 'AbsTol' , 10.0^(-7));
MATLAB decic function. The first argument of decic must be a function handle f
describing the DAE by f(t,y,yp) = f(t,y,y') = 0. In terms of M and F, this means
f(t,y,yp) = M(t,y)*yp - F(t,y).
[y0, yp0] = decic(@(t,y,yp) M(t,y)*yp - F(t,y), 0, y0est, [], yp0est, [], opt)
y0 =
0.4828
-0.8757
-8.5909
2-157
0
0.0000
-2.2866
-4.1477
yp0 =
0
0.0000
0
0
-2.2866
0
0
2-163.
When Solving ODEs with ode15s or ode23t

syms m r g
m*diff(y(t), 2) == T(t)/r*y(t) - m*g, ...
x(t)^2 + y(t)^2 == r^2];
vars = [x(t); y(t); T(t)];

eqs =
2-158
x(t)^2 + y(t)^2 - r^2
vars =
x(t)
y(t)
T(t)
Dxt(t)
Dyt(t)

ODEs =
-(4*T(t)*y(t) - 2*g*m*r)*diff(y(t), t) -...
diff(T(t), t)*(2*x(t)^2 + 2*y(t)^2) -...
4*T(t)*x(t)*diff(x(t), t) -...
constraints =
2*m*r*Dyt(t)^2 - 2*T(t)*x(t)^2
r^2 - y(t)^2 - x(t)^2

equations.
M =
[
-1,
0,
0,
0,
0]
2-159
[
0,
-1,
0,
0,
0]
[
0,
0,
0,
m,
0]
[
0,
0,
0,
0,
m]
F =
-Dxt(t)
-Dyt(t)
(T(t)*x(t))/r
(T(t)*y(t) - g*m*r)/r
0
M and vector F.
m
r
g
M
F
=
=
=
=
=
1.0;
1.0;
9.81;
subs(M)
subs(F)
M =
[
-1,
0,
0,
0,
0]
[
0,
-1,
0,
0,
0]
[
0,
0,
0,
1,
0]
[
0,
0,
0,
0,
1]
F =
-Dxt(t)
-Dyt(t)
T(t)*x(t)
T(t)*y(t) - 981/100
0
tempvars =
Y1
Y2
Y3
Y4
Y5
2-160

M =
[
-1,
0,
0,
0,
0]
[
0,
-1,
0,
0,
0]
[
0,
0,
0,
1,
0]
[
0,
0,
0,
0,
1]
[ -4*Y1*Y3, 981/50 - 4*Y2*Y3, - 2*Y1^2 - 2*Y2^2, -4*Y4, -4*Y5]
F =
-Y4
-Y5
Y1*Y3
Y2*Y3 - 981/100
0

vectors.
y0est = [0.5*r; -0.8*r; 0; 0; 0];
Before you proceed, substitute numeric values for m, r, and g into ODEs, constraints,
and y0est.
m = 1.0;
r = 1.0;
g = 9.81;
ODEs = subs(ODEs);
y0est = subs(y0est);
Create an option set that contains the mass matrix M of the system and also specifies
numerical tolerances for the numerical search.
2-161
opt = odeset('Mass', M, 'RelTol', 10.0^(-7), 'AbsTol' , 10.0^(-7));
equations.
y0 =
0.5000
-0.8660
-8.4957
0
0
yp0 =
0
0
0
-4.2479
-2.4525
2-163.
2-162
Solve DAE System Using MATLAB ODE Solvers
Solve DAE System Using MATLAB ODE Solvers

At this step, you must have a MATLAB function handle representing your ODE or
DAE system (of differential index 0 or 1, respectively). You also must have two vectors
specifying initial conditions for the variables of the system and their first derivatives.
ode15i, ode15s, and ode23t are the MATLAB differential equation solvers
recommended for this workflow.
If you have one function handle representing your DAE system (typically obtained via
daeFunction), then use ode15i.
If your DAE is semilinear, and you have function handles for the mass matrix and the
right sides of equations of the DAE system, use ode15s or ode23t.
The following examples show the last step, which is solving DAE and ODE systems by
using the MATLAB solvers.
In this section...
Solve a DAE System with ode15i on page 2-163
Solve an ODE System with ode15i on page 2-167
Solve a DAE System with ode15s on page 2-171
Solve an ODE System with ode15s on page 2-177
Solve a DAE System with ode15i
Create a DAE System

syms m r g
2-163

m*diff(y(t), 2) == T(t)/r*y(t) - m*g, ...
x(t)^2 + y(t)^2 == r^2];
vars = [x(t); y(t); T(t)];

eqs =
x(t)^2 + y(t)^2 - r^2
vars =
x(t)
y(t)
T(t)
Dxt(t)
Dyt(t)

equations.
DAEs =
x(t)^2 + y(t)^2 - r^2
DAEvars =
x(t)
y(t)
T(t)
Dxt(t)
2-164
Dyt(t)
Dytt(t)
Dxtt(t)

into DAEs.
m = 1.0;
r = 1.0;
g = 9.81;
DAEs = subs(DAEs);
f = daeFunction(DAEs, DAEvars);

The vector of variables for the first-order DAE system of differential index 1 describing a
two-dimensional pendulum is a 7-by-1 vector. Therefore, estimates for initial values of
variables and their derivatives must also be 7-by-1 vectors.
DAEvars
DAEvars =
x(t)
y(t)
T(t)
Dxt(t)
Dyt(t)
Dytt(t)
Dxtt(t)
2-165
vectors.
y0est = [0.5*r; -0.8*r; 0; 0; 0; 0; 0];
MATLAB decic function.
[y0, yp0] = decic(f, 0, y0est, [], yp0est, [], opt)
y0 =
0.4828
-0.8757
-8.5909
0
0.0000
-2.2866
-4.1477
yp0 =
0
0.0000
0
0
-2.2866
0
0
Solve the system integrating over the time span 0 t 0.5. Add the grid lines and the
legend to the plot.
ode15i(f, [0, 0.5], y0, yp0, opt)
for k = 1:numel(DAEvars)
S{k} = char(DAEvars(k));
end
2-166
legend(S, 'Location', 'Best')

grid on
Solve an ODE System with ode15i

2-167
syms m r g
m*diff(y(t), 2) == T(t)/r*y(t) - m*g, ...
x(t)^2 + y(t)^2 == r^2];
vars = [x(t); y(t); T(t)];

eqs =
x(t)^2 + y(t)^2 - r^2
vars =
x(t)
y(t)
T(t)
Dxt(t)
Dyt(t)

ODEs =
-(4*T(t)*y(t) - 2*g*m*r)*diff(y(t), t) -...
diff(T(t), t)*(2*x(t)^2 + 2*y(t)^2) -...
4*T(t)*x(t)*diff(x(t), t) -...
2-168
constraints =
2*m*r*Dyt(t)^2 - 2*T(t)*x(t)^2
r^2 - y(t)^2 - x(t)^2

into ODEs and constraints.
m = 1.0;
r = 1.0;
g = 9.81;
ODEs = subs(ODEs);
f = daeFunction(ODEs, vars);

The vector of variables for the first-order ODE system describing a two-dimensional
pendulum is a 5-by-1 vector, therefore, estimates for initial values of variables and
their derivatives must also be 5-by-1 vectors.
vars
vars =
x(t)
y(t)
T(t)
Dxt(t)
Dyt(t)
2-169
vectors.
y0est = [0.5*r; -0.8*r; 0; 0; 0];
equations.
y0 =
0.5000
-0.8660
-8.4957
0
0
yp0 =
0
0
0
-4.2479
-2.4525
legend to the plot.
ode15i(f, [0, 0.5], y0, yp0, opt)
for k = 1:numel(vars)
S{k} = char(vars(k));
2-170
Create a DAE System
end
grid on
Solve a DAE System with ode15s
Create a DAE System

2-171
syms m r g
m*diff(y(t), 2) == T(t)/r*y(t) - m*g, ...
x(t)^2 + y(t)^2 == r^2];
vars = [x(t); y(t); T(t)];

eqs =
x(t)^2 + y(t)^2 - r^2
vars =
x(t)
y(t)
T(t)
Dxt(t)
Dyt(t)

equations.
DAEs =
x(t)^2 + y(t)^2 - r^2
2-172
DAEvars =
x(t)
y(t)
T(t)
Dxt(t)
Dyt(t)
Dytt(t)
Dxtt(t)

equations.
M
[
[
[
[
[
[
[
=
0, 0,
0, 0,
0, 0,
0, 0,
0, 0,
0, 0,
0, -1,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0, 0, 0]
0,
0, 0, 0]
0,
0, 0, 0]
0,
0, 0, 0]
0, 2*y(t), 0, 0]
0,
-1, 0, 0]
0,
0, 0, 0]
F =
r^2 - y(t)^2 - x(t)^2
- 2*Dxt(t)*x(t) - 2*Dyt(t)*y(t)
-Dytt(t)
-Dyt(t)
M and vector F.
m = 1.0;
2-173
r
g
M
F
=
=
=
=
1.0;
9.81;
subs(M)
subs(F)
M
[
[
[
[
[
[
[
=
0, 0,
0, 0,
0, 0,
0, 0,
0, 0,
0, 0,
0, -1,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0, 0, 0]
0,
0, 0, 0]
0,
0, 0, 0]
0,
0, 0, 0]
0, 2*y(t), 0, 0]
0,
-1, 0, 0]
0,
0, 0, 0]
F =
T(t)*x(t) - Dxtt(t)
T(t)*y(t) - Dytt(t) - 981/100
1 - y(t)^2 - x(t)^2
- 2*Dxt(t)*x(t) - 2*Dyt(t)*y(t)
-Dytt(t)
-Dyt(t)
tempvars =
Y1
Y2
Y3
Y4
Y5
Y6
Y7
2-174
M
[
[
[
[
[
[
[
=
0, 0,
0, 0,
0, 0,
0, 0,
0, 0,
0, 0,
0, -1,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0, 0, 0]
0,
0, 0, 0]
0,
0, 0, 0]
0,
0, 0, 0]
0, 2*Y2, 0, 0]
0,
-1, 0, 0]
0,
0, 0, 0]
F =
Y1*Y3 - Y7
Y2*Y3 - Y6 - 981/100
- Y1^2 - Y2^2 + 1
- 2*Y1*Y4 - 2*Y2*Y5
- 2*Y4^2 - 2*Y5^2 - 2*Y1*Y7
-Y6
-Y5


vectors.
y0est = [0.5*r; -0.8*r; 0; 0; 0; 0; 0];
Create an option set that contains the mass matrix M of the system, a vector yp0est
of initial guesses for the derivatives, and also specifies numerical tolerances for the
numerical search.
opt = odeset('Mass', M, 'InitialSlope', yp0est,...
'RelTol', 10.0^(-7), 'AbsTol' , 10.0^(-7));
2-175
MATLAB decic function. The first argument of decic must be a function handle f
describing the DAE by f(t,y,yp) = f(t,y,y') = 0. In terms of M and F, this means
f(t,y,yp) = M(t,y)*yp - F(t,y).
[y0, yp0] = decic(@(t,y,yp) M(t,y)*yp - F(t,y), 0, y0est, [], yp0est, [], opt)
y0 =
0.4828
-0.8757
-8.5909
0
0.0000
-2.2866
-4.1477
yp0 =
0
0.0000
0
0
-2.2866
0
0
legend to the plot.
ode15s(F, [0, 0.5], y0est, opt)
for k = 1:numel(DAEvars)
S{k} = char(DAEvars(k));
end
grid on
2-176
Solve an ODE System with ode15s

2-177
syms m r g
m*diff(y(t), 2) == T(t)/r*y(t) - m*g, ...
x(t)^2 + y(t)^2 == r^2];
vars = [x(t); y(t); T(t)];

eqs =
x(t)^2 + y(t)^2 - r^2
vars =
x(t)
y(t)
T(t)
Dxt(t)
Dyt(t)

ODEs =
-(4*T(t)*y(t) - 2*g*m*r)*diff(y(t), t) -...
diff(T(t), t)*(2*x(t)^2 + 2*y(t)^2) -...
4*T(t)*x(t)*diff(x(t), t) -...
constraints =
2*m*r*Dyt(t)^2 - 2*T(t)*x(t)^2
2-178
r^2 - y(t)^2 - x(t)^2


equations.
M =
[
-1,
0,
0,
0,
0]
[
0,
-1,
0,
0,
0]
[
0,
0,
0,
m,
0]
[
0,
0,
0,
0,
m]
F =
-Dxt(t)
-Dyt(t)
(T(t)*x(t))/r
(T(t)*y(t) - g*m*r)/r
0
M and vector F.
m
r
g
M
F
=
=
=
=
=
1.0;
1.0;
9.81;
subs(M)
subs(F)
M =
[
-1,
0,
0,
0,
0]
[
0,
-1,
0,
0,
0]
[
0,
0,
0,
1,
0]
[
0,
0,
0,
0,
1]
F =
-Dxt(t)
-Dyt(t)
T(t)*x(t)
T(t)*y(t) - 981/100
0
2-179
tempvars =
Y1
Y2
Y3
Y4
Y5
M =
[
-1,
0,
0,
0,
0]
[
0,
-1,
0,
0,
0]
[
0,
0,
0,
1,
0]
[
0,
0,
0,
0,
1]
[ -4*Y1*Y3, 981/50 - 4*Y2*Y3, - 2*Y1^2 - 2*Y2^2, -4*Y4, -4*Y5]
F =
-Y4
-Y5
Y1*Y3
Y2*Y3 - 981/100
0


2-180
vectors.
y0est = [0.5*r; -0.8*r; 0; 0; 0];
Before you proceed, substitute numeric values for m, r, and g into ODEs, constraints,
and y0est.
m = 1.0;
r = 1.0;
g = 9.81;
ODEs = subs(ODEs);
y0est = subs(y0est);
Create an option set that contains the mass matrix M of the system and also specifies
numerical tolerances for the numerical search.
opt = odeset('Mass', M, 'RelTol', 10.0^(-7), 'AbsTol' , 10.0^(-7));
[1,0,0,0,1] in this function call fixes the first and the last elements in y0est, so
equations.
[y0, yp0] = decic(ODEs,vars,constraints, 0, y0est, [1,0,0,0,1], yp0est, opt)
y0 =
0.5000
-0.8660
-8.4957
0
0
yp0 =
0
0
0
-4.2479
-2.4525
2-181
legend to the plot.
ode15s(F, [0, 0.5], y0, opt)
for k = 1:numel(vars)
S{k} = char(vars(k));
end
grid on
2-182
Compute Fourier and Inverse Fourier Transforms

The Fourier transform of a function f(x) is defined as
F [ f ] (w) =
f ( x) e-iwx dx,
and the inverse Fourier transform (IFT) as

F 1 [ f ] ( x ) =
1
2p
f (w)e
iwx
dw.
This documentation refers to this formulation as the Fourier transform of f with respect
to x as a function of w. Or, more concisely, the Fourier transform of f with respect to x
at w. Mathematicians often use the notation F[f] to indicate the Fourier transform of
f. In this setting, the transform is taken with respect to the independent variable of f
(if f = f(t), then t is the independent variable; f = f(x) implies that x is the independent
variable, etc.) at the default variable w. This documentation refers to F[f] as the Fourier
transform of f at w and F1[f] is the IFT of f at x. See fourier and ifourier in the
reference pages for tables that show the Symbolic Math Toolbox commands equivalent to
various mathematical representations of the Fourier and inverse Fourier transforms.
For example, consider the Fourier transform of the Cauchy density function, ((1+x2))1:
syms x
cauchy = 1/(pi*(1+x^2));
fcauchy = fourier(cauchy)
fcauchy =
(pi*exp(-w)*heaviside(w) + pi*heaviside(-w)*exp(w))/pi
fcauchy = expand(fcauchy)
fcauchy =
exp(-w)*heaviside(w) + heaviside(-w)*exp(w)
ezplot(fcauchy)
2-183
The Fourier transform is symmetric, since the original Cauchy density function is
symmetric.
To recover the Cauchy density function from the Fourier transform, call ifourier:
finvfcauchy = ifourier(fcauchy)
finvfcauchy =
-(1/(x*i - 1) - 1/(x*i + 1))/(2*pi)
simplify(finvfcauchy)
ans =
1/(pi*(x^2 + 1))
2-184
An application of the Fourier transform is the solution of ordinary and partial differential
equations over the real line. Consider the deformation of an infinitely long beam resting
on an elastic foundation with a shock applied to it at a point. A real world analogy to
this phenomenon is a set of railroad tracks atop a road bed.
The shock could be induced by a pneumatic hammer blow.

The differential equation idealizing this physical setting is
d4 y
dx
k
1
y=
d( x), - < x < .
EI
EI
Here, E represents elasticity of the beam (railroad track), I is the beam constant, and
k is the spring (road bed) stiffness. The shock force on the right side of the differential
equation is modeled by the Dirac Delta function (x). The Dirac Delta function has the
following important property:
f ( x - y) d( y) dy = f ( x).
A definition of the Dirac Delta function is

2-185
d ( x) = lim n c( -1 / 2n,1 / 2n ) ( x),

n
where
1
1
<x<
1 for c( -1 / 2n, 1/ 2n ) ( x) =
2n
2n
0
otherwise.
Let Y(w) = F[y(x)](w) and (w)=F[(x)](w). Indeed, try the command
fourier(dirac(x), x, w). The Fourier transform turns differentiation into
exponentiation, and, in particular,
d4 y
4
F
(w) = w Y ( w).
4
dx
To see a demonstration of this property, try this

syms w y(x)
fourier(diff(y(x), x, 4), x, w)
which returns
ans =
w^4*fourier(y(x), x, w)
Note that you can call the fourier command with one, two, or three inputs (see the
reference pages for fourier). With a single input argument, fourier(f) returns a
function of the default variable w. If the input argument is a function of w, fourier(f)
returns a function of t. All inputs to fourier must be symbolic objects.
Applying the Fourier transform to the differential equation above yields the algebraic
equation
k
4
w +
Y ( w) = D(w),
EI
2-186
or
Y(w) = (w)G(w),
where
1
G (w) =
4
w +
k
EI
= F[ g( x)] (w)
for some function g(x). That is, g is the inverse Fourier transform of G:
g(x)=F1[G(w)](x)
The Symbolic Math Toolbox counterpart to the IFT is ifourier. This behavior of
ifourier parallels fourier with one, two, or three input arguments (see the reference
pages for ifourier).
Continuing with the solution of the differential equation, observe that the ratio
K
EI
is a relatively large number since the road bed has a high stiffness constant k and
a railroad track has a low elasticity E and beam constant I. Make the simplifying
assumption that
K
= 1024.
EI
This is done to ease the computation of F 1[G(w)](x). Now type

G = 1/(w^4 + 1024);
g = ifourier(G, w, x);
g = simplify(g);
pretty(g)
and see
2-187
/
/
/ pi
\
/ pi
| sqrt(2) exp(-4 x) | sin| -- + 4 x | heaviside(x) - cos| -\
\
\ 4
/
\ 4
\
\ \
+ 4 x | exp(8 x) (heaviside(x) - 1) | |/512
/
/ /
Notice that g contains the Heaviside distribution
1 for
H ( x) = 0 for
1/2 for
x>0
x<0
x = 0.
Since Y is the product of Fourier transforms, y is the convolution of the transformed

functions. That is, F[y] = Y(w) = (w) G(w) = F[] F[g] implies
y( x) = (d * g)( x) =
g( x - y)d ( y) dy = g( x).
by the special property of the Dirac Delta function. To plot this function, substitute the
domain of x into y(x), using the subs command. The resulting graph shows that the
impact of a blow on a beam is highly localized; the greatest deflection occurs at the point
of impact and falls off sharply from there.
XX = -3:0.05:3;
YY = double(subs(g, x, XX));
plot(XX, YY)
title('Beam Deflection for a Point Shock')
xlabel('x')
ylabel('y(x)')
2-188
2-189
Compute Laplace and Inverse Laplace Transforms

The Laplace transform of a function f(t) is defined as
L [ f ] (s ) =
f (t)e
- ts
dt,
while the inverse Laplace transform (ILT) of f(s) is
L-1 [ f ] ( t) =
1
2p i
c+i
f (s) est ds,
c-i
where c is a real number selected so that all singularities of f(s) are to the left of the line
s= c. The notation L[f] indicates the Laplace transform of f at s. Similarly, L1[f] is the
ILT of f at t.
The Laplace transform has many applications including the solution of ordinary
differential equations/initial value problems. Consider the resistance-inductor-capacitor
(RLC) circuit below.
2-190
Let Rj and Ij, j = 1, 2, 3 be resistances (measured in ohms) and currents (amperes),

respectively; L be inductance (henrys), and C be capacitance (farads); E(t) be the
electromotive force, and Q(t) be the charge.
By applying Kirchhoff's voltage and current laws, Ohm's Law, and Faraday's Law, you
can arrive at the following system of simultaneous ordinary differential equations.
dI1 R2 dQ R2 - R1
+
=
I1 , I1 (0) = I0 .
dt
L dt
L
dQ
1
1
R2
=
I1 , Q (0) = Q0 .
E(t) - Q( t) +
dt
R3 + R2
C
R3 + R2
Solve this system of differential equations using laplace. First treat the Rj, L, and C as
(unknown) real constants and then supply values later on in the computation.
clear E
syms R1 R2 R3 L C real
2-191
syms I1(t) Q(t) s

dI1(t) = diff(I1(t), t);
dQ(t) = diff(Q(t),t);
E(t) = sin(t); % Voltage
eq1(t) = dI1(t) + R2*dQ(t)/L - (R2 - R1)*I1(t)/L;
eq2(t) = dQ(t) - (E(t) - Q/C)/(R2 + R3) - R2*I1(t)/(R2 + R3);
At this point, you have constructed the equations in the MATLAB workspace. An
approach to solving the differential equations is to apply the Laplace transform, which
you will apply to eq1(t) and eq2(t). Transforming eq1(t) and eq2(t)
L1(t) = laplace(eq1,t,s)
L2(t) = laplace(eq2,t,s)
returns
L1(t) =
s*laplace(I1(t), t, s) - I1(0)
+ ((R1 - R2)*laplace(I1(t), t, s))/L
- (R2*(Q(0) - s*laplace(Q(t), t, s)))/L
L2(t) =
s*laplace(Q(t), t, s) - Q(0)
- (R2*laplace(I1(t), t, s))/(R2 + R3) - (C/(s^2 + 1)
- laplace(Q(t), t, s))/(C*(R2 + R3))
Now you need to solve the system of equations L1 = 0, L2 = 0 for

laplace(I1(t),t,s) and laplace(Q(t),t,s), the Laplace transforms of I1 and
Q, respectively. To do this, make a series of substitutions. For the purposes of this
example, use the quantities R1 = 4(ohms), R2 = 2, R3=3, C = 1/4farads, L =
1.6H(henrys), I1(0) = 15A(amperes), and Q(0) = 2A*sec. Substituting these values in
L1
syms LI1 LQ
NI1 = subs(L1(t),{R1,R2,R3,L,C,I1(0),Q(0)}, ...
{4,2,3,1.6,1/4,15,2})
returns
NI1 =
s*laplace(I1(t), t, s) + (5*s*laplace(Q(t), t, s))/4
+ (5*laplace(I1(t), t, s))/4 - 35/2
The substitution
2-192
NQ = subs(L2,{R1,R2,R3,L,C,I1(0),Q(0)},{4,2,3,1.6,1/4,15,2})
returns
NQ(t) =
s*laplace(Q(t), t, s) - 1/(5*(s^2 + 1)) -...
(2*laplace(I1(t), t, s))/5 + (4*laplace(Q(t), t, s))/5 - 2
To solve for laplace(I1(t),t,s) and laplace(Q(t),t,s), make a final

pair of substitutions. First, replace the strings laplace(I1(t),t,s) and
laplace(Q(t),t,s) by the sym objects LI1 and LQ, using
NI1 = subs(NI1,{laplace(I1(t),t,s),laplace(Q(t),t,s)},{LI1,LQ})
to obtain
NI1 =
(5*LI1)/4 + LI1*s + (5*LQ*s)/4 - 35/2
Collecting terms
NI1 = collect(NI1,LI1)
gives
NI1 =
(s + 5/4)*LI1 + (5*LQ*s)/4 - 35/2
A similar string substitution

NQ = ...
subs(NQ,{laplace(I1(t),t,s), laplace(Q(t),t,s)}, {LI1,LQ})
yields
NQ(t) =
(4*LQ)/5 - (2*LI1)/5 + LQ*s - 1/(5*(s^2 + 1)) - 2
which, after collecting terms,

NQ = collect(NQ,LQ)
gives
NQ(t) =
(s + 4/5)*LQ - (2*LI1)/5 - 1/(5*(s^2 + 1)) - 2
2-193
Now, solving for LI1 and LQ

[LI1, LQ] = solve(NI1, NQ, LI1, LQ)
you obtain
LI1 =
(5*(60*s^3 + 56*s^2 + 59*s + 56))/((s^2 + 1)*(20*s^2 + 51*s + 20))
LQ =
(40*s^3 + 190*s^2 + 44*s + 195)/((s^2 + 1)*(20*s^2 + 51*s + 20))
To recover I1 and Q, compute the inverse Laplace transform of LI1 and LQ. Inverting
LI1
I1 = ilaplace(LI1, s, t)
produces
I1 =
15*exp(-(51*t)/40)*(cosh((1001^(1/2)*t)/40) -...
(293*1001^(1/2)*sinh((1001^(1/2)*t)/40))/21879) - (5*sin(t))/51
Inverting LQ
Q = ilaplace(LQ, s, t)
yields
Q =
(4*sin(t))/51 - (5*cos(t))/51 +...
(107*exp(-(51*t)/40)*(cosh((1001^(1/2)*t)/40) +...
(2039*1001^(1/2)*sinh((1001^(1/2)*t)/40))/15301))/51
Now plot the current I1(t) and charge Q(t) in two different time domains, 0 t 10
and 5 t 25. The following statements generate the desired plots.
subplot(2,2,1)
ezplot(I1,[0,10])
title('Current')
ylabel('I1(t)')
grid
subplot(2,2,2)
ezplot(Q,[0,10])
title('Charge')
ylabel('Q(t)')
grid
2-194
subplot(2,2,3)
ezplot(I1,[5,25])
title('Current')
ylabel('I1(t)')
grid
text(7,0.25,'Transient')
text(16,0.125,'Steady State')
subplot(2,2,4)
ezplot(Q,[5,25])
title('Charge')
ylabel('Q(t)')
grid
text(7,0.25,'Transient')
text(15,0.16,'Steady State')
2-195
Note that the circuit's behavior, which appears to be exponential decay in the short term,
turns out to be oscillatory in the long term. The apparent discrepancy arises because the
circuit's behavior actually has two components: an exponential part that decays rapidly
(the transient component) and an oscillatory part that persists (the steady-state
component).
2-196
Compute Z-Transforms and Inverse Z-Transforms

The (one-sided) z-transform of a function f(n) is defined as
Z [ f ]( z ) =
f (n)z -n .
n =0
The notation Z[f] refers to the z-transform of f at z. Let R be a positive number so

that the function g(z) is analytic on and outside the circle |z| = R. Then the inverse ztransform (IZT) of g at n is defined as
Z -1 [ g ] ( n) =
1
2p i
g( z) zn -1 dz, n = 1, 2,...
z =R
The notation Z1[f] means the IZT of f at n. The Symbolic Math Toolbox commands
ztrans and iztrans apply the z-transform and IZT to symbolic expressions,
respectively. See ztrans and iztrans for tables showing various mathematical
representations of the z-transform and inverse z-transform and their Symbolic Math
Toolbox counterparts.
The z-transform is often used to solve difference equations. In particular, consider the
famous Rabbit Problem. That is, suppose that rabbits reproduce only on odd birthdays
(1, 3, 5, 7, ...). If p(n) is the rabbit population at year n, then p obeys the difference
equation
p(n+2) = p(n+1) + p(n), p(0) = 1, p(1) = 2.
You can use ztrans to find the population each year p(n). First, apply ztrans to the
equations
syms p(n) z
eq = p(n + 2) - p(n + 1) - p(n);
Zeq = ztrans(eq, n, z)
to obtain
Zeq =
z*p(0) - z*ztrans(p(n), n, z) - z*p(1) + z^2*ztrans(p(n), n, z)
- z^2*p(0) - ztrans(p(n), n, z)
2-197
Next, replace ztrans(p(n), n, z) with Pz and insert the initial conditions for p(0)
and p(1).
syms Pz
Zeq = subs(Zeq,{ztrans(p(n), n, z), p(0), p(1)}, {Pz, 1, 2})
to obtain
Zeq =
Pz*z^2 - z - Pz*z - Pz - z^2
Collecting terms
eq = collect(Zeq, Pz)
yields
eq =
(z^2 - z - 1)*Pz - z^2 - z
Now solve for Pz

P = solve(eq, Pz)
to obtain
P =
-(z^2 + z)/(- z^2 + z + 1)
To recover p(n), take the inverse z-transform of P.

p = iztrans(P, z, n);
p = simplify(p)
The result is a bit complicated, but explicit:

p =
4*(-1)^(n/2)*cos(n*(pi/2 + asinh(1/2)*i)) +...
1/2^n*((3*5^(1/2))/10 - 3/2)*(5^(1/2) + 1)^n -...
1/2^n*((3*5^(1/2))/10 + 3/2)*(1 - 5^(1/2))^n
Finally, plot p to show the growth in rabbit population over time.

m = 1:10;
y = double(subs(p,n,m));
2-198
plot(m, real(y),'rO')
title('Rabbit Population')
xlabel('years')
ylabel('p')
grid on
References
[1] Andrews, L.C., Shivamoggi, B.K., Integral Transforms for Engineers and Applied
Mathematicians, Macmillan Publishing Company, New York, 1986
[2] Crandall, R.E., Projects in Scientific Computation, Springer-Verlag Publishers, New
York, 1994
2-199
[3] Strang, G., Introduction to Applied Mathematics, Wellesley-Cambridge Press,

Wellesley, MA, 1986
2-200
Create Plots
Create Plots
In this section...
Plot with Symbolic Plotting Functions on page 2-201
Plot with MATLAB Plotting Functions on page 2-204
Plot Multiple Symbolic Functions in One Graph on page 2-206
Plot Multiple Symbolic Functions in One Figure on page 2-208
Combine Symbolic Function Plots and Numeric Data Plots on page 2-210
Plot with Symbolic Plotting Functions

MATLAB provides many techniques for plotting numerical data. Graphical capabilities
of MATLAB include plotting tools, standard plotting functions, graphic manipulation and
data exploration tools, and tools for printing and exporting graphics to standard formats.
Symbolic Math Toolbox expands these graphical capabilities and lets you plot symbolic
functions using:
ezplot to create 2-D plots of symbolic expressions, equations, or functions in
Cartesian coordinates.
ezplot3 to create 3-D parametric plots. To create animated plots, use the animate
option.
ezpolar that creates plots in polar coordinates.
ezsurf to create surface plots. The ezsurfc plotting function creates combined
surface and contour plots.
ezcontour to create contour plots. The ezcontourf function creates filled contour
plots.
ezmesh to create mesh plots. The ezmeshc function creates combined mesh and
contour plots.
For example, plot the symbolic expression sin(6x) in Cartesian coordinates. By default,
ezplot uses the range 2<x<2 :
syms x
ezplot(sin(6*x))
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ezplot also can plot symbolic equations that contain two variables. To define an
equation, use ==. For example, plot this trigonometric equation:
syms x y
ezplot(sin(x) + sin(y) == sin(x*y))
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Create Plots
When plotting a symbolic expression, equation, or function, ezplot uses the default 60by-60 grid (mesh setting). The plotting function does not adapt the mesh setting around
steep parts of a function plot or around singularities. (These parts are typically less
smooth than the rest of a function plot.) Also, ezplot does not let you change the mesh
setting.
To plot a symbolic expression or function in polar coordinates r (radius) and (polar
angle), use the ezpolar plotting function. By default, ezpolar plots a symbolic
expression or function over the domain 0<<2 . For example, plot the expression
sin(6t) in polar coordinates:
syms t
ezpolar(sin(6*t))
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Plot with MATLAB Plotting Functions

When plotting a symbolic expression, you also can use the plotting functions provided
by MATLAB. For example, plot the symbolic expression ex/2 sin(10x). First, use
matlabFunction to convert the symbolic expression to a MATLAB function. The result
is a function handle h that points to the resulting MATLAB function:
syms x
h = matlabFunction(exp(x/2)*sin(10*x));
Now, plot the resulting MATLAB function by using one of the standard plotting functions
that accept function handles as arguments. For example, use the fplot function:
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Create Plots
fplot(h, [0 10])
hold on
title('exp(x/2)*sin(10*x)')
hold off
An alternative approach is to replace symbolic variables in an expression with numeric

values by using the subs function. For example, in the following expressions u and v,
substitute the symbolic variables x and y with the numeric values defined by meshgrid:
syms x y
u = sin(x^2 + y^2);
v = cos(x*y);
[X, Y] = meshgrid(-1:.1:1,-1:.1:1);
U = subs(u, [x y], {X,Y});
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V = subs(v, [x y], {X,Y});
Now, you can use standard MATLAB plotting functions to plot the expressions U and V.
For example, create the plot of a vector field defined by the functions U(X, Y) and V(X, Y):
quiver(X, Y, U, V)
Plot Multiple Symbolic Functions in One Graph

To plot several symbolic functions in one graph, add them to the graph sequentially. To
be able to add a new function plot to the graph that already contains a function plot,
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Create Plots
use the hold on command. This command retains the first function plot in the graph.
Without this command, the system replaces the existing plot with the new one. Now, add
new plots. Each new plot appears on top of the existing plots. While you use the hold
on command, you also can change the elements of the graph (such as colors, line styles,
line widths, titles) or add new elements. When you finish adding new function plots to a
graph and modifying the graph elements, enter the hold off command:
syms x y
ezplot(exp(x)*sin(20*x) - y, [0, 3, -20, 20])
hold on
p1 = ezplot(exp(x) - y, [0, 3, -20, 20]);
p1.Color = 'red';
p1.LineStyle = '--';
p1.LineWidth = 2;
p2 = ezplot(-exp(x) - y, [0, 3, -20, 20]);
p2.Color = 'red';
p2.LineStyle = '--';
p2.LineWidth = 2;
title('exp(x)sin(20x)')
hold off
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Plot Multiple Symbolic Functions in One Figure

To display several function plots in one figure without overlapping, divide a figure
window into several rectangular panes (tiles). Then, you can display each function plot in
its own pane. For example, you can assign different values to symbolic parameters of a
function, and plot the function for each value of a parameter. Collecting such plots in one
figure can help you compare the plots. To display multiple plots in the same window, use
the subplot command:
subplot(m,n,p)
This command partitions the figure window into an m-by-n matrix of small subplots
and selects the subplot p for the current plot. MATLAB numbers the subplots along the
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Create Plots
first row of the figure window, then the second row, and so on. For example, plot the
expression sin(x^2 + y^2)/a for the following four values of the symbolic parameter
a:
syms x y
z = x^2 + y^2;
subplot(2, 2, 1)
ezsurf(sin(z/100))
subplot(2, 2, 2)
ezsurf(sin(z/50))
subplot(2, 2, 3)
ezsurf(sin(z/20))
subplot(2, 2, 4)
ezsurf(sin(z/10))
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Combine Symbolic Function Plots and Numeric Data Plots

The combined graphical capabilities of MATLAB and the Symbolic Math Toolbox
software let you plot numeric data and symbolic functions in one graph. Suppose, you
have two discrete data sets, x and y. Use the scatter plotting function to plot these data
sets as a collection of points with coordinates (x1, y1), (x2, y2), ..., (x3, y3):
x = 0:pi/10:4*pi;
y = sin(x) + (-1).^randi(10, 1, 41).*rand(1, 41)./2;
scatter(x, y)
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Create Plots
Now, suppose you want to plot the sine function on top of the scatter plot in the same
graph. First, use the hold on command to retain the current plot in the figure. (Without
this command, the symbolic plot that you are about to create replaces the numeric
data plot.) Then, use ezplot to plot the sine function. To change the color or any other
property of the plot, create the handle for the ezplot function call, and then use the set
function:
hold on
syms t
ezplot(sin(t), [0 4*pi])
hold off
MATLAB provides the plotting functions that simplify the process of generating spheres,
cylinders, ellipsoids, and so on. The Symbolic Math Toolbox software lets you create
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a symbolic function plot in the same graph with these volumes. For example, use
the following commands to generate the spiral function plot wrapped around the top
hemisphere. The animate option switches the ezplot3 function to animation mode. The
red dot on the resulting graph moves along the spiral:
syms t
x = (1-t)*sin(100*t);
y = (1-t)*cos(100*t);
z = sqrt(1 - x^2 - y^2);
ezplot3(x, y, z, [0 1], 'animate')
title('Symbolic Parametric Plot')
Add the sphere with radius 1 and the center at (0, 0, 0) to this graph. The sphere
function generates the required sphere, and the mesh function creates a mesh plot for
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Create Plots
that sphere. Combining the plots clearly shows that the symbolic parametric function
plot is wrapped around the top hemisphere:
hold on
[X,Y,Z] = sphere;
mesh(X, Y, Z)
colormap(gray)
title('Symbolic Parametric Plot and a Sphere')
hold off
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Explore Function Plots

Plotting a symbolic function can help you visualize and explore the features of the
function. Graphical representation of a symbolic function can also help you communicate
your ideas or results. MATLAB displays a graph in a special window called a figure
window. This window provides interactive tools for further exploration of a function or
data plot.
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Explore Function Plots
Interactive data exploration tools are available in the Figure Toolbar and also from the
Tools menu. By default, a figure window displays one toolbar that provides shortcuts to
the most common operations. You can enable two other toolbars from the View menu.
When exploring symbolic function plots, use the same operations as you would for the
numeric data plots. For example:
Zoom in and out on particular parts of a graph (

). Zooming allows you to see
small features of a function plot. Zooming behaves differently for 2-D or 3-D views.
Shift the view of the graph with the pan tool (
). Panning is useful when you have
zoomed in on a graph and want to move around the plot to view different portions.
Rotate 3-D graphs (
). Rotating 3-D graphs allows you to see more features of the
surface and mesh function plots.
Display particular data values on a graph and export them to MATLAB workspace
variables (
).
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Edit Graphs
MATLAB supports the following two approaches for editing graphs:
Interactive editing lets you use the mouse to select and edit objects on a graph.
Command-line editing lets you use MATLAB commands to edit graphs.
These approaches work for graphs that display numeric data plots, symbolic function
plots, or combined plots.
To enable the interactive plot editing mode in the MATLAB figure window, click the Edit
Plot button (
) or select Tools > Edit Plot from the main menu. If you enable plot
editing mode in the MATLAB figure window, you can perform point-and-click editing of
your graph. In this mode, you can modify the appearance of a graphics object by doubleclicking the object and changing the values of its properties.
The complete collection of properties is accessible through a graphical user interface
called the Property Editor. To open a graph in the Property Editor window:
1
Enable plot editing mode in the MATLAB figure window.
Double-click any element on the graph.
If you prefer to work from the MATLAB command line or if you want to create a code file,
you can edit graphs by using MATLAB plotting commands. For details, see 2-D and 3D Plots. Also, you can combine the interactive and command-line editing approaches to
achieve the look you want for the graphs you create.
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Save Graphs
Save Graphs
After you create, edit, and explore a function plot, you might want to save the result.
MATLAB provides three different ways to save graphs:
Save a graph as a MATLAB FIG-file (a binary format). The FIG-file stores all
information about a graph, including function plots, graph data, annotations, data
tips, menus and other controls. You can open the FIG-file only with MATLAB.
Export a graph to a different file format. When saving a graph, you can choose a
file format other than FIG. For example, you can export your graphs to EPS, JPEG,
PNG, BMP, TIFF, PDF, and other file formats. You can open the exported file in an
appropriate application.
Print a graph on paper or print it to file. To ensure the correct plot size, position,
alignment, paper size and orientation, use Print Preview.
Generate a MATLAB file from a graph. You can use the generated code to reproduce
the same graph or create a similar graph using different data. This approach is useful
for generating MATLAB code for work that you have performed interactively with the
plotting tools.
For details, see Printing and Saving.
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Generate C or Fortran Code

You can generate C or Fortran code fragments from a symbolic expression, or generate
files containing code fragments, using the ccode and fortran functions. These code
fragments calculate numerical values as if substituting numbers for variables in the
symbolic expression.
To generate code from a symbolic expression g, enter either ccode(g) or fortran(g).
For example:
syms x y
z = 30*x^4/(x*y^2 + 10) - x^3*(y^2 + 1)^2;
fortran(z)
ans =
t0 = (x**4*3.0D1)/(x*y**2+1.0D1)-x**3*(y**2+1.0D0)**2
ccode(z)
ans =
t0 = ((x*x*x*x)*3.0E1)/(x*(y*y)+1.0E1)-(x*x*x)*pow(y*y+1.0,2.0);
To generate a file containing code, either enter ccode(g,'file','filename') or

fortran(g,'file','filename'). For the example above,
fortran(z, 'file', 'fortrantest')
generates a file named fortrantest in the current folder. fortrantest consists of the
following:
t12 = x**2
t13 = y**2
t14 = t13+1
t0 = (t12**2*30)/(t13*x+10)-t12*t14**2*x
Similarly, the command

ccode(z,'file','ccodetest')
generates a file named ccodetest that consists of the lines

t16 = x*x;
t17 = y*y;
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Generate C or Fortran Code
t18 = t17+1.0;
t0 = ((t16*t16)*3.0E1)/(t17*x+1.0E1)-t16*(t18*t18)*x;
ccode and fortran generate many intermediate variables. This is called optimized
code. MATLAB generates intermediate variables as a lowercase letter t followed by an
automatically generated number, for example t32. Intermediate variables can make
the resulting code more efficient by reusing intermediate expressions (such as t12 in
fortrantest, and t16 in ccodetest). They can also make the code easier to read by
keeping expressions short.
If you work in the MuPAD Notebook app, see generate::C and generate::fortran.
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Generate MATLAB Functions

You can use matlabFunction to generate a MATLAB function handle that calculates
numerical values as if you were substituting numbers for variables in a symbolic
expression. Also, matlabFunction can create a file that accepts numeric arguments
and evaluates the symbolic expression applied to the arguments. The generated file is
available for use in any MATLAB calculation, whether or not the computer running the
file has a license for Symbolic Math Toolbox functions.
If you work in the MuPAD Notebook app, see Create MATLAB Functions from MuPAD
Expressions on page 3-47.
Generating a Function Handle

matlabFunction can generate a function handle from any symbolic expression. For
example:
syms x y
r = sqrt(x^2 + y^2);
ht = matlabFunction(tanh(r))
ht =
@(x,y)tanh(sqrt(x.^2+y.^2))
You can use this function handle to calculate numerically:

ht(.5,.5)
ans =
0.6089
You can pass the usual MATLAB double-precision numbers or matrices to the function
handle. For example:
cc = [.5,3];
dd = [-.5,.5];
ht(cc, dd)
ans =
0.6089
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0.9954
Control the Order of Variables

matlabFunction generates input variables in alphabetical order from a symbolic
expression. That is why the function handle in Generating a Function Handle on page
2-220 has x before y:
ht = @(x,y)tanh((x.^2 + y.^2).^(1./2))
You can specify the order of input variables in the function handle using the vars option.
You specify the order by passing a cell array of strings or symbolic arrays, or a vector of
symbolic variables. For example:
syms x y z
r = sqrt(x^2 + 3*y^2 + 5*z^2);
ht1 = matlabFunction(tanh(r), 'vars', [y x z])
ht1 =
@(y,x,z)tanh(sqrt(x.^2+y.^2.*3.0+z.^2.*5.0))
ht2 = matlabFunction(tanh(r), 'vars', {'x', 'y', 'z'})
ht2 =
@(x,y,z)tanh(sqrt(x.^2+y.^2.*3.0+z.^2.*5.0))
ht3 = matlabFunction(tanh(r), 'vars', {'x', [y z]})
ht3 =
@(x,in2)tanh(sqrt(x.^2+in2(:,1).^2.*3.0+in2(:,2).^2.*5.0))
Generate a File
You can generate a file from a symbolic expression, in addition to a function handle.
Specify the file name using the file option. Pass a string containing the file name or the
path to the file. If you do not specify the path to the file, matlabFunction creates this
file in the current folder.
This example generates a file that calculates the value of the symbolic matrix F for
double-precision inputs t, x, and y:
syms x y t
z = (x^3 - tan(y))/(x^3 + tan(y));
w = z/(1 + t^2);
F = [w,(1 + t^2)*x/y; (1 + t^2)*x/y,3*z - 1];
matlabFunction(F,'file','testMatrix.m')
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The file testMatrix.m contains the following code:

function F = testMatrix(t,x,y)
%TESTMATRIX
%
F = TESTMATRIX(T,X,Y)
t2 = x.^2;
t3 = tan(y);
t4 = t2.*x;
t5 = t.^2;
t6 = t5 + 1;
t7 = 1./y;
t8 = t6.*t7.*x;
t9 = t3 + t4;
t10 = 1./t9;
F = [-(t10.*(t3 - t4))./t6,t8; t8,- t10.*(3.*t3 - 3.*t2.*x) - 1];
matlabFunction generates many intermediate variables. This is called optimized

automatically generated number, for example t32. Intermediate variables can make the
resulting code more efficient by reusing intermediate expressions (such as t4, t6, t8, t9,
and t10 in the calculation of F). Using intermediate variables can make the code easier
to read by keeping expressions short.
If you don't want the default alphabetical order of input variables, use the vars option to
control the order. Continuing the example,
matlabFunction(F,'file','testMatrix.m','vars',[x y t])
generates a file equivalent to the previous one, with a different order of inputs:
function F = testMatrix(x,y,t)
...
Name Output Variables

By default, the names of the output variables coincide with the names you use calling
matlabFunction. For example, if you call matlabFunction with the variable F
syms x y t
z = (x^3 - tan(y))/(x^3 + tan(y));
w = z/(1 + t^2);
F = [w, (1 + t^2)*x/y; (1 + t^2)*x/y,3*z - 1];
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matlabFunction(F,'file','testMatrix.m','vars',[x y t])
the generated name of an output variable is also F:

function F = testMatrix(x,y,t)
...
If you call matlabFunction using an expression instead of individual variables

syms x y t
z = (x^3 - tan(y))/(x^3 + tan(y));
w = z/(1 + t^2);
F = [w,(1 + t^2)*x/y; (1 + t^2)*x/y,3*z - 1];
matlabFunction(w + z + F,'file','testMatrix.m',...
'vars',[x y t])
the default names of output variables consist of the word out followed by the number, for
example:
function out1 = testMatrix(x,y,t)
...
To customize the names of output variables, use the output option:

syms x y z
r = x^2 + y^2 + z^2;
q = x^2 - y^2 - z^2;
f = matlabFunction(r, q, 'file', 'new_function',...
'outputs', {'name1','name2'})
The generated function returns name1 and name2 as results:

function [name1,name2] = new_function(x,y,z)
...
Convert MuPAD Expressions

You can convert a MuPAD expression or function to a MATLAB function:
syms x y
f = evalin(symengine, 'arcsin(x) + arccos(y)');
matlabFunction(f, 'file', 'new_function');
The created file contains the same expressions written in the MATLAB language:
function f = new_function(x,y)
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%NEW_FUNCTION
%
F = NEW_FUNCTION(X,Y)
f = asin(x) + acos(y);
Tip matlabFunction cannot correctly convert some MuPAD expressions to MATLAB

functions. These expressions do not trigger an error message. When converting a MuPAD
expression or function that is not on the MATLAB vs. MuPAD Expressions list, always
check the results of conversion. To verify the results, execute the resulting function.
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Generate MATLAB Function Blocks
Generate MATLAB Function Blocks

Using matlabFunctionBlock, you can generate a MATLAB Function block. The
generated block is available for use in Simulink models, whether or not the computer
running the simulations has a license for Symbolic Math Toolbox.
If you work in the MuPAD Notebook app, see Create MATLAB Function Blocks from
MuPAD Expressions on page 3-50.
Generate and Edit a Block

Suppose, you want to create a model involving the symbolic expression r = sqrt(x^2 +
y^2). Before you can convert a symbolic expression to a MATLAB Function block, create
an empty model or open an existing one:
new_system('my_system')
open_system('my_system')
Create a symbolic expression and pass it to the matlabFunctionBlock command. Also

specify the block name:
syms x y
r = sqrt(x^2 + y^2);
matlabFunctionBlock('my_system/my_block', r)
If you use the name of an existing block, the matlabFunctionBlock command replaces
the definition of an existing block with the converted symbolic expression.
You can open and edit the generated block. To open a block, double-click it.
function r = my_block(x,y)
%#codegen
r = sqrt(x.^2+y.^2);
Control the Order of Input Ports

matlabFunctionBlock generates input variables and the corresponding input ports in
alphabetical order from a symbolic expression. To change the order of input variables,
use the vars option:
syms x y
2-225
mu = sym('mu');
dydt = -x - mu*y*(x^2 - 1);
matlabFunctionBlock('my_system/vdp', dydt,...
'vars', [y mu x])
Name the Output Ports

By default, matlabFunctionBlock generates the names of the output ports as the word
out followed by the output port number, for example, out3. The output option allows
you to use the custom names of the output ports:
syms x y
mu = sym('mu');
dydt = -x - mu*y*(x^2 - 1);
matlabFunctionBlock('my_system/vdp', dydt,...
'outputs',{'name1'})
Convert MuPAD Expressions

You can convert a MuPAD expression or function to a MATLAB Function block:
syms x y
matlabFunctionBlock('my_system/my_block', f)
The resulting block contains the same expressions written in the MATLAB language:
function f = my_block(x,y)
%#codegen
Tip Some MuPAD expressions cannot be correctly converted to a block. These expressions
do not trigger an error message. When converting a MuPAD expression or function
that is not on the MATLAB vs. MuPAD Expressions list, always check the results of
conversion. To verify the results, you can run the simulation containing the resulting
block.
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Generate Simscape Equations

Simscape software extends the Simulink product line with tools for modeling and
simulating multidomain physical systems, such as those with mechanical, hydraulic,
pneumatic, thermal, and electrical components. Unlike other Simulink blocks, which
represent mathematical operations or operate on signals, Simscape blocks represent
physical components or relationships directly. With Simscape blocks, you build a model
of a system just as you would assemble a physical system. For more information about
Simscape software see Simscape.
You can extend the Simscape modeling environment by creating custom components.
When you define a component, use the equation section of the component file to establish
the mathematical relationships among a component's variables, parameters, inputs,
outputs, time, and the time derivatives of each of these entities. The Symbolic Math
Toolbox and Simscape software let you perform symbolic computations and use the
results of these computations in the equation section. The simscapeEquation function
translates the results of symbolic computations to Simscape language equations.
If you work in the MuPAD Notebook app, see Create Simscape Equations from MuPAD
Expressions on page 3-52.
Convert Algebraic and Differential Equations

Suppose, you want to generate a Simscape equation from the solution of the following
ordinary differential equation. As a first step, use the dsolve function to solve the
equation:
syms a y(t)
Dy = diff(y);
s = dsolve(diff(y, 2) == -a^2*y, y(0) == 1, Dy(pi/a) == 0);
s = simplify(s)
The solution is:

s =
cos(a*t)
Then, use the simscapeEquation function to rewrite the solution in the Simscape
language:
simscapeEquation(s)
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simscapeEquation generates the following code:

ans =
s == cos(a*time);
The variable time replaces all instances of the variable t except for derivatives with
respect to t. To use the generated equation, copy the equation and paste it to the equation
section of the Simscape component file. Do not copy the automatically generated variable
ans and the equal sign that follows it.
simscapeEquation converts any derivative with respect to the variable t to the
Simscape notation, X.der, where X is the time-dependent variable. For example,
convert the following differential equation to a Simscape equation. Also, here you
explicitly specify the left and the right sides of the equation by using the syntax
simscapeEquation(LHS, RHS):
syms a x(t)
simscapeEquation(diff(x), -a^2*x)
ans =
x.der == -a^2*x;
simscapeEquation also translates piecewise expressions to the Simscape language. For

example, the result of the following Fourier transform is a piecewise function:
syms v u x
assume(x, 'real')
f = exp(-x^2*abs(v))*sin(v)/v;
s = fourier(f, v, u)
s =
piecewise([x ~= 0, atan((u + 1)/x^2) - atan((u - 1)/x^2)])
From this symbolic piecewise equation, simscapeEquation generates valid code for the
equation section of a Simscape component file:
simscapeEquation(s)
ans =
s == if (x ~= 0.0),
-atan(1.0/x^2*(u-1.0))+atan(1.0/x^2*(u+1.0));
else
NaN;
end
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Clear the assumption that x is real:

syms x clear
Convert MuPAD Equations

If you perform symbolic computations in the MuPAD Notebook app and want to convert
the results to Simscape equations, use the generate::Simscape function in MuPAD.
Limitations
The equation section of a Simscape component file supports a limited number of
functions. For details and the list of supported functions, see Simscape equations.
If a symbolic equation contains the functions that the equation section of a Simscape
component file does not support. simscapeEquation cannot correctly convert these
equations to Simscape equations. Such expressions do not trigger an error message. The
following types of expressions are prone to invalid conversion:
Expressions with infinities
Expressions returned by evalin and feval
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3
MuPAD Engines and MATLAB Workspace on page 3-2
Create MuPAD Notebooks on page 3-3
Open MuPAD Notebooks on page 3-6
Save MuPAD Notebooks on page 3-12
Evaluate MuPAD Notebooks from MATLAB on page 3-13
Close MuPAD Notebooks from MATLAB on page 3-16
Edit MuPAD Code in MATLAB Editor on page 3-18
Notebook Files and Program Files on page 3-19
Source Code of the MuPAD Library Functions on page 3-20
Differences Between MATLAB and MuPAD Syntax on page 3-21
Copy Variables and Expressions Between MATLAB and MuPAD on page 3-24
Reserved Variable and Function Names on page 3-28
Call Built-In MuPAD Functions from MATLAB on page 3-31
Computations in MATLAB Command Window vs. MuPAD Notebook App on page
3-34
Use Your Own MuPAD Procedures on page 3-38
Clear Assumptions and Reset the Symbolic Engine on page 3-43
Create MATLAB Functions from MuPAD Expressions on page 3-47
Create MATLAB Function Blocks from MuPAD Expressions on page 3-50
Create Simscape Equations from MuPAD Expressions on page 3-52
MuPAD Engines and MATLAB Workspace

A MuPAD engine is a separate process that runs on your computer in addition to a
MATLAB process. A MuPAD engine starts when you first call a function that needs a
symbolic engine, such as syms. Symbolic Math Toolbox functions that use the symbolic
engine use standard MATLAB syntax, such as y = int(x^2).
Conceptually, each MuPAD notebook has its own symbolic engine, with an associated
workspace. You can have any number of MuPAD notebooks open simultaneously.
One engine exists for use by

Symbolic Math Toolbox.
Each MuPAD notebook also

has its own engine.
MATLAB workspace
MuPAD notebook 1
MuPAD notebook 2
MuPAD engine
MuPAD engine
MuPAD engine
Engine 1
Engine 2
Engine 3
Engine
Workspace
Engine
Workspace
Engine
Workspace
The engine workspace associated with the MATLAB workspace is generally empty,
except for assumptions you make about variables. For details, see Clear Assumptions
and Reset the Symbolic Engine on page 3-43.
3-2
Create MuPAD Notebooks

Before creating a MuPAD notebook, it is best to decide which interface you intend to use
primarily for your task. The two approaches are:
Perform your computations in the MATLAB Command Window using MuPAD
notebooks as an auxiliary tool. This approach implies that you create a MuPAD
notebook, and then execute it, transfer data and results, or close it from the MATLAB
Command Window.
Perform your computations and obtain the results in the MuPAD Notebook app.
This approach implies that you use the MATLAB Command Window only to access
MuPAD, but do not intend to copy data and results between MATLAB and MuPAD.
If you created a MuPAD notebook without creating a handle, and then realized
that you need to transfer data and results between MATLAB and MuPAD, use
allMuPADNotebooks to create a handle to this notebook:
mupad
nb = allMuPADNotebooks
nb =
Notebook1
This approach does not require saving the notebook. Alternatively, you can save the
notebook and then open it again, creating a handle.
If You Need Communication Between Interfaces

If you perform computations in both interfaces, use handles to notebooks. The toolbox
uses this handle for communication between the MATLAB workspace and the MuPAD
notebook.
To create a blank MuPAD notebook from the MATLAB Command Window, type
nb = mupad
The variable nb is a handle to the notebook. You can use any variable name instead of
nb.
To create several notebooks, use this syntax repeatedly, assigning a notebook handle to
different variables. For example, use the variables nb1, nb2, and so on.
3-3
If You Use MATLAB to Access MuPAD

Use the Apps Tab
To create a new blank notebook:
1
On the MATLAB Toolstrip, click the Apps tab.
On the Apps tab, click the down arrow at the end of the Apps section.
Under Math, Statistics and Optimization, click the MuPAD Notebook button.
To create several MuPAD notebooks, click the MuPAD Notebook button repeatedly.
Use the mupad Command
To create a new blank notebook, type mupad in the MATLAB Command Window.
Use the Welcome to MuPAD Dialog Box
The Welcome to MuPAD dialog box lets you create a new notebook or program file, open
an existing notebook or program file, and access documentation. To open this dialog box,
type mupadwelcome in the MATLAB Command Window.
3-4
Create New Notebooks from MuPAD

If you already opened a notebook, you can create new notebooks and program files
without switching to the MATLAB Command Window:
To create a new notebook, select File>New Notebook from the main menu or use
the toolbar.
To open a new Editor window, where you can create a program file, select File>New
Editor from the main menu or use the toolbar.
3-5
Open MuPAD Notebooks

Before opening a MuPAD notebook, it is best to decide which interface you intend to use
primarily for your task. The two approaches are:
Perform your computations in the MATLAB Command Window using MuPAD
notebooks as an auxiliary tool. This approach implies that you open a MuPAD
notebook, and then execute it, transfer data and results, or close it from the MATLAB
Command Window. If you perform computations in both interfaces, use handles to
notebooks. The toolbox uses these handles for communication between the MATLAB
workspace and the MuPAD notebook.
Perform your computations and obtain the results in MuPAD. This approach implies
that you use the MATLAB Command Window only to access the MuPAD Notebook
app, but do not intend to copy data and results between MATLAB and MuPAD. If you
use the MATLAB Command Window only to open a notebook, and then perform all
your computations in that notebook, you can skip using a handle.
Tip MuPAD notebook files open in an unevaluated state. In other words, the notebook
is not synchronized with its engine when it opens. To synchronize a notebook with
its engine, select Notebook > Evaluate All or use evaluateMuPADNotebook. For
details, see Evaluate MuPAD Notebooks from MATLAB on page 3-13.
If you opened a MuPAD notebook without creating a handle, and then realized
that you need to transfer data and results between MATLAB and MuPAD, use
allMuPADNotebooks to create a handle to this notebook:
mupad
nb =
Notebook1
This approach does not require saving changes in the notebook. Alternatively, you can
save the notebook and open it again, this time creating a handle.
If You Need Communication Between Interfaces

The following commands are also useful if you lose the handle to a notebook, in which
case, you can save the notebook file and then reopen it with a new handle.
3-6
Use the mupad or openmn Command

Open an existing MuPAD notebook file and create a handle to it by using mupad or
openmn in the MATLAB Command Window:
nb = mupad('file_name')
nb1 = openmn('file_name')
Here, file_name must be a full path, such as H:\Documents\Notes\myNotebook.mn,

unless the notebook is in the current folder.
To open a notebook and automatically jump to a particular location, create a link
target at that location inside a notebook, and refer to it when opening a notebook. For
information about creating link targets, see Work with Links. To refer to a link target
when opening a notebook, enter:
nb = mupad('file_name#linktarget_name')
nb = openmn('file_name#linktarget_name')
Use the open Command

Open an existing MuPAD notebook file and create a handle to it by using the open
function in the MATLAB Command Window:
nb1 = open('file_name')

If You Use MATLAB to Access MuPAD

Double-Click the File Name
You can open an existing MuPAD notebook, program file, or graphic file (.xvc or .xvz)
by double-clicking the file name. The system opens the file in the appropriate interface.
Use the mupad or openmn Command
Open an existing MuPAD notebook file by using the mupad or openmn function in the
MATLAB Command Window:
3-7
mupad('file_name')
openmn('file_name')

To open a notebook and automatically jump to a particular location, create a link
target at that location inside a notebook, and refer to it when opening a notebook. For
information about creating link targets, see Work with Links. To refer to a link target
when opening a notebook, enter:
mupad('file_name#linktarget_name')
openmn('file_name#linktarget_name')

Open an existing MuPAD notebook file by using open in the MATLAB Command
Window:
open('file_name')

3-8
Open Notebooks in MuPAD

If you already opened a notebook, you can start new notebooks and open existing ones
without switching to the MATLAB Command Window. To open an existing notebook,
select File>Open from the main menu or use the toolbar. Also, you can open the list of
notebooks you recently worked with.
Open MuPAD Program Files and Graphics

Besides notebooks, MuPAD lets you create and use program files (.mu) and graphic files
(.xvc or .xvz). Also, you can use the MuPAD Debugger to diagnose problems in your
MuPAD code.
Do not use a handle when opening program files and graphic files because there is no
communication between these files and the MATLAB Command Window.
Double-Click the File Name
You can open an existing MuPAD notebook, program file, or graphic file by doubleclicking the file name. The system opens the file in the appropriate interface.
3-9
Use the openmn Command

Symbolic Math Toolbox provides these functions for opening MuPAD files in the
interfaces with which these files are associated:
openmu opens a program file with the extension .mu in the MATLAB Editor.
openxvc opens an XVC graphic file in the MuPAD Graphics window.
openxvz opens an XVZ graphic file in the MuPAD Graphics window.
For example, open an existing MuPAD program file by using the openmu function in the
openmu('H:\Documents\Notes\myProcedure.mu')
You must specify a full path unless the file is in the current folder.
Open an existing MuPAD file by using open in the MATLAB Command Window:
open('file_name')
Here, file_name must be a full path, such as H:\Documents\Notes

\myProcedure.mu, unless the notebook is in the current folder.
3-10
Open Program Files and Graphics from MuPAD

If you already opened a notebook, you can create new notebooks and program files and
open existing ones without switching to the MATLAB Command Window. To open an
existing file, select File>Open from the main menu or use the toolbar.
You also can open the Debugger window from within a MuPAD notebook. For details, see
Open the Debugger.
Note: You cannot access the MuPAD Debugger from the MATLAB Command Window.
3-11
Save MuPAD Notebooks

To save changes in a notebook:
1
Switch to the notebook. (You cannot save changes in a MuPAD notebook from the
MATLAB Command Window.)
Select File>Save or File>Save As from the main menu or use the toolbar.
If you want to save and close a notebook, you can use the close function in the MATLAB
Command Window. If the notebook has been modified, then MuPAD brings up the dialog
box asking if you want to save changes. Click Yes to save the modified notebook.
Note: You can lose data when saving a MuPAD notebook. A notebook saves its inputs
and outputs, but not the state of its engine. In particular, MuPAD does not save variables
copied into a notebook using setVar(nb,...).
3-12
Evaluate MuPAD Notebooks from MATLAB

When you open a saved MuPAD notebook file, the notebook displays the results
(outputs), but the engine does not remember them. For example, suppose you saved the
notebook myFile1.mn in your current folder and then opened it:
nb = mupad('myFile1.mn');
Suppose that myFile1.mn performs these computations.
Open that file and try to use the value w without synchronizing the notebook with its
engine. The variable w currently has no assigned value.
3-13
To synchronize a MuPAD notebook with its engine, you must evaluate the notebook as
follows:
1
Open the notebooks that you want to evaluate. Symbolic Math Toolbox cannot
evaluate MuPAD notebooks without opening them.
Use evaluateMuPADNotebook. Alternatively, you can evaluate the notebook by

selecting Notebook>Evaluate All from the main menu of the MuPAD notebook.
Perform your computations using data and results obtained from MuPAD notebooks.
Close the notebooks. This step is optional.
For example, evaluate the notebook myFile1.mn located in your current folder:
evaluateMuPADNotebook(nb)
Now, you can use the data and results from that notebook in your computations. For
example, copy the variables y and w to the MATLAB workspace:
y = getVar(nb,'y')
w = getVar(nb,'w')
y =
sin(x)/(sin(x)^2 + 1)
w =
3-14
sin(x)/(sin(x)^2 - sin(x) + 1)
You can evaluate several notebooks in a single call by passing a vector of notebook
handles to evaluateMuPADNotebook:
nb1 = mupad('myFile1.mn');
evaluateMuPADNotebook([nb1,nb2])
Also, you can use allMuPADNotebooks that returns handles to all currently open
notebooks. For example, if you want to evaluate the notebooks with the handles nb1 and
nb2, and no other notebooks are currently open, then enter:
evaluateMuPADNotebook(allMuPADNotebooks)
If any calculation in a notebook throws an error, then evaluateMuPADNotebook stops.

The error messages appear in the MATLAB Command Window and in the MuPAD
notebook. When you evaluate several notebooks and one of them throws an error,
evaluateMuPADNotebook does not proceed to the next notebook. It stops and displays
an error message immediately. If you want to skip calculations that cause errors and
evaluate all input regions that run without errors, use 'IgnoreErrors',true:
evaluateMuPADNotebook(allMuPADNotebooks,'IgnoreErrors',true)
3-15
Close MuPAD Notebooks from MATLAB

To close notebooks from the MATLAB Command Window, use the close function and
specify the handle to that notebook. For example, create the notebook with the handle
nb:
nb = mupad;
Now, close the notebook:

close(nb)
If you do not have a handle to the notebook (for example, if you created it without
specifying a handle or accidentally deleted the handle later), use allMuPADNotebooks
to return handles to all currently open notebooks. This function returns a vector of
handles. For example, create three notebooks without handles:
mupad
mupad
mupad
Use allMuPADNotebooks to get a vector of handles to these notebooks:

nbhandles = allMuPADNotebooks
nbhandles =
Notebook1
Notebook2
Notebook3
Close the first notebook (Notebook1):

close(nbhandles(1))
Close all notebooks:

close(allMuPADNotebooks)
If you modify a notebook and then try to close it, MuPAD brings up the dialog box asking
if you want to save changes. To suppress this dialog box, call close with the 'force'
flag. You might want to use this flag if your task requires opening many notebooks,
evaluating them, and then closing them. For example, suppose that you want to evaluate
the notebooks myFile1.mn, myFile2.mn, ..., myFile10.mn located in your current
folder. First, open the notebooks. If you do not have any other notebooks open, you can
3-16
Close MuPAD Notebooks from MATLAB
skip specifying the handles and later use allMuPADNotebooks. Otherwise, do not forget
to specify the handles.
mupad('myFile1.mn')
mupad('myFile2.mn')
...
mupad('myFile10.mn')
Evaluate all notebooks:

evaluateMuPADNotebook(allMuPADNotebooks)
When you evaluate MuPAD notebooks, you also modify them. Therefore, when you try to
close them, the dialog box asking you to save changes will appear for each notebook. To
suppress the dialog box and discard changes, use the 'force' flag:
close(allMuPADNotebooks,'force')
3-17
Edit MuPAD Code in MATLAB Editor

The default interface for editing MuPAD code is the MATLAB Editor. Alternatively,
you can create and edit your code in any text editor. The MATLAB Editor automatically
formats the code and, therefore, helps you avoid errors, or at least reduce their number.
Note: The MATLAB Editor cannot evaluate or debug MuPAD code.
To open an existing MuPAD file with the extension .mu in the MATLAB Editor, doubleclick the file name or select Open and navigate to the file.
After editing the code, save the file. Note that the extension .mu allows the Editor to
recognize and open MuPAD program files. Thus, if you intend to open the files in the
MATLAB Editor, save them with the extension .mu. Otherwise, you can specify other
extensions suitable for text files, for example, .txt or .tst.
3-18
Notebook Files and Program Files
Notebook Files and Program Files

The two main types of files in MuPAD are:
Notebook files, or notebooks
Program files
A notebook file has the extension .mn and lets you store the result of the work performed
in the MuPAD Notebook app. A notebook file can contain text, graphics, and any MuPAD
commands and their outputs. A notebook file can also contain procedures and functions.
By default, a notebook file opens in the MuPAD Notebook app. Creating a new notebook
or opening an existing one does not automatically start the MuPAD engine. This means
that although you can see the results of computations as they were saved, MuPAD does
not remember evaluating them. (The MuPAD Workspace is empty.) You can evaluate
any or all commands after opening a notebook.
A program file is a text file that contains any code snippet that you want to store
separately from other computations. Saving a code snippet as a program file can be very
helpful when you want to use the code in several notebooks. Typically, a program file
contains a single procedure, but it also can contain one or more procedures or functions,
assignments, statements, tests, or any other valid MuPAD code.
Tip If you use a program file to store a procedure, MuPAD does not require the name of
that program file to match the name of a procedure.
The most common approach is to write a procedure and save it as a program file with the
extension .mu. This extension allows the MATLAB Editor to recognize and open the file
later. Nevertheless, a program file is just a text file. You can save a program file with any
extension that you use for regular text files.
To evaluate the commands from a program file, you must execute a program file in a
notebook. For details about executing program files, see Read MuPAD Procedures on
page 3-39.
3-19
Source Code of the MuPAD Library Functions

You can display the source code of the MuPAD built-in library functions. If you work in
the MuPAD Notebook app, enter expose(name), where name is the library function
name. The MuPAD Notebook app displays the code as plain text with the original line
breaks and indentations.
You can also display the code of a MuPAD library function in the MATLAB Command
Window. To do this, use the evalin or feval function to call the MuPAD expose
function:
sprintf(char(feval(symengine, 'expose', 'numlib::tau')))
ans =
proc(a)
name numlib::tau;
begin
if args(0) <> 1 then
error(message("symbolic:numlib:IncorrectNumberOfArguments"))
else
if (~testtype(a, Type::Numeric)) then
return(procname(args()))
else
if domtype(a) <> DOM_INT then
error(message("symbolic:numlib:ArgumentInteger"))
end_if
end_if
end_if;
numlib::numdivisors(a)
end_proc
MuPAD also includes kernel functions written in C++. You cannot access the source code
of these functions.
3-20
Differences Between MATLAB and MuPAD Syntax

There are several differences between MATLAB and MuPAD syntax. Be aware of which
interface you are using in order to use the correct syntax:
Use MATLAB syntax in the MATLAB workspace, except for the functions
evalin(symengine,...) and feval(symengine,...), which use MuPAD syntax.
Use MuPAD syntax in MuPAD notebooks.
You must define MATLAB variables before using them. However, every expression
entered in a MuPAD notebook is assumed to be a combination of symbolic variables
unless otherwise defined. This means that you must be especially careful when working
in MuPAD notebooks, since fewer of your typos cause syntax errors.
This table lists common tasks, meaning commands or functions, and how they differ in
MATLAB and MuPAD syntax.
Common Tasks in MATLAB and MuPAD Syntax
Task
MATLAB Syntax
MuPAD Syntax
Assignment
:=
List variables
whos
anames(All, User)
Numerical value of
expression
double(expression)
float(expression)
Suppress output
Enter matrix
[x11,x12,x13;
x21,x22,x23]
matrix([[x11,x12,x13],
[x21,x22,x23]])
{a,b,c}
cell array
set
Auto-completion
Tab
Ctrl+space bar
Equality, inequality
comparison
==, ~=
=, <>
The next table lists differences between MATLAB expressions and MuPAD expressions.
MATLAB vs. MuPAD Expressions
MATLAB Expression
MuPAD Expression
Inf
infinity
3-21
MATLAB Expression
MuPAD Expression
pi
PI
NaN
undefined
fix
trunc
asin
arcsin
acos
arccos
atan
arctan
asinh
arcsinh
acosh
arccosh
atanh
arctanh
acsc
arccsc
asec
arcsec
acot
arccot
acsch
arccsch
asech
arcsech
acoth
arccoth
besselj
besselJ
bessely
besselY
besseli
besselI
besselk
besselK
lambertw
lambertW
sinint
Si
cosint
Ci
eulergamma
EULER
conj
conjugate
catalan
CATALAN
The MuPAD definition of exponential integral differs from the Symbolic Math Toolbox
counterpart.
3-22
Symbolic Math Toolbox Definition

Exponential
integral
MuPAD Definition
expint(x) = Ei(x) =
Ei( x) =
exp( -t)
dt for x > 0 =
t
Ei(1, x).
et
dt for x < 0 .
t
Ei( n, x) =
exp( xt)
tn
dt.
The definitions of Ei extend to the

complex plane, with a branch cut
along the negative real axis.
3-23
Copy Variables and Expressions Between MATLAB and MuPAD

You can copy a variable from a MuPAD notebook to a variable in the MATLAB
workspace using a MATLAB command. Similarly, you can copy a variable or symbolic
expression in the MATLAB workspace to a variable in a MuPAD notebook using a
MATLAB command. To do either assignment, you need to know the handle to the
MuPAD notebook you want to address.
The only way to assign variables between a MuPAD notebook and the MATLAB
workspace is to open the notebook using the following syntax:
nb = mupad;
You can use any variable name for the handle nb. To open an existing notebook file, use
the following syntax:
nb = mupad(file_name);
Here file_name must be a full path unless the notebook is in the current folder. The
handle nb is used only for communication between the MATLAB workspace and the
MuPAD notebook.
To copy a symbolic variable in the MATLAB workspace to a variable in the MuPAD
notebook engine with the same name, enter this command in the MATLAB Command
Window:
setVar(notebook_handle,'MuPADvar',MATLABvar)
For example, if nb is the handle to the notebook and z is the variable, enter:
setVar(nb,'z',z)
There is no indication in the MuPAD notebook that variable z exists. To check that it
exists, enter the command anames(All, User) in the notebook.
To assign a symbolic expression to a variable in a MuPAD notebook, enter:
setVar(notebook_handle,'variable',expression)
at the MATLAB command line. For example, if nb is the handle to the notebook,
exp(x) - sin(x) is the expression, and z is the variable, enter:
syms x
3-24
setVar(nb,'z',exp(x) - sin(x))
For this type of assignment, x must be a symbolic variable in the MATLAB

workspace.
Again, there is no indication in the MuPAD notebook that variable z exists. Check
that it exists by entering this command in the notebook:
anames(All, User)
To copy a symbolic variable in a MuPAD notebook to a variable in the MATLAB

workspace, enter in the MATLAB Command Window:
MATLABvar = getVar(notebook_handle,'variable');
For example, if nb is the handle to the notebook, z is the variable in the MuPAD
notebook, and u is the variable in the MATLAB workspace, enter:
u = getVar(nb,'z')
Communication between the MATLAB workspace and the MuPAD notebook occurs in
the notebook's engine. Therefore, variable z must be synchronized into the notebook's
MuPAD engine before using getVar, and not merely displayed in the notebook. If you
try to use getVar to copy an undefined variable z in the MuPAD engine, the resulting
MATLAB variable u is empty. For details, see Evaluate MuPAD Notebooks from
MATLAB on page 3-13.
Tip Do all copying and assignments from the MATLAB workspace, not from a MuPAD
notebook.
3-25
setvar(nb, z, z)
Copy and Paste Using the System Clipboard

You can also copy and paste between notebooks and the MATLAB workspace using
standard editing commands. If you copy a result in a MuPAD notebook to the system
clipboard, you might get the text associated with the expression, or a picture, depending
on your operating system and application support.
For example, consider this MuPAD expression:
Select the output with the mouse and copy it to the clipboard:
Paste this into the MATLAB workspace. The result is text:

exp(x)/(x^2 + 1)
3-26
If you paste it into Microsoft WordPad on a Windows system, the result is a picture.
3-27
Reserved Variable and Function Names

Both MATLAB and MuPAD have their own reserved keywords, such as function names,
special values, and names of mathematical constants. Using reserved keywords as
variable or function names can result in errors. If a variable name or a function name is a
reserved keyword in one or both interfaces, you can get errors or incorrect results. If you
work in one interface and a name is a reserved keyword in another interface, the error
and warning messages are produced by the interface you work in. These messages can
specify the cause of the problem incorrectly.
Tip The best approach is to avoid using reserved keywords as variable or function names,
especially if you use both interfaces.
Conflicts Caused by MuPAD Function Names

In MuPAD, function names are protected. Normally, the system does not let you redefine
a standard function or use its name as a variable. (To be able to modify a standard
MuPAD function you must first remove its protection.) Even when you work in the
MATLAB Command Window, the MuPAD engine handles symbolic computations.
Therefore, MuPAD function names are reserved keywords in this case. Using a MuPAD
function name while performing symbolic computations in the MATLAB Command
Window can lead to an error:
solve('D - 10')
The message does not indicate the real cause of the problem:
Error using solve (line 263)
Specify a variable for which you solve.
To fix this issue, use the syms function to declare D as a symbolic variable. Then call the
symbolic solver without using quotes:
syms D
solve(D - 10)
In this case, the toolbox replaces D with some other variable name before passing the
expression to the MuPAD engine:
ans =
10
3-28
Reserved Variable and Function Names
To list all MuPAD function names, enter this command in the MATLAB Command
Window:
evalin(symengine, 'anames()')
If you work in a MuPAD notebook, enter:

anames()
Conflicts Caused by Syntax Conversions

Many mathematical functions, constants, and special values use different syntaxes
in MATLAB and MuPAD. See the table MATLAB vs. MuPAD Expressions for these
expressions. When you use such functions, constants, or special values in the MATLAB
Command Window, the toolbox internally converts the original MATLAB expression
to the corresponding MuPAD expression and passes the converted expression to the
MuPAD engine. When the toolbox gets the results of computations, it converts the
MuPAD expressions in these results to the MATLAB expressions.
Suppose you write MuPAD code that introduces a new alias. For example, this code
defines that pow2 computes 2 to the power of x:
alias(pow2(x)=2^(x)):
Save this code in the myProcPow.mu program file in the C:/MuPAD folder. Before you
can use this code, you must read the program file into the symbolic engine. Typically, you
can read a program file into the symbolic engine by using read. This approach does not
work for code defining aliases because read ignores them. If your code defines aliases,
use feval to call the MuPAD read function. For example, enter these commands in the
feval(symengine, 'read',' "C:/MuPAD/myProcPow.mu" ');
Now you can use pow2 to compute 2x. For example, compute 22:
feval(symengine, 'pow2', '2')
ans =
4
Now suppose you want to introduce the same alias and the following procedure in one
program file:
alias(pow2(x)=2^(x)):
3-29
mySum := proc(n)
local i, s;
begin
s := 0:
for i from 1 to n do
s := s + s/i + i
end_for:
return(s);
end_proc:
Save this code in the myProcSum.mu program file in the C:/MuPAD folder. Again, you
must read the program file into the symbolic engine, and you cannot use read because
the code defines an alias. Enter these commands in the MATLAB Command Window:
feval(symengine, 'read',' "C:/MuPAD/myProcSum.mu" ');
Error using mupadengine/feval (line 157)
MuPAD error: Error: The aliased identifier is invalid at this place.
[file C:/MuPAD/myProcSum.mu, line 4, col 7]
Evaluating: read
Reading File: C:/MuPAD/myProcSum.mu
In this example, using the variable i causes the problem. The toolbox treats i as the
imaginary unit, and therefore, converts it to I before passing the procedure to the
MuPAD engine. Then the toolbox passes the converted code, with all instances of i
replaced by I, to the MuPAD engine. This causes an error because I is protected, and the
code tries to overwrite its value.
Reading the myProcSum procedure in a MuPAD notebook does not cause an error.
3-30
Call Built-In MuPAD Functions from MATLAB

To access built-in MuPAD functions at the MATLAB command line, use
evalin(symengine,...) or feval(symengine,...). These functions are designed to
work like the existing MATLAB evalin and feval functions.
evalin and feval do not open a MuPAD notebook, and therefore, you cannot use these
functions to access MuPAD graphics capabilities.
evalin
For evalin, the syntax is
y = evalin(symengine,'MuPAD_Expression');
Use evalin when you want to perform computations in the MuPAD language, while
working in the MATLAB workspace. For example, to make a three-element symbolic
vector of the sin(kx) function, k = 1 to 3, enter:
y = evalin(symengine,'[sin(k*x) $ k = 1..3]')
y =
[ sin(x), sin(2*x), sin(3*x)]
feval
For evaluating a MuPAD function, you can also use the feval function. feval has a
different syntax than evalin, so it can be simpler to use. The syntax is:
y = feval(symengine,'MuPAD_Function',x1,...,xn);
MuPAD_Function represents the name of a MuPAD function. The arguments

x1,...,xn must be symbolic variables, numbers, or strings. For example, to find the
tenth element in the Fibonacci sequence, enter:
z = feval(symengine,'numlib::fibonacci',10)
z =
55
The next example compares the use of a symbolic solution of an equation to the solution
returned by the MuPAD numeric fsolve function near the point x = 3. The symbolic
solver returns these results:
3-31
syms x
f = sin(x^2);
solve(f)
ans =
0
The numeric solver fsolve returns this result:

feval(symengine, 'numeric::fsolve',f,'x=3')
ans =
x == 3.0699801238394654654386548746678
As you might expect, the answer is the numerical value of 3p . The setting of MATLAB
format does not affect the display; it is the full returned value from the MuPAD
'numeric::fsolve' function.
evalin vs. feval

The evalin(symengine,...) function causes the MuPAD engine to evaluate a
string. Since the MuPAD engine workspace is generally empty, expressions returned by
evalin(symengine,...) are not simplified or evaluated according to their definitions
in the MATLAB workspace. For example:
syms x
y = x^2;
evalin(symengine, 'cos(y)')
ans =
cos(y)
Variable y is not expressed in terms of x because y is unknown to the MuPAD engine.

In contrast, feval(symengine,...) can pass symbolic variables that exist in the
MATLAB workspace, and these variables are evaluated before being processed in the
MuPAD engine. For example:
syms x
y = x^2;
feval(symengine,'cos',y)
ans =
3-32
cos(x^2)
Floating-Point Arguments of evalin and feval

By default, MuPAD performs all computations in an exact form. When you call the
evalin or feval function with floating-point numbers as arguments, the toolbox
converts these arguments to rational numbers before passing them to MuPAD. For
example, when you calculate the incomplete gamma function, the result is the following
y = feval(symengine,'igamma', 0.1, 2.5)
y =
igamma(1/10, 5/2)
To approximate the result numerically with double precision, use the double function:
format long
double(y)
ans =
0.028005841168289
Alternatively, use quotes to prevent the conversion of floating-point arguments to

rational numbers. (The toolbox treats arguments enclosed in quotes as strings.) When
MuPAD performs arithmetic operations on numbers involving at least one floating-point
number, it automatically switches to numeric computations and returns a floating-point
result:
feval(symengine,'igamma', '0.1', 2.5)
ans =
0.028005841168289177028337498391181
For further computations, set the format for displaying outputs back to short:
format short
3-33
Computations in MATLAB Command Window vs. MuPAD

Notebook App
When computing with Symbolic Math Toolbox, you can choose to work in the MATLAB
Command Window or in the MuPAD Notebook app. The MuPAD engine that performs all
symbolic computations is the same for both interfaces. The choice of the interface mostly
depends on your preferences.
Working in the MATLAB Command Window lets you perform all symbolic computations
using the familiar MATLAB language. The toolbox contains hundreds of MATLAB
symbolic functions for common tasks, such as differentiation, integration, simplification,
transforms, and equation solving. If your task requires a few specialized symbolic
functions not available directly from this interface, you can use evalin or feval to call
MuPAD functions. See Call Built-In MuPAD Functions from MATLAB on page 3-31.
Working in the MATLAB Command Window is recommended if you use other toolboxes
or MATLAB as a primary tool for your current task and only want to embed a few
symbolic computations in your code.
Working in the MuPAD Notebook app requires you to use the MuPAD language, which
is optimized for symbolic computations. In addition to solving common mathematical
problems, MuPAD functions cover specialized areas, such as number theory and
combinatorics. Also, for some computations the performance is better in the MuPAD
Notebook app than in the MATLAB Command Window. The reason is that the engine
returns the results in the MuPAD language. To display them in the MATLAB Command
Window, the toolbox translates the results to the MATLAB language.
Working in the MuPAD Notebook app is recommended when your task mainly consists
of symbolic computations. It is also recommended if you want to document your work
and results, for example, embed graphics, animations, and descriptive text with your
calculations. Symbolic results computed in the MuPAD Notebook app can be accessed
from the MATLAB Command Window, which helps you integrate symbolic results into
larger MATLAB applications.
Learning the MuPAD language and using the MuPAD Notebook app for your symbolic
computations provides the following benefits.
3-34
Computations in MATLAB Command Window vs. MuPAD Notebook App
Results Displayed in Typeset Math

By default, the MuPAD Notebook app displays results in typeset math making them look
very similar to what you see in mathematical books. In addition, the MuPAD Notebook
app
Uses standard mathematical notations in output expressions.
Uses abbreviations to make a long output expression with common subexpressions
shorter and easier to read. You can disable abbreviations.
Wraps long output expressions, including long numbers, fractions and matrices, to
make them fit the page. If you resize the notebook window, MuPAD automatically
adjusts outputs. You can disable wrapping of output expressions.
Alternatively, you can display pretty-printed outputs similar to those that you get in the
MATLAB Command Window when you use pretty. You can also display outputs as
plain text. For details, see Use Different Output Modes.
In a MuPAD notebook, you can copy or move output expressions, including expressions
in typeset math, to any input or text region within the notebook, or to another notebook.
If you copy or move an output expression to an input region, the expression appears as
valid MuPAD input.
Graphics and Animations

The MuPAD Notebook app provides very extensive graphic capabilities to help you
visualize your problem and display results. Here you can create a wide variety of plots,
including:
2-D and 3-D plots in Cartesian, polar, and spherical coordinates
Plots of continuous and piecewise functions and functions with singularities
Plots of discrete data sets
Surfaces and volumes by using predefined functions
Turtle graphics and Lindenmayer systems
Animated 2-D and 3-D plots
Graphics in the MuPAD Notebook app is interactive. You can explore and edit plots, for
example:
3-35
Change colors, fonts, legends, axes appearance, grid lines, tick marks, line, and
marker styles.
Zoom and rotate plots without reevaluating them.
Display coordinates of any point on the plot.
After you create and customize a plot, you can export it to various vector and bitmap file
formats, including EPS, SVG, PDF, PNG, GIF, BMP, TIFF, and JPEG. The set of the file
formats available for exporting graphics from a MuPAD notebook can be limited by your
operating system.
You can export animations as AVI files (on Windows systems), as animated GIF files, or
as sequences of static images.
More Functionality in Specialized Mathematical Areas

While both MATLAB and MuPAD interfaces provide functions for performing common
mathematical tasks, MuPAD also provides functions that cover many specialized areas.
For example, MuPAD libraries support computations in the following areas:
Combinatorics
Graph theory
Grbner bases
Linear optimization
Polynomial algebra
Number theory
Statistics
MuPAD libraries also provide large collections of functions for working with ordinary
differential equations, integral and discrete transforms, linear algebra, and more.
More Options for Common Symbolic Functions

Most functions for performing common mathematical computations are available in both
MATLAB and MuPAD interfaces. For example, you can solve equations and systems of
equations using solve, simplify expressions using simplify, compute integrals using
int, and compute limits using limit. Note that although the function names are the
same, the syntax of the function calls depends on the interface that you use.
3-36
Computations in MATLAB Command Window vs. MuPAD Notebook App
Results of symbolic computations can be very long and complicated, especially because
the toolbox assumes all values to be complex by default. For many symbolic functions you
can use additional parameters and options to help you limit the number and complexity
and also to control the form of returned results. For example, solve accepts the Real
option that lets you restrict all symbolic parameters of an equation to real numbers. It
also accepts the VectorFormat option that you can use to get solutions of a system as a
set of vectors.
Typically, the functions available in MuPAD accept more options than the analogous
functions in the MATLAB Command Window. For example, in MuPAD you can use the
VectorFormat option. This option is not directly available for the solve function called
in the MATLAB Command Window.
Possibility to Expand Existing Functionality

The MuPAD programming language supports multiple programming styles, including
imperative, functional, and object-oriented programming. The system includes a few
basic functions written in C++, but the majority of the MuPAD built-in functionality
is implemented as library functions written in the MuPAD language. You can extend
the built-in functionality by writing custom symbolic functions and libraries, defining
new function environments, data types, and operations on them in the MuPAD
language. MuPAD implements data types as domains (classes). Domains with similar
mathematical structure typically belong to a category. Domains and categories allow you
to use the concepts of inheritance, overloading methods and operators. The language also
uses axioms to state properties of domains and categories.
Object-Oriented Programming contains information to get you started with objectoriented programming in MuPAD.
3-37
Use Your Own MuPAD Procedures

Write MuPAD Procedures
A MuPAD procedure is a text file that you can write in any text editor. The recommended
practice is to use the MATLAB Editor.
To define a procedure, use the proc function. Enclose the code in the begin and
end_proc functions:
myProc:= proc(n)
begin
if n = 1 or n = 0 then
1
else
n * myProc(n - 1)
end_if;
end_proc:
By default, a MuPAD procedure returns the result of the last executed command.
You can force a procedure to return another result by using return. In both cases, a
procedure returns only one result. To get multiple results from a procedure, combine
them into a list or other data structure, or use the print function.
If you just want to display the results, and do not need to use them in further
computations, use the print function. With print, your procedure still returns one
result, but prints intermediate results on screen. For example, this procedure prints
the value of its argument in each call:
myProcPrint:= proc(n)
begin
print(n);
if n = 0 or n = 1 then
return(1);
end_if;
n * myProcPrint(n - 1);
end_proc:
If you want to use multiple results of a procedure, use ordered data structures, such
as lists or matrices as return values. In this case, the result of the last executed
command is technically one object, but it can contain more than one value. For
example, this procedure returns the list of two entries:
3-38
myProcSort:= proc(a, b)
begin
if a < b then
[a, b]
else
[b, a]
end_if;
end_proc:
Avoid using unordered data structures, such as sequences and sets, to return multiple
results of a procedure. The order of the entries in these structures can change
unpredictably.
When you save the procedure, it is recommended to use the extension .mu. For details,
see Notebook Files and Program Files on page 3-19. The name of the file can differ from
the name of the procedure. Also, you can save multiple procedures in one file.
Steps to Take Before Calling a Procedure

To be able to call a procedure, you must first execute the code defining that procedure,
in a notebook. If you write a procedure in the same notebook, simply evaluate the input
region that contains the procedure. If you write a procedure in a separate file, you
must read the file into a notebook. Reading a file means finding it and executing the
commands inside it.
Read MuPAD Procedures
If you work in the MuPAD Notebook app and create a separate program file that contains
a procedure, use one of the following methods to execute the procedure in a notebook. The
first approach is to select Notebook > Read Commands from the main menu.
Alternatively, you can use the read function. The function call read(filename)
searches for the program file in this order:
1
Folders specified by the environment variable READPATH
filename regarded as an absolute path
Current folder (depends on the operating system)
If you want to call the procedure from the MATLAB Command Window, you still need to
execute that procedure before calling it. See Call Your Own MuPAD Procedures on page
3-40.
3-39
Use Startup Commands and Scripts

Alternatively, you can add a MuPAD procedure to startup commands of a particular
notebook. This method lets you execute the procedure every time you start a notebook
engine. Startup commands are executed silently, without any visible outputs in the
notebook. You can copy the procedure to the dialog box that specifies startup commands
or attach the procedure as a startup script. For information, see Hide Code Lines.
Call Your Own MuPAD Procedures

You can extend the functionality available in the toolbox by writing your own procedures
in the MuPAD language. This section explains how to call such procedures at the
MATLAB Command Window.
Suppose you wrote the myProc procedure that computes the factorial of a nonnegative
integer.
Save the procedure as a file with the extension .mu. For example, save the procedure as
myProcedure.mu in the folder C:/MuPAD.
3-40
Return to the MATLAB Command Window. Before calling the procedure at the MATLAB
command line, enter:
read(symengine, 'C:/MuPAD/myProcedure.mu')
The read command reads and executes the myProcedure.mu file in MuPAD. After that,
you can call the myProc procedure with any valid parameter. For example, compute the
factorial of 15:
feval(symengine, 'myProc', 15)
ans =
1307674368000
If your MuPAD procedure accepts string arguments, enclose these arguments in two
sets of quotes: double quotes inside single quotes. Single quotes suppress evaluation of
the argument before passing it to the MuPAD procedure, and double quotes let MuPAD
recognize that the argument is a string. For example, this MuPAD procedure converts a
string to lowercase and checks if reverting that string changes it.
3-41
In the MATLAB Command Window, use the read command to read and execute
reverted.mu.
read(symengine, 'C:/MuPAD/reverted.mu')
Now, use feval to call the procedure reverted. To pass a string argument to the
procedure, use double quotes inside single quotes.
feval(symengine, 'reverted', '"Abccba"')
ans =
1
3-42
Clear Assumptions and Reset the Symbolic Engine

The symbolic engine workspace associated with the MATLAB workspace is usually
empty. The MATLAB workspace tracks the values of symbolic variables, and passes
them to the symbolic engine for evaluation as necessary. However, the symbolic engine
workspace contains all assumptions you make about symbolic variables, such as whether
a variable is real, positive, integer, greater or less than some value, and so on. These
assumptions can affect solutions to equations, simplifications, and transformations, as
explained in Effects of Assumptions on Computations on page 3-45.
Note: These commands
syms x
x = sym('x');
clear x
clear any existing value of x in the MATLAB workspace, but do not clear assumptions
about x in the symbolic engine workspace.
If you make an assumption about the nature of a variable, for example, using the
commands
syms x
assume(x,'real')
or
syms x
assume(x > 0)
then clearing the variable x from the MATLAB workspace does not clear the assumption
from the symbolic engine workspace. To clear the assumption, enter the command
syms x clear
For details, see Check Assumptions Set On Variables on page 3-44 and Effects of
Assumptions on Computations on page 3-45.
If you reset the symbolic engine by entering the command
reset(symengine)
3-43
MATLAB no longer recognizes any symbolic variables that exist in the MATLAB
workspace. Clear the variables with the clear command, or renew them with the syms
or sym command.
This example shows how the MATLAB workspace and the symbolic engine workspace
respond to a sequence of commands.
Step
Command
MATLAB Workspace
MuPAD Engine Workspace
syms x positive
or
syms x;
assume(x > 0)
x > 0
clear x
empty
x > 0
syms x
x > 0
syms x clear
empty
Check Assumptions Set On Variables

To check whether a variable, say x, has any assumptions in the symbolic engine
workspace associated with the MATLAB workspace, use the assumptions function in
the MATLAB Command Window:
assumptions(x)
If the function returns an empty symbolic object, there are no additional assumptions on
the variable. (The default assumption is that x can be any complex number.) Otherwise,
there are additional assumptions on the value of that variable.
For example, while declaring the symbolic variable x make an assumption that the value
of this variable is a real number:
syms x real
assumptions(x)
ans =
in(x, 'real')
Another way to set an assumption is to use the assume function:

syms z
3-44
assume(z ~= 0);
assumptions(z)
ans =
z ~= 0
To see assumptions set on all variables in the MATLAB workspace, use assumptions
without input arguments:
assumptions
ans =
[ in(x, 'real'), z ~= 0]
Clear assumptions set on x and z:

syms x z clear
assumptions
ans =
Empty sym: 1-by-0
Effects of Assumptions on Computations

Assumptions can affect many computations, including results returned by the solve
function. They also can affect the results of simplifications. For example, solve this
equation without any additional assumptions on its variable:
syms x
solve(x^4 == 1, x)
ans =
-1
1
-i
i
Now solve the same equation assuming that x is real:

syms x real
solve(x^4 == 1, x)
ans =
-1
3-45
Use the assumeAlso function to add the assumption that x is also positive:
assumeAlso(x > 0)
solve(x^4 == 1, x)
ans =
1
Clearing x does not change the underlying assumptions that x is real and positive:
clear x
syms x
assumptions(x)
solve(x^4 == 1, x)
ans =
[ 0 < x, in(x, 'real')]
ans =
1
Clearing x with syms x clear clears the assumption:

syms x clear
assumptions(x)
ans =
Empty sym: 1-by-0
Tip syms x clear clears the assumptions and the value of x. To clear the assumptions
only, use sym('x','clear').
3-46
Create MATLAB Functions from MuPAD Expressions

Symbolic Math Toolbox lets you create a MATLAB function from a symbolic expression.
A MATLAB function created from a symbolic expression accepts numeric arguments and
evaluates the expression applied to the arguments. You can generate a function handle
or a file that contains a MATLAB function. The generated file is available for use in any
MATLAB calculation, independent of a license for Symbolic Math Toolbox functions.
If you work in the MATLAB Command Window, see Generate MATLAB Functions on
page 2-220.
When you use the MuPAD Notebook app, all your symbolic expressions are written in
the MuPAD language. To be able to create a MATLAB function from such expressions,
you must convert it to the MATLAB language. There are two approaches for converting a
MuPAD expression to the MATLAB language:
Assign the MuPAD expression to a variable, and copy that variable from a notebook to
the MATLAB workspace. This approach lets you create a function handle or a file that
contains a MATLAB function. It also requires using a handle to the notebook.
Generate MATLAB code from the MuPAD expression in a notebook. This approach
limits your options to creating a file. You can skip creating a handle to the notebook.
The generated MATLAB function can depend on the approach that you chose. For
example, code can be optimized differently or not optimized at all.
Suppose you want to create a MATLAB function from a symbolic matrix that converts
spherical coordinates of any point to its Cartesian coordinates. First, open a MuPAD
notebook with the handle notebook_handle:
notebook_handle = mupad;
In this notebook, create the symbolic matrix S that converts spherical coordinates to
Cartesian coordinates:
x
y
z
S
:=
:=
:=
:=
r*sin(a)*cos(b):
r*sin(a)*sin(b):
r*cos(b):
matrix([x, y, z]):
Now convert matrix S to the MATLAB language. Choose the best approach for your task.
3-47
Copy MuPAD Variables to the MATLAB Workspace

If your notebook has a handle, like notebook_handle in this example, you can copy
variables from that notebook to the MATLAB workspace with the getVar function, and
then create a MATLAB function. For example, to convert the symbolic matrix S to a
MATLAB function:
1
Copy variable S to the MATLAB workspace:

S = getVar(notebook_handle,'S')
Variable S and its value (the symbolic matrix) appear in the MATLAB workspace
and in the MATLAB Command Window:
S =
r*cos(b)*sin(a)
r*sin(a)*sin(b)
r*cos(b)
Use matlabFunction to create a MATLAB function from the symbolic matrix. To

generate a MATLAB function handle, use matlabFunction without additional
parameters:
h = matlabFunction(S)
h =
@(a,b,r)[r.*cos(b).*sin(a);r.*sin(a).*sin(b);r.*cos(b)]
To generate a file containing the MATLAB function, use the parameter file and
specify the path to the file and its name. For example, save the MATLAB function to
the file cartesian.m in the current folder:
S = matlabFunction(S,'file', 'cartesian.m');
You can open and edit cartesian.m in the MATLAB Editor.
3-48
Generate MATLAB Code in a MuPAD Notebook

To generate the MATLAB code from a MuPAD expression within the MuPAD notebook,
use the generate::MATLAB function. Then, you can create a new file that contains an
empty MATLAB function, copy the code, and paste it there. Alternatively, you can create
a file with a MATLAB formatted string representing a MuPAD expression, and then add
appropriate syntax to create a valid MATLAB function.
1
In the MuPAD Notebook app, use the generate::MATLAB function to generate

MATLAB code from the MuPAD expression. Instead of printing the result on screen,
use the fprint function to create a file and write the generated code to that file:
fprint(Unquoted, Text, "cartesian.m", generate::MATLAB(S)):
Note: If the file with this name already exists, fprint replaces the contents of this
file with the converted expression.
2
Open cartesian.m. It contains a MATLAB formatted string representing matrix S:

S = zeros(3,1);
S(1,1) = r*cos(b)*sin(a);
S(2,1) = r*sin(a)*sin(b);
S(3,1) = r*cos(b);
To convert this file to a valid MATLAB function, add the keywords function and
end, the function name (must match the file name), input and output arguments,
and comments:
3-49
Create MATLAB Function Blocks from MuPAD Expressions

Symbolic Math Toolbox lets you create a MATLAB function block from a symbolic
expression. The generated block is available for use in Simulink models, whether or not
the computer that runs the simulations has a license for Symbolic Math Toolbox.
If you work in the MATLAB Command Window, see Generate MATLAB Function
Blocks on page 2-225.
The MuPAD Notebook app does not provide a function for generating a block. Therefore,
to be able to create a block from the MuPAD expression:
1
In a MuPAD notebook, assign that expression to a variable.
Use the getVar function to copy that variable from a notebook to the MATLAB
workspace.
For details about these steps, see Copy MuPAD Variables to the MATLAB Workspace
on page 3-48.
When the expression that you want to use for creating a MATLAB function block appears
in the MATLAB workspace, use the matlabFunctionBlock function to create a block
from that expression.
For example, open a MuPAD notebook with the handle notebook_handle:
In this notebook, create the following symbolic expression:

r := sqrt(x^2 + y^2)
Use getVar to copy variable r to the MATLAB workspace:

r = getVar(notebook_handle,'r')
Variable r and its value appear in the MATLAB workspace and in the MATLAB
Command Window:
r =
(x^2 + y^2)^(1/2)
Before generating a MATLAB Function block from the expression, create an empty model
or open an existing one. For example, create and open the new model my_system:
3-50
Create MATLAB Function Blocks from MuPAD Expressions
Since the variable and its value are in the MATLAB workspace, you can use
matlabFunctionBlock to generate the block my_block:
matlabFunctionBlock('my_system/my_block', r)
You can open and edit the block in the MATLAB Editor. To open the block, double-click
it:
function r = my_block(x,y)
%#codegen
r = sqrt(x.^2+y.^2);
3-51
Create Simscape Equations from MuPAD Expressions

Symbolic Math Toolbox lets you integrate symbolic computations into the Simscape
modeling workflow by using the results of these computations in the Simscape equation
section.
If you work in the MATLAB Command Window, see Generate Simscape Equations on
page 2-227.
If you work in the MuPAD Notebook app, you can:
Assign the MuPAD expression to a variable, copy that variable from a notebook to the
MATLAB workspace, and use simscapeEquation to generate the Simscape equation
in the MATLAB Command Window.
Generate the Simscape equation from the MuPAD expression in a notebook.
In both cases, to use the generated equation, you must manually copy the equation and
paste it to the equation section of the Simscape component file.
For example, follow these steps to generate a Simscape equation from the solution of the
ordinary differential equation computed in the MuPAD Notebook app:
1
Open a MuPAD notebook with the handle notebook_handle:

In this notebook, define the following equation:

s:= ode(y'(t) = y(t)^2, y(t)):
Decide whether you want to generate the Simscape equation in the MuPAD
Notebook app or in the MATLAB Command Window.
GenerateSimscape Equations in the MuPAD Notebook App

To generate the Simscape equation in the same notebook, use generate::Simscape.
To display generated Simscape code on screen, use the print function. To remove
quotes and expand special characters like line breaks and tabs, use the printing option
Unquoted:
print(Unquoted, generate::Simscape(s))
This command returns the Simscape equation that you can copy and paste to the
Simscape equation section:
3-52
Create Simscape Equations from MuPAD Expressions
-y^2+y.der == 0.0;
Generate Simscape Equations in the MATLAB Command Window

To generate the Simscape equation in the MATLAB Command Window, follow these
steps:
1
Use getVar to copy variable s to the MATLAB workspace:

s = getVar(notebook_handle, 's')
Variable s and its value appear in the MATLAB workspace and in the MATLAB
Command Window:
s =
ode(D(y)(t) - y(t)^2, y(t))
Use simscapeEquation to generate the Simscape equation from s:

simscapeEquation(s)
You can copy and paste the generated equation to the Simscape equation section. Do not
copy the automatically generated variable ans and the equal sign that follows it.
ans =
s == (-y^2+y.der == 0.0);
3-53
3-54
4
abs
Absolute value of real or complex value
Syntax
abs(z)
abs(A)
Description
abs(z) returns the absolute value of z. If z is complex, abs(z) returns the complex
modulus (magnitude) of z.
abs(A) returns the absolute value of each element of A. If A is complex, abs(A) returns
the complex modulus (magnitude) of each element of A.
Input Arguments
z
Symbolic number, variable, or expression.
A
Vector or matrix of symbolic numbers, variables, or expressions.
Examples
Compute absolute values of these symbolic real numbers:
[abs(sym(1/2)), abs(sym(0)), abs(sym(pi) - 4)]
ans =
[ 1/2, 0, 4 - pi]
4-2
abs
Compute the absolute values of each element of matrix A:

A = sym([(1/2 + i), -25; i*(i + 1), pi/6 - i*pi/2]);
abs(A)
ans =
[ 5^(1/2)/2,
25]
[
2^(1/2), (pi*5^(1/2)*18^(1/2))/18]
Compute the absolute value of this expression assuming that the value x is negative:
syms x
assume(x < 0)
abs(5*x^3)
ans =
-5*x^3
For further computations, clear the assumption:

syms x clear
More About
Complex Modulus
The absolute value of a complex number z=x+y*i is the value z =
x2 + y2 . Here, x
and y are real numbers. The absolute value of a complex number is also called a complex
modulus.
Tips
Calling abs for a number that is not a symbolic object invokes the MATLAB abs
function.
See Also
abs | angle | imag | real | sign | signIm
4-3
acos
Symbolic inverse cosine function
Syntax
acos(X)
Description
acos(X) returns the inverse cosine function (arccosine function) of X.
Examples
Inverse Cosine Function for Numeric and Symbolic Arguments
Depending on its arguments, acos returns floating-point or exact symbolic results.
Compute the inverse cosine function for these numbers. Because these numbers are not
symbolic objects, acos returns floating-point results.
A = acos([-1, -1/3, -1/2, 1/4, 1/2, sqrt(3)/2, 1])
A =
3.1416
1.9106
2.0944
1.3181
1.0472
0.5236
Compute the inverse cosine function for the numbers converted to symbolic objects. For
many symbolic (exact) numbers, acos returns unresolved symbolic calls.
symA = acos(sym([-1, -1/3, -1/2, 1/4, 1/2, sqrt(3)/2, 1]))
symA =
[ pi, pi - acos(1/3), (2*pi)/3, acos(1/4), pi/3, pi/6, 0]
Use vpa to approximate symbolic results with floating-point numbers:

4-4
acos
vpa(symA)
ans =
[ 3.1415926535897932384626433832795,...
1.9106332362490185563277142050315,...
2.0943951023931954923084289221863,...
1.318116071652817965745664254646,...
1.0471975511965977461542144610932,...
0.52359877559829887307710723054658,...
0]
Plot the Inverse Cosine Function

Plot the inverse cosine function on the interval from -1 to 1.
syms x
ezplot(acos(x), [-1, 1])
grid on
4-5
Handle Expressions Containing the Inverse Cosine Function

Many functions, such as diff, int, taylor, and rewrite, can handle expressions
containing acos.
Find the first and second derivatives of the inverse cosine function:
syms x
diff(acos(x), x)
diff(acos(x), x, x)
ans =
-1/(1 - x^2)^(1/2)
4-6
acos
ans =
-x/(1 - x^2)^(3/2)
Find the indefinite integral of the inverse cosine function:

int(acos(x), x)
ans =
x*acos(x) - (1 - x^2)^(1/2)
Find the Taylor series expansion of acos(x):

taylor(acos(x), x)
ans =
- (3*x^5)/40 - x^3/6 - x + pi/2
Rewrite the inverse cosine function in terms of the natural logarithm:

rewrite(acos(x), 'log')
ans =
-log(x + (1 - x^2)^(1/2)*i)*i
Input Arguments
X Input
symbolic number | symbolic variable | symbolic expression | symbolic function |
symbolic vector | symbolic matrix
Input, specified as a symbolic number, variable, expression, or function, or as a vector or
matrix of symbolic numbers, variables, expressions, or functions.
See Also
acot | acsc | asec | asin | atan | cos | cot | csc | sec | sin | tan
4-7
acosh
Symbolic inverse hyperbolic cosine function
Syntax
acosh(X)
Description
acosh(X) returns the inverse hyperbolic cosine function of X.
Examples
Inverse Hyperbolic Cosine Function for Numeric and Symbolic Arguments
Depending on its arguments, acosh returns floating-point or exact symbolic results.
Compute the inverse hyperbolic cosine function for these numbers. Because these
numbers are not symbolic objects, acosh returns floating-point results.
A = acosh([-1, 0, 1/6, 1/2, 1, 2])
A =
0.0000 + 3.1416i
0.0000 + 1.0472i
0.0000 + 1.5708i
0.0000 + 0.0000i
0.0000 + 1.4033i...
1.3170 + 0.0000i
Compute the inverse hyperbolic cosine function for the numbers converted to symbolic
objects. For many symbolic (exact) numbers, acosh returns unresolved symbolic calls.
symA = acosh(sym([-1, 0, 1/6, 1/2, 1, 2]))
symA =
[ pi*i, (pi*i)/2, acosh(1/6), (pi*i)/3, 0, acosh(2)]

4-8
acosh
vpa(symA)
ans =
[ 3.1415926535897932384626433832795*i,...
1.5707963267948966192313216916398*i,...
1.4033482475752072886780470855961*i,...
1.0471975511965977461542144610932*i,...
0,...
1.316957896924816708625046347308]
Plot the Inverse Hyperbolic Cosine Function

Plot the inverse hyperbolic cosine function on the interval from 1 to 10.
syms x
ezplot(acosh(x), [1, 10]);
grid on
4-9
Handle Expressions Containing the Inverse Hyperbolic Cosine Function

containing acosh.
Find the first and second derivatives of the inverse hyperbolic cosine function:
syms x
diff(acosh(x), x)
diff(acosh(x), x, x)
ans =
1/(x^2 - 1)^(1/2)
4-10
acosh
ans =
-x/(x^2 - 1)^(3/2)
Find the indefinite integral of the inverse hyperbolic cosine function:

int(acosh(x), x)
ans =
x*acosh(x) - (x^2 - 1)^(1/2)
Find the Taylor series expansion of acosh(x) for x > 1:

assume(x > 1)
taylor(acosh(x), x)
ans =
x^5*((3*i)/40) + x^3*(i/6) + x*i + pi*(-i/2)

syms x clear
Rewrite the inverse hyperbolic cosine function in terms of the natural logarithm:
rewrite(acosh(x), 'log')
ans =
log(x + (x^2 - 1)^(1/2))
Input Arguments
X Input
See Also
acoth | acsch | asech | asinh | atanh | cosh | coth | csch | sech | sinh | tanh
4-11
acot
Symbolic inverse cotangent function
Syntax
acot(X)
Description
acot(X) returns the inverse cotangent function (arccotangent function) of X.
Examples
Inverse Cotangent Function for Numeric and Symbolic Arguments
Depending on its arguments, acot returns floating-point or exact symbolic results.
Compute the inverse cotangent function for these numbers. Because these numbers are
not symbolic objects, acot returns floating-point results.
A = acot([-1, -1/3, -1/sqrt(3), 1/2, 1, sqrt(3)])
A =
-0.7854
-1.2490
-1.0472
1.1071
0.7854
0.5236
Compute the inverse cotangent function for the numbers converted to symbolic objects.
For many symbolic (exact) numbers, acot returns unresolved symbolic calls.
symA = acot(sym([-1, -1/3, -1/sqrt(3), 1/2, 1, sqrt(3)]))
symA =
[ -pi/4, -acot(1/3), -pi/3, acot(1/2), pi/4, pi/6]

4-12
acot
vpa(symA)
ans =
[ -0.78539816339744830961566084581988,...
-1.2490457723982544258299170772811,...
-1.0471975511965977461542144610932,...
1.1071487177940905030170654601785,...
0.78539816339744830961566084581988,...
0.52359877559829887307710723054658]
Plot the Inverse Cotangent Function

Plot the inverse cotangent function on the interval from -10 to 10.
syms x
ezplot(acot(x), [-10, 10]);
grid on
4-13
Handle Expressions Containing the Inverse Cotangent Function

containing acot.
Find the first and second derivatives of the inverse cotangent function:
syms x
diff(acot(x), x)
diff(acot(x), x, x)
ans =
-1/(x^2 + 1)
4-14
acot
ans =
(2*x)/(x^2 + 1)^2
Find the indefinite integral of the inverse cotangent function:

int(acot(x), x)
ans =
log(x^2 + 1)/2 + x*acot(x)
Find the Taylor series expansion of acot(x) for x > 0:

assume(x > 0)
taylor(acot(x), x)
ans =
- x^5/5 + x^3/3 - x + pi/2

syms x clear
Rewrite the inverse cotangent function in terms of the natural logarithm:

rewrite(acot(x), 'log')
ans =
(log(1 - i/x)*i)/2 - (log(i/x + 1)*i)/2
Input Arguments
X Input
See Also
acos | acsc | asec | asin | atan | cos | cot | csc | sec | sin | tan
4-15
acoth
Symbolic inverse hyperbolic cotangent function
Syntax
acoth(X)
Description
acoth(X) returns the inverse hyperbolic cotangent function of X.
Examples
Inverse Hyperbolic Cotangent Function for Numeric and Symbolic
Arguments
Depending on its arguments, acoth returns floating-point or exact symbolic results.
Compute the inverse hyperbolic cotangent function for these numbers. Because these
numbers are not symbolic objects, acoth returns floating-point results.
A = acoth([-pi/2, -1, 0, 1/2, 1, pi/2])
A =
-0.7525 + 0.0000i
0.5493 + 1.5708i
-Inf + 0.0000i
Inf + 0.0000i
0.0000 + 1.5708i...
0.7525 + 0.0000i
Compute the inverse hyperbolic cotangent function for the numbers converted to
symbolic objects. For many symbolic (exact) numbers, acoth returns unresolved symbolic
calls.
symA = acoth(sym([-pi/2, -1, 0, 1/2, 1, pi/2]))
symA =
4-16
acoth
[ -acoth(pi/2), Inf, -(pi*i)/2, acoth(1/2), Inf, acoth(pi/2)]

vpa(symA)
ans =
[ -0.75246926714192715916204347800251,...
Inf,...
-1.5707963267948966192313216916398*i,...
0.54930614433405484569762261846126...
- 1.5707963267948966192313216916398*i,...
Inf,...
0.75246926714192715916204347800251]
Plot the Inverse Hyperbolic Cotangent Function

Plot the inverse hyperbolic cotangent function on the interval from -10 to 10.
syms x
ezplot(acoth(x), [-10, 10])
grid on
4-17
Handle Expressions Containing the Inverse Hyperbolic Cotangent Function

containing acoth.
Find the first and second derivatives of the inverse hyperbolic cotangent function:
syms x
diff(acoth(x), x)
diff(acoth(x), x, x)
ans =
-1/(x^2 - 1)
4-18
acoth
ans =
(2*x)/(x^2 - 1)^2
Find the indefinite integral of the inverse hyperbolic cotangent function:

int(acoth(x), x)
ans =
log(x^2 - 1)/2 + x*acoth(x)
Find the Taylor series expansion of acoth(x) for x > 0:

assume(x > 0)
taylor(acoth(x), x)
ans =
x^5/5 + x^3/3 + x + pi*(-i/2)

syms x clear
Rewrite the inverse hyperbolic cotangent function in terms of the natural logarithm:
rewrite(acoth(x), 'log')
ans =
log(1/x + 1)/2 - log(1 - 1/x)/2
Input Arguments
X Input
See Also
acosh | acsch | asech | asinh | atanh | cosh | coth | csch | sech | sinh | tanh
4-19
acsc
Symbolic inverse cosecant function
Syntax
acsc(X)
Description
acsc(X) returns the inverse cosecant function (arccosecant function) of X.
Examples
Inverse Cosecant Function for Numeric and Symbolic Arguments
Depending on its arguments, acsc returns floating-point or exact symbolic results.
Compute the inverse cosecant function for these numbers. Because these numbers are
not symbolic objects, acsc returns floating-point results.
A = acsc([-2, 0, 2/sqrt(3), 1/2, 1, 5])
A =
-0.5236 + 0.0000i
1.5708 - 1.3170i
1.5708 + 0.0000i
Infi
1.0472 + 0.0000i
0.2014 + 0.0000i
1.5708...
Compute the inverse cosecant function for the numbers converted to symbolic objects. For
many symbolic (exact) numbers, acsc returns unresolved symbolic calls.
symA = acsc(sym([-2, 0, 2/sqrt(3), 1/2, 1, 5]))
symA =
[ -pi/6, Inf, pi/3, asin(2), pi/2, asin(1/5)]

4-20
acsc
vpa(symA)
ans =
[ -0.52359877559829887307710723054658,...
Inf,...
1.0471975511965977461542144610932,...
1.5707963267948966192313216916398...
- 1.316957896924816708625046347308*i,...
1.5707963267948966192313216916398,...
0.20135792079033079145512555221762]
Plot the Inverse Cosecant Function

Plot the inverse cosecant function on the interval from -10 to 10.
syms x
ezplot(acsc(x), [-10, 10])
grid on
4-21
Handle Expressions Containing the Inverse Cosecant Function

containing acsc.
Find the first and second derivatives of the inverse cosecant function:
syms x
diff(acsc(x), x)
diff(acsc(x), x, x)
ans =
-1/(x^2*(1 - 1/x^2)^(1/2))
4-22
acsc
ans =
2/(x^3*(1 - 1/x^2)^(1/2)) + 1/(x^5*(1 - 1/x^2)^(3/2))
Find the indefinite integral of the inverse cosecant function:

int(acsc(x), x)
ans =
x*asin(1/x) + acosh(x)*sign(x)
Find the Taylor series expansion of acsc(x) around x = Inf:

taylor(acsc(x), x, Inf)
ans =
1/x + 1/(6*x^3) + 3/(40*x^5)
Rewrite the inverse cosecant function in terms of the natural logarithm:

rewrite(acsc(x), 'log')
ans =
-log(i/x + (1 - 1/x^2)^(1/2))*i
Input Arguments
X Input
See Also
acos | acot | asec | asin | atan | cos | cot | csc | sec | sin | tan
4-23
acsch
Symbolic inverse hyperbolic cosecant function
Syntax
acsch(X)
Description
acsch(X) returns the inverse hyperbolic cosecant function of X.
Examples
Inverse Hyperbolic Cosecant Function for Numeric and Symbolic
Arguments
Depending on its arguments, acsch returns floating-point or exact symbolic results.
Compute the inverse hyperbolic cosecant function for these numbers. Because these
numbers are not symbolic objects, acsch returns floating-point results.
A = acsch([-2*i, 0, 2*i/sqrt(3), 1/2, i, 3])
A =
0.0000 + 0.5236i
1.4436 + 0.0000i
Inf + 0.0000i
0.0000 - 1.5708i
0.0000 - 1.0472i...
0.3275 + 0.0000i
Compute the inverse hyperbolic cosecant function for the numbers converted to symbolic
objects. For many symbolic (exact) numbers, acsch returns unresolved symbolic calls.
symA = acsch(sym([-2*i, 0, 2*i/sqrt(3), 1/2, i, 3]))
symA =
[ (pi*i)/6, Inf, -(pi*i)/3, asinh(2), -(pi*i)/2, asinh(1/3)]
4-24
acsch

vpa(symA)
ans =
[ 0.52359877559829887307710723054658*i,...
Inf,...
-1.0471975511965977461542144610932*i,...
1.4436354751788103424932767402731,...
-1.5707963267948966192313216916398*i,...
0.32745015023725844332253525998826]
Plot the Inverse Hyperbolic Cosecant Function

Plot the inverse hyperbolic cosecant function on the interval from -10 to 10.
syms x
ezplot(acsch(x), [-10, 10])
grid on
4-25
Handle Expressions Containing the Inverse Hyperbolic Cosecant Function

containing acsch.
Find the first and second derivatives of the inverse hyperbolic cosecant function:
syms x
diff(acsch(x), x)
diff(acsch(x), x, x)
ans =
-1/(x^2*(1/x^2 + 1)^(1/2))
4-26
acsch
ans =
2/(x^3*(1/x^2 + 1)^(1/2)) - 1/(x^5*(1/x^2 + 1)^(3/2))
Find the indefinite integral of the inverse hyperbolic cosecant function:

int(acsch(x), x)
ans =
x*asinh(1/x) + asinh(x)*sign(x)
Find the Taylor series expansion of acsch(x) around x = Inf:

taylor(acsch(x), x, Inf)
ans =
1/x - 1/(6*x^3) + 3/(40*x^5)
Rewrite the inverse hyperbolic cosecant function in terms of the natural logarithm:
rewrite(acsch(x), 'log')
ans =
log((1/x^2 + 1)^(1/2) + 1/x)
Input Arguments
X Input
See Also
acosh | acoth | asech | asinh | atanh | cosh | coth | csch | sech | sinh | tanh
4-27
adjoint
Adjoint of symbolic square matrix
Syntax
X = adjoint(A)
Description
X = adjoint(A) returns the adjoint matrix X of A. The adjoint of a matrix A is the
matrix X, such that A*X = det(A)*eye(n) = X*A, where n is the number of rows in A
and eye(n) is the n-by-n identity matrix.
Input Arguments
A
Symbolic square matrix.
Output Arguments
X
Symbolic square matrix of the same size as A.
Examples
Compute the adjoint of this symbolic matrix:
syms x y z
A = sym([x y z; 2 1 0; 1 0 2]);
X = adjoint(A)
X =
[ 2,
4-28
-2*y,
-z]
adjoint
[ -4, 2*x - z,
2*z]
[ -1,
y, x - 2*y]
Verify that A*X = det(A)*eye(3), where eye(3) is the 3-by-3 identity matrix:
isAlways(A*X == det(A)*eye(3))
ans =
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Also verify that det(A)*eye(3) = X*A:

isAlways(det(A)*eye(3) == X*A)
ans =
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Compute the inverse of this matrix by computing its adjoint and determinant:
syms a b c d
A = [a b; c d];
invA = adjoint(A)/det(A)
invA =
[ d/(a*d - b*c), -b/(a*d - b*c)]
[ -c/(a*d - b*c), a/(a*d - b*c)]
Verify that invA is the inverse of A:

isAlways(invA == inv(A))
ans =
1
1
1
1
More About
Adjoint of a Square Matrix
The adjoint of a square matrix A is the square matrix X, such that the (i,j)-th entry of X
is the (j,i)-th cofactor of A.
4-29
Cofactor of a Matrix
The (j,i)-th cofactor of A is defined as
i+ j
a ji = ( -1 ) det ( Aij )
Aij is the submatrix of A obtained from A by removing the i-th row and j-th column.
See Also
det | inv | linalg::adjoint | rank
4-30
airy
airy
Airy function
Syntax
airy(x)
airy(0,x)
airy(1,x)
airy(2,x)
airy(3,x)
airy(n,x)
Description
airy(x) returns the Airy function of the first kind, Ai(x).
airy(0,x) is equivalent to airy(x).
airy(1,x) returns the derivative of the Airy function of the first kind, Ai(x).
airy(2,x) returns the Airy function of the second kind, Bi(x).
airy(3,x) returns the derivative of the Airy function of the second kind, Bi(x).
airy(n,x) returns a vector or matrix of derivatives of the Airy function.
Input Arguments
x
Symbolic number, variable, expression, or function, or a vector or matrix of symbolic
numbers, variables, expressions, or functions. If x is a vector or matrix, airy returns the
Airy functions for each element of x.
n
Vector or matrix of numbers 0, 1, 2, and 3.
4-31
Examples
Solve this second-order differential equation. The solutions are the Airy functions of the
first and the second kind.
syms y(x)
dsolve(diff(y, 2) - x*y == 0)
ans =
C2*airy(0, x) + C3*airy(2, x)
Verify that the Airy function of the first kind is a valid solution of the Airy differential
equation:
syms x
simplify(diff(airy(0, x), x, 2) - x*airy(0, x)) == 0
ans =
1
Verify that the Airy function of the second kind is a valid solution of the Airy differential
equation:
simplify(diff(airy(2, x), x, 2) - x*airy(2, x)) == 0
ans =
1
Compute the Airy functions for these numbers. Because these numbers are not symbolic
objects, you get floating-point results.
[airy(1), airy(1, 3/2 + 2*i), airy(2, 2), airy(3, 1/101)]
ans =
0.1353
0.1641 + 0.1523i
3.2981
0.4483
Compute the Airy functions for the numbers converted to symbolic objects. For most
symbolic (exact) numbers, airy returns unresolved symbolic calls.
[airy(sym(1)), airy(1, sym(3/2 + 2*i)), airy(2, sym(2)), airy(3, sym(1/101))]
ans =
[ airy(0, 1), airy(1, 3/2 + 2*i), airy(2, 2), airy(3, 1/101)]
4-32
airy
For symbolic variables and expressions, airy also returns unresolved symbolic calls:
syms x y
[airy(x), airy(1, x^2), airy(2, x - y), airy(3, x*y)]
ans =
[ airy(0, x), airy(1, x^2), airy(2, x - y), airy(3, x*y)]
Compute the Airy functions for x=0. The Airy functions have special values for this
parameter.
airy(sym(0))
ans =
3^(1/3)/(3*gamma(2/3))
airy(1, sym(0))
ans =
-(3^(1/6)*gamma(2/3))/(2*pi)
airy(2, sym(0))
ans =
3^(5/6)/(3*gamma(2/3))
airy(3, sym(0))
ans =
(3^(2/3)*gamma(2/3))/(2*pi)
If you do not use sym, you call the MATLAB airy function that returns numeric
approximations of these values:
[airy(0), airy(1, 0), airy(2, 0), airy(3, 0)]
ans =
0.3550
-0.2588
0.6149
0.4483
Differentiate the expressions involving the Airy functions:

syms x y
diff(airy(x^2))
diff(diff(airy(3, x^2 + x*y -y^2), x), y)
4-33
ans =
2*x*airy(1, x^2)
ans =
airy(2, x^2 + x*y - y^2)*(x^2 + x*y - y^2) +...
airy(2, x^2 + x*y - y^2)*(x - 2*y)*(2*x + y) +...
airy(3, x^2 + x*y - y^2)*(x - 2*y)*(2*x + y)*(x^2 + x*y - y^2)
Compute the Airy function of the first kind for the elements of matrix A:
syms x
A = [-1, 0; 0, x];
airy(A)
ans =
[
airy(0, -1), 3^(1/3)/(3*gamma(2/3))]
[ 3^(1/3)/(3*gamma(2/3)),
airy(0, x)]
Plot the Airy function Ai(x) and its derivative Ai'(x):

syms x
ezplot(airy(x))
hold on
ezplot(airy(1,x))
title('Airy function Ai and its first derivative')
hold off
4-34
airy
More About
Airy Functions
The Airy functions Ai(x) and Bi(x) are linearly independent solutions of this differential
equation:
2 y
x2
- xy = 0
4-35
Tips
Calling airy for a number that is not a symbolic object invokes the MATLAB airy
function.
When you call airy with two input arguments, at least one argument must be a
scalar or both arguments must be vectors or matrices of the same size. If one input
argument is a scalar and the other one is a vector or a matrix, airy(n,x) expands
the scalar into a vector or matrix of the same size as the other argument with all
elements equal to that scalar.
References
Antosiewicz, H. A. Bessel Functions of Fractional Order. Handbook of Mathematical
Functions with Formulas, Graphs, and Mathematical Tables. (M. Abramowitz and I. A.
Stegun, eds.). New York: Dover, 1972.
See Also
besseli | besselj | besselk | bessely
4-36
all
all
Test whether all equations and inequalities represented as elements of symbolic array
are valid
Syntax
all(A)
all(A,dim)
Description
all(A) tests whether all elements of A return logical 1 (true). If A is a matrix, all tests
all elements of each column. If A is a multidimensional array, all tests all elements
along one dimension.
all(A,dim) tests along the dimension of A specified by dim.
Input Arguments
A
Symbolic vector, matrix, or multidimensional symbolic array. For example, it can
be an array of symbolic equations, inequalities, or logical expressions with symbolic
subexpressions.
dim
Integer. For example, if A is a matrix, all(A,1) tests elements of each column and
returns a row vector of logical 1s and 0s. all(A,2) tests elements of each row and
returns a column vector of logical 1s and 0s.
Default: The first dimension that is not equal to 1 (non-singleton dimension). For
example, if A is a matrix, all(A) treats the columns of A as vectors.
4-37
Examples
Create vector V that contains the symbolic equation and inequalities as its elements:
syms x
V = [x ~= x + 1, abs(x) >= 0, x == x];
Use all to test whether all of them are valid for all values of x:
all(V)
ans =
1
Create this matrix of symbolic equations and inequalities:

syms x
M = [x == x, x == abs(x); abs(x) >= 0, x ~= 2*x]
M =
[
x == x, x == abs(x)]
[ 0 <= abs(x),
x ~= 2*x]
Use all to test equations and inequalities of this matrix. By default, all tests whether
all elements of each column are valid for all possible values of variables. If all equations
and inequalities in the column are valid (return logical 1), then all returns logical 1 for
that column. Otherwise, it returns logical 0 for the column. Thus, it returns 1 for the first
column and 0 for the second column:
all(M)
ans =
1

syms x
M = [x == x, x == abs(x); abs(x) >= 0, x ~= 2*x]
M =
[
x == x, x == abs(x)]
[ 0 <= abs(x),
x ~= 2*x]
For matrices and multidimensional arrays, all can test all elements along the specified
dimension. To specify the dimension, use the second argument of all. For example, to
test all elements of each column of a matrix, use the value 1 as the second argument:
4-38
all
all(M, 1)
ans =
1
To test all elements of each row, use the value 2 as the second argument:
all(M, 2)
ans =
0
1
Test whether all elements of this vector return logical 1s. Note that all also converts
all numeric values outside equations and inequalities to logical 1s and 0s. The numeric
value 0 becomes logical 0:
syms x
all([0, x == x])
ans =
0
All nonzero numeric values, including negative and complex values, become logical 1s:
all([1, 2, -3, 4 + i, x == x])
ans =
1
More About
Tips
If A is an empty symbolic array, all(A) returns logical 1.
If some elements of A are just numeric values (not equations or inequalities), all
converts these values as follows. All numeric values except 0 become logical 1. The
value 0 becomes logical 0.
If A is a vector and all its elements return logical 1, all(A) returns logical 1. If one
or more elements are zero, all(A) returns logical 0.
If A is a multidimensional array, all(A) treats the values along the first dimension
that is not equal to 1 (nonsingleton dimension) as vectors, returning logical 1 or 0 for
each vector.
4-39
See Also
and | any | isAlways | logical | not | or | xor
4-40
allMuPADNotebooks
allMuPADNotebooks
All open notebooks
Syntax
L = allMuPADNotebooks
Description
L = allMuPADNotebooks returns a vector with handles (pointers) to all currently open
MuPAD notebooks.
If there are no open notebooks, allMuPADNotebooks returns an empty object [ empty
mupad ].
Examples
Identify All Open Notebooks
Get a vector of handles to all currently open MuPAD notebooks.
Suppose that your current folder contains MuPAD notebooks named myFile1.mn and
myFile2.mn. Open them keeping their handles in variables nb1 and nb2, respectively.
Also create a new notebook with the handle nb3:
nb1 = mupad('myFile1.mn')
nb3 = mupad
nb1 =
myFile1
nb2 =
myFile2
nb3 =
Notebook1
4-41
Suppose that there are no other open notebooks. Use allMuPADNotebooks to get a
vector of handles to these notebooks:
allNBs = allMuPADNotebooks
allNBs =
myFile1
myFile2
Notebook1
Create a Handle to an Existing Notebook

If you already created a MuPAD notebook without a handle or if you lost the handle to a
notebook, use allMuPADNotebooks to create a new handle. Alternatively, you can save
the notebook, close it, and then open it again using a handle.
Create a new notebook:
mupad
Suppose that you already performed some computations in that notebook, and now want
to transfer a few variables to the MATLAB workspace. To be able to do it, you need to
create a handle to this notebook:
nb =
Notebook1
Now, you can use nb when transferring data and results between the notebook
Notebook1 and the MATLAB workspace. This approach does not require you to save
Notebook1.
getVar(nb,'x')
ans =
x
4-42
allMuPADNotebooks
Output Arguments
L All open MuPAD notebooks
vector of handles to notebooks
All open MuPAD notebooks, returned as a vector of handles to these notebooks.
See Also
close | evaluateMuPADNotebook | getVar | mupad | mupadNotebookTitle |

openmn | setVar
4-43
and
Logical AND for symbolic expressions
Syntax
A & B
and(A,B)
Description
A & B represents the logical conjunction. A & B is true only when both A and B are true.
and(A,B) is equivalent to A & B.
Input Arguments
A
Symbolic equation, inequality, or logical expression that contains symbolic
subexpressions.
B
subexpressions.
Examples
Combine these symbolic inequalities into the logical expression using &:
syms x y
xy = x >= 0 & y >= 0;
Set the corresponding assumptions on variables x and y using assume:

4-44
and
assume(xy)
Verify that the assumptions are set:

assumptions
ans =
[ 0 <= x, 0 <= y]
Combine two symbolic inequalities into the logical expression using &:
syms x
range = 0 < x & x < 1;
Replace variable x with these numeric values. If you replace x with 1/2, then both
inequalities are valid. If you replace x with 10, both inequalities are invalid. Note that
subs does not evaluate these inequalities to logical 1 or 0.
x1 = subs(range, x, 1/2)
x2 = subs(range, x, 10)
x1 =
0 < 1/2 & 1/2 < 1
x2 =
0 < 10 & 10 < 1
To evaluate these inequalities to logical 1 or 0, use logical or isAlways:

logical(x1)
isAlways(x2)
ans =
1
ans =
0
Note that simplify does not simplify these logical expressions to logical 1 or 0. Instead,
they return symbolic values TRUE or FALSE.
s1 = simplify(x1)
s2 = simplify(x2)
s1 =
4-45
TRUE
s2 =
FALSE
Convert symbolic TRUE or FALSE to logical values using logical:

logical(s1)
logical(s2)
ans =
1
ans =
0
The recommended approach to define a range of values is using &. Nevertheless, you can
define a range of values of a variable as follows:
syms x
range = 0 < x < 1;
Now if you want to replace variable x with numeric values, use symbolic numbers
instead of MATLAB double-precision numbers. To create a symbolic number, use sym
x1 = subs(range, x, sym(1/2))
x2 = subs(range, x, sym(10))
x1 =
(0 < 1/2) < 1
x2 =
(0 < 10) < 1
To evaluate these inequalities to logical 1 or 0, use isAlways. Note that logical cannot
resolve such inequalities.
isAlways(x1)
isAlways(x2)
ans =
1
ans =
0
4-46
and
More About
Tips
If you call simplify for a logical expression containing symbolic subexpressions, you
can get symbolic values TRUE or FALSE. These values are not the same as logical 1
(true) and logical 0 (false). To convert symbolic TRUE or FALSE to logical values, use
logical.
See Also
all | any | isAlways | logical | not | or | xor
4-47
angle
Symbolic polar angle
Syntax
angle(Z)
Description
angle(Z) computes the polar angle of the complex value Z.
Input Arguments
Z
Symbolic number, variable, expression, function. The function also accepts a vector or
matrix of symbolic numbers, variables, expressions, functions.
Examples
Compute the polar angles of these complex numbers. Because these numbers are not
symbolic objects, you get floating-point results.
[angle(1 + i), angle(4 + pi*i), angle(Inf + Inf*i)]
ans =
0.7854
0.6658
0.7854
Compute the polar angles of these complex numbers which are converted to symbolic
objects:
[angle(sym(1) + i), angle(sym(4) + sym(pi)*i), angle(Inf + sym(Inf)*i)]
ans =
[ pi/4, atan(pi/4), pi/4]
4-48
angle
Compute the limits of these symbolic expressions:

syms x
limit(angle(x + x^2*i/(1 + x)), x, -Inf)
limit(angle(x + x^2*i/(1 + x)), x, Inf)
ans =
-(3*pi)/4
ans =
pi/4
Compute the polar angles of the elements of matrix Z:

Z = sym([sqrt(3) + 3*i, 3 + sqrt(3)*i; 1 + i, i]);
angle(Z)
ans =
[ pi/3, pi/6]
[ pi/4, pi/2]
Alternatives
For real X and Y such that Z = X + Y*i, the call angle(Z) is equivalent to
atan2(Y,X).
More About
Tips
Calling angle for numbers (or vectors or matrices of numbers) that are not symbolic
objects invokes the MATLAB angle function.
If Z = 0, then angle(Z) returns 0.
See Also
atan2 | conj | imag | real | sign | signIm
4-49
any
Test whether at least one of equations and inequalities represented as elements of
symbolic array is valid
Syntax
any(A)
any(A,dim)
Description
any(A) tests whether at least one element of A returns logical 1 (true). If A is a matrix,
any tests elements of each column. If A is a multidimensional array, any tests elements
along one dimension.
any(A,dim) tests along the dimension of A specified by dim.
Input Arguments
A
Symbolic vector, matrix, or multidimensional symbolic array. For example, it can
be an array of symbolic equations, inequalities, or logical expressions with symbolic
subexpressions.
dim
Integer. For example, if A is a matrix, any(A,1) tests elements of each column and
returns a row vector of logical 1s and 0s. any(A,2) tests elements of each row and
returns a column vector of logical 1s and 0s.
Default: The first dimension that is not equal to 1 (non-singleton dimension). For
example, if A is a matrix, any(A) treats the columns of A as vectors.
4-50
any
Examples
Create vector V that contains the symbolic equation and inequalities as its elements:
syms x real
V = [x ~= x + 1, abs(x) >= 0, x == x];
Use any to test whether at least one of them is valid for all values of x:
any(V)
ans =
1

syms x real
M = [x == 2*x, x == abs(x); abs(x) >= 0, x == 2*x]
M =
[
x == 2*x, x == abs(x)]
[ 0 <= abs(x),
x == 2*x]
Use any to test equations and inequalities of this matrix. By default, any tests whether
any element of each column is valid for all possible values of variables. If at least one
equation or inequality in the column is valid (returns logical 1), then any returns logical
1 for that column. Otherwise, it returns logical 0 for the column. Thus, it returns 1 for
the first column and 0 for the second column:
any(M)
ans =
1

syms x real
M = [x == 2*x, x == abs(x); abs(x) >= 0, x == 2*x]
M =
[
x == 2*x, x == abs(x)]
[ 0 <= abs(x),
x == 2*x]
For matrices and multidimensional arrays, any can test elements along the specified
dimension. To specify the dimension, use the second argument of any. For example, to
test elements of each column of a matrix, use the value 1 as the second argument:
4-51
any(M, 1)
ans =
1
To test elements of each row, use the value 2 as the second argument:
any(M, 2)
ans =
0
1
Test whether any element of this vector returns logical 1. Note that any also converts
all numeric values outside equations and inequalities to logical 1s and 0s. The numeric
value 0 becomes logical 0:
syms x
any([0, x == x + 1])
ans =
0
All nonzero numeric values, including negative and complex values, become logical 1s:
any([-4 + i, x == x + 1])
ans =
1
More About
Tips
If A is an empty symbolic array, any(A) returns logical 0.
If some elements of A are just numeric values (not equations or inequalities), any
converts these values as follows. All nonzero numeric values become logical 1. The
value 0 becomes logical 0.
If A is a vector and any of its elements returns logical 1, any(A) returns logical 1. If
all elements are zero, any(A) returns logical 0.
If A is a multidimensional array, any(A) treats the values along the first dimension
that is not equal to 1 (non-singleton dimension) as vectors, returning logical 1 or 0 for
each vector.
4-52
any
See Also
all | and | isAlways | logical | not | or | xor
4-53
argnames
Input variables of symbolic function
Syntax
argnames(f)
Description
argnames(f) returns input variables of f.
Input Arguments
f
Symbolic function.
Examples
Create this symbolic function:
syms f(x, y)
f(x, y) = x + y;
Use argnames to find input variables of f:

argnames(f)
ans =
[ x, y]

syms f(a, b, x, y)
f(x, b, y, a) = a*x + b*y;
4-54
argnames
Use argnames to find input variables of f. When returning variables, argnames uses the
same order as you used when you defined the function:
argnames(f)
ans =
[ x, b, y, a]
See Also
formula | sym | syms | symvar
4-55
Arithmetic Operations
Perform arithmetic operations on symbols
Syntax
A+B
A-B
A*B
A.*B
A\B
A.\B
B/A
A./B
A^B
A.^B
A'
A.'
Description
4-56
Matrix addition. A+B adds A and B. A and B must have the same
dimensions, unless one is scalar.
Matrix subtraction. A-B subtracts B from A. A and B must have the

same dimensions, unless one is scalar.
Matrix multiplication. A*B is the linear algebraic product of A and

B. The number of columns of A must equal the number of rows of B,
unless one is a scalar.
.*
Array multiplication. A.*B is the entry-by-entry product of A and B. A

and B must have the same dimensions, unless one is scalar.
Matrix left division. A\B solves the symbolic linear equations

A*X=B for X. Note that A\B is roughly equivalent to inv(A)*B.
Warning messages are produced if X does not exist or is not unique.
Rectangular matrices A are allowed, but the equations must be
consistent; a least squares solution is not computed.
Arithmetic Operations
.\
Array left division. A.\B is the matrix with entries B(i,j)/A(i,j).

A and B must have the same dimensions, unless one is scalar.
Matrix right division. B/A solves the symbolic linear equation X*A=B
for X. Note that B/A is the same as (A.'\B.').'. Warning messages
are produced if X does not exist or is not unique. Rectangular matrices
A are allowed, but the equations must be consistent; a least squares
solution is not computed.
./
Array right division. A./B is the matrix with entries A(i,j)/B(i,j).

A and B must have the same dimensions, unless one is scalar.
Matrix power. A^B raises the square matrix A to the integer power B.
If A is a scalar and B is a square matrix, A^B raises A to the matrix
power B, using eigenvalues and eigenvectors. A^B, where A and B are
both matrices, is an error.
.^
Array power. A.^B is the matrix with entries A(i,j)^B(i,j). A and

B must have the same dimensions, unless one is scalar.
'
Matrix Hermitian transpose. If A is complex, A' is the complex

conjugate transpose.
.'
Array transpose. A.' is the real transpose of A. A.' does not conjugate
complex entries.
Examples
The following statements
syms a b c d
A = [a b; c d];
A*A/A
A*A-A^2
return
[ a, b]
[ c, d]
[ 0, 0]
[ 0, 0]
The following statements

4-57
syms b1 b2
A = sym('a%d%d', [2 2]);
B = [b1 b2];
X = B/A;
x1 = X(1)
x2 = X(2)
return
x1 =
-(a21*b2 - a22*b1)/(a11*a22 - a12*a21)
x2 =
(a11*b2 - a12*b1)/(a11*a22 - a12*a21)
See Also
null | solve
4-58
asec
asec
Symbolic inverse secant function
Syntax
asec(X)
Description
asec(X) returns the inverse secant function (arcsecant function) of X.
Examples
Inverse Secant Function for Numeric and Symbolic Arguments
Depending on its arguments, asec returns floating-point or exact symbolic results.
Compute the inverse secant function for these numbers. Because these numbers are not
symbolic objects, asec returns floating-point results.
A = asec([-2, 0, 2/sqrt(3), 1/2, 1, 5])
A =
2.0944 + 0.0000i
0.0000 + 1.3170i
0.0000 +
Infi
0.0000 + 0.0000i
0.5236 + 0.0000i...
1.3694 + 0.0000i
Compute the inverse secant function for the numbers converted to symbolic objects. For
many symbolic (exact) numbers, asec returns unresolved symbolic calls.
symA = asec(sym([-2, 0, 2/sqrt(3), 1/2, 1, 5]))
symA =
[ (2*pi)/3, Inf, pi/6, acos(2), 0, acos(1/5)]

4-59
vpa(symA)
ans =
[ 2.0943951023931954923084289221863,...
Inf,...
0.52359877559829887307710723054658,...
1.316957896924816708625046347308*i,...
0,...
1.3694384060045658277761961394221]
Plot the Inverse Secant Function

Plot the inverse secant function on the interval from -10 to 10.
syms x
ezplot(asec(x), [-10, 10])
grid on
4-60
asec
Handle Expressions Containing the Inverse Secant Function

containing asec.
Find the first and second derivatives of the inverse secant function:
syms x
diff(asec(x), x)
diff(asec(x), x, x)
ans =
1/(x^2*(1 - 1/x^2)^(1/2))
4-61
ans =
- 2/(x^3*(1 - 1/x^2)^(1/2)) - 1/(x^5*(1 - 1/x^2)^(3/2))
Find the indefinite integral of the inverse secant function:

int(asec(x), x)
ans =
x*acos(1/x) - acosh(x)*sign(x)
Find the Taylor series expansion of asec(x) around x = Inf:

taylor(asec(x), x, Inf)
ans =
pi/2 - 1/x - 1/(6*x^3) - 3/(40*x^5)
Rewrite the inverse secant function in terms of the natural logarithm:

rewrite(asec(x), 'log')
ans =
-log(1/x + (1 - 1/x^2)^(1/2)*i)*i
Input Arguments
X Input
See Also
acos | acot | acsc | asin | atan | cos | cot | csc | sec | sin | tan
4-62
asech
asech
Symbolic inverse hyperbolic secant function
Syntax
asech(X)
Description
asech(X) returns the inverse hyperbolic secant function of X.
Examples
Inverse Hyperbolic Secant Function for Numeric and Symbolic Arguments
Depending on its arguments, asech returns floating-point or exact symbolic results.
Compute the inverse hyperbolic secant function for these numbers. Because these
numbers are not symbolic objects, asech returns floating-point results.
A = asech([-2, 0, 2/sqrt(3), 1/2, 1, 3])
A =
0.0000 + 2.0944i
1.3170 + 0.0000i
Inf + 0.0000i
0.0000 + 0.0000i
0.0000 + 0.5236i...
0.0000 + 1.2310i
Compute the inverse hyperbolic secant function for the numbers converted to symbolic
objects. For many symbolic (exact) numbers, asech returns unresolved symbolic calls.
symA = asech(sym([-2, 0, 2/sqrt(3), 1/2, 1, 3]))
symA =
[ (pi*2*i)/3, Inf, (pi*i)/6, acosh(2), 0, acosh(1/3)]

4-63
vpa(symA)
ans =
[ 2.0943951023931954923084289221863*i,...
Inf,...
0.52359877559829887307710723054658*i,...
1.316957896924816708625046347308,...
0,...
1.230959417340774682134929178248*i]
Plot the Inverse Hyperbolic Secant Function

Plot the inverse hyperbolic secant function on the interval from 0 to 1.
syms x
ezplot(asech(x), [0, 1])
grid on
4-64
asech
Handle Expressions Containing the Inverse Hyperbolic Secant Function

containing asech.
Find the first and second derivatives of the inverse hyperbolic secant function:
syms x
diff(asech(x), x)
diff(asech(x), x, x)
ans =
-1/(x^2*(1/x^2 - 1)^(1/2))
4-65
ans =
2/(x^3*(1/x^2 - 1)^(1/2)) - 1/(x^5*(1/x^2 - 1)^(3/2))
Find the indefinite integral of the inverse hyperbolic secant function:

int(asech(x), x)
ans =
x*acosh(1/x) + asin(x)*sign(x)
Find the Taylor series expansion of asech(x) around x = Inf:

taylor(asech(x), x, Inf)
ans =
(pi*i)/2 - i/x - i/(6*x^3) - (3*i)/(40*x^5)
Rewrite the inverse hyperbolic secant function in terms of the natural logarithm:
rewrite(asech(x), 'log')
ans =
log((1/x^2 - 1)^(1/2) + 1/x)
Input Arguments
X Input
See Also
acosh | acoth | acsch | asinh | atanh | cosh | coth | csch | sech | sinh | tanh
4-66
asin
asin
Symbolic inverse sine function
Syntax
asin(X)
Description
asin(X) returns the inverse sine function (arcsine function) of X.
Examples
Inverse Sine Function for Numeric and Symbolic Arguments
Depending on its arguments, asin returns floating-point or exact symbolic results.
Compute the inverse sine function for these numbers. Because these numbers are not
symbolic objects, asin returns floating-point results.
A = asin([-1, -1/3, -1/2, 1/4, 1/2, sqrt(3)/2, 1])
A =
-1.5708
-0.3398
-0.5236
0.2527
0.5236
1.0472
1.5708
Compute the inverse sine function for the numbers converted to symbolic objects. For
many symbolic (exact) numbers, asin returns unresolved symbolic calls.
symA = asin(sym([-1, -1/3, -1/2, 1/4, 1/2, sqrt(3)/2, 1]))
symA =
[ -pi/2, -asin(1/3), -pi/6, asin(1/4), pi/6, pi/3, pi/2]

4-67
vpa(symA)
ans =
[ -1.5707963267948966192313216916398,...
-0.33983690945412193709639251339176,...
-0.52359877559829887307710723054658,...
0.25268025514207865348565743699371,...
0.52359877559829887307710723054658,...
1.0471975511965977461542144610932,...
1.5707963267948966192313216916398]
Plot the Inverse Sine Function

Plot the inverse sine function on the interval from -1 to 1.
syms x
ezplot(asin(x), [-1, 1])
grid on
4-68
asin
Handle Expressions Containing the Inverse Sine Function

containing asin.
Find the first and second derivatives of the inverse sine function:
syms x
diff(asin(x), x)
diff(asin(x), x, x)
ans =
1/(1 - x^2)^(1/2)
4-69
ans =
x/(1 - x^2)^(3/2)
Find the indefinite integral of the inverse sine function:

int(asin(x), x)
ans =
x*asin(x) + (1 - x^2)^(1/2)
Find the Taylor series expansion of asin(x):

taylor(asin(x), x)
ans =
(3*x^5)/40 + x^3/6 + x
Rewrite the inverse sine function in terms of the natural logarithm:

rewrite(asin(x), 'log')
ans =
-log(x*i + (1 - x^2)^(1/2))*i
Input Arguments
X Input
See Also
acos | acot | acsc | asec | atan | cos | cot | csc | sec | sin | tan
4-70
asinh
asinh
Symbolic inverse hyperbolic sine function
Syntax
asinh(X)
Description
asinh(X) returns the inverse hyperbolic sine function of X.
Examples
Inverse Hyperbolic Sine Function for Numeric and Symbolic Arguments
Depending on its arguments, asinh returns floating-point or exact symbolic results.
Compute the inverse hyperbolic sine function for these numbers. Because these numbers
are not symbolic objects, asinh returns floating-point results.
A = asinh([-i, 0, 1/6, i/2, i, 2])
A =
0.0000 - 1.5708i
0.0000 + 0.5236i
0.0000 + 0.0000i
0.0000 + 1.5708i
0.1659 + 0.0000i...
1.4436 + 0.0000i
Compute the inverse hyperbolic sine function for the numbers converted to symbolic
objects. For many symbolic (exact) numbers, asinh returns unresolved symbolic calls.
symA = asinh(sym([-i, 0, 1/6, i/2, i, 2]))
symA =
[ -(pi*i)/2, 0, asinh(1/6), (pi*i)/6, (pi*i)/2, asinh(2)]

4-71
vpa(symA)
ans =
[ -1.5707963267948966192313216916398*i,...
0,...
0.16590455026930116978860971594885,...
0.52359877559829887307710723054658*i,...
1.5707963267948966192313216916398*i,...
1.4436354751788103424932767402731]
Plot the Inverse Hyperbolic Sine Function

Plot the inverse hyperbolic sine function on the interval from -10 to 10.
syms x
ezplot(asinh(x), [-10, 10])
grid on
4-72
asinh
Handle Expressions Containing the Inverse Hyperbolic Sine Function

containing asinh.
Find the first and second derivatives of the inverse hyperbolic sine function:
syms x
diff(asinh(x), x)
diff(asinh(x), x, x)
ans =
1/(x^2 + 1)^(1/2)
4-73
ans =
-x/(x^2 + 1)^(3/2)
Find the indefinite integral of the inverse hyperbolic sine function:

int(asinh(x), x)
ans =
x*asinh(x) - (x^2 + 1)^(1/2)
Find the Taylor series expansion of asinh(x):

taylor(asinh(x), x)
ans =
(3*x^5)/40 - x^3/6 + x
Rewrite the inverse hyperbolic sine function in terms of the natural logarithm:
rewrite(asinh(x), 'log')
ans =
log(x + (x^2 + 1)^(1/2))
Input Arguments
X Input
See Also
acosh | acoth | acsch | asech | atanh | cosh | coth | csch | sech | sinh | tanh
4-74
assume
assume
Set assumption on symbolic object
Syntax
assume(condition)
assume(expr,set)
Description
assume(condition) states that condition is valid for all symbolic variables in
condition. It also removes any assumptions previously made on these symbolic variables.
assume(expr,set) states that expr belongs to set. This new assumption replaces
previously set assumptions on all variables in expr.
Examples
Assumptions on Integrand
Compute this indefinite integral with and without the assumption on the symbolic
parameter a.
Use assume to set an assumption that a does not equal -1:
syms x a
assume(a ~= -1)
Compute this integral:

int(xâ, x)
ans =
x^(a + 1)/(a + 1)
4-75
Now, clear the assumption and compute the same integral. Without assumptions, int
returns this piecewise result:
syms a clear
int(xâ, x)
ans =
piecewise([a == -1, log(x)], [a ~= -1, x^(a + 1)/(a + 1)])
Assume Variable is Even or Odd

To assume the symbolic variable x is even, set the assumption that x/2 is an integer. To
assume x is odd, set the assumption that (x-1)/2 is an integer.
Assume x is even.
syms x
assume(x/2,'integer')
Find all even numbers between 0 and 10 using solve.

solve(x>0, x<10, x)
ans =
2
4
6
8
Assume x is odd. Find all odd numbers between 0 and 10 using solve.
assume((x-1)/2,'integer')
solve(x>0, x<10, x)
ans =
1
3
5
7
9
Clear assumptions on x for further computations.

syms x clear
4-76
assume
Assumptions on Parameters and Variables of Equation

Use assumptions on the symbolic parameter and variable in the kinematic equation for
the free fall motion.
Calculate the time during which the object falls from a certain height by solving the
kinematic equation for the free fall motion. If you do not consider the special case where
no gravitational forces exist, you can assume that the gravitational acceleration g is
positive:
syms g h t
assume(g > 0)
solve(h == g*t^2/2, t)
ans =
(2^(1/2)*h^(1/2))/g^(1/2)
-(2^(1/2)*h^(1/2))/g^(1/2)
You can also set assumptions on variables for which you solve an equation. When you set
assumptions on such variables, the solver compares obtained solutions with the specified
assumptions. This additional task can slow down the solver.
assume(t > 0)
solve(h == g*t^2/2, t)
Warning: The solutions are valid under the following
conditions: 0 < h. To include parameters and conditions in
the solution, specify the 'ReturnConditions' option.
> In solve>warnIfParams at 514
In solve at 356
ans =
(2^(1/2)*h^(1/2))/g^(1/2)
The solver returns a warning that h must be positive. This follows as the object is above
ground.
For further computations, clear the assumptions:
syms g t clear
Assumptions Used for Simplification

Use assumption to simplify the sine function.
4-77
Simplify this sine function:

syms n
simplify(sin(2*n*pi))
ans =
sin(2*pi*n)
Suppose n in this expression is an integer. Then you can simplify the expression further
using the appropriate assumption:
assume(n,'integer')
simplify(sin(2*n*pi))
ans =
0

syms n clear
Assumptions on Expressions
Set assumption on the symbolic expression.
You can set assumptions not only on variables, but also on expressions. For example,
compute this integral:
syms x
int(1/abs(x^2 - 1), x)
ans =
-atanh(x)/sign(x^2 - 1)
If you know that x21>0, set the appropriate assumption:

assume(x^2 - 1 > 0)
int(1/abs(x^2 - 1), x)
ans =
-atanh(x)

syms x clear
4-78
assume
Assumptions Reducing Number of Solutions

Use assumptions to restrict the returned solutions of an equation to a particular interval.
Solve this equation:
syms x
solve(x^5 - (565*x^4)/6 - (1159*x^3)/2 - (2311*x^2)/6 + (365*x)/2 + 250/3, x)
ans =
-5
-1
-1/3
1/2
100
Use assume to restrict the solutions to the interval 1<=x<=1:

assume(-1 <= x <= 1)
solve(x^5 - (565*x^4)/6 - (1159*x^3)/2 - (2311*x^2)/6 + (365*x)/2 + 250/3, x)
ans =
-1
-1/3
1/2
To set several assumptions simultaneously, use the logical operators and, or, xor,
not, or their shortcuts. For example, all negative solutions less than -1 and all positive
solutions greater than 1:
assume(x < -1 | x > 1)
solve(x^5 - (565*x^4)/6 - (1159*x^3)/2 - (2311*x^2)/6 + (365*x)/2 + 250/3, x)
ans =
-5
100

syms x clear
Assumptions on Matrix Elements

Use the assumption on a matrix as a shortcut for setting the same assumption on each
matrix element.
4-79
Create the 3-by-3 symbolic matrix A with the auto-generated elements:

A = sym('A', [3 3])
A
[
[
[
=
A1_1, A1_2, A1_3]
A2_1, A2_2, A2_3]
A3_1, A3_2, A3_3]
Suppose that all elements of this matrix represent rational numbers. Instead of setting
an assumption on each element separately, you can set the assumption on the matrix:
assume(A,'rational')
To see the assumptions on the elements of A, use assumptions:

assumptions(A)
ans =
[ in(A3_1, 'rational'), in(A2_1, 'rational'), in(A1_1, 'rational'),...
in(A3_2, 'rational'), in(A2_2, 'rational'), in(A1_2, 'rational'),...
in(A3_3, 'rational'), in(A2_3, 'rational'), in(A1_3, 'rational')]

syms A clear
Input Arguments
condition Assumption statement
symbolic expression | symbolic equation | relation | vector of symbolic expressions,
equations, or relations | matrix of symbolic expressions, equations, or relations
Assumption statement, specified as a symbolic expression, equation, relation, or vector
or matrix of symbolic expressions, equations, or relations. You also can combine several
assumptions by using the logical operators and, or, xor, not, or their shortcuts.
expr Expression to set assumption on
symbolic variable | symbolic expression | vector | matrix
Expression to set assumption on, specified as a symbolic variable, expression, vector, or
matrix. If expr is a vector or matrix, then assume(expr,set) sets an assumption that
each element of expr belongs to set.
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assume
set Set of integer, rational, or real numbers

'integer' | 'rational' | 'real'
Set of integer, rational, or real numbers, specified as one of these strings: 'integer',
'rational', or 'real'.
More About
Tips
assume removes any assumptions previously set on the symbolic variables. To retain
previous assumptions while adding a new one, use assumeAlso.
When you delete a symbolic variable from the MATLAB workspace using clear, all
assumptions that you set on that variable remain in the symbolic engine. If you later
declare a new symbolic variable with the same name, it inherits these assumptions.
To clear all assumptions set on a symbolic variable and the value of the variable, use
this command:
syms x clear
To clear assumptions and keep the value of the variable, use this command:
sym('x','clear')
To delete all objects in the MATLAB workspace and close the MuPAD engine
associated with the MATLAB workspace clearing all assumptions, use this command:
clear all
If condition is an inequality, then both sides of the inequality must represent real
values. Inequalities with complex numbers are invalid because the field of complex
numbers is not an ordered field. (It is impossible to tell whether 5 + i is greater or
less than 2 + 3*i.) MATLAB projects complex numbers in inequalities to real axis.
For example, x > i becomes x > 0, and x <= 3 + 2*i becomes x <= 3.
The toolbox does not support assumptions on symbolic functions. Make assumptions
on symbolic variables and expressions instead.
When you create a new symbolic variable using sym and syms, you also can set an
assumption that the variable is real or positive:
a = sym('a','real');
b = sym('b','real');
4-81
c = sym('c','positive');
or more efficiently
syms a b real
syms c positive
See Also
and | assumeAlso | assumptions | clear all | in | isAlways | logical | not |

or | sym | syms
Related Examples
4-82
assumeAlso
assumeAlso
Add assumption on symbolic object
Syntax
assumeAlso(condition)
assumeAlso(expr,set)
Description
assumeAlso(condition) states that condition is valid for all symbolic variables in
condition. It retains all assumptions previously set on these symbolic variables.
assumeAlso(expr,set) states that expr belongs to set in addition to all previously
made assumptions.
Examples
Assumptions Specified as Relations
Set assumptions using assume. Then add more assumptions using assumeAlso.
Solve this equation assuming that both x and y are nonnegative:
syms x y
assume(x >= 0 & y >= 0)
s = solve(x^2 + y^2 == 1, y)
Warning: The solutions are valid under the following
conditions: x <= 1; x == 1. To include parameters and
conditions in the solution, specify the 'ReturnConditions'
option.
> In solve>warnIfParams at 514
In solve at 356
s =
4-83
(1 - x)^(1/2)*(x + 1)^(1/2)
-(1 - x)^(1/2)*(x + 1)^(1/2)
The solver warns that both solutions hold only under certain conditions. Now add the
assumption that x < 1. To add a new assumption without removing the previous one,
use assumeAlso:
assumeAlso(x < 1)
Solve the same equation under the expanded set of assumptions:

s = solve(x^2 + y^2 == 1, y)
s =
(1 - x)^(1/2)*(x + 1)^(1/2)

syms x y clear
Assumptions Specified as Sets

Set assumptions using syms. Then add more assumptions using assumeAlso.
When declaring the symbolic variable n, set an assumption that n is positive:
syms n positive
Using assumeAlso, you can add more assumptions on the same variable n. For example,
assume also that n is and integer:
assumeAlso(n,'integer')
To see all assumptions currently valid for the variable n, use assumptions. In this case,
n is a positive integer.
assumptions(n)
ans =
[ in(n, 'integer'), 0 < n]

syms n clear
4-84
assumeAlso
Assumptions on Matrix Elements

Use the assumption on a matrix as a shortcut for setting the same assumption on each
matrix element.
Create the 3-by-3 symbolic matrix A with the auto-generated elements:
A = sym('A', [3 3])
A
[
[
[
=
A1_1, A1_2, A1_3]
A2_1, A2_2, A2_3]
A3_1, A3_2, A3_3]
Suppose that all elements of this matrix represent rational numbers. Instead of setting
an assumption on each element separately, you can set the assumption on the matrix:
assume(A,'rational')
Now, add the assumption that each element of A is greater than 1:

assumeAlso(A > 1)
To see the assumptions on the elements of A, use assumptions:

assumptions(A)
ans =
[ in(A1_1, 'rational'), in(A1_2, 'rational'), in(A1_3, 'rational'),...
1 < A1_1, 1 < A1_2, 1 < A1_3, 1 < A2_1, 1 < A2_2, 1 < A2_3, 1...
< A3_1, 1 < A3_2, 1 < A3_3]

syms A clear
Contradicting Assumptions
When you add assumptions, ensure that the new assumptions do not contradict
the previous assumptions. Contradicting assumptions can lead to inconsistent and
unpredictable results.
4-85
In some cases, assumeAlso detects conflicting assumptions and issues the following
error:
syms y
assume(y,'real')
assumeAlso(y == i)
Error using mupadmex
Error in MuPAD command: Inconsistent assumptions
detected. [property::_setgroup]
assumeAlso does not guarantee to detect contradicting assumptions. For example, you
can assume that y is nonzero, and both y and y*i are real values:
syms y
assume(y ~= 0)
assumeAlso(y,'real')
assumeAlso(y*i,'real')
To see all assumptions currently valid for the variable y, use assumptions:
assumptions(y)
ans =
[ in(y, 'real'), y ~= 0, in(y*i, 'real')]

syms y clear
Input Arguments
condition Assumption statement
symbolic expression | symbolic equation | relation | vector of symbolic expressions,
equations, or relations | matrix of symbolic expressions, equations, or relations
Assumption statement, specified as a symbolic expression, equation, relation, or vector
or matrix of symbolic expressions, equations, or relations. You also can combine several
assumptions by using the logical operators and, or, xor, not, or their shortcuts.
expr Expression to set assumption on
symbolic variable | symbolic expression | vector | matrix
4-86
assumeAlso
Expression to set assumption on, specified as a symbolic variable, expression, vector, or

matrix. If expr is a vector or matrix, then assumeAlso(expr,set) sets an assumption
that each element of expr belongs to set.
set Set of integer, rational, or real numbers
'integer' | 'rational' | 'real'
Set of integer, rational, or real numbers, specified as one of these strings: 'integer',
'rational', or 'real'.
More About
Tips
assumeAlso keeps all assumptions previously set on the symbolic variables. To
replace previous assumptions with the new one, use assume.
When adding assumptions, always check that a new assumption does not contradict
the existing assumptions. To see existing assumptions, use assumptions. Symbolic
Math Toolbox does not guarantee to detect conflicting assumptions. Conflicting
assumptions can lead to unpredictable and inconsistent results.
When you delete a symbolic variable from the MATLAB workspace using clear, all
assumptions that you set on that variable remain in the symbolic engine. If later you
To clear all assumptions set on a symbolic variable and the value of the variable, use
this command:
syms x clear
sym('x','clear')
To clear all objects in the MATLAB workspace and close the MuPAD engine
associated with the MATLAB workspace resetting all its assumptions, use this
command:
clear all
If condition is an inequality, then both sides of the inequality must represent real
values. Inequalities with complex numbers are invalid because the field of complex
numbers is not an ordered field. (It is impossible to tell whether 5 + i is greater or
4-87
less than 2 + 3*i.) MATLAB projects complex numbers in inequalities to real axis.
For example, x > i becomes x > 0, and x <= 3 + 2*i becomes x <= 3.
The toolbox does not support assumptions on symbolic functions. Make assumptions
on symbolic variables and expressions instead.
Instead of adding assumptions one by one, you can set several assumptions in one
function call. To set several assumptions, use assume and combine these assumptions
by using the logical operators and, or, xor, not, all, any, or their shortcuts.
See Also
and | assume | assumptions | clear all | in | isAlways | logical | not | or |

sym | syms
Related Examples
4-88
assumptions
assumptions
Show assumptions set on symbolic variable
Syntax
assumptions(var)
assumptions
Description
assumptions(var) returns all assumptions set on variable var.
assumptions returns all assumptions set on all variables in MATLAB Workspace.
Examples
Assumptions on Several Variables
Show the assumptions set on variables n and x separately, and then show assumptions
set on all variables.
Assume that the variable n is integer and the variable x is rational. In addition to that ,
assume that the product n*x belongs to the interval from -100 to 100:
syms n x
assume(n,'integer')
assume(x,'rational')
assumeAlso(-100 <= n*x <= 100)
To see the assumptions set on the variable n, enter:

assumptions(n)
ans =
[ -100 <= n*x, n*x <= 100, in(n, 'integer')]
4-89
The syntax in(n, 'integer') indicates n is an integer.

To see the assumptions set on the variable x, enter:
assumptions(x)
ans =
[ -100 <= n*x, n*x <= 100, in(x, 'rational')]
To see the assumptions set on all variables, use assumptions without any arguments:
assumptions
ans =
[ -100 <= n*x, n*x <= 100, in(n, 'integer'), in(x, 'rational')]

syms n x clear
Multiple Assumptions on One Variable

Show the assumptions set by using syms and assume.
Use assumptions to return all assumptions, including those set by the syms command:
syms x real
assumeAlso(x < 0)
assumptions(x)
ans =
[ x < 0, in(x, 'real')]
The syntax in(x, 'real') indicates x is real.
Input Arguments
var Variable for which to show assumptions
symbolic variable | array of symbolic variables | vector of symbolic variables | matrix of
symbolic variables
Variable for which to show assumptions, specified as a symbolic variable or array, vector,
or matrix of symbolic variables.
4-90
assumptions
More About
Tips
When you delete a symbolic object from the MATLAB workspace by using clear, all
assumptions that you set on that object remain in the symbolic engine. If later you
To clear all assumptions set on a symbolic variable var and the value of the variable,
use this command:
syms var clear
sym('var','clear')
To clear all objects in the MATLAB workspace and close the MuPAD engine
associated with the MATLAB workspace resetting all its assumptions, use this
command:
clear all
See Also
and | assume | assumeAlso | clear | clear all | in | isAlways | logical | not

| or | sym | syms
Related Examples
4-91
atan
Symbolic inverse tangent function
Syntax
atan(X)
Description
atan(X) returns the inverse tangent function (arctangent function) of X.
Examples
Inverse Tangent Function for Numeric and Symbolic Arguments
Depending on its arguments, atan returns floating-point or exact symbolic results.
Compute the inverse tangent function for these numbers. Because these numbers are not
symbolic objects, atan returns floating-point results.
A = atan([-1, -1/3, -1/sqrt(3), 1/2, 1, sqrt(3)])
A =
-0.7854
-0.3218
-0.5236
0.4636
0.7854
1.0472
Compute the inverse tangent function for the numbers converted to symbolic objects. For
many symbolic (exact) numbers, atan returns unresolved symbolic calls.
symA = atan(sym([-1, -1/3, -1/sqrt(3), 1/2, 1, sqrt(3)]))
symA =
[ -pi/4, -atan(1/3), -pi/6, atan(1/2), pi/4, pi/3]

4-92
atan
vpa(symA)
ans =
[ -0.78539816339744830961566084581988,...
-0.32175055439664219340140461435866,...
-0.52359877559829887307710723054658,...
0.46364760900080611621425623146121,...
0.78539816339744830961566084581988,...
1.0471975511965977461542144610932]
Plot the Inverse Tangent Function

Plot the inverse tangent function on the interval from -10 to 10.
syms x
ezplot(atan(x), [-10, 10])
grid on
4-93
Handle Expressions Containing the Inverse Tangent Function

containing atan.
Find the first and second derivatives of the inverse tangent function:
syms x
diff(atan(x), x)
diff(atan(x), x, x)
ans =
1/(x^2 + 1)
4-94
atan
ans =
-(2*x)/(x^2 + 1)^2
Find the indefinite integral of the inverse tangent function:

int(atan(x), x)
ans =
x*atan(x) - log(x^2 + 1)/2
Find the Taylor series expansion of atan(x):

taylor(atan(x), x)
ans =
x^5/5 - x^3/3 + x
Rewrite the inverse tangent function in terms of the natural logarithm:

rewrite(atan(x), 'log')
ans =
(log(1 - x*i)*i)/2 - (log(x*i + 1)*i)/2
Input Arguments
X Input
See Also
acos | acot | acsc | asec | asin | atan2 | cos | cot | csc | sec | sin | tan
4-95
atan2
Symbolic four-quadrant inverse tangent
Syntax
atan2(Y,X)
Description
atan2(Y,X) computes the four-quadrant inverse tangent (arctangent) of Y and X. If Y
and X are vectors or matrices, atan2 computes arctangents element by element.
Input Arguments
Y
matrix of symbolic numbers, variables, expressions, functions. If Y is a number, it must
be real. If Y is a vector or matrix, it must either be a scalar or have the same dimensions
as X. All numerical elements of Y must be real.
X
matrix of symbolic numbers, variables, expressions, functions. If X is a number, it must
be real. If X is a vector or matrix, it must either be a scalar or have the same dimensions
as Y. All numerical elements of X must be real.
Examples
Compute the arctangents of these parameters. Because these numbers are not symbolic
[atan2(1, 1), atan2(pi, 4), atan2(Inf, Inf)]
4-96
atan2
ans =
0.7854
0.6658
0.7854
Compute the arctangents of these parameters which are converted to symbolic objects:
[atan2(sym(1), 1), atan2(sym(pi), sym(4)), atan2(Inf, sym(Inf))]
ans =
[ pi/4, atan(pi/4), pi/4]
Compute the limits of this symbolic expression:

syms x
limit(atan2(x^2/(1 + x), x), x, -Inf)
limit(atan2(x^2/(1 + x), x), x, Inf)
ans =
-(3*pi)/4
ans =
pi/4
Compute the arctangents of the elements of matrices Y and X:

Y = sym([3 sqrt(3); 1 1]);
X = sym([sqrt(3) 3; 1 0]);
atan2(Y, X)
ans =
[ pi/3, pi/6]
[ pi/4, pi/2]
Alternatives
For complex Z = X + Y*i, the call atan2(Y,X) is equivalent to angle(Z).
More About
atan2 vs. atan
If X 0 and Y 0, then
4-97
atan2 ( Y , X ) = atan(
Y
p
) + sign ( Y ) (1 - sign ( X ) )
X
2
Results returned by atan2 belong to the closed interval [-pi,pi]. Results returned by
atan belong to the closed interval [-pi/2,pi/2].
Tips
Calling atan2 for numbers (or vectors or matrices of numbers) that are not symbolic
objects invokes the MATLAB atan2 function.
If one of the arguments X and Y is a vector or a matrix, and another one is a scalar,
then atan2 expands the scalar into a vector or a matrix of the same length with all
elements equal to that scalar.
Symbolic arguments X and Y are assumed to be real.
If X = 0 and Y > 0, then atan2(Y,X) returns pi/2.
If X = 0 and Y < 0, then atan2(Y,X) returns -pi/2.
If X = Y = 0, then atan2(Y,X) returns 0.
See Also
angle | atan | conj | imag | real
4-98
atanh
atanh
Symbolic inverse hyperbolic tangent function
Syntax
atanh(X)
Description
atanh(X) returns the inverse hyperbolic tangent function of X.
Examples
Inverse Hyperbolic Tangent Function for Numeric and Symbolic
Arguments
Depending on its arguments, atanh returns floating-point or exact symbolic results.
Compute the inverse hyperbolic tangent function for these numbers. Because these
numbers are not symbolic objects, atanh returns floating-point results.
A = atanh([-i, 0, 1/6, i/2, i, 2])
A =
0.0000 - 0.7854i
0.0000 + 0.4636i
0.0000 + 0.0000i
0.0000 + 0.7854i
0.1682 + 0.0000i...
0.5493 + 1.5708i
Compute the inverse hyperbolic tangent function for the numbers converted to symbolic
objects. For many symbolic (exact) numbers, atanh returns unresolved symbolic calls.
symA = atanh(sym([-i, 0, 1/6, i/2, i, 2]))
symA =
[ -(pi*i)/4, 0, atanh(1/6), atanh(i/2), (pi*i)/4, atanh(2)]
4-99

vpa(symA)
ans =
[ -0.78539816339744830961566084581988*i,...
0,...
0.1682361183106064652522967051085,...
0.46364760900080611621425623146121*i,...
0.78539816339744830961566084581988*i,...
0.54930614433405484569762261846126 - 1.5707963267948966192313216916398*i]
Plot the Inverse Hyperbolic Tangent Function

Plot the inverse hyperbolic tangent function on the interval from -1 to 1.
syms x
ezplot(atanh(x), [-1, 1])
grid on
4-100
atanh
Handle Expressions Containing the Inverse Hyperbolic Tangent Function

containing atanh.
Find the first and second derivatives of the inverse hyperbolic tangent function:
syms x
diff(atanh(x), x)
diff(atanh(x), x, x)
ans =
-1/(x^2 - 1)
4-101
ans =
(2*x)/(x^2 - 1)^2
Find the indefinite integral of the inverse hyperbolic tangent function:

int(atanh(x), x)
ans =
log(x^2 - 1)/2 + x*atanh(x)
Find the Taylor series expansion of atanh(x):

taylor(atanh(x), x)
ans =
x^5/5 + x^3/3 + x
Rewrite the inverse hyperbolic tangent function in terms of the natural logarithm:
rewrite(atanh(x), 'log')
ans =
log(x + 1)/2 - log(1 - x)/2
Input Arguments
X Input
See Also
acosh | acoth | acsch | asech | asinh | cosh | coth | csch | sech | sinh | tanh
4-102
bernoulli
bernoulli
Bernoulli numbers and polynomials
Syntax
bernoulli(n)
bernoulli(n,x)
Description
bernoulli(n) returns the nth Bernoulli number.
bernoulli(n,x) returns the nth Bernoulli polynomial.
Examples
Bernoulli Numbers with Odd and Even Indices
The 0th Bernoulli number is 1. The next Bernoulli number can be -1/2 or 1/2,
depending on the definition. The bernoulli function uses -1/2. The Bernoulli numbers
with even indices n > 1 alternate the signs. Any Bernoulli number with an odd index n
> 2 is 0.
Compute the even-indexed Bernoulli numbers with the indices from 0 to 10. Because
these indices are not symbolic objects, bernoulli returns floating-point results.
bernoulli(0:2:10)
ans =
1.0000
0.1667
-0.0333
0.0238
-0.0333
0.0758
Compute the same Bernoulli numbers for the indices converted to symbolic objects:
bernoulli(sym(0:2:10))
ans =
[ 1, 1/6, -1/30, 1/42, -1/30, 5/66]
Compute the odd-indexed Bernoulli numbers with the indices from 1 to 11:
4-103
bernoulli(sym(1:2:11))
ans =
[ -1/2, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0]
Bernoulli Polynomials
For the Bernoulli polynomials, use bernoulli with two input arguments.
Compute the first, second, and third Bernoulli polynomials in variables x, y, and z,
respectively:
syms x y z
bernoulli(1, x)
bernoulli(2, y)
bernoulli(3, z)
ans =
x - 1/2
ans =
y^2 - y + 1/6
ans =
z^3 - (3*z^2)/2 + z/2
If the second argument is a number, bernoulli evaluates the polynomial at that

number. Here, the result is a floating-point number because the input arguments are not
symbolic numbers:
bernoulli(2, 1/3)
ans =
-0.0556
To get the exact symbolic result, convert at least one of the numbers to a symbolic object:
bernoulli(2, sym(1/3))
ans =
-1/18
Plot the Bernoulli Polynomials

Plot the first six Bernoulli polynomials.
4-104
bernoulli
syms x
for n = 0:5
ezplot(bernoulli(n, x), [-0.8, 1.8]);
hold on
end
title('Bernoulli Polynomials')
grid on
hold off
Handle Expressions Containing the Bernoulli Polynomials

Many functions, such as diff and expand, handles expressions containing bernoulli.
4-105
Find the first and second derivatives of the Bernoulli polynomial:

syms n x
diff(bernoulli(n,x^2), x)
ans =
2*n*x*bernoulli(n - 1, x^2)
diff(bernoulli(n,x^2), x, x)
ans =
2*n*bernoulli(n - 1, x^2) +...
4*n*x^2*bernoulli(n - 2, x^2)*(n - 1)
Expand these expressions containing the Bernoulli polynomials:

expand(bernoulli(n, x + 3))
ans =
bernoulli(n, x) + (n*(x + 1)^n)/(x + 1) +...
(n*(x + 2)^n)/(x + 2) + (n*x^n)/x
expand(bernoulli(n, 3*x))
ans =
(3^n*bernoulli(n, x))/3 + (3^n*bernoulli(n, x + 1/3))/3 +...
(3^n*bernoulli(n, x + 2/3))/3
Input Arguments
n Index of the Bernoulli number or polynomial
nonnegative integer | symbolic nonnegative integer | symbolic variable | symbolic
expression | symbolic function | symbolic vector | symbolic matrix
Index of the Bernoulli number or polynomial, specified as a nonnegative integer,
symbolic nonnegative integer, variable, expression, function, vector, or matrix. If n
is a vector or matrix, bernoulli returns Bernoulli numbers or polynomials for each
element of n. If one input argument is a scalar and the other one is a vector or a matrix,
bernoulli(n,x) expands the scalar into a vector or matrix of the same size as the other
argument with all elements equal to that scalar.
x Polynomial variable
symbolic variable | symbolic expression | symbolic function | symbolic vector | symbolic
matrix
4-106
bernoulli
Polynomial variable, specified as a symbolic variable, expression, function, vector, or

matrix. If x is a vector or matrix, bernoulli returns Bernoulli numbers or polynomials
for each element of x. When you use the bernoulli function to find Bernoulli
polynomials, at least one argument must be a scalar or both arguments must be vectors
or matrices of the same size. If one input argument is a scalar and the other one is a
vector or a matrix, bernoulli(n,x) expands the scalar into a vector or matrix of the
same size as the other argument with all elements equal to that scalar.
More About
Bernoulli Polynomials
The Bernoulli polynomials are defined as follows:
te xt
et - 1
tn
bernoulli (n, x) n !
n =0
Bernoulli Numbers
The Bernoulli numbers are defined as follows:
bernoulli ( n ) = bernoulli ( n, 0 )
See Also
euler
4-107
bernstein
Bernstein polynomials
Syntax
bernstein(f,n,t)
bernstein(g,n,t)
bernstein(g,var,n,t)
Description
bernstein(f,n,t) with a function handle f returns the nth-order Bernstein polynomial
symsum(nchoosek(n,k)*t^k*(1-t)^(n-k)*f(k/n),k,0,n), evaluated at the point
t. This polynomial approximates the function f over the interval [0,1].
bernstein(g,n,t) with a symbolic expression or function g returns the nth-order
Bernstein polynomial, evaluated at the point t. This syntax regards g as a univariate
function of the variable determined by symvar(g,1).
If any argument is symbolic, bernstein converts all arguments except a function handle
to symbolic, and converts a function handles results to symbolic.
bernstein(g,var,n,t) with a symbolic expression or function g returns the
approximating nth-order Bernstein polynomial, regarding g as a univariate function of
the variable var.
Examples
Approximation of the Sine Function Specified as a Function Handle
Approximate the sine function by the 10th- and 100th-degree Bernstein polynomials:
syms t
4-108
bernstein
b10 = bernstein(@(t) sin(2*pi*t), 10, t);

b100 = bernstein(@(t) sin(2*pi*t), 100, t);
Plot sin(2*pi*t) and its approximations:

ezplot(sin(2*pi*t),[0,1])
hold on
ezplot(b10,[0,1])
ezplot(b100,[0,1])
legend('sine function','10th-degree polynomial',...
'100th-degree polynomial')
title('Bernstein polynomials')
hold off
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Approximation of the Exponential Function Specified as a Symbolic

Expression
Approximate the exponential function by the second-order Bernstein polynomial in the
variable t:
syms x t
bernstein(exp(x), 2, t)
ans =
(t - 1)^2 + t^2*exp(1) - 2*t*exp(1/2)*(t - 1)
Approximate the multivariate exponential function. When you approximate a

multivariate function, bernstein regards it as a univariate function of the default
variable determined by symvar. The default variable for the expression y*exp(x*y) is
x:
syms x y t
symvar(y*exp(x*y), 1)
ans =
x
bernstein treats this expression as a univariate function of x:

bernstein(y*exp(x*y), 2, t)
ans =
y*(t - 1)^2 + t^2*y*exp(y) - 2*t*y*exp(y/2)*(t - 1)
To treat y*exp(x*y) as a function of the variable y, specify the variable explicitly:

bernstein(y*exp(x*y), y, 2, t)
ans =
t^2*exp(x) - t*exp(x/2)*(t - 1)
Approximation of a Linear Ramp Specified as a Symbolic Function

Approximate function f representing a linear ramp by the fifth-order Bernstein
polynomials in the variable t:
4-110
bernstein
syms f(t)
f(t) = triangularPulse(1/4, 3/4, Inf, t);
p = bernstein(f, 5, t)
p =
7*t^3*(t - 1)^2 - 3*t^2*(t - 1)^3 - 5*t^4*(t - 1) + t^5
Simplify the result:

simplify(p)
ans =
-t^2*(2*t - 3)
Numerical Stability of Simplified Bernstein Polynomials

When you simplify a high-order symbolic Bernstein polynomial, the result often cannot
be evaluated in a numerically stable way.
Approximate this rectangular pulse function by the 100th-degree Bernstein polynomial,
and then simplify the result:
f = @(x)rectangularPulse(1/4,3/4,x);
b1 = bernstein(f, 100, sym('t'));
b2 = simplify(b1);
Convert the polynomial b1 and the simplified polynomial b2 to MATLAB functions:

f1 = matlabFunction(b1);
f2 = matlabFunction(b2);
Compare the plot of the original rectangular pulse function, its numerically stable
Bernstein representation f1, and its simplified version f2. The simplified version is not
numerically stable.
t = 0:0.001:1;
plot(t, f(t), t, f1(t), t, f2(t))
hold on
legend('original function','Bernstein polynomial',...
'simplified Bernstein polynomial')
hold off
4-111
Input Arguments
f Function to be approximated by a polynomial
function handle
Function to be approximated by a polynomial, specified as a function handle. f must
accept one scalar input argument and return a scalar value.
g Function to be approximated by a polynomial
symbolic expression | symbolic function
Function to be approximated by a polynomial, specified as a symbolic expression or
function.
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bernstein
n Bernstein polynomial order

nonnegative integer
Bernstein polynomial order, specified as a nonnegative number.
t Evaluation point
number | symbolic number | symbolic variable | symbolic expression | symbolic
function
Evaluation point, specified as a number, symbolic number, variable, expression, or
function. If t is a symbolic function, the evaluation point is the mathematical expression
that defines t. To extract the mathematical expression defining t, bernstein uses
formula(t).
var Free variable
symbolic variable
Free variable, specified as a symbolic variable.
More About
Bernstein Polynomials
A Bernstein polynomial is a linear combination of Bernstein basis polynomials.
A Bernstein polynomial of degree n is defined as follows:
n
B (t ) =
b k bk,n (t ).
k= 0
Here,
n
n -k
bk,n ( t ) = tk (1 - t)
, k = 0, , n
k

n
are the Bernstein basis polynomials, and is a binomial coefficient.
k
4-113
The coefficients b k are called Bernstein coefficients or Bezier coefficients.

If f is a continuous function on the interval [0, 1] and
Bn ( f ) ( t ) =
f n bk,n ( t)
k =0
is the approximating Bernstein polynomial, then

lim Bn ( f )( t ) = f ( t )
uniformly in t on the interval [0, 1].

Tips
Symbolic polynomials returned for symbolic t are numerically stable when
substituting numerical values between 0 and 1 for t.
If you simplify a symbolic Bernstein polynomial, the result can be unstable when
substituting numerical values for the curve parameter t.
See Also
bernstein | bernsteinMatrix | bernsteinMatrix | binomial | fact | formula

| nchoosek | symsum | symvar
4-114
bernsteinMatrix
bernsteinMatrix
Bernstein matrix
Syntax
B = bernsteinMatrix(n,t)
Description
B = bernsteinMatrix(n,t), where t is a vector, returns the length(t)-by-(n+1)
Bernstein matrix B, such that B(i,k+1)= nchoosek(n,k)*t(i)^k*(1-t(i))^(nk). Here, the index i runs from 1 to length(t), and the index k runs from 0 to n.
The Bernstein matrix is also called the Bezier matrix.
Use Bernstein matrices to construct Bezier curves:
bezierCurve = bernsteinMatrix(n, t)*P
Here, the n+1 rows of the matrix P specify the control points of the Bezier curve. For
example, to construct the second-order 3-D Bezier curve, specify the control points as:
P = [p0x, p0y, p0z;
p1x, p1y, p1z;
p2x, p2y, p2z]
Examples
2-D Bezier Curve
Plot the fourth-order Bezier curve specified by the control points p0 = [0 1], p1
= [4 3], p2 = [6 2], p3 = [3 0], p4 = [2 4]. Create a matrix with each row
representing a control point:
P = [0 1; 4 3; 6 2; 3 0; 2 4];
Compute the fourth-order Bernstein matrix B:

syms t
B = bernsteinMatrix(4, t)
B =
4-115
[ (t - 1)^4, -4*t*(t - 1)^3, 6*t^2*(t - 1)^2, -4*t^3*(t - 1), t^4]
Construct the Bezier curve:

bezierCurve = simplify(B*P)
bezierCurve =
[ -2*t*(- 5*t^3 + 6*t^2 + 6*t - 8), 5*t^4 + 8*t^3 - 18*t^2 + 8*t + 1]
Plot the curve adding the control points to the plot:

ezplot(bezierCurve(1), bezierCurve(2), [0, 1])
hold on
scatter(P(:,1), P(:,2),'filled')
title('Fourth-order Bezier curve')
hold off
4-116
bernsteinMatrix
3-D Bezier Curve

Construct the third-order Bezier curve specified by the 4-by-3 matrix P of control points.
Each control point corresponds to a row of the matrix P.
P = [0 0 0; 2 2 2; 2 -1 1; 6 1 3];
Compute the third-order Bernstein matrix:

syms t
B = bernsteinMatrix(3,t)
B =
[ -(t - 1)^3, 3*t*(t - 1)^2, -3*t^2*(t - 1), t^3]
Construct the Bezier curve:

bezierCurve = simplify(B*P)
bezierCurve =
[ 6*t*(t^2 - t + 1), t*(10*t^2 - 15*t + 6), 3*t*(2*t^2 - 3*t + 2)]
Plot the curve adding the control points to the plot:

ezplot3(bezierCurve(1), bezierCurve(2), bezierCurve(3), [0, 1])
hold on
scatter3(P(:,1), P(:,2), P(:,3),'filled')
hold off
4-117
3-D Bezier Curve with the Evaluation Point Specified as a Vector

Construct the third-order Bezier curve with the evaluation point specified by the
following 1-by-101 vector t:
t = 0:1/100:1;
Compute the third-order 101-by-4 Bernstein matrix and specify the control points:
B = bernsteinMatrix(3,t);
P = [0 0 0; 2 2 2; 2 -1 1; 6 1 3];
Construct and plot the Bezier curve. Add grid lines and control points to the plot.
4-118
bernsteinMatrix
bezierCurve = B*P;
plot3(bezierCurve(:,1), bezierCurve(:,2), bezierCurve(:,3))
hold on
grid
scatter3(P(:,1), P(:,2), P(:,3),'filled')
hold off
Input Arguments
n Approximation order
nonnegative integer
Approximation order, specified as a nonnegative integer.
4-119
t Evaluation point
number | vector | symbolic number | symbolic variable | symbolic expression | symbolic
vector
vector.
Output Arguments
B Bernstein matrix
matrix
Bernstein matrix, returned as a length(t)-by-n+1 matrix.
See Also
bernstein | bernstein | bernsteinMatrix | binomial | fact | nchoosek |

symsum | symvar
4-120
besseli
besseli
Modified Bessel function of the first kind
Syntax
besseli(nu,z)
Description
besseli(nu,z) returns the modified Bessel function of the first kind, I(z).
Input Arguments
nu
Symbolic number, variable, expression, function, or a vector or matrix of symbolic
numbers, variables, expressions, or functions. If nu is a vector or matrix, besseli
returns the modified Bessel function of the first kind for each element of nu.
z
numbers, variables, expressions, or functions. If z is a vector or matrix, besseli returns
the modified Bessel function of the first kind for each element of z.
Examples
Solve this second-order differential equation. The solutions are the modified Bessel
functions of the first and the second kind.
syms nu w(z)
dsolve(z^2*diff(w, 2) + z*diff(w) -(z^2 + nu^2)*w == 0)
ans =
C2*besseli(nu, z) + C3*besselk(nu, z)
4-121
Verify that the modified Bessel function of the first kind is a valid solution of the
modified Bessel differential equation.
syms nu z
simplify(z^2*diff(besseli(nu, z), z, 2) + z*diff(besseli(nu, z), z)...
- (z^2 + nu^2)*besseli(nu, z)) == 0
ans =
1
Compute the modified Bessel functions of the first kind for these numbers. Because these
numbers are not symbolic objects, you get floating-point results.
[besseli(0, 5), besseli(-1, 2), besseli(1/3, 7/4),
ans =
27.2399 + 0.0000i
1.5906 + 0.0000i
1.7951 + 0.0000i
besseli(1, 3/2 + 2*i)]
-0.1523 + 1.0992i
Compute the modified Bessel functions of the first kind for the numbers converted to
symbolic objects. For most symbolic (exact) numbers, besseli returns unresolved
symbolic calls.
[besseli(sym(0), 5), besseli(sym(-1), 2),...
besseli(1/3, sym(7/4)), besseli(sym(1), 3/2 + 2*i)]
ans =
[ besseli(0, 5), besseli(1, 2), besseli(1/3, 7/4), besseli(1, 3/2 + 2*i)]
For symbolic variables and expressions, besseli also returns unresolved symbolic calls:
syms x y
[besseli(x, y), besseli(1, x^2), besseli(2, x - y), besseli(x^2, x*y)]
ans =
[ besseli(x, y), besseli(1, x^2), besseli(2, x - y), besseli(x^2, x*y)]
If the first parameter is an odd integer multiplied by 1/2, besseli rewrites the Bessel
functions in terms of elementary functions:
syms x
besseli(1/2, x)
ans =
(2^(1/2)*sinh(x))/(pi^(1/2)*x^(1/2))
besseli(-1/2, x)
4-122
besseli
ans =
(2^(1/2)*cosh(x))/(pi^(1/2)*x^(1/2))
besseli(-3/2, x)
ans =
(2^(1/2)*(sinh(x) - cosh(x)/x))/(pi^(1/2)*x^(1/2))
besseli(5/2, x)
ans =
-(2^(1/2)*((3*cosh(x))/x - sinh(x)*(3/x^2 + 1)))/(pi^(1/2)*x^(1/2))
Differentiate the expressions involving the modified Bessel functions of the first kind:
syms x y
diff(besseli(1, x))
diff(diff(besseli(0, x^2 + x*y -y^2), x), y)
ans =
besseli(0, x) - besseli(1, x)/x
ans =
besseli(1, x^2 + x*y - y^2) +...
(2*x + y)*(besseli(0, x^2 + x*y - y^2)*(x - 2*y) -...
(besseli(1, x^2 + x*y - y^2)*(x - 2*y))/(x^2 + x*y - y^2))
Call besseli for the matrix A and the value 1/2. The result is a matrix of the modified
Bessel functions besseli(1/2, A(i,j)).
syms x
A = [-1, pi; x, 0];
besseli(1/2, A)
ans =
[
(2^(1/2)*sinh(1)*i)/pi^(1/2), (2^(1/2)*sinh(pi))/pi]
[ (2^(1/2)*sinh(x))/(pi^(1/2)*x^(1/2)),
0]
Plot the modified Bessel functions of the first kind for =0, 1, 2, 3:
syms x y
for nu = [0, 1, 2, 3]
ezplot(besseli(nu, x))
hold on
4-123
end
axis([0, 4, -0.1, 4])
grid on
ylabel('I_v(x)')
legend('I_0','I_1','I_2','I_3', 'Location','Best')
title('Modified Bessel functions of the first kind')
hold off
More About
Modified Bessel Functions of the First Kind
The modified Bessel differential equation
4-124
besseli
z2
d2w
2
dz
+z
dw
- z2 + n 2 w = 0
dz
has two linearly independent solutions. These solutions are represented by the modified
Bessel functions of the first kind, I(z), and the modified Bessel functions of the second
kind, K(z):
w ( z) = C1 In ( z ) + C2 Kn ( z )
This formula is the integral representation of the modified Bessel functions of the first
kind:
In ( z ) =
( z 2 )n p z cos( t) ( )2n
sin t
e
p G (n + 1 2 ) 0
dt
Tips
Calling besseli for a number that is not a symbolic object invokes the MATLAB
besseli function.
At least one input argument must be a scalar or both arguments must be vectors or
matrices of the same size. If one input argument is a scalar and the other one is a
vector or a matrix, besseli(nu,z) expands the scalar into a vector or matrix of the
References
[1] Olver, F. W. J. Bessel Functions of Integer Order. Handbook of Mathematical
Functions with Formulas, Graphs, and Mathematical Tables. (M. Abramowitz
and I. A. Stegun, eds.). New York: Dover, 1972.
[2] Antosiewicz, H. A. Bessel Functions of Fractional Order. Handbook of Mathematical
See Also
airy | | besselj | besselk | bessely

4-125
besselj
Bessel function of the first kind
Syntax
besselj(nu,z)
Description
besselj(nu,z) returns the Bessel function of the first kind, J(z).
Input Arguments
nu
returns the Bessel function of the first kind for each element of nu.
z
the Bessel function of the first kind for each element of z.
Examples
Solve this second-order differential equation. The solutions are the Bessel functions of
the first and the second kind.
syms nu w(z)
dsolve(z^2*diff(w, 2) + z*diff(w) +(z^2 - nu^2)*w == 0)
ans =
4-126
besselj
C2*besselj(nu, z) + C3*bessely(nu, z)
Verify that the Bessel function of the first kind is a valid solution of the Bessel
differential equation:
syms nu z
simplify(z^2*diff(besselj(nu, z), z, 2) + z*diff(besselj(nu, z), z)...
+ (z^2 - nu^2)*besselj(nu, z)) == 0
ans =
1
Compute the Bessel functions of the first kind for these numbers. Because these numbers
are not symbolic objects, you get floating-point results.
[besselj(0, 5), besselj(-1, 2), besselj(1/3, 7/4),...
besselj(1, 3/2 + 2*i)]
ans =
-0.1776 + 0.0000i
-0.5767 + 0.0000i
0.5496 + 0.0000i
1.6113 + 0.3982i
Compute the Bessel functions of the first kind for the numbers converted to symbolic
objects. For most symbolic (exact) numbers, besselj returns unresolved symbolic calls.
[besselj(sym(0), 5), besselj(sym(-1), 2),...
besselj(1/3, sym(7/4)), besselj(sym(1), 3/2 + 2*i)]
ans =
[ besselj(0, 5), -besselj(1, 2), besselj(1/3, 7/4), besselj(1, 3/2 + 2*i)]
For symbolic variables and expressions, besselj also returns unresolved symbolic calls:
syms x y
[besselj(x, y), besselj(1, x^2), besselj(2, x - y), besselj(x^2, x*y)]
ans =
[ besselj(x, y), besselj(1, x^2), besselj(2, x - y), besselj(x^2, x*y)]
If the first parameter is an odd integer multiplied by 1/2, besselj rewrites the Bessel
syms x
besselj(1/2, x)
ans =
(2^(1/2)*sin(x))/(pi^(1/2)*x^(1/2))
4-127
besselj(-1/2, x)
ans =
(2^(1/2)*cos(x))/(pi^(1/2)*x^(1/2))
besselj(-3/2, x)
ans =
-(2^(1/2)*(sin(x) + cos(x)/x))/(pi^(1/2)*x^(1/2))
besselj(5/2, x)
ans =
-(2^(1/2)*((3*cos(x))/x - sin(x)*(3/x^2 - 1)))/(pi^(1/2)*x^(1/2))
Differentiate the expressions involving the Bessel functions of the first kind:
syms x y
diff(besselj(1, x))
diff(diff(besselj(0, x^2 + x*y -y^2), x), y)
ans =
besselj(0, x) - besselj(1, x)/x
ans =
- besselj(1, x^2 + x*y - y^2) -...
(2*x + y)*(besselj(0, x^2 + x*y - y^2)*(x - 2*y) -...
(besselj(1, x^2 + x*y - y^2)*(x - 2*y))/(x^2 + x*y - y^2))
Call besselj for the matrix A and the value 1/2. The result is a matrix of the Bessel
functions besselj(1/2, A(i,j)).
syms x
A = [-1, pi; x, 0];
besselj(1/2, A)
ans =
[
(2^(1/2)*sin(1)*i)/pi^(1/2), 0]
[ (2^(1/2)*sin(x))/(pi^(1/2)*x^(1/2)), 0]
Plot the Bessel functions of the first kind for =0, 1, 2, 3:

syms x y
for nu = [0, 1, 2, 3]
ezplot(besselj(nu, x), [0, 10])
hold on
4-128
besselj
end
axis([0, 10, -0.5, 1.1])
grid on
ylabel('J_v(x)')
legend('J_0','J_1','J_2','J_3', 'Location','Best')
title('Bessel functions of the first kind')
hold off
More About
Bessel Functions of the First Kind
The Bessel differential equation
4-129
z2
d2w
2
+z
dz
dw
+ z2 - n 2 w = 0
dz
has two linearly independent solutions. These solutions are represented by the Bessel
functions of the first kind, J(z), and the Bessel functions of the second kind, Y(z):
w ( z) = C1Jn ( z) + C2 Yn ( z )
This formula is the integral representation of the Bessel functions of the first kind:
n
Jn ( z ) =
p
( z 2)
2n
cos ( z cos ( t ) ) sin ( t )
p G (n + 1 2 ) 0
dt
Tips
Calling besselj for a number that is not a symbolic object invokes the MATLAB
besselj function.
vector or a matrix, besselj(nu,z) expands the scalar into a vector or matrix of the
References
See Also
airy | besseli | besselk | bessely
4-130
besselk
besselk
Modified Bessel function of the second kind
Syntax
besselk(nu,z)
Description
besselk(nu,z) returns the modified Bessel function of the second kind, K(z).
Input Arguments
nu
returns the modified Bessel function of the second kind for each element of nu.
z
the modified Bessel function of the second kind for each element of z.
Examples
Solve this second-order differential equation. The solutions are the modified Bessel
functions of the first and the second kind.
syms nu w(z)
dsolve(z^2*diff(w, 2) + z*diff(w) -(z^2 + nu^2)*w == 0)
ans =
C2*besseli(nu, z) + C3*besselk(nu, z)
4-131
Verify that the modified Bessel function of the second kind is a valid solution of the
modified Bessel differential equation:
syms nu z
simplify(z^2*diff(besselk(nu, z), z, 2) + z*diff(besselk(nu, z), z)...
- (z^2 + nu^2)*besselk(nu, z)) == 0
ans =
1
Compute the modified Bessel functions of the second kind for these numbers. Because
these numbers are not symbolic objects, you get floating-point results.
[besselk(0, 5), besselk(-1, 2), besselk(1/3, 7/4),...
besselk(1, 3/2 + 2*i)]
ans =
0.0037 + 0.0000i
0.1399 + 0.0000i
0.1594 + 0.0000i
-0.1620 - 0.1066i
Compute the modified Bessel functions of the second kind for the numbers converted
to symbolic objects. For most symbolic (exact) numbers, besselk returns unresolved
symbolic calls.
[besselk(sym(0), 5), besselk(sym(-1), 2),...
besselk(1/3, sym(7/4)), besselk(sym(1), 3/2 + 2*i)]
ans =
[ besselk(0, 5), besselk(1, 2), besselk(1/3, 7/4), besselk(1, 3/2 + 2*i)]
For symbolic variables and expressions, besselk also returns unresolved symbolic calls:
syms x y
[besselk(x, y), besselk(1, x^2), besselk(2, x - y), besselk(x^2, x*y)]
ans =
[ besselk(x, y), besselk(1, x^2), besselk(2, x - y), besselk(x^2, x*y)]
If the first parameter is an odd integer multiplied by 1/2, besselk rewrites the Bessel
syms x
besselk(1/2, x)
ans =
(2^(1/2)*pi^(1/2)*exp(-x))/(2*x^(1/2))
besselk(-1/2, x)
4-132
besselk
ans =
(2^(1/2)*pi^(1/2)*exp(-x))/(2*x^(1/2))
besselk(-3/2, x)
ans =
(2^(1/2)*pi^(1/2)*exp(-x)*(1/x + 1))/(2*x^(1/2))
besselk(5/2, x)
ans =
(2^(1/2)*pi^(1/2)*exp(-x)*(3/x + 3/x^2 + 1))/(2*x^(1/2))
Differentiate the expressions involving the modified Bessel functions of the second kind:
syms x y
diff(besselk(1, x))
diff(diff(besselk(0, x^2 + x*y -y^2), x), y)
ans =
- besselk(1, x)/x - besselk(0, x)
ans =
(2*x + y)*(besselk(0, x^2 + x*y - y^2)*(x - 2*y) +...
(besselk(1, x^2 + x*y - y^2)*(x - 2*y))/(x^2 + x*y - y^2)) -...
besselk(1, x^2 + x*y - y^2)
Call besselk for the matrix A and the value 1/2. The result is a matrix of the modified
Bessel functions besselk(1/2, A(i,j)).
syms x
A = [-1, pi; x, 0];
besselk(1/2, A)
ans =
[
-(2^(1/2)*pi^(1/2)*exp(1)*i)/2, (2^(1/2)*exp(-pi))/2]
[ (2^(1/2)*pi^(1/2)*exp(-x))/(2*x^(1/2)),
Inf]
Plot the modified Bessel functions of the second kind for =0, 1, 2, 3:
syms x y
for nu = [0, 1, 2, 3]
ezplot(besselk(nu, x))
hold on
4-133
end
axis([0, 4, 0, 4])
grid on
ylabel('K_v(x)')
legend('K_0','K_1','K_2','K_3', 'Location','Best')
title('Modified Bessel functions of the second kind')
hold off
More About
Modified Bessel Functions of the Second Kind
The modified Bessel differential equation
4-134
besselk
z2
d2w
2
+z
dz
dw
- z2 + n 2 w = 0
dz
has two linearly independent solutions. These solutions are represented by the modified
Bessel functions of the first kind, I(z), and the modified Bessel functions of the second
kind, K(z):
w ( z) = C1 In ( z ) + C2 Kn ( z )
The modified Bessel functions of the second kind are defined via the modified Bessel
functions of the first kind:
Kn ( z ) =
p 2
( I-n ( z ) - In ( z ))
sin (np )
Here I(z) are the modified Bessel functions of the first kind:
In ( z ) =
( z 2 )n p z cos( t) ( )2n
sin t
e
p G (n + 1 2 ) 0
dt
Tips
Calling besselk for a number that is not a symbolic object invokes the MATLAB
besselk function.
vector or a matrix, besselk(nu,z) expands the scalar into a vector or matrix of the
References
4-135

See Also
airy | besseli | besselj | bessely
4-136
bessely
bessely
Bessel function of the second kind
Syntax
bessely(nu,z)
Description
bessely(nu,z) returns the Bessel function of the second kind, Y(z).
Input Arguments
nu
numbers, variables, expressions, or functions. If nu is a vector or matrix, bessely
returns the Bessel function of the second kind for each element of nu.
z
numbers, variables, expressions, or functions. If z is a vector or matrix, bessely returns
the Bessel function of the second kind for each element of z.
Examples
Solve this second-order differential equation. The solutions are the Bessel functions of
the first and the second kind.
syms nu w(z)
dsolve(z^2*diff(w, 2) + z*diff(w) +(z^2 - nu^2)*w == 0)
ans =
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C2*besselj(nu, z) + C3*bessely(nu, z)
Verify that the Bessel function of the second kind is a valid solution of the Bessel
syms nu z
simplify(z^2*diff(bessely(nu, z), z, 2) + z*diff(bessely(nu, z), z)...
+ (z^2 - nu^2)*bessely(nu, z)) == 0
ans =
1
Compute the Bessel functions of the second kind for these numbers. Because these
[bessely(0, 5), bessely(-1, 2), bessely(1/3, 7/4), bessely(1, 3/2 + 2*i)]
ans =
-0.3085 + 0.0000i
0.1070 + 0.0000i
0.2358 + 0.0000i
-0.4706 + 1.5873i
Compute the Bessel functions of the second kind for the numbers converted to symbolic
objects. For most symbolic (exact) numbers, bessely returns unresolved symbolic calls.
[bessely(sym(0), 5), bessely(sym(-1), 2),...
bessely(1/3, sym(7/4)), bessely(sym(1), 3/2 + 2*i)]
ans =
[ bessely(0, 5), -bessely(1, 2), bessely(1/3, 7/4), bessely(1, 3/2 + 2*i)]
For symbolic variables and expressions, bessely also returns unresolved symbolic calls:
syms x y
[bessely(x, y), bessely(1, x^2), bessely(2, x - y), bessely(x^2, x*y)]
ans =
[ bessely(x, y), bessely(1, x^2), bessely(2, x - y), bessely(x^2, x*y)]
If the first parameter is an odd integer multiplied by 1/2, besseli rewrites the Bessel
syms x
bessely(1/2, x)
ans =
-(2^(1/2)*cos(x))/(pi^(1/2)*x^(1/2))
bessely(-1/2, x)
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bessely
ans =
(2^(1/2)*sin(x))/(pi^(1/2)*x^(1/2))
bessely(-3/2, x)
ans =
(2^(1/2)*(cos(x) - sin(x)/x))/(pi^(1/2)*x^(1/2))
bessely(5/2, x)
ans =
-(2^(1/2)*((3*sin(x))/x + cos(x)*(3/x^2 - 1)))/(pi^(1/2)*x^(1/2))
Differentiate the expressions involving the Bessel functions of the second kind:
syms x y
diff(bessely(1, x))
diff(diff(bessely(0, x^2 + x*y -y^2), x), y)
ans =
bessely(0, x) - bessely(1, x)/x
ans =
- bessely(1, x^2 + x*y - y^2) -...
(2*x + y)*(bessely(0, x^2 + x*y - y^2)*(x - 2*y) -...
(bessely(1, x^2 + x*y - y^2)*(x - 2*y))/(x^2 + x*y - y^2))
Call bessely for the matrix A and the value 1/2. The result is a matrix of the Bessel
functions bessely(1/2, A(i,j)).
syms x
A = [-1, pi; x, 0];
bessely(1/2, A)
ans =
[
(2^(1/2)*cos(1)*i)/pi^(1/2), 2^(1/2)/pi]
[ -(2^(1/2)*cos(x))/(pi^(1/2)*x^(1/2)),
Inf]
Plot the Bessel functions of the second kind for =0, 1, 2, 3:

syms x y
for nu = [0, 1, 2, 3]
ezplot(bessely(nu, x), [0, 10])
hold on
end
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axis([0, 10, -1, 0.6])

grid on
ylabel('Y_v(x)')
legend('Y_0','Y_1','Y_2','Y_3', 'Location','Best')
title('Bessel functions of the second kind')
hold off
More About
Bessel Functions of the Second Kind
The Bessel differential equation
4-140
bessely
z2
d2w
2
+z
dz
dw
+ z2 - n 2 w = 0
dz
has two linearly independent solutions. These solutions are represented by the Bessel
functions of the first kind, J(z), and the Bessel functions of the second kind, Y(z):
w ( z) = C1Jn ( z) + C2 Yn ( z )
The Bessel functions of the second kind are defined via the Bessel functions of the first
kind:
J ( z ) cos (np ) - J-n ( z )

Yn ( z ) = n
sin (np )
Here J(z) are the Bessel function of the first kind:
n
Jn ( z ) =
p
( z 2)
2n
cos ( z cos ( t ) ) sin ( t )
p G (n + 1 2 ) 0
dt
Tips
Calling bessely for a number that is not a symbolic object invokes the MATLAB
bessely function.
vector or a matrix, bessely(nu,z) expands the scalar into a vector or matrix of the
References
4-141

See Also
airy | besseli | besselj | besselk
4-142
beta
beta
Beta function
Syntax
beta(x,y)
Description
beta(x,y) returns the beta function of x and y.
Input Arguments
x
numbers, variables, expressions, or functions. If x is a vector or matrix, beta returns the
beta function for each element of x.
y
numbers, variables, expressions, or functions. If y is a vector or matrix, beta returns the
beta function for each element of y.
Examples
Compute the beta function for these numbers. Because these numbers are not symbolic
objects, you get floating-point results:
[beta(1, 5), beta(3, sqrt(2)), beta(pi, exp(1)), beta(0, 1)]
ans =
0.2000
0.1716
0.0379
Inf
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Compute the beta function for the numbers converted to symbolic objects:
[beta(sym(1), 5), beta(3, sym(2)), beta(sym(4), sym(4))]
ans =
[ 1/5, 1/12, 1/140]
If one or both parameters are complex numbers, convert these numbers to symbolic
objects:
[beta(sym(i), 3/2), beta(sym(i), i), beta(sym(i + 2), 1 - i)]
ans =
[ (pi^(1/2)*gamma(i))/(2*gamma(3/2 + i)), gamma(i)^2/gamma(2*i),...
(pi*(1/2 + i/2))/sinh(pi)]
Compute the beta function for negative parameters. If one or both arguments are
negative numbers, convert these numbers to symbolic objects:
[beta(sym(-3), 2), beta(sym(-1/3), 2), beta(sym(-3), 4),
beta(sym(-3), -2)]
ans =
[ 1/6, -9/2, Inf, Inf]
Call beta for the matrix A and the value 1. The result is a matrix of the beta functions
beta(A(i,j),1):
A = sym([1 2; 3 4]);
beta(A,1)
ans =
[
1, 1/2]
[ 1/3, 1/4]
Differentiate the beta function, then substitute the variable t with the value 2/3 and
approximate the result using vpa:
syms t
u = diff(beta(t^2 + 1, t))
vpa(subs(u, t, 2/3), 10)
u =
beta(t, t^2 + 1)*(psi(t) + 2*t*psi(t^2 + 1) -...
psi(t^2 + t + 1)*(2*t + 1))
ans =
4-144
beta
-2.836889094
Expand these beta functions:

syms x y
expand(beta(x, y))
expand(beta(x + 1, y - 1))
ans =
(gamma(x)*gamma(y))/gamma(x + y)
ans =
-(x*gamma(x)*gamma(y))/(gamma(x + y) - y*gamma(x + y))
More About
Beta Function
This integral defines the beta function:
1
B ( x, y ) = t x -1 (1 - t )
y -1
dt =
G ( x ) G ( y)
G( x + y )
Tips
The beta function is uniquely defined for positive numbers and complex numbers with
positive real parts. It is approximated for other numbers.
Calling beta for numbers that are not symbolic objects invokes the MATLAB beta
function. This function accepts real arguments only. If you want to compute the beta
function for complex numbers, use sym to convert the numbers to symbolic objects,
and then call beta for those symbolic objects.
If one or both parameters are negative numbers, convert these numbers to symbolic
objects using sym, and then call beta for those symbolic objects.
If the beta function has a singularity, beta returns the positive infinity Inf.
beta(0, 0) returns NaN.
beta(x,y) = beta(y,x) and beta(x,A) = beta(A,x).
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vector or a matrix, beta(x,y) expands the scalar into a vector or matrix of the same
size as the other argument with all elements equal to that scalar.
References
Zelen, M. and N. C. Severo. Probability Functions. Handbook of Mathematical
Functions with Formulas, Graphs, and Mathematical Tables. (M. Abramowitz and I. A.
See Also
gamma | factorial | nchoosek | psi
4-146
cat
cat
Concatenate symbolic arrays along specified dimension
Syntax
cat(dim,A1,...,AN)
Description
cat(dim,A1,...,AN) concatenates the arrays A1,...,AN along dimension dim. The
remaining dimensions must be the same size.
Examples
Concatenate Two Vectors into a Matrix
Create vectors A and B.
A = sym('a%d',[1 4])
B = sym('b%d',[1 4])
A
[
B
[
=
a1, a2, a3, a4]
=
b1, b2, b3, b4]
To concatenate A and B into a matrix, specify dimension dim as 1.

cat(1,A,B)
ans =
[ a1, a2, a3, a4]
[ b1, b2, b3, b4]
Alternatively, use the syntax [A;B].

[A;B]
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ans =
[ a1, a2, a3, a4]
[ b1, b2, b3, b4]
Concatenate Two Vectors into One Vector

To concatenate two vectors into one vector, specify dimension dim as 2.
A = sym('a%d',[1 4]);
B = sym('b%d',[1 4]);
cat(2,A,B)
ans =
[ a1, a2, a3, a4, b1, b2, b3, b4]
Alternatively, use the syntax [A B].

[A B]
ans =
[ a1, a2, a3, a4, b1, b2, b3, b4]
Concatenate Multidimensional Arrays Along the Third Dimension

Create arrays A and B.
A = sym('a%d%d',[2 2]);
A(:,:,2) = -A
B = sym('b%d%d', [2 2]);
B(:,:,2) = -B
A(:,:,1) =
[ a11, a12]
[ a21, a22]
A(:,:,2) =
[ -a11, -a12]
[ -a21, -a22]
B(:,:,1) =
[ b11, b12]
[ b21, b22]
B(:,:,2) =
[ -b11, -b12]
[ -b21, -b22]
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cat
Concatenate A and B by specifying dimension dim as 3.

cat(3,A,B)
ans(:,:,1) =
[ a11, a12]
[ a21, a22]
ans(:,:,2) =
[ -a11, -a12]
[ -a21, -a22]
ans(:,:,3) =
[ b11, b12]
[ b21, b22]
ans(:,:,4) =
[ -b11, -b12]
[ -b21, -b22]
Input Arguments
dim Dimension to concatenate arrays along
positive integer
Dimension to concatenate arrays along, specified as a positive integer.
A1,...,AN Input arrays
symbolic variables | symbolic vectors | symbolic matrices | symbolic multidimensional
arrays
Input arrays, specified as symbolic variables, vectors, matrices, or multidimensional
arrays.
See Also
horzcat | reshape | vertcat
4-149
catalan
Catalan constant
Syntax
catalan
Description
catalan represents the Catalan constant. To get a floating-point approximation with the
current precision set by digits, use vpa(catalan).
Examples
Approximate the Catalan Constant
Find a floating-point approximation of the Catalan constant with the default number of
digits and with the 10-digit precision.
Use vpa to approximate the Catalan constant with the default 32-digit precision:
vpa(catalan)
ans =
0.91596559417721901505460351493238
Set the number of digits to 10 and approximate the Catalan constant:

old = digits(10);
vpa(catalan)
ans =
0.9159655942
Restore the default number of digits:

digits(old)
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catalan
More About
Catalan Constant
The Catalan constant is defined as follows:
catalan =
i =0
( - 1) i
( 2i + 1)
1
2
1
2
1
5
1
72
See Also
dilog | eulergamma
4-151
ccode
C code representation of symbolic expression
Syntax
ccode(s)
ccode(s,'file',fileName)
Description
ccode(s) returns a fragment of C that evaluates the symbolic expression s.
ccode(s,'file',fileName) writes an optimized C code fragment that evaluates
the symbolic expression s to the file named fileName. Optimized means intermediate
variables are automatically generated in order to simplify the code. MATLAB generates
intermediate variables as a lowercase letter t followed by an automatically generated
number, for example t32.
Examples
The statements
syms x
f = taylor(log(1+x));
ccode(f)
return
t0 = x-(x*x)*(1.0/2.0)+(x*x*x)*(1.0/3.0)-(x*x*x*x)*(1.0/4.0)+...
(x*x*x*x*x)*(1.0/5.0);
The statements
H = sym(hilb(3));
ccode(H)
return
4-152
ccode
H[0][0]
H[0][1]
H[0][2]
H[1][0]
H[1][1]
H[1][2]
H[2][0]
H[2][1]
H[2][2]
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
1.0;
1.0/2.0;
1.0/3.0;
1.0/2.0;
1.0/3.0;
1.0/4.0;
1.0/3.0;
1.0/4.0;
1.0/5.0;
The statements
syms x
z = exp(-exp(-x));
ccode(diff(z,3),'file','ccodetest')
return a file named ccodetest containing the following:

t2 = exp(-x);
t3 = exp(-t2);
t0 = t3*exp(x*(-2.0))*(-3.0)+t3*exp(x*(-3.0))+t2*t3;
See Also
fortran | latex | matlabFunction | pretty
4-153
ceil
Round symbolic matrix toward positive infinity
Syntax
Y = ceil(x)
Description
Y = ceil(x) is the matrix of the smallest integers greater than or equal to x.
Examples
x = sym(-5/2);
[fix(x) floor(x) round(x) ceil(x) frac(x)]
ans =
[ -2, -3, -3, -2, -1/2]
See Also
round | floor | fix | frac
4-154
char
char
Convert symbolic objects to strings
Syntax
char(A)
Description
char(A) converts a symbolic scalar or a symbolic array to a string.
Input Arguments
A
Symbolic scalar or symbolic array.
Examples
Convert symbolic expressions to strings, and then concatenate the strings:
syms x
y = char(x^3 + x^2 + 2*x - 1);
name = [y, ' represents a polynomial expression']
name =
2*x + x^2 + x^3 - 1 represents a polynomial expression
Note that char changes the order of the terms in the resulting string.
Convert a symbolic matrix to a string:
A = sym(hilb(3))
char(A)
A =
4-155
[
1, 1/2, 1/3]
[ 1/2, 1/3, 1/4]
[ 1/3, 1/4, 1/5]
ans =
matrix([[1,1/2,1/3],[1/2,1/3,1/4],[1/3,1/4,1/5]])
More About
Tips
char can change term ordering in an expression.
See Also
sym | double | pretty
4-156
charpoly
charpoly
Characteristic polynomial of matrix
Syntax
charpoly(A)
charpoly(A,var)
Description
charpoly(A) returns a vector of the coefficients of the characteristic polynomial of A.
If A is a symbolic matrix, charpoly returns a symbolic vector. Otherwise, it returns a
vector of double-precision values.
charpoly(A,var) returns the characteristic polynomial of A in terms of var.
Input Arguments
A
Matrix.
var
Free symbolic variable.
Default: If you do not specify var, charpoly returns a vector of coefficients of the
characteristic polynomial instead of returning the polynomial itself.
Examples
Compute the characteristic polynomial of the matrix A in terms of the variable x:
syms x
A = sym([1 1 0; 0 1 0; 0 0 1]);
4-157
charpoly(A, x)
ans =
x^3 - 3*x^2 + 3*x - 1
To find the coefficients of the characteristic polynomial of A, call charpoly with one
argument:
A = sym([1 1 0; 0 1 0; 0 0 1]);
charpoly(A)
ans =
[ 1, -3, 3, -1]
Find the coefficients of the characteristic polynomial of the symbolic matrix A. For this
matrix, charpoly returns the symbolic vector of coefficients:
A = sym([1 2; 3 4]);
P = charpoly(A)
P =
[ 1, -5, -2]
Now find the coefficients of the characteristic polynomial of the matrix B, all elements of
which are double-precision values. Note that in this case charpoly returns coefficients
as double-precision values:
B = ([1 2; 3 4]);
P = charpoly(B)
P =
1
-5
-2
More About
Characteristic Polynomial of a Matrix
The characteristic polynomial of an n-by-n matrix A is the polynomial pA(x), such that
pA ( x) = det ( xI n - A )
Here In is the n-by-n identity matrix.
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charpoly
References
[1] Cohen, H. A Course in Computational Algebraic Number Theory. Graduate Texts
in Mathematics (Axler, Sheldon and Ribet, Kenneth A., eds.). Vol. 138, Springer,
1993.
[2] Abdeljaoued, J. The Berkowitz Algorithm, Maple and Computing the Characteristic
Polynomial in an Arbitrary Commutative Ring. MapleTech, Vol. 4, Number 3, pp
2132, Birkhauser, 1997.
See Also
det | eig | jordan | minpoly | poly2sym | sym2poly
4-159
chebyshevT
Chebyshev polynomials of the first kind
Syntax
chebyshevT(n,x)
Description
chebyshevT(n,x) represents the nth degree Chebyshev polynomial of the first kind at
the point x.
Examples
First Five Chebyshev Polynomials of the First Kind
Find the first five Chebyshev polynomials of the first kind for the variable x.
syms x
chebyshevT([0, 1, 2, 3, 4], x)
ans =
[ 1, x, 2*x^2 - 1, 4*x^3 - 3*x, 8*x^4 - 8*x^2 + 1]
Chebyshev Polynomials for Numeric and Symbolic Arguments

Depending on its arguments, chebyshevT returns floating-point or exact symbolic
results.
Find the value of the fifth-degree Chebyshev polynomial of the first kind at these points.
Because these numbers are not symbolic objects, chebyshevT returns floating-point
results.
chebyshevT(5, [1/6, 1/4, 1/3, 1/2, 2/3, 3/4])
4-160
chebyshevT
ans =
0.7428
0.9531
0.9918
0.5000
-0.4856
-0.8906
Find the value of the fifth-degree Chebyshev polynomial of the first kind for the same
numbers converted to symbolic objects. For symbolic numbers, chebyshevT returns
exact symbolic results.
chebyshevT(5, sym([1/6, 1/4, 1/3, 1/2, 2/3, 3/4]))
ans =
[ 361/486, 61/64, 241/243, 1/2, -118/243, -57/64]
Evaluate Chebyshev Polynomials with Floating-Point Numbers

Floating-point evaluation of Chebyshev polynomials by direct calls of chebyshevT is
numerically stable. However, first computing the polynomial using a symbolic variable,
and then substituting variable-precision values into this expression can be numerically
unstable.
Find the value of the 500th-degree Chebyshev polynomial of the first kind at 1/3 and
vpa(1/3). Floating-point evaluation is numerically stable.
chebyshevT(500, 1/3)
chebyshevT(500, vpa(1/3))
ans =
0.9631
ans =
0.963114126817085233778571286718
Now, find the symbolic polynomial T500 = chebyshevT(500, x), and substitute x =
vpa(1/3) into the result. This approach is numerically unstable.
syms x
T500 = chebyshevT(500, x);
subs(T500, x, vpa(1/3))
ans =
-3293905791337500897482813472768.0
Approximate the polynomial coefficients by using vpa, and then substitute x =

sym(1/3) into the result. This approach is also numerically unstable.
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subs(vpa(T500), x, sym(1/3))
ans =
1202292431349342132757038366720.0
Plot Chebyshev Polynomials of the First Kind

Plot these five Chebyshev polynomials of the first kind.
syms x y
for n = [0, 1, 2, 3, 4]
ezplot(chebyshevT(n, x))
hold on
end
hold off
axis([-1.5, 1.5, -2, 2])
grid on
ylabel('T_n(x)')
legend('T_0(x)', 'T_1(x)', 'T_2(x)', 'T_3(x)', 'T_4(x)', 'Location', 'Best')
title('Chebyshev polynomials of the first kind')
4-162
chebyshevT
Input Arguments
n Degree of polynomial
nonnegative integer | symbolic variable | symbolic expression | symbolic function |
vector | matrix
Degree of the polynomial, specified as a nonnegative integer, symbolic variable,
expression, or function, or as a vector or matrix of numbers, symbolic numbers, variables,
expressions, or functions.
4-163
x Evaluation point
function | vector | matrix
function, or as a vector or matrix of numbers, symbolic numbers, variables, expressions,
or functions.
More About
Chebyshev Polynomials of the First Kind
Chebyshev polynomials of the first kind are defined as Tn(x) = cos(n*arccos(x)).
These polynomials satisfy the recursion formula
T ( 1, x ) = x, T ( n, x) = 2 xT ( n - 1, x ) - T ( n - 2, x )
T ( 0, x) = 1,
Chebyshev polynomials of the first kind are orthogonal on the interval -1x1 with
respect to the weight function
w ( x) =
1
1 - x2
Chebyshev polynomials of the first kind are a special case of the Jacobi polynomials
T ( n, x) =
2 2n ( n !)
( 2 n) !
1 1
P n, - , - , x
2 2
and Gegenbauer polynomials

T ( n, x) =
n
G ( n, 0, x )
2
Tips
chebyshevT returns floating-point results for numeric arguments that are not
symbolic objects.
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chebyshevT
chebyshevT acts element-wise on nonscalar inputs.

vector or a matrix, then chebyshevT expands the scalar into a vector or matrix of the
References
[1] Hochstrasser,U.W. Orthogonal Polynomials. Handbook of Mathematical Functions
with Formulas, Graphs, and Mathematical Tables. (M. Abramowitz and I. A.
See Also
chebyshevU | gegenbauerC | hermiteH | jacobiP | laguerreL | legendreP
4-165
chebyshevU
Chebyshev polynomials of the second kind
Syntax
chebyshevU(n,x)
Description
chebyshevU(n,x) represents the nth degree Chebyshev polynomial of the second kind
at the point x.
Examples
First Five Chebyshev Polynomials of the Second Kind
Find the first five Chebyshev polynomials of the second kind for the variable x.
syms x
chebyshevU([0, 1, 2, 3, 4], x)
ans =
[ 1, 2*x, 4*x^2 - 1, 8*x^3 - 4*x, 16*x^4 - 12*x^2 + 1]
Chebyshev Polynomials for Numeric and Symbolic Arguments

Depending on its arguments, chebyshevU returns floating-point or exact symbolic
results.
Find the value of the fifth-degree Chebyshev polynomial of the second kind at these
points. Because these numbers are not symbolic objects, chebyshevU returns floatingpoint results.
chebyshevU(5, [1/6, 1/3, 1/2, 2/3, 4/5])
4-166
chebyshevU
ans =
0.8560
0.9465
0.0000
-1.2675
-1.0982
Find the value of the fifth-degree Chebyshev polynomial of the second kind for the same
numbers converted to symbolic objects. For symbolic numbers, chebyshevU returns
exact symbolic results.
chebyshevU(5, sym([1/6, 1/4, 1/3, 1/2, 2/3, 4/5]))
ans =
[ 208/243, 33/32, 230/243, 0, -308/243, -3432/3125]

Floating-point evaluation of Chebyshev polynomials by direct calls of chebyshevU is
unstable.
Find the value of the 500th-degree Chebyshev polynomial of the second kind at 1/3 and
vpa(1/3). Floating-point evaluation is numerically stable.
chebyshevU(500, 1/3)
chebyshevU(500, vpa(1/3))
ans =
0.8680
ans =
0.86797529488884242798157148968078
Now, find the symbolic polynomial U500 = chebyshevU(500, x), and substitute x =
vpa(1/3) into the result. This approach is numerically unstable.
syms x
U500 = chebyshevU(500, x);
subs(U500, x, vpa(1/3))
ans =
63080680195950160912110845952.0

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subs(vpa(U500), x, sym(1/3))
ans =
-1878009301399851172833781612544.0
Plot Chebyshev Polynomials of the Second Kind

Plot the first five Chebyshev polynomials of the second kind.
syms x y
for n = [0, 1, 2, 3, 4]
ezplot(chebyshevU(n, x))
hold on
end
hold off
axis([-1.5, 1.5, -2, 2])
grid on
ylabel('U_n(x)')
legend('U_0(x)', 'U_1(x)', 'U_2(x)', 'U_3(x)', 'U_4(x)', 'Location', 'Best')
title('Chebyshev polynomials of the second kind')
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chebyshevU
Input Arguments
vector | matrix
4-169
x Evaluation point
or functions.
More About
Chebyshev Polynomials of the Second Kind
Chebyshev polynomials of the second kind are defined as follows:
U ( n, x) =
sin ( ( n + 1 ) a cos ( x ) )
sin ( a cos ( x) )
These polynomials satisfy the recursion formula
U ( 0, x) = 1, U ( 1, x ) = 2 x, U ( n, x) = 2 xU ( n - 1, x ) - U ( n - 2, x )
Chebyshev polynomials of the second kind are orthogonal on the interval -1x1 with
respect to the weight function
w ( x) = 1 - x2
Chebyshev polynomials of the second kind are a special case of the Jacobi polynomials
U ( n, x) =
2 2n n ! ( n + 1 ) !
( 2n + 1 ) !
1 1
P n, , , x
2 2
and Gegenbauer polynomials
U ( n, x) = G ( n,1, x )
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chebyshevU
Tips
chebyshevU returns floating-point results for numeric arguments that are not
symbolic objects.
chebyshevU acts element-wise on nonscalar inputs.
vector or a matrix, then chebyshevU expands the scalar into a vector or matrix of the
References
See Also
chebyshevT | gegenbauerC | hermiteH | jacobiP | laguerreL | legendreP
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children
Subexpressions or terms of symbolic expression
Syntax
children(expr)
children(A)
Description
children(expr) returns a vector containing the child subexpressions of the symbolic
expression expr. For example, the child subexpressions of a sum are its terms.
children(A) returns a cell array containing the child subexpressions of each expression
in A.
Input Arguments
expr
Symbolic expression, equation, or inequality.
A
Vector or matrix of symbolic expressions, equations, or inequalities.
Examples
Find the child subexpressions of this expression. Child subexpressions of a sum are its
terms.
syms x y
children(x^2 + x*y + y^2)
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children
ans =
[ x*y, x^2, y^2]
Find the child subexpressions of this expression. This expression is also a sum, only some
terms of that sum are negative.
children(x^2 - x*y - y^2)
ans =
[ -x*y, x^2, -y^2]
The child subexpression of a variable is the variable itself:

children(x)
ans =
x
Create the symbolic expression using sym. With this approach, you do not create
symbolic variables corresponding to the terms of the expression. Nevertheless, children
finds the terms of the expression:
children(sym('a + b + c'))
ans =
[ a, b, c]
Find the child subexpressions of this equation. The child subexpressions of an equation
are the left and right sides of that equation.
syms x y
children(x^2 + x*y == y^2 + 1)
ans =
[ x^2 + y*x, y^2 + 1]
Find the child subexpressions of this inequality. The child subexpressions of an

inequality are the left and right sides of that inequality.
children(sin(x) < cos(x))
ans =
[ sin(x), cos(x)]
Call the children function for this matrix. The result is the cell array containing the
child subexpressions of each element of the matrix.
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syms x y
s = children([x + y, sin(x)*cos(y); x^3 - y^3, exp(x*y^2)])
s =
[1x2 sym]
[1x2 sym]
[1x2 sym]
[1x1 sym]
To access the contents of cells in the cell array, use braces:

s{1:4}
ans =
[ x, y]
ans =
[ x^3, -y^3]
ans =
[ cos(y), sin(x)]
ans =
x*y^2
More About
Create Symbolic Expressions on page 1-8
See Also
coeffs | numden | subs
4-174
chol
chol
Cholesky factorization
Syntax
T = chol(A)
[T,p] = chol(A)
[T,p,S] = chol(A)
[T,p,s] = chol(A,'vector')
___ = chol(A,'lower')
___ = chol(A,'noCheck')
___ = chol(A,'real')
___ = chol(A,'lower','noCheck','real')
[T,p,s] = chol(A,'lower','vector','noCheck','real')
Description
T = chol(A) returns an upper triangular matrix T, such that T'*T = A. A must be a
Hermitian positive definite matrix. Otherwise, this syntax throws an error.
[T,p] = chol(A) computes the Cholesky factorization of A. This syntax does not error
if A is not a Hermitian positive definite matrix. If A is a Hermitian positive definite
matrix, then p is 0. Otherwise, T is sym([]), and p is a positive integer (typically,
p = 1).
[T,p,S] = chol(A) returns a permutation matrix S, such that T'*T = S'*A*S,
and the value p = 0 if matrix A is Hermitian positive definite. Otherwise, it returns a
positive integer p and an empty symbolic object S = sym([]).
[T,p,s] = chol(A,'vector') returns the permutation information as a vector s,
such that A(s,s) = T'*T. If A is not recognized as a Hermitian positive definite matrix,
then p is a positive integer and s = sym([]).
___ = chol(A,'lower') returns a lower triangular matrix T, such that T*T' = A.
___ = chol(A,'noCheck') skips checking whether matrix A is Hermitian positive
definite. 'noCheck' lets you compute Cholesky factorization of a matrix that contains
symbolic parameters without setting additional assumptions on those parameters.
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___ = chol(A,'real') computes the Cholesky factorization of A using real

arithmetic. In this case, chol computes a symmetric factorization A = T.'*T instead of
a Hermitian factorization A = T'*T. This approach is based on the fact that if A is real
and symmetric, then T'*T = T.'*T. Use 'real' to avoid complex conjugates in the
result.
___ = chol(A,'lower','noCheck','real') computes the Cholesky factorization
of A with one or more of these optional arguments: 'lower', 'noCheck', and 'real'. These
optional arguments can appear in any order.
[T,p,s] = chol(A,'lower','vector','noCheck','real') computes the
Cholesky factorization of A and returns the permutation information as a vector s. You
can use one or more of these optional arguments: 'lower', 'noCheck', and 'real'. These
optional arguments can appear in any order.
Input Arguments
A
Symbolic matrix.
'lower'
Flag that prompts chol to return a lower triangular matrix instead of an upper
triangular matrix.
'vector'
Flag that prompts chol to return the permutation information in the form of a vector. To
use this flag, you must specify three output arguments.
'noCheck'
Flag that prompts chol to avoid checking whether matrix A is Hermitian positive
definite. Use this flag if A contains symbolic parameters, and you want to avoid
additional assumptions on these parameters.
'real'
Flag that prompts chol to use real arithmetic. Use this flag if A contains symbolic
parameters, and you want to avoid complex conjugates.
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chol
Output Arguments
T
Upper triangular matrix, such that T'*T = A, or lower triangular matrix, such that
T*T' = A.
p
Value 0 if A is Hermitian positive definite or if you use 'noCheck'.
If chol does not identify A as a Hermitian positive definite matrix, then p is a positive
integer. R is an upper triangular matrix of order q = p - 1, such that R'*R =
A(1:q,1:q).
S
Permutation matrix.
s
Permutation vector.
Examples
Compute the Cholesky factorization of the 3-by-3 Hilbert matrix. Because these numbers
are not symbolic objects, you get floating-point results.
chol(hilb(3))
ans =
1.0000
0
0
0.5000
0.2887
0
0.3333
0.2887
0.0745
Now convert this matrix to a symbolic object, and compute the Cholesky factorization:
chol(sym(hilb(3)))
ans =
[ 1,
1/2,
1/3]
[ 0, 3^(1/2)/6, 3^(1/2)/6]
[ 0,
0, 5^(1/2)/30]
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Compute the Cholesky factorization of the 3-by-3 Pascal matrix returning a lower
triangular matrix as a result:
chol(sym(pascal(3)), 'lower')
ans =
[ 1, 0, 0]
[ 1, 1, 0]
[ 1, 2, 1]
Try to compute the Cholesky factorization of this matrix. Because this matrix is not
Hermitian positive definite, chol used without output arguments or with one output
argument throws an error:
A = sym([1 1 1; 1 2 3; 1 3 5]);
T = chol(A)
Error using sym/chol (line 132)
Cannot prove that input matrix is Hermitian positive definite.
Define a Hermitian positive definite matrix by setting
appropriate assumptions on matrix components, or use 'noCheck'
to skip checking whether the matrix is Hermitian positive definite.
To suppress the error, use two output arguments, T and p. If the matrix is not recognized
as Hermitian positive definite, then this syntax assigns an empty symbolic object to T
and the value 1 to p:
[T,p] = chol(A)
T =
[ empty sym ]
p =
1
For a Hermitian positive definite matrix, p is 0:

[T,p] = chol(sym(pascal(3)))
T
[
[
[
=
1, 1, 1]
0, 1, 2]
0, 0, 1]
p =
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chol
Compute the Cholesky factorization of the 3-by-3 inverse Hilbert matrix returning the
permutation matrix:
A = sym(invhilb(3));
[T, p, S] = chol(A)
T
[
[
[
=
3,
-12,
10]
0, 4*3^(1/2), -5*3^(1/2)]
0,
0,
5^(1/2)]
p =
0
S
[
[
[
=
1, 0, 0]
0, 1, 0]
0, 0, 1]
Compute the Cholesky factorization of the 3-by-3 inverse Hilbert matrix returning the
permutation information as a vector:
A = sym(invhilb(3));
[T, p, S] = chol(A, 'vector')
T
[
[
[
=
3,
-12,
10]
0, 4*3^(1/2), -5*3^(1/2)]
0,
0,
5^(1/2)]
p =
0
S =
[ 1, 2, 3]
Compute the Cholesky factorization of matrix A containing symbolic parameters. Without

additional assumptions on the parameter a, this matrix is not Hermitian. To make
isAlways return logical 0 (false) for undecidable conditions, set Unknown to false.
syms a
A = [a 0; 0 a];
isAlways(A == A','Unknown','false')
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ans =
0
1
1
0
By setting assumptions on a and b, you can define A to be Hermitian positive definite.

Therefore, you can compute the Cholesky factorization of A:
assume(a > 0)
chol(A)
ans =
[ a^(1/2),
0]
[
0, a^(1/2)]
For further computations, remove the assumptions:

syms a clear
'noCheck' lets you skip checking whether A is a Hermitian positive definite matrix.
Thus, this flag lets you compute the Cholesky factorization of a symbolic matrix without
setting additional assumptions on its components:
A = [a 0; 0 a];
chol(A,'noCheck')
ans =
[ a^(1/2),
0]
[
0, a^(1/2)]
If you use 'noCheck' for computing the Cholesky factorization of a matrix that is not
Hermitian positive definite, chol can return a matrix T for which the identity T'*T = A
does not hold. To make isAlways return logical 0 (false) for undecidable conditions, set
Unknown to false.
T = chol(sym([1 1; 2 1]), 'noCheck')
T =
[ 1,
2]
[ 0, 3^(1/2)*i]
isAlways(A == T'*T,'Unknown','false')
ans =
0
0
4-180
0
0
chol
Compute the Cholesky factorization of this matrix. To skip checking whether it is

Hermitian positive definite, use 'noCheck'. By default, chol computes a Hermitian
factorization A = T'*T. Thus, the result contains complex conjugates.
syms a b
A = [a b; b a];
T = chol(A, 'noCheck')
T =
[ a^(1/2),
conj(b)/conj(a^(1/2))]
[
0, (a*abs(a) - abs(b)^2)^(1/2)/abs(a)^(1/2)]
To avoid complex conjugates in the result, use 'real':

T = chol(A, 'noCheck', 'real')
T =
[ a^(1/2),
b/a^(1/2)]
[
0, ((a^2 - b^2)/a)^(1/2)]
When you use this flag, chol computes a symmetric factorization A = T.'*T instead
of a Hermitian factorization A = T'*T. To make isAlways return logical 0 (false) for
undecidable conditions, set Unknown to false.
isAlways(A == T.'*T)
ans =
1
1
1
1
isAlways(A == T'*T,'Unknown','false')
ans =
0
0
0
0
More About
Hermitian Positive Definite Matrix
A square complex matrix A is Hermitian positive definite if v'*A*v is real and positive
for all nonzero complex vectors v, where v' is the conjugate transpose (Hermitian
transpose) of v.
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Cholesky Factorization of a Matrix

The Cholesky factorization of a Hermitian positive definite n-by-n matrix A is defined
by an upper or lower triangular matrix with positive entries on the main diagonal. The
Cholesky factorization of matrix A can be defined as T'*T = A, where T is an upper
triangular matrix. Here T' is the conjugate transpose of T. The Cholesky factorization
also can be defined as T*T' = A, where T is a lower triangular matrix. T is called the
Cholesky factor of A.
Tips
Calling chol for numeric arguments that are not symbolic objects invokes the
MATLAB chol function.
If you use 'noCheck', then the identities T'*T = A (for an upper triangular matrix T)
and T*T = A (for a lower triangular matrix T) are not guaranteed to hold.
If you use 'real', then the identities T'*T = A (for an upper triangular matrix T) and
T*T' = A (for a lower triangular matrix T) are only guaranteed to hold for a real
symmetric positive definite A.
To use 'vector', you must specify three output arguments. Other flags do not require a
particular number of output arguments.
If you use 'matrix' instead of 'vector', then chol returns permutation matrices,
as it does by default.
If you use 'upper' instead of 'lower', then chol returns an upper triangular
matrix, as it does by default.
If A is not a Hermitian positive definite matrix, then the syntaxes containing the
argument p typically return p = 1 and an empty symbolic object T.
To check whether a matrix is Hermitian, use the operator ' (or its functional form
ctranspose). Matrix A is Hermitian if and only if A'= A, where A' is the conjugate
transpose of A.
See Also
chol | ctranspose | eig | isAlways | linalg::factorCholesky |

linalg::isHermitian | linalg::isPosDef | lu | qr | svd | transpose | vpa
4-182
clear all
clear all
Remove items from MATLAB workspace and reset MuPAD engine
Syntax
clear all
Description
clear all clears all objects in the MATLAB workspace and closes the MuPAD engine
associated with the MATLAB workspace resetting all its assumptions.
See Also
reset
4-183
close
Close MuPAD notebook
Syntax
close(nb)
close(nb,'force')
Description
close(nb) closes the MuPAD notebook with the handle nb. If you modified the
notebook, close(nb) brings up a dialog box asking if you want to save the changes.
close(nb,'force') closes notebook nb without prompting you to save the changes. If
you modified the notebook, close(nb,'force') discards the changes.
This syntax can be helpful when you evaluate MuPAD notebooks by using
evaluateMuPADNotebook. When you evaluate a notebook, MuPAD inserts results in
the output regions or at least inserts the new input region at the bottom of the notebook,
thus modifying the notebook. If you want to close the notebook quickly without saving
such changes, use close(nb,'force').
Examples
Close a Particular Notebook
Open and close an existing notebook.
Suppose that your current folder contains a MuPAD notebook named myFile1.mn. Open
this notebook keeping its handle in the variable nb1:
Suppose that you finished using this notebook and now want to close it. Enter this
command in the MATLAB Command Window. If you have unsaved changes in that
notebook, then this command will bring up a dialog box asking if you want to save the
changes.
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close
close(nb1)
Close Several Notebooks

Use a vector of notebook handles to close several notebooks.
nb3 = mupad
nb1 =
myFile1
nb2 =
myFile2
nb3 =
Notebook1
Close myFile1.mn and myFile2.mn. If you have unsaved changes in any of these two
notebooks, then this command will bring up a dialog box asking if you want to save the
changes.
close([nb1, nb2])
Close All Open Notebooks

Identify and close all currently open MuPAD notebooks.
Get a list of all currently open notebooks:
allNBs = allMuPADNotebooks;
Close all notebooks. If you have unsaved changes in any notebook, then this command
will bring up a dialog box asking if you want to save the changes.
close(allNBs)
Close All Open Notebooks and Discard Modifications

Identify and close all currently open MuPAD notebooks without saving changes.
4-185

Close all notebooks using the force flag to suppress the dialog box that offers you to
save changes:
close(allNBs,'force')
Input Arguments
nb Pointer to MuPAD notebook
handle to notebook | vector of handles to notebooks
Pointer to notebook, specified as a MuPAD notebook handle or a vector of handles. You
create the notebook handle when opening a notebook with the mupad or openmn function.
You can get the list of all open notebooks using the allMuPADNotebooks function.
close accepts a vector of handles returned by allMuPADNotebooks.
See Also
allMuPADNotebooks | evaluateMuPADNotebook | getVar | mupad |

mupadNotebookTitle | openmn | setVar
4-186
coeffs
coeffs
Coefficients of polynomial
Syntax
C = coeffs(p)
C = coeffs(p,var)
C = coeffs(p,vars)
[C,T] = coeffs( ___ )
Description
C = coeffs(p) returns coefficients of the polynomial p with respect to all variables
determined in p by symvar.
C = coeffs(p,var) returns coefficients of the polynomial p with respect to the
variable var.
C = coeffs(p,vars) returns coefficients of the multivariate polynomial p with respect
to the variables vars.
[C,T] = coeffs( ___ ) returns the coefficient C and the corresponding terms T of the
polynomial p.
Examples
Coefficients of a Univariate Polynomial
Find the coefficients of this univariate polynomial:
syms x
c = coeffs(16*x^2 + 19*x + 11)
c =
4-187
[ 11, 19, 16]
Coefficients of a Multivariate Polynomial with Respect to a Particular

Variable
Find the coefficients of this polynomial with respect to variable x and variable y:
syms x y
cx = coeffs(x^3 + 2*x^2*y + 3*x*y^2 + 4*y^3, x)
cy = coeffs(x^3 + 2*x^2*y + 3*x*y^2 + 4*y^3, y)
cx =
[ 4*y^3, 3*y^2, 2*y, 1]
cy =
[ x^3, 2*x^2, 3*x, 4]
Coefficients of a Multivariate Polynomial with Respect to Two Variables

Find the coefficients of this polynomial with respect to both variables x and y:
syms x y
cxy = coeffs(x^3 + 2*x^2*y + 3*x*y^2 + 4*y^3, [x,y])
cyx = coeffs(x^3 + 2*x^2*y + 3*x*y^2 + 4*y^3, [y,x])
cxy =
[ 4, 3, 2, 1]
cyx =
[ 1, 2, 3, 4]
Coefficients and Corresponding Terms of a Univariate Polynomial

Find the coefficients and the corresponding terms of this univariate polynomial:
syms x
[c,t] = coeffs(16*x^2 + 19*x + 11)
c =
[ 16, 19, 11]
t =
[ x^2, x, 1]
4-188
coeffs
Coefficients and Corresponding Terms of a Multivariate Polynomial

Find the coefficients and the corresponding terms of this polynomial with respect to
variable x and variable y:
syms x y
[cx,tx] = coeffs(x^3 + 2*x^2*y + 3*x*y^2 + 4*y^3, x)
[cy,ty] = coeffs(x^3 + 2*x^2*y + 3*x*y^2 + 4*y^3, y)
cx =
[ 1, 2*y, 3*y^2, 4*y^3]
tx =
[ x^3, x^2, x, 1]
cy =
[ 4, 3*x, 2*x^2, x^3]
ty =
[ y^3, y^2, y, 1]
Find the coefficients of this polynomial with respect to both variables x and y:
syms x y
[cxy, txy] = coeffs(x^3 + 2*x^2*y + 3*x*y^2 + 4*y^3, [x,y])
[cyx, tyx] = coeffs(x^3 + 2*x^2*y + 3*x*y^2 + 4*y^3, [y,x])
cxy =
[ 1, 2, 3, 4]
txy =
[ x^3, x^2*y, x*y^2, y^3]
cyx =
[ 4, 3, 2, 1]
tyx =
[ y^3, x*y^2, x^2*y, x^3]
Input Arguments
p Polynomial
4-189
Polynomial, specified as a symbolic expression or function.

var Polynomial variable
symbolic variable
Polynomial variable, specified as a symbolic variable.
vars Polynomial variables
vector of symbolic variables
Polynomial variables, specified as a vector of symbolic variables.
Output Arguments
C Coefficients of polynomial
symbolic vector | symbolic number | symbolic expression
Coefficients of polynomial, returned as a vector of symbolic numbers and expressions. If
there is only one coefficient and one corresponding term, then C is returned as a scalar.
T Terms of polynomial
symbolic vector | symbolic expression | symbolic number
Terms of polynomial, returned as a vector of symbolic expressions and numbers. If there
is only one coefficient and one corresponding term, then T is returned as a scalar.
See Also
poly2sym | sym2poly
4-190
collect
collect
Collect coefficients
Syntax
collect(P)
collect(P,var)
Description
collect(P) rewrites P in terms of the powers of the default variable determined by
symvar.
collect(P,var) rewrites P in terms of the powers of the variable var. If P is a vector or
matrix, this syntax regards each element of P as a polynomial in var.
Examples
Collect Coefficients in Terms of the Powers of a Default Variable
Collect the coefficients of this symbolic expression:
syms x
collect((exp(x) + x)*(x + 2))
ans =
x^2 + (exp(x) + 2)*x + 2*exp(x)
Because you did not specify the variable of a polynomial, collect uses the default
variable defined by symvar. For this expression, the default variable is x:
symvar((exp(x) + x)*(x + 2), 1)
ans =
4-191
Collect Coefficients in Terms of the Powers of a Particular Variable

Rewrite this symbolic expression specifying the variables in terms of which you want to
collect the coefficients:
syms x y
collect(x^2*y + y*x - x^2 - 2*x, x)
collect(x^2*y + y*x - x^2 - 2*x, y)
ans =
(y - 1)*x^2 + (y - 2)*x
ans =
(x^2 + x)*y - x^2 - 2*x
Collect Coefficients in Terms of the Powers of i and pi

Rewrite these expressions in terms of the powers of i and pi, respectively:
syms x y
collect(2*x*i - 3*i*y, i)
collect(x*pi*(pi - y) + x*(pi + i) + 3*pi*y, pi)
ans =
(2*x - 3*y)*i
ans =
x*pi^2 + (x + 3*y - x*y)*pi + x*i
Collect Coefficients for Each Element of a Matrix

If the argument is a vector or a matrix, then collect rewrites each element:
syms x y
collect([(x + 1)*(y + 1), x^2 + x*(x -y); 2*x*y - x, x*y + x/y], x)
ans =
[ (y + 1)*x + y + 1, 2*x^2 - y*x]
[
(2*y - 1)*x, (y + 1/y)*x]
4-192
collect
Input Arguments
P Input expression
symbolic expression | symbolic function | symbolic vector | symbolic matrix
Input expression, specified as a symbolic expression, function, vector, or matrix.
var Variable in terms of which you collect coefficients
symbolic variable | symbolic expression
Variable in terms of which you collect the coefficients, specified as a symbolic variable or
symbolic expression, such as i or pi.
See Also
combine | expand | factor | horner | numden | rewrite | simplify |

simplifyFraction | symvar
4-193
colon, :
Create symbolic vectors, array subscripting, and for-loop iterators
Syntax
m:n
m:d:n
x:x+r
x:d:x+r
Description
m:n returns a symbolic vector of values [m,m+1,...,n], where m and n are symbolic
constants. If n is not an increment of m, then the last value of the vector stops before n.
This behavior holds for all syntaxes.
m:d:n returns a symbolic vector of values [m,m+d,...,n], where d is a rational
number.
x:x+r returns a symbolic vector of values [x,x+1,...,x+r], where x is a symbolic
variable and r is a rational number.
x:d:x+r returns a symbolic vector of values [x,x+d,...,x+r], where d and r are
rational numbers.
Examples
Create Numeric and Symbolic Arrays
Use the colon operator to create numeric and symbolic arrays. Because these inputs are
not symbolic objects, you receive floating-point results.
1/2:7/2
ans =
0.5000
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1.5000
2.5000
3.5000
colon, :
To obtain symbolic results, convert the inputs to symbolic objects.

sym(1/2):sym(7/2)
ans =
[ 1/2, 3/2, 5/2, 7/2]
Specify the increment used.

sym(1/2):2/3:sym(7/2)
ans =
[ 1/2, 7/6, 11/6, 5/2, 19/6]
Obtain Increments of a Symbolic Variable

syms x
x:x+2
ans =
[ x, x + 1, x + 2]
Specify the increment used.

syms x
x:3/7:x+2
ans =
[ x, x + 3/7, x + 6/7, x + 9/7, x + 12/7]
Obtain increments between x and 2*x in intervals of x/3.

syms x
x:x/3:2*x
ans =
[ x, (4*x)/3, (5*x)/3, 2*x]
Find the Product of the Harmonic Series

Find the product of the first four terms of the harmonic series.
syms x
p = sym(1);
for i = x:x+3
4-195
p = p*1/i;
end
p
p =
1/(x*(x + 1)*(x + 2)*(x + 3))
Use expand to obtain the full polynomial.

expand(p)
ans =
1/(x^4 + 6*x^3 + 11*x^2 + 6*x)
Use subs to replace x with 1 and find the product in fractions.

p = subs(p,x,1)
p =
1/24
Use vpa to return the result as a floating-point value.

vpa(p)
ans =
0.041666666666666666666666666666667
You can also perform the described operations in a single line of code.
vpa(subs( expand(prod(1./(x:x+3))) ,x,1))
ans =
0.041666666666666666666666666666667
Input Arguments
m Input
symbolic constant
Input, specified as a symbolic constant.
n Input
symbolic constant
4-196
colon, :
Input, specified as a symbolic constant.

x Input
symbolic variable
Input, specified as a symbolic variable.
r Upper bound on vector values
symbolic rational
Upper bound on vector values, specified as a symbolic rational. For example, x:x+2
returns [ x, x + 1, x + 2].
d Increment in vector values
symbolic rational
Increment in vector values, specified as a symbolic rational. For example, x:1/2:x+2
returns [ x, x + 1/2, x + 1, x + 3/2, x + 2].
See Also
reshape
4-197
colspace
Column space of matrix
Syntax
B = colspace(A)
Description
B = colspace(A) returns a matrix whose columns form a basis for the column space of
A. The matrix A can be symbolic or numeric.
Examples
Find the basis for the column space of this matrix:
A = sym([2,0;3,4;0,5])
B = colspace(A)
A
[
[
[
=
2, 0]
3, 4]
0, 5]
B =
[
1,
0]
[
0,
1]
[ -15/8, 5/4]
See Also
null | size
4-198
combine
combine
Combine terms of identical algebraic structure
Syntax
Y = combine(S)
Y = combine(S,T)
Y = combine( ___ ,Name,Value)
Description
Y = combine(S) rewrites products of powers in the expression S as a single power.
Y = combine(S,T) combines multiple calls to the target function T in the expression S.
combine implements the inverse functionality of expand with respect to the majority of
the applied rules.
Y = combine( ___ ,Name,Value) calls combine using additional options specified by
one or more Name,Value pair arguments.
Examples
Powers of the Same Base or Exponent
Combine powers of the same base.
syms x y z
combine(x^y*x^z)
ans =
x^(y + z)
If you use numeric arguments, you must convert at least one numeric argument into a
symbolic value using sym to prevent MATLAB from evaluating the expression.
syms x y
4-199
combine(x^(3)*x^y*xêxp(sym(1)))
ans =
x^(y + exp(1) + 3)
Here, sym converts 1 into a symbolic value, preventing the expression e from being
evaluated.
1
Powers of the Same Exponent

combine combines powers with the same exponents in certain cases.
combine(sqrt(sym(2))*sqrt(3))
ans =
6^(1/2)
combine does not usually combine powers with the same exponent. This is because the
internal simplifier applies the same rules in the opposite direction.
syms x y
combine(y^5*x^5)
ans =
x^5*y^5
Terms with Inverse Tangent Function Calls

Combine these expressions in terms of the inverse tangent function by specifying the
target argument as atan.
syms a b
assume(abs(a*b) < 1)
combine(atan(a) + atan(b),'atan')
ans =
-atan((a + b)/(a*b - 1))
Combine two calls to the inverse tangent function. combine simplifies the expression to
a symbolic value if possible.
assume(a > 0)
4-200
combine
combine(atan(a) + atan(1/a),'atan')
ans =
pi/2

syms a clear
syms b clear
Terms with Sine and Cosine Function Calls

Rewrite products of sine and cosine functions as a sum of sine and cosine functions with
more complicated arguments by specifying the target argument as sincos.
syms a b
combine(sin(a)*cos(b) + sin(b)^2,'sincos')
ans =
sin(a + b)/2 - cos(2*b)/2 + sin(a - b)/2 + 1/2
Note that combine does not rewrite powers of sine or cosine functions with negative
integer exponents:
syms a b
combine(sin(b)^(-2)*cos(b)^(-2),'sincos')
ans =
1/(cos(b)^2*sin(b)^2)
Exponential Terms
Combine terms with exponents by specifying the target argument as exp.
combine(exp(sym(3))*exp(sym(2)),'exp')
ans =
exp(5)
syms a
combine(exp(a)^3, 'exp')
ans =
exp(3*a)
4-201
Terms with Calls to the Gamma Function

Combine multiple gamma functions by specifying the target as gamma.
syms x
combine(gamma(x)*gamma(1-x),'gamma')
ans =
-pi/sin(pi*(x - 1))
combine simplifies quotients of gamma functions to rational expressions.
Terms with Logarithms

Combine terms with logarithms by specifying the target argument as log. For real
positive numbers, the logarithm of a product equals the sum of the logarithms of its
factors.
S = log(sym(2)) + log(sym(3));
combine(S,'log')
ans =
log(6)
In the complex plane the rule above does not hold. Thus, the action of combine has a
dependence on properties of the variables appearing in the input.
syms a b
S = log(a) + log(b);
combine(S,'log')
ans =
log(a) + log(b)
To apply this rule you can set certain assumptions about the input variables.
syms a b
assume(a > 0)
assume(b > 0)
combine(S,'log')
ans =
log(a*b)
4-202
combine
For future computations, clear the assumptions set on variables a and b.

syms a clear
syms b clear
Alternatively, combine applies the rule if you relax the analytic constraints using
IgnoreAnalyticConstraints.
syms a b
combine(S,'log','IgnoreAnalyticConstraints',true)
ans =
log(a*b)
Multiple Input Expressions in One Call

To evaluate multiple expressions in one function call, use a symbolic matrix as the input
parameter.
S = [sqrt(sym(2))*sqrt(5), sqrt(2)*sqrt(sym(11))];
combine(S)
ans =
[ 10^(1/2), 22^(1/2)]
Input Arguments
S Input expression
symbolic expression | symbolic vector | symbolic matrix | symbolic function
Input expression, specified as a symbolic expression, function, or as a vector or matrix of
symbolic expressions or functions.
Tip S is the symbolic expression to rewrite. It accepts only symbolic data types as inputs.
For example, sin(3) results in an error because 3 is not a symbolic object. Instead, use
sin(sym(3)).
combine works recursively on subexpressions of S.
4-203
If S is a symbolic matrix, combine is applied to all elements of the matrix.

T Target function
'atan' | 'exp' | 'gamma' | 'log' | 'sincos' | 'sinhcosh'
Target function, specified as a string. The rewriting rules apply only to calls to this
function. It can take the values of atan, exp, gamma, log, sincos, and sinhcosh.
Name-Value Pair Arguments

Example: combine(log (a) + log
(b),'log','IgnoreAnalyticConstraints',true)
'IgnoreAnalyticConstraints' Simplification rules applied to expressions and
equations
false (default) | true
Simplification rules applied to expressions and equations, specified as the commaseparated pair consisting of IgnoreAnalyticConstraints and one of these values.
false
Uses strict simplification rules.
true
Applies purely algebraic simplifications

that generally not correct, but can
give simpler results. For example,
log(a) + log(b) = log(a*b). This
is most useful in simplifying expressions
where direct use of the solver returns
complicated results. Note that setting
IgnoreAnalyticConstraints to true
can lead to wrong or incomplete results.
Output Arguments
Y Expression with combined functions
symbolic variable | symbolic number | symbolic expression | symbolic vector | symbolic
matrix
Expression with the rewriting rules applied to it, returned as a symbolic variable,
number, expression, or as a vector or matrix of symbolic variables, numbers, or
expressions.
4-204
combine
More About
Algorithms
combine applies the following rewriting rules to the input expression S, depending on
the value of the target argument T.
When T = atan where x and y are such that |xy| < 1,
x+y
atan ( x ) + atan ( y ) = atan
1 - xy
When T = exp, combine applies the following rewriting rules where valid, reacting to
the properties of the input arguments:
e a eb = e a + b
( ea ) b = eab
When T = gamma:
aG ( a ) = G ( a + 1)
and,
G ( a + 1)
=a
G (a )
For positive integers n,

G (-a ) G ( a ) = -
p
sin ( p a )
When T = log:
log( a) + log( b) = log(ab)

If b < 1000,
4-205
b log( a) = log ( ab )
When b >= 1000, combine does not apply this second rule.
The rules applied to rewrite logarithms do not hold for arbitrary complex values of a
and b. Specify appropriate properties for a or b to enable these rewriting rules.
When T = sincos,
sin ( x ) sin ( y ) =
cos ( x - y ) cos ( x + y )
2
2
combine applies similar rules for sin(x) cos(y) and cos(x) cos(y).
combine applies rules recursively to powers of sin and cos with positive integral
exponents.
When T = sinhcosh:
sinh ( x ) sinh ( y ) =
cosh ( x + y ) cosh( x - y )
2
2
combine applies similar rules for sinh(x)cosh(y) and cosh(x)cosh(y).

combine applies the previous rules recursively to powers of sinh and cosh with
positive integral exponents.
See Also
collect | expand | factor | horner | numden | rewrite | simplify |

simplifyFraction
4-206
compose
compose
Functional composition
Syntax
compose(f,g)
compose(f,g,z)
compose(f,g,x,z)
compose(f,g,x,y,z)
Description
compose(f,g) returns f(g(y)) where f = f(x) and g = g(y). Here x is the
symbolic variable of f as defined by symvar and y is the symbolic variable of g as defined
by symvar.
compose(f,g,z) returns f(g(z)) where f = f(x), g = g(y), and x and y are the
symbolic variables of f and g as defined by symvar.
compose(f,g,x,z) returns f(g(z)) and makes x the independent variable for f.
That is, if f = cos(x/t), then compose(f,g,x,z) returns cos(g(z)/t) whereas
compose(f,g,t,z) returns cos(x/g(z)).
compose(f,g,x,y,z) returns f(g(z)) and makes x the independent variable for
f and y the independent variable for g. For f = cos(x/t) and g = sin(y/u),
compose(f,g,x,y,z) returns cos(sin(z/u)/t) whereas compose(f,g,x,u,z)
returns cos(sin(y/z)/t).
Examples
Suppose
syms x y z t u
f = 1/(1 + x^2);
g = sin(y);
h = x^t;
4-207
p = exp(-y/u);
Then
a
b
c
d
e
f
=
=
=
=
=
=
compose(f,g)
compose(f,g,t)
compose(h,g,x,z)
compose(h,g,t,z)
compose(h,p,x,y,z)
compose(h,p,t,u,z)
returns:
a =
1/(sin(y)^2 + 1)
b =
1/(sin(t)^2 + 1)
c =
sin(z)^t
d =
x^sin(z)
e =
exp(-z/u)^t
f =
xêxp(-y/z)
See Also
finverse | subs | syms
4-208
cond
cond
Condition number of matrix
Syntax
cond(A)
cond(A,P)
Description
cond(A) returns the 2-norm condition number of matrix A.
cond(A,P) returns the P-norm condition number of matrix A.
Input Arguments
A
Symbolic matrix.
P
One of these values 1, 2, inf, or 'fro'.
cond(A,1) returns the 1-norm condition number.
cond(A,2) or cond(A) returns the 2-norm condition number.
cond(A,inf) returns the infinity norm condition number.
cond(A,'fro') returns the Frobenius norm condition number.
Default: 2
Examples
Compute the 2-norm condition number of the inverse of the 3-by-3 magic square A:
A = inv(sym(magic(3)));
4-209
condN2 = cond(A)
condN2 =
(5*3^(1/2))/2
Use vpa to approximate the result with 20-digit accuracy:

vpa(condN2, 20)
ans =
4.3301270189221932338
Compute the 1-norm condition number, the Frobenius condition number, and the infinity
condition number of the inverse of the 3-by-3 magic square A:
A = inv(sym(magic(3)));
condN1 = cond(A, 1)
condNf = cond(A, 'fro')
condNi = cond(A, inf)
condN1 =
16/3
condNf =
(285^(1/2)*391^(1/2))/60
condNi =
16/3
Use vpa to approximate these condition numbers with 20-digit accuracy:

vpa(condN1, 20)
vpa(condNf, 20)
vpa(condNi, 20)
ans =
5.3333333333333333333
ans =
5.5636468855119361059
ans =
5.3333333333333333333
Compute the condition numbers of the 3-by-3 Hilbert matrix H approximating the results
with 30-digit accuracy:
4-210
cond
H = sym(hilb(3));
condN2 = vpa(cond(H), 30)
condN1 = vpa(cond(H, 1), 30)
condNf = vpa(cond(H, 'fro'), 30)
condNi = vpa(cond(H, inf), 30)
condN2 =
524.056777586060817870782845928 +...
1.42681147881398269481283800423e-38*i
condN1 =
748.0
condNf =
526.158821079719236517033364845
condNi =
748.0
Hilbert matrices are classic examples of ill-conditioned matrices.
More About
Condition Number of a Matrix
Condition number of a matrix is the ratio of the largest singular value of that matrix to
the smallest singular value. The P-norm condition number of the matrix A is defined as
norm(A,P)*norm(inv(A),P), where norm is the norm of the matrix A.
Tips
Calling cond for a numeric matrix that is not a symbolic object invokes the MATLAB
cond function.
See Also
equationsToMatrix | inv | linsolve | norm | rank
4-211
conj
Symbolic complex conjugate
Syntax
conj(X)
Description
conj(X) is the complex conjugate of X.
For a complex X, conj(X) = real(X) - i*imag(X).
See Also
real | imag
4-212
cos
cos
Symbolic cosine function
Syntax
cos(X)
Description
cos(X) returns the cosine function of X.
Examples
Cosine Function for Numeric and Symbolic Arguments
Depending on its arguments, cos returns floating-point or exact symbolic results.
Compute the cosine function for these numbers. Because these numbers are not symbolic
objects, cos returns floating-point results.
A = cos([-2, -pi, pi/6, 5*pi/7, 11])
A =
-0.4161
-1.0000
0.8660
-0.6235
0.0044
Compute the cosine function for the numbers converted to symbolic objects. For many
symbolic (exact) numbers, cos returns unresolved symbolic calls.
symA = cos(sym([-2, -pi, pi/6, 5*pi/7, 11]))
symA =
[ cos(2), -1, 3^(1/2)/2, -cos((2*pi)/7), cos(11)]

4-213
vpa(symA)
ans =
[ -0.41614683654714238699756822950076,...
-1.0,...
0.86602540378443864676372317075294,...
-0.62348980185873353052500488400424,...
0.0044256979880507857483550247239416]
Plot the Cosine Function

Plot the cosine function on the interval from
syms x
ezplot(cos(x), [-4*pi, 4*pi])
grid on
4-214
to
cos
Handle Expressions Containing the Cosine Function

containing cos.
Find the first and second derivatives of the cosine function:
syms x
diff(cos(x), x)
diff(cos(x), x, x)
ans =
-sin(x)
4-215
ans =
-cos(x)
Find the indefinite integral of the cosine function:

int(cos(x), x)
ans =
sin(x)
Find the Taylor series expansion of cos(x):

taylor(cos(x), x)
ans =
x^4/24 - x^2/2 + 1
Rewrite the cosine function in terms of the exponential function:

rewrite(cos(x), 'exp')
ans =
exp(-x*i)/2 + exp(x*i)/2
Input Arguments
X Input
More About
Cosine Function
The cosine of an angle, , defined with reference to a right angled triangle is
cos(a ) =
4-216
adjacent side b
= .
hypotenuse
h
cos
The cosine of a complex angle, , is

cosine(a ) =
eia + e-ia
.
2
See Also
acos | acot | acsc | asec | asin | atan | cot | csc | sec | sin | tan
4-217
cosh
Symbolic hyperbolic cosine function
Syntax
cosh(X)
Description
cosh(X) returns the hyperbolic cosine function of X.
Examples
Hyperbolic Cosine Function for Numeric and Symbolic Arguments
Depending on its arguments, cosh returns floating-point or exact symbolic results.
Compute the hyperbolic cosine function for these numbers. Because these numbers are
not symbolic objects, cosh returns floating-point results.
A = cosh([-2, -pi*i, pi*i/6, 5*pi*i/7, 3*pi*i/2])
A =
3.7622
-1.0000
0.8660
-0.6235
-0.0000
Compute the hyperbolic cosine function for the numbers converted to symbolic objects.
For many symbolic (exact) numbers, cosh returns unresolved symbolic calls.
symA = cosh(sym([-2, -pi*i, pi*i/6, 5*pi*i/7, 3*pi*i/2]))
symA =
[ cosh(2), -1, 3^(1/2)/2, -cosh((pi*2*i)/7), 0]

4-218
cosh
vpa(symA)
ans =
[ 3.7621956910836314595622134777737,...
-1.0,...
0.86602540378443864676372317075294,...
-0.62348980185873353052500488400424,...
0]
Plot the Hyperbolic Cosine Function

Plot the hyperbolic cosine function on the interval from
to .
syms x
ezplot(cosh(x), [-pi, pi])
grid on
4-219
Handle Expressions Containing the Hyperbolic Cosine Function

containing cosh.
Find the first and second derivatives of the hyperbolic cosine function:
syms x
diff(cosh(x), x)
diff(cosh(x), x, x)
ans =
sinh(x)
4-220
cosh
ans =
cosh(x)
Find the indefinite integral of the hyperbolic cosine function:

int(cosh(x), x)
ans =
sinh(x)
Find the Taylor series expansion of cosh(x):

taylor(cosh(x), x)
ans =
x^4/24 + x^2/2 + 1
Rewrite the hyperbolic cosine function in terms of the exponential function:

rewrite(cosh(x), 'exp')
ans =
exp(-x)/2 + exp(x)/2
Input Arguments
X Input
See Also
acosh | acoth | acsch | asech | asinh | atanh | coth | csch | sech | sinh |
tanh
4-221
coshint
Hyperbolic cosine integral function
Syntax
coshint(X)
Description
coshint(X) returns the hyperbolic cosine integral function of X.
Examples
Hyperbolic Cosine Integral Function for Numeric and Symbolic Arguments
Depending on its arguments, coshint returns floating-point or exact symbolic results.
Compute the hyperbolic cosine integral function for these numbers. Because these
numbers are not symbolic objects, coshint returns floating-point results.
A = coshint([-1, 0, 1/2, 1, pi/2, pi])
A =
0.8379 + 3.1416i
-Inf + 0.0000i -0.0528 + 0.0000i
+ 0.0000i
1.7127 + 0.0000i
5.4587 + 0.0000i
0.8379...
Compute the hyperbolic cosine integral function for the numbers converted to symbolic
objects. For many symbolic (exact) numbers, coshint returns unresolved symbolic calls.
symA = coshint(sym([-1, 0, 1/2, 1, pi/2, pi]))
symA =
[ pi*i + coshint(1), -Inf, coshint(1/2), coshint(1), coshint(pi/2), coshint(pi)]

4-222
coshint
vpa(symA)
ans =
[ 0.83786694098020824089467857943576...
+ 3.1415926535897932384626433832795*i,...
-Inf,...
-0.052776844956493615913136063326141,...
0.83786694098020824089467857943576,...
1.7126607364844281079951569897796,...
5.4587340442160681980014878977798]
Plot the Hyperbolic Cosine Integral Function

Plot the hyperbolic cosine integral function on the interval from 0 to 2*pi .
syms x
ezplot(coshint(x), [0, 2*pi])
grid on
4-223
Handle Expressions Containing the Hyperbolic Cosine Integral Function

Many functions, such as diff and int, can handle expressions containing coshint.
Find the first and second derivatives of the hyperbolic cosine integral function:
syms x
diff(coshint(x), x)
diff(coshint(x), x, x)
ans =
cosh(x)/x
ans =
4-224
coshint
sinh(x)/x - cosh(x)/x^2
Find the indefinite integral of the hyperbolic cosine integral function:

int(coshint(x), x)
ans =
x*coshint(x) - sinh(x)
Input Arguments
X Input
More About
Hyperbolic Cosine Integral Function
The hyperbolic cosine integral function is defined as follows:
x
Chi ( x ) = g + log ( x) +
cosh ( t ) - 1
dt
t
Here, is the Euler-Mascheroni constant:

n 1
g = lim - log ( n )
n
k= 1 k
References
[1] Cautschi, W. and W. F. Cahill. Exponential Integral and Related Functions.
Handbook of Mathematical Functions with Formulas, Graphs, and Mathematical
Tables. (M. Abramowitz and I. A. Stegun, eds.). New York: Dover, 1972.
4-225
See Also
cos | cosint | eulergamma | int | sinhint | sinint | ssinint
4-226
cosint
cosint
Cosine integral function
Syntax
cosint(X)
Description
cosint(X) returns the cosine integral function of X.
Examples
Cosine Integral Function for Numeric and Symbolic Arguments
Depending on its arguments, cosint returns floating-point or exact symbolic results.
Compute the cosine integral function for these numbers. Because these numbers are not
symbolic objects, cosint returns floating-point results.
A = cosint([- 1, 0, pi/2, pi, 1])
A =
0.3374 + 3.1416i
0.0737 + 0.0000i
-Inf + 0.0000i
0.3374 + 0.0000i
0.4720 + 0.0000i...
Compute the cosine integral function for the numbers converted to symbolic objects. For
many symbolic (exact) numbers, cosint returns unresolved symbolic calls.
symA = cosint(sym([- 1, 0, pi/2, pi, 1]))
symA =
[ pi*i + cosint(1), -Inf, cosint(pi/2), cosint(pi), cosint(1)]

4-227
vpa(symA)
ans =
[ 0.33740392290096813466264620388915...
+ 3.1415926535897932384626433832795*i,...
-Inf,...
0.47200065143956865077760610761413,...
0.07366791204642548599010096523015,...
0.33740392290096813466264620388915]
Plot the Cosine Integral Function

Plot the cosine integral function on the interval from 0 to 4*pi.
syms x
ezplot(cosint(x), [0, 4*pi])
grid on
4-228
cosint
Handle Expressions Containing the Cosine Integral Function

Many functions, such as diff and int, can handle expressions containing cosint.
Find the first and second derivatives of the cosine integral function:
syms x
diff(cosint(x), x)
diff(cosint(x), x, x)
ans =
cos(x)/x
ans =
4-229
- cos(x)/x^2 - sin(x)/x
Find the indefinite integral of the cosine integral function:

int(cosint(x), x)
ans =
x*cosint(x) - sin(x)
Input Arguments
X Input
More About
Cosine Integral Function
The cosine integral function is defined as follows:
x
Ci ( x ) = g + log( x) +
cos ( t ) - 1
dt
t
Here, is the Euler-Mascheroni constant:

n 1
g = lim - log ( n )
n
k= 1 k
References
4-230
cosint
See Also
cos | coshint | eulergamma | int | sinhint | sinint | ssinint
4-231
cot
Symbolic cotangent function
Syntax
cot(X)
Description
cot(X) returns the cotangent function of X.
Examples
Cotangent Function for Numeric and Symbolic Arguments
Depending on its arguments, cot returns floating-point or exact symbolic results.
Compute the cotangent function for these numbers. Because these numbers are not
symbolic objects, cot returns floating-point results.
A = cot([-2, -pi/2, pi/6, 5*pi/7, 11])
A =
0.4577
-0.0000
1.7321
-0.7975
-0.0044
Compute the cotangent function for the numbers converted to symbolic objects. For many
symbolic (exact) numbers, cot returns unresolved symbolic calls.
symA = cot(sym([-2, -pi/2, pi/6, 5*pi/7, 11]))
symA =
[ -cot(2), 0, 3^(1/2), -cot((2*pi)/7), cot(11)]

4-232
cot
vpa(symA)
ans =
[ 0.45765755436028576375027741043205,...
0,...
1.7320508075688772935274463415059,...
-0.79747338888240396141568825421443,...
-0.0044257413313241136855482762848043]
Plot the Cotangent Function

Plot the cotangent function on the interval from
to .
syms x
ezplot(cot(x), [-pi, pi])
grid on
4-233
Handle Expressions Containing the Cotangent Function

containing cot.
Find the first and second derivatives of the cotangent function:
syms x
diff(cot(x), x)
diff(cot(x), x, x)
ans =
- cot(x)^2 - 1
4-234
cot
ans =
2*cot(x)*(cot(x)^2 + 1)
Find the indefinite integral of the cotangent function:

int(cot(x), x)
ans =
log(sin(x))
Find the Taylor series expansion of cot(x) around x = pi/2:

taylor(cot(x), x, pi/2)
ans =
pi/2 - x + (pi/2 - x)^3/3 + (2*(pi/2 - x)^5)/15
Rewrite the cotangent function in terms of the sine and cosine functions:
rewrite(cot(x), 'sincos')
ans =
cos(x)/sin(x)
Rewrite the cotangent function in terms of the exponential function:

rewrite(cot(x), 'exp')
ans =
(exp(x*2*i)*i + i)/(exp(x*2*i) - 1)
Input Arguments
X Input
More About
Cotangent Function
The cotangent of an angle, , defined with reference to a right angled triangle is
4-235
cot (a ) =
1
adjacent side b
=
= .
(
)
tan a
opposite side a
The cotangent of a complex angle is
cotangent ( a ) =
.
4-236
i ( eia + e-ia )
( eia
- e-ia )
cot
See Also
acos | acot | acsc | asec | asin | atan | cos | csc | sec | sin | tan
4-237
coth
Symbolic hyperbolic cotangent function
Syntax
coth(X)
Description
coth(X) returns the hyperbolic cotangent function of X
Examples
Hyperbolic Cotangent Function for Numeric and Symbolic Arguments
Depending on its arguments, coth returns floating-point or exact symbolic results.
Compute the hyperbolic cotangent function for these numbers. Because these numbers
are not symbolic objects, coth returns floating-point results.
A = coth([-2, -pi*i/3, pi*i/6, 5*pi*i/7, 3*pi*i/2])
A =
-1.0373 + 0.0000i
0.0000 + 0.7975i
0.0000 + 0.5774i
0.0000 - 0.0000i
0.0000 - 1.7321i...
Compute the hyperbolic cotangent function for the numbers converted to symbolic
objects. For many symbolic (exact) numbers, coth returns unresolved symbolic calls.
symA = coth(sym([-2, -pi*i/3, pi*i/6, 5*pi*i/7, 3*pi*i/2]))
symA =
[ -coth(2), (3^(1/2)*i)/3, -3^(1/2)*i, -coth((pi*2*i)/7), 0]

4-238
coth
vpa(symA)
ans =
[ -1.0373147207275480958778097647678,...
0.57735026918962576450914878050196*i,...
-1.7320508075688772935274463415059*i,...
0.79747338888240396141568825421443*i,...
0]
Plot the Hyperbolic Cotangent Function

Plot the hyperbolic cotangent function on the interval from -10 to 10.
syms x
ezplot(coth(x), [-10, 10])
grid on
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Handle Expressions Containing the Hyperbolic Cotangent Function

containing coth.
Find the first and second derivatives of the hyperbolic cotangent function:
syms x
diff(coth(x), x)
diff(coth(x), x, x)
ans =
1 - coth(x)^2
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coth
ans =
2*coth(x)*(coth(x)^2 - 1)
Find the indefinite integral of the hyperbolic cotangent function:

int(coth(x), x)
ans =
log(sinh(x))
Find the Taylor series expansion of coth(x) around x = pi*i/2:

taylor(coth(x), x, pi*i/2)
ans =
x - (pi*i)/2 + ((pi*i)/2 - x)^3/3 - (2*((pi*i)/2 - x)^5)/15
Rewrite the hyperbolic cotangent function in terms of the exponential function:

rewrite(coth(x), 'exp')
ans =
(exp(2*x) + 1)/(exp(2*x) - 1)
Input Arguments
X Input
See Also
acosh | acoth | acsch | asech | asinh | atanh | cosh | csch | sech | sinh |
tanh
4-241
csc
Symbolic cosecant function
Syntax
csc(X)
Description
csc(X) returns the cosecant function of X.
Examples
Cosecant Function for Numeric and Symbolic Arguments
Depending on its arguments, csc returns floating-point or exact symbolic results.
Compute the cosecant function for these numbers. Because these numbers are not
symbolic objects, csc returns floating-point results.
A = csc([-2, -pi/2, pi/6, 5*pi/7, 11])
A =
-1.0998
-1.0000
2.0000
1.2790
-1.0000
Compute the cosecant function for the numbers converted to symbolic objects. For many
symbolic (exact) numbers, csc returns unresolved symbolic calls.
symA = csc(sym([-2, -pi/2, pi/6, 5*pi/7, 11]))
symA =
[ -1/sin(2), -1, 2, 1/sin((2*pi)/7), 1/sin(11)]

4-242
csc
vpa(symA)
ans =
[ -1.0997501702946164667566973970263,...
-1.0,...
2.0,...
1.2790480076899326057478506072714,...
-1.0000097935452091313874644503551]
Plot the Cosecant Function

Plot the cosecant function on the interval from
to
syms x
ezplot(csc(x), [-4*pi, 4*pi])
grid on
4-243
Handle Expressions Containing the Cosecant Function

containing csc.
Find the first and second derivatives of the cosecant function:
syms x
diff(csc(x), x)
diff(csc(x), x, x)
ans =
-cos(x)/sin(x)^2
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csc
ans =
1/sin(x) + (2*cos(x)^2)/sin(x)^3
Find the indefinite integral of the cosecant function:

int(csc(x), x)
ans =
log(tan(x/2))
Find the Taylor series expansion of csc(x) around x = pi/2:

taylor(csc(x), x, pi/2)
ans =
(pi/2 - x)^2/2 + (5*(pi/2 - x)^4)/24 + 1
Rewrite the cosecant function in terms of the exponential function:

rewrite(csc(x), 'exp')
ans =
1/((exp(-x*i)*i)/2 - (exp(x*i)*i)/2)
Input Arguments
X Input
More About
Cosecant Function
The cosecant of an angle, , defined with reference to a right angled triangle is
cosec(a ) =
1
hypotenuse
h
=
= .
(
)
sin a
opposite side a
4-245
The cosecant of a complex angle, , is
cosecant (a ) =
See Also
2i
e
ia
- e-ia
acos | acot | acsc | asec | asin | atan | cos | cot | csc | sin | tan
4-246
csch
csch
Symbolic hyperbolic cosecant function
Syntax
csch(X)
Description
csch(X) returns the hyperbolic cosecant function of X.
Examples
Hyperbolic Cosecant Function for Numeric and Symbolic Arguments
Depending on its arguments, csch returns floating-point or exact symbolic results.
Compute the hyperbolic cosecant function for these numbers. Because these numbers are
not symbolic objects, csch returns floating-point results.
A = csch([-2, -pi*i/2, 0, pi*i/3, 5*pi*i/7, pi*i/2])
A =
-0.2757 + 0.0000i
0.0000 - 1.1547i
0.0000 + 1.0000i
0.0000 - 1.2790i
Inf + 0.0000i...
0.0000 - 1.0000i
Compute the hyperbolic cosecant function for the numbers converted to symbolic objects.
For many symbolic (exact) numbers, csch returns unresolved symbolic calls.
symA = csch(sym([-2, -pi*i/2, 0, pi*i/3, 5*pi*i/7, pi*i/2]))
symA =
[ -1/sinh(2), i, Inf, -(3^(1/2)*2*i)/3, 1/sinh((pi*2*i)/7), -i]

4-247
vpa(symA)
ans =
[ -0.27572056477178320775835148216303,...
1.0*i,...
Inf,...
-1.1547005383792515290182975610039*i,...
-1.2790480076899326057478506072714*i,...
-1.0*i]
Plot the Hyperbolic Cosecant Function

Plot the hyperbolic cosecant function on the interval from -10 to 10.
syms x
ezplot(csch(x), [-10, 10])
grid on
4-248
csch
Handle Expressions Containing the Hyperbolic Cosecant Function

containing csch.
Find the first and second derivatives of the hyperbolic cosecant function:
syms x
diff(csch(x), x)
diff(csch(x), x, x)
ans =
-cosh(x)/sinh(x)^2
4-249
ans =
(2*cosh(x)^2)/sinh(x)^3 - 1/sinh(x)
Find the indefinite integral of the hyperbolic cosecant function:

int(csch(x), x)
ans =
log(tanh(x/2))
Find the Taylor series expansion of csch(x) around x = pi*i/2:

taylor(csch(x), x, pi*i/2)
ans =
(((pi*i)/2 - x)^2*i)/2 - (((pi*i)/2 - x)^4*5*i)/24 - i
Rewrite the hyperbolic cosecant function in terms of the exponential function:

rewrite(csch(x), 'exp')
ans =
-1/(exp(-x)/2 - exp(x)/2)
Input Arguments
X Input
See Also
acosh | acoth | acsch | asech | asinh | atanh | cosh | coth | sech | sinh |
tanh
4-250
cumprod
cumprod
Symbolic cumulative product
Syntax
cumprod(A)
cumprod(A,dim)
Description
cumprod(A) returns an array the same size as A containing the cumulative product.
If A is a vector, then cumprod(A) returns a vector containing the cumulative product
of the elements of A.
If A is a matrix, then cumprod(A) returns a matrix containing the cumulative
products of each column of A.
cumprod(A,dim) returns the cumulative product along dimension dim. For example, if
A is a matrix, then cumprod(A,2) returns the cumulative product of each row.
Examples
Cumulative Product of a Vector
Create vector V and find the cumulative product of its elements:
V = 1./factorial(sym([1:5]))
prod_V = cumprod(V)
V =
[ 1, 1/2, 1/6, 1/24, 1/120]
prod_V =
[ 1, 1/2, 1/12, 1/288, 1/34560]
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Cumulative Product of Each Column in a Symbolic Matrix

Create matrix A containing symbolic numbers and matrix B containing symbolic
expressions:
syms x y
A = sym([0, 1, 2; 3, 4, 5; 1, 2, 3])
B = [x, 2*x + 1, 3*x + 2; 1/y, y, 2*y]
A
[
[
[
=
0, 1, 2]
3, 4, 5]
1, 2, 3]
B =
[
x, 2*x + 1, 3*x + 2]
[ 1/y,
y,
2*y]
Compute the cumulative products of the elements of A and B. By default, cumprod

returns the cumulative product of each column:
productA = cumprod(A)
productB = cumprod(B)
productA =
[ 0, 1, 2]
[ 0, 4, 10]
[ 0, 8, 30]
productB =
[
x,
2*x + 1,
3*x + 2]
[ x/y, y*(2*x + 1), 2*y*(3*x + 2)]
Cumulative Product of Each Row in a Symbolic Matrix

expressions:
syms x y
A = sym([0, 1, 2; 3, 4, 5; 1, 2, 3])
B = [x, 2*x + 1, 3*x + 2; 1/y, y, 2*y]
A =
[ 0, 1, 2]
4-252
cumprod
[ 3, 4, 5]
[ 1, 2, 3]
B =
[
x, 2*x + 1, 3*x + 2]
[ 1/y,
y,
2*y]
Compute the cumulative product of each row of matrices A and B:

productA = cumprod(A,2)
productB = cumprod(B,2)
productA =
[ 0, 0, 0]
[ 3, 12, 60]
[ 1, 2, 6]
productB =
[
x, x*(2*x + 1), x*(2*x + 1)*(3*x + 2)]
[ 1/y,
1,
2*y]
Input Arguments
A Input array
Input array, specified as a vector or matrix.
dim Dimension to operate along
positive integer
Dimension to operate along, specified as a positive integer. The default value is 1.
cumprod returns A if dim is greater than ndims(A).
See Also
cumprod | cumsum | cumsum | int | symprod | symsum
4-253
cumsum
Symbolic cumulative sum
Syntax
cumsum(A)
cumsum(A,dim)
Description
cumsum(A) returns an array the same size as A containing the cumulative sum.
If A is a vector, then cumsum(A) returns a vector containing the cumulative sum of
the elements of A.
If A is a matrix, then cumsum(A) returns a matrix containing the cumulative sums of
each column of A.
cumsum(A,dim) returns the cumulative sum along dimension dim. For example, if A is a
matrix, then cumsum(A,2) returns the cumulative sum of each row.
Examples
Cumulative Sum of a Vector
Create vector V and find the cumulative sum of its elements:
V = 1./factorial(sym([1:5]))
sum_V = cumsum(V)
V =
[ 1, 1/2, 1/6, 1/24, 1/120]
sum_V =
[ 1, 3/2, 5/3, 41/24, 103/60]
4-254
cumsum
Cumulative Sum of Each Column in a Symbolic Matrix

expressions:
syms x y
A = sym([0, 1, 2; 3, 4, 5; 1, 2, 3])
B = [x, 2*x + 1, 3*x + 2; 1/y, y, 2*y]
A
[
[
[
=
0, 1, 2]
3, 4, 5]
1, 2, 3]
B =
[
x, 2*x + 1, 3*x + 2]
[ 1/y,
y,
2*y]
Compute the cumulative sums of elements of A and B. By default, cumsum returns the
cumulative sum of each column:
sumA = cumsum(A)
sumB = cumsum(B)
sumA
[ 0,
[ 3,
[ 4,
=
1, 2]
5, 7]
7, 10]
sumB =
[
x,
2*x + 1,
3*x + 2]
[ x + 1/y, 2*x + y + 1, 3*x + 2*y + 2]
Cumulative Sum of Each Row in a Symbolic Matrix

expressions:
syms x y
A = sym([0, 1, 2; 3, 4, 5; 1, 2, 3])
B = [x, 2*x + 1, 3*x + 2; 1/y, y, 2*y]
A =
[ 0, 1, 2]
4-255
[ 3, 4, 5]
[ 1, 2, 3]
B =
[
x, 2*x + 1, 3*x + 2]
[ 1/y,
y,
2*y]
Compute the cumulative sum of each row of matrices A and B:

sumA = cumsum(A,2)
sumB = cumsum(B,2)
sumA
[ 0,
[ 3,
[ 1,
=
1, 3]
7, 12]
3, 6]
sumB =
[
x, 3*x + 1,
6*x + 3]
[ 1/y, y + 1/y, 3*y + 1/y]
Input Arguments
A Input array
Input array, specified as a vector or matrix.
positive integer
Dimension to operate along, specified as a positive integer. The default value is 1.
cumsum returns A if dim is greater than ndims(A).
See Also
cumprod | cumprod | cumsum | int | symprod | symsum
4-256
curl
curl
Curl of vector field
Syntax
curl(V,X)
curl(V)
Description
curl(V,X) returns the curl of the vector field V with respect to the vector X. The vector
field V and the vector X are both three-dimensional.
curl(V) the curl of the vector field V with respect to a vector constructed from the first
three symbolic variables found in V by symvar.
Input Arguments
V
Three-dimensional vector of symbolic expressions or symbolic functions.
X
Three-dimensional vector with respect to which you compute the curl.
Examples
Compute the curl of this vector field with respect to vector X=(x, y, z) in Cartesian
coordinates:
syms x y z
4-257
curl([x^3*y^2*z, y^3*z^2*x, z^3*x^2*y], [x, y, z])

ans =
x^2*z^3 - 2*x*y^3*z
x^3*y^2 - 2*x*y*z^3
- 2*x^3*y*z + y^3*z^2
Compute the curl of the gradient of this scalar function. The curl of the gradient of any
scalar function is the vector of 0s:
syms x y z
f = x^2 + y^2 + z^2;
curl(gradient(f, [x, y, z]), [x, y, z])
ans =
0
0
0
The vector Laplacian of a vector field V is defined as:

2V = ( V ) - ( V )
Compute the vector Laplacian of this vector field using the curl, divergence, and
gradient functions:
syms x y z
V = [x^2*y, y^2*z, z^2*x];
gradient(divergence(V, [x, y, z])) - curl(curl(V, [x, y, z]), [x, y, z])
ans =
2*y
2*z
2*x
More About
Curl of a Vector Field
The curl of the vector field V=(V1, V2, V3) with respect to the vector X=(X1, X2, X3) in
Cartesian coordinates is the vector
4-258
curl
V3 V2
X 2 X 3
V
V
curl (V ) = V = 1 - 3
X 3 X1
V
V
2 - 1
X
1 X 2
See Also
diff | divergence | gradient | jacobian | hessian | laplacian | potential |

vectorPotential
4-259
daeFunction
Convert system of differential algebraic equations to MATLAB function handle
Syntax
f = daeFunction(eqs,vars)
f = daeFunction(eqs,vars,p1,...,pN)
f = daeFunction( ___ ,Name,Value)
Description
f = daeFunction(eqs,vars) converts a system of symbolic first-order differential
algebraic equations (DAEs) to a MATLAB function handle acceptable as an input
argument to the numerical MATLAB DAE solver ode15i.
f = daeFunction(eqs,vars,p1,...,pN) lets you specify the symbolic parameters of
the system as p1,...,pN.
f = daeFunction( ___ ,Name,Value) uses additional options specified by one or more
Name,Value pair arguments.
Examples
Convert DAE System to a Function Handle
Create the system of differential algebraic equations. Here, the symbolic functions x1(t)
and x2(t) represent the state variables of the system. The system also contains constant
symbolic parameters a, b, and the parameter function r(t). These parameters do not
represent state variables. Specify the equations and state variables as two symbolic
vectors: equations as a vector of symbolic equations, and variables as a vector of symbolic
function calls.
syms x1(t) x2(t) a b r(t)
eqs = [diff(x1(t),t) == a*x1(t) + b*x2(t)^2,...
4-260
daeFunction
x1(t)^2 + x2(t)^2 == r(t)^2];

vars = [x1(t), x2(t)];
Use daeFunction to generate a MATLAB function handle f depending on the variables

x1(t), x2(t) and on the parameters a, b, r(t).
f = daeFunction(eqs, vars, a, b, r(t))
f =
@(t,in2,in3,param1,param2,param3)[in3(1,:)-param1.*in2(1,:)...
-param2.*in2(2,:).^2;-param3.^2+in2(1,:).^2+in2(2,:).^2]
You also can generate a file instead of generating a MATLAB function handle. If the
file myfile.m already exists in the current folder, daeFunction replaces the existing
function with the converted symbolic expression. You can open and edit the resulting file.
f = daeFunction(eqs, vars, a, b, r(t), 'file', 'myfile');
function eqs = myfile(t,in2,in3,param1,param2,param3)
%MYFILE
%
EQS = MYFILE(T,IN2,IN3,PARAM1,PARAM2,PARAM3)
YP1 = in3(1,:);
x1 = in2(1,:);
x2 = in2(2,:);
t2 = x2.^2;
eqs = [YP1-param2.*t2-param1.*x1;t2-param3.^2+x1.^2];
Specify the parameter values, and create the reduced function handle F as follows.
a
b
r
F
=
=
=
=
-0.6;
-0.1;
@(t) cos(t)/(1 + t^2);
@(t, Y, YP) f(t,Y,YP,a,b,r(t));
Specify consistent initial conditions for the DAE system.

t0 = 0;
y0 = [-r(t0)*sin(0.1); r(t0)*cos(0.1)];
yp0= [a*y0(1) + b*y0(2)^2; 1.234];
Now, use ode15i to solve the system of equations.

ode15i(F, [t0, 1], y0, yp0)
4-261
Input Arguments
eqs System of first-order DAEs
vector of symbolic equations | vector of symbolic expressions
System of first-order DAEs, specified as a vector of symbolic equations or expressions.
Here, expressions represent equations with zero right side.
vars State variables
vector of symbolic functions | vector of symbolic function calls
State variables, specified as a vector of symbolic functions or function calls, such as x(t).
4-262
daeFunction
Example: [x(t),y(t)] or [x(t);y(t)]

p1,...,pN Parameters of system
symbolic variables | symbolic functions | symbolic function calls | symbolic vector |
symbolic matrix
Parameters of system, specified as symbolic variables, functions, or function calls, such
as f(t). You can also specify parameters of the system as a vector or matrix of symbolic
variables, functions, or function calls. If eqs contains symbolic parameters other than the
variables specified in vars, you must specify these additional parameters as p1,...,pN.

Example: daefunction(eqns,vars,'file','myfile')
Specify optional comma-separated pairs of Name,Value arguments. Name is the
argument name and Value is the corresponding value. Name must appear inside single
quotes (' '). You can specify several name and value pair arguments in any order as
Name1,Value1,...,NameN,ValueN.
'file' Path to file containing generated optimized code
string
Path to the file containing generated optimized code, specified as a string. The generated
file can accept double or matrix arguments and evaluate the symbolic expression
applied to the arguments. Optimized means intermediate variables are automatically
generated to simplify or speed up the code. MATLAB generates intermediate variables as
a lowercase letter t followed by an automatically generated number, for example t32.
If the value is an empty string, daeFunction generates an anonymous function. If the
string does not end in .m, the function appends .m.
Output Arguments
f Function handle that can serve as input argument to ode15i
MATLAB function handle
Function handle that can serve as input argument to ode15i, returned as a MATLAB
function handle.
4-263
See Also
decic | findDecoupledBlocks | incidenceMatrix | isLowIndexDAE

| massMatrixForm | matlabFunction | ode15i | reduceDAEIndex |
reduceDAEToODE | reduceDifferentialOrder | reduceRedundancies
4-264
dawson
dawson
Dawson integral
Syntax
dawson(X)
Description
dawson(X) represents the Dawson integral.
Examples
Dawson Integral for Numeric and Symbolic Arguments
Depending on its arguments, dawson returns floating-point or exact symbolic results.
Compute the Dawson integrals for these numbers. Because these numbers are not
symbolic objects, dawson returns floating-point results.
A = dawson([-Inf, -3/2, -1, 0, 2, Inf])
A =
0
-0.4282
-0.5381
0.3013
Compute the Dawson integrals for the numbers converted to symbolic objects. For many
symbolic (exact) numbers, dawson returns unresolved symbolic calls.
symA = dawson(sym([-Inf, -3/2, -1, 0, 2, Inf]))
symA =
[ 0, -dawson(3/2), -dawson(1), 0, dawson(2), 0]

4-265
vpa(symA)
ans =
[ 0,...
-0.42824907108539862547719010515175,...
-0.53807950691276841913638742040756,...
0,...
0.30134038892379196603466443928642,...
0]
Plot the Dawson Integral

Plot the Dawson integral on the interval from -10 to 10.
syms x
ezplot(dawson(x), [-10, 10])
grid on
4-266
dawson
Handle Expressions Containing the Dawson Integral

Many functions, such as diff and limit, can handle expressions containing dawson.
Find the first and second derivatives of the Dawson integral:
syms x
diff(dawson(x), x)
diff(dawson(x), x, x)
ans =
1 - 2*x*dawson(x)
ans =
4-267
2*x*(2*x*dawson(x) - 1) - 2*dawson(x)
Find the limit of this expression involving dawson:

limit(x*dawson(x), Inf)
ans =
1/2
Input Arguments
X Input
More About
Dawson Integral
The Dawson integral, also called the Dawson function, is defined as follows:
x
dawson ( x) = D ( x ) = e- x
t2
dt
Symbolic Math Toolbox uses this definition to implement dawson.

The alternative definition of the Dawson integral is
x
2
D ( x) = ex
- t2
dt
Tips
dawson(0) returns 0.
4-268
dawson
dawson(Inf) returns 0.
dawson(-Inf) returns 0.
See Also
erf | erfc
4-269
decic
Find consistent initial conditions for first-order implicit ODE system with algebraic
constraints
Syntax
[y0,yp0] = decic(eqs,vars,constraintEqs,t0,y0_est,fixedVars,yp0_est,
options)
Description
[y0,yp0] = decic(eqs,vars,constraintEqs,t0,y0_est,fixedVars,
yp0_est,options) finds consistent initial conditions for the system of first-order
implicit ordinary differential equations with algebraic constraints returned by the
reduceDAEToODE function.
The call [eqs,constraintEqs] = reduceDAEToODE(DA_eqs,vars) reduces the
system of differential algebraic equations DA_eqs to the system of implicit ODEs eqs. It
also returns constraint equations encountered during system reduction. For the variables
of this ODE system and their derivatives, decic finds consistent initial conditions y0,
yp0 at the time t0.
Substituting the numerical values y0, yp0 into the differential equations subs(eqs,
[t; vars(t); diff(vars(t))], [t0; y0; yp0]) and the constraint equations
subs(constr, [t; vars(t); diff(vars(t))], [t0; y0; yp0]) produces zero
vectors. Here, vars must be a column vector.
y0_est specifies numerical estimates for the values of the variables vars at the time t0,
and fixedVars indicates the values in y0_est that must not change during the numerical
search. The optional argument yp0_est lets you specify numerical estimates for the
values of the derivatives of the variables vars at the time t0.
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decic
Examples
Find Consistent Initial Conditions for ODE System
Reduce the DAE system to a system of implicit ODEs. Then, find consistent initial
conditions for the variables of the resulting ODE system and their first derivatives.
Create the following differential algebraic system.
syms x(t) y(t)
DA_eqs = [diff(x(t),t) == cos(t) + y(t),...
x(t)^2 + y(t)^2 == 1];
vars = [x(t); y(t)];
Use reduceDAEToODE to convert this system to a system of implicit ODEs.

[eqs, constraintEqs] = reduceDAEToODE(DA_eqs, vars)
eqs =
diff(x(t), t) - y(t) - cos(t)
- 2*x(t)*diff(x(t), t) - 2*y(t)*diff(y(t), t)
constraintEqs =
1 - y(t)^2 - x(t)^2
options = odeset('RelTol', 10.0^(-7), 'AbsTol', 10.0^(-7));
Fix values t0 = 0 for the time and numerical estimates for consistent values of the
variables and their derivatives.
t0 = 0;
y0_est = [0.1, 0.9];
yp0_est = [0.0, 0.0];
You can treat the constraint as an algebraic equation for the variable x with the fixed
parameter y. For this, set fixedVars = [0 1]. Alternatively, you can treat it as an
algebraic equation for the variable y with the fixed parameter x. For this, set fixedVars
= [1 0].
First, set the initial value x(t0) = y0_est(1) = 0.1.
fixedVars = [1 0];
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[y0,yp0] = decic(eqs,vars,constraintEqs,t0,y0_est,fixedVars,yp0_est,options)
y0 =
0.1000
0.9950
yp0 =
1.9950
-0.2005
Now, change fixedVars to [0 1]. This fixes y(t0) = y0_est(2) = 0.9.

fixedVars = [0 1];
[y0,yp0] = decic(eqs,vars,constraintEqs,t0,y0_est,fixedVars,yp0_est,options)
y0 =
-0.4359
0.9000
yp0 =
1.9000
0.9202
Verify that these initial values are consistent initial values satisfying the equations and
the constraints.
subs(eqs, [t; vars; diff(vars,t)], [t0; y0; yp0])
ans =
0
0
subs(constraintEqs, [t; vars; diff(vars,t)], [t0; y0; yp0])
ans =
0
Input Arguments
eqs System of implicit ordinary differential equations
System of implicit ordinary differential equations, specified as a vector of symbolic
equations or expressions. Here, expressions represent equations with zero right side.
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decic
Typically, you use expressions returned by reduceDAEToODE.

vars State variables of original DAE system
State variables of original DAE system, specified as a vector of symbolic functions or
function calls, such as x(t).
constraintEqs Constraint equations found by reduceDAEToODE during system
reduction
Constraint equations encountered during system reduction, specified as a vector of
symbolic equations or expressions. These expressions or equations depend on the
variables vars, but not on their derivatives.
Typically, you use constraint equations returned by reduceDAEToODE.
t0 Initial time
number
Initial time, specified as a number.
y0_est Estimates for values of variables vars at initial time t0
numeric vector
Estimates for the values of the variables vars at the initial time t0, specified as a
numeric vector.
fixedVars Input vector indicating which elements of y0_est are fixed values
vector with elements 0 or 1
Input vector indicating which elements of y0_est are fixed values, specified as a vector
with 0s or 1s. Fixed values of y0_est correspond to values 1 in fixedVars. These
values are not modified during the numerical search. The zero entries in fixedVars
correspond to those variables in y0_est for which decic solves the constraint equations.
The number of 0s must coincide with the number of constraint equations. The Jacobian
matrix of the constraints with respect to the variables vars(fixedVars == 0) must be
invertible.
yp0_est Estimates for values of first derivatives of variables vars at initial time t0
numeric vector
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Estimates for the values of the first derivatives of the variables vars at the initial time
t0, specified as a numeric vector.
options Options for numerical search
options structure, returned by odeset
Options for numerical search, specified as an options structure, returned by odeset. For
example, you can specify tolerances for the numerical search here.
Output Arguments
y0 Consistent initial values for variables
numeric column vector
Consistent initial values for variables, returned as a numeric column vector.
yp0 Consistent initial values for first derivatives of variables
numeric column vector
Consistent initial values for first derivatives of variables, returned as a numeric column
vector.
See Also
daeFunction | findDecoupledBlocks | incidenceMatrix |

isLowIndexDAE | massMatrixForm | reduceDAEIndex | reduceDAEToODE |
reduceDifferentialOrder | reduceRedundancies
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det
det
Compute determinant of symbolic matrix
Syntax
r = det(A)
Description
r = det(A) computes the determinant of A, where A is a symbolic or numeric matrix.
det(A) returns a symbolic expression for a symbolic A and a numeric value for a
numeric A.
Examples
Compute the determinant of the following symbolic matrix:
syms a b c d
det([a, b; c, d])
ans =
a*d - b*c
Compute the determinant of the following matrix containing the symbolic numbers:
A = sym([2/3 1/3; 1 1])
r = det(A)
A =
[ 2/3, 1/3]
[
1,
1]
r =
1/3
See Also
rank | eig
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diag
Create or extract diagonals of symbolic matrices
Syntax
diag(A,k)
diag(A)
Description
diag(A,k) returns a square symbolic matrix of order n + abs(k), with the elements
of A on the k-th diagonal. A must present a row or column vector with n components. The
value k = 0 signifies the main diagonal. The value k > 0 signifies the k-th diagonal
above the main diagonal. The value k < 0 signifies the k-th diagonal below the main
diagonal. If A is a square symbolic matrix, diag(A, k) returns a column vector formed
from the elements of the k-th diagonal of A.
diag(A), where A is a vector with n components, returns an n-by-n diagonal matrix
having A as its main diagonal. If A is a square symbolic matrix, diag(A) returns the
main diagonal of A.
Examples
Create a symbolic matrix with the main diagonal presented by the elements of the vector
v:
syms a b c
v = [a b c];
diag(v)
ans =
[ a, 0, 0]
[ 0, b, 0]
[ 0, 0, c]
Create a symbolic matrix with the second diagonal below the main one presented by the
elements of the vector v:
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diag
syms a b c
v = [a b c];
diag(v, -2)
ans =
[ 0, 0,
[ 0, 0,
[ a, 0,
[ 0, b,
[ 0, 0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
c,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0]
0]
0]
0]
0]
Extract the main diagonal from a square matrix:

syms a b c x y z
A = [a, b, c; 1, 2, 3; x, y, z];
diag(A)
ans =
a
2
z
Extract the first diagonal above the main one:

syms a b c x y z
A = [a, b, c; 1, 2, 3; x, y, z];
diag(A, 1)
ans =
b
3
See Also
tril | triu
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diff
Differentiate symbolic expression or function
Syntax
diff(F)
diff(F,var)
diff(F,n)
diff(F,var,n)
diff(F,n,var)
diff(F,var1,...,varN)
Description
diff(F) differentiates F with respect to the variable determined by symvar.
diff(F,var) differentiates F with respect to the variable var.
diff(F,n) computes the nth derivative of F with respect to the variable determined by
symvar.
diff(F,var,n) computes the nth derivative of F with respect to the variable var. This
syntax is equivalent to diff(F,n,var).
diff(F,var1,...,varN) differentiates F with respect to the variables var1,...,varN.
Examples
Differentiation of a Univariate Function
Find the first derivative of this univariate function:
syms x
f(x) = sin(x^2);
df = diff(f)
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diff
df(x) =
2*x*cos(x^2)
Differentiation with Respect to a Particular Variable

Find the first derivative of this expression:
syms x t
diff(sin(x*t^2))
ans =
t^2*cos(t^2*x)
Because you did not specify the differentiation variable, diff uses the default variable
defined by symvar. For this expression, the default variable is x:
symvar(sin(x*t^2),1)
ans =
x
Now, find the derivative of this expression with respect to the variable t:
diff(sin(x*t^2),t)
ans =
2*t*x*cos(t^2*x)
Higher-Order Derivatives of a Univariate Expression

Find the 4th, 5th, and 6th derivatives of this expression:
syms
d4 =
d5 =
d6 =
t
diff(t^6,4)
diff(t^6,5)
diff(t^6,6)
d4 =
360*t^2
d5 =
720*t
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d6 =
720
Higher-Order Derivatives of a Multivariate Expression with Respect to a

Particular Variable
Find the second derivative of this expression with respect to the variable y:
syms x y
diff(x*cos(x*y), y, 2)
ans =
-x^3*cos(x*y)
Higher-Order Derivatives of a Multivariate Expression with Respect to the

Default Variable
Compute the second derivative of the expression x*y. If you do not specify the
differentiation variable, diff uses the variable determined by symvar. For this
expression, symvar(x*y,1) returns x. Therefore, diff computes the second derivative
of x*y with respect to x.
syms x y
diff(x*y, 2)
ans =
0
If you use nested diff calls and do not specify the differentiation variable, diff
determines the differentiation variable for each call. For example, differentiate the
expression x*y by calling the diff function twice:
diff(diff(x*y))
ans =
1
In the first call, diff differentiate x*y with respect to x, and returns y. In the second
call, diff differentiates y with respect to y, and returns 1.
Thus, diff(x*y, 2) is equivalent to diff(x*y, x, x), and diff(diff(x*y)) is
equivalent to diff(x*y, x, y).
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diff
Mixed Derivatives
Differentiate this expression with respect to the variables x and y:
syms x y
diff(x*sin(x*y), x, y)
ans =
2*x*cos(x*y) - x^2*y*sin(x*y)
You also can compute mixed higher-order derivatives by providing all differentiation
variables:
syms x y
diff(x*sin(x*y), x, x, x, y)
ans =
x^2*y^3*sin(x*y) - 6*x*y^2*cos(x*y) - 6*y*sin(x*y)
Input Arguments
F Expression or function to differentiate
Expression or function to differentiate, specified as a symbolic expression or function or
as a vector or matrix of symbolic expressions or functions. If F is a vector or a matrix,
diff differentiates each element of F and returns a vector or a matrix of the same size as
F.
var Differentiation variable
symbolic variable | string
Differentiation variable, specified as a symbolic variable or a string.
var1,...,varN Differentiation variables
symbolic variables | strings
Differentiation variables, specified as symbolic variables or strings.
n Differentiation order
nonnegative integer
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Differentiation order, specified as a nonnegative integer.
More About
Tips
When computing mixed higher-order derivatives, do not use n to specify the
differentiation order. Instead, specify all differentiation variables explicitly.
To improve performance, diff assumes that all mixed derivatives commute. For
example,

f ( x, y ) =
f ( x, y)
x y
y x
This assumption suffices for most engineering and scientific problems.
If you differentiate a multivariate expression or function F without specifying the
differentiation variable, then a nested call to diff and diff(F,n) can return
different results. This is because in a nested call, each differentiation step determines
and uses its own differentiation variable. In calls like diff(F,n), the differentiation
variable is determined once by symvar(F,1) and used for all differentiation steps.
See Also
curl | divergence | gradient | hessian | int | jacobian | laplacian | symvar
Related Examples
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Differentiation on page 2-3
Find Asymptotes, Critical and Inflection Points on page 2-32
digits
digits
Variable-precision accuracy
Syntax
digits
digits(d)
d1 = digits
d1 = digits(d)
Description
digits shows the number of significant decimal digits that MuPAD software uses to do
variable-precision arithmetic (VPA). The default value is 32 digits.
digits(d) sets the current VPA accuracy to d significant decimal digits. The value d
29
must be a positive integer greater than 1 and less than 2 + 1.
d1 = digits assigns the current setting of digits to variable d1.
d1 = digits(d) assigns the current setting of digits to variable d1 and sets VPA
accuracy to d.
Examples
Default Accuracy of Variable-Precision Computations
By default, the minimum number of significant (nonzero) decimal digits is 32.
To obtain the current number of digits, use digits without input arguments:
digits
Digits = 32
To save the current setting, assign the result returned by digits to a variable:
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CurrentDigits = digits
CurrentDigits =
32

digits lets you specify any number of significant decimal digits from 1 to 2
29
+ 1.
Compute the ratio 1/3 and the ratio 1/3000 with four-digit accuracy:
old = digits(4);
vpa(1/3)
vpa(1/3000)
ans =
0.3333
ans =
0.0003333
Restore the default accuracy setting for further computations:

digits(old)
Guard Digits
The number of digits that you specify using the vpa function or the digits function is
the guaranteed number of digits. Internally, the toolbox can use a few more digits than
you specify. These additional digits are called guard digits. For example, set the number
of digits to 4, and then display the floating-point approximation of 1/3 using four digits:
old = digits(4);
a = vpa(1/3)
a =
0.3333
Now, display a using 20 digits. The result shows that the toolbox internally used more
than four digits when computing a. The last digits in the following result are incorrect
because of the round-off error:
digits(20)
vpa(a)
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digits
digits(old)
ans =
0.33333333333303016843
Hidden Round-Off Errors

Hidden round-off errors can cause unexpected results. For example, compute the number
1/10 with the default 32-digit accuracy and with 10-digit accuracy:
a = vpa(1/10)
old = digits(10);
b = vpa(1/10)
digits(old)
a =
0.1
b =
0.1
Now, compute the difference a - b. The result is not 0:

a - b
ans =
0.000000000000000000086736173798840354720600815844403
The difference a - b is not equal to zero because the toolbox internally boosts the 10digit number b = 0.1 to 32-digit accuracy. This process implies round-off errors. The
toolbox actually computes the difference a - b as follows:
b = vpa(b)
a - b
b =
0.09999999999999999991326382620116
ans =
0.000000000000000000086736173798840354720600815844403
Techniques Used to Convert Floating-Point Numbers to Symbolic Objects

Suppose you convert a double number to a symbolic object, and then perform VPA
operations on that object. The results can depend on the conversion technique that you
4-285
used to convert a floating-point number to a symbolic object. The sym function lets you
choose the conversion technique by specifying the optional second argument, which
can be 'r', 'f', 'd', or 'e'. The default is 'r'. For example, convert the constant
=3.141592653589793... to a symbolic object:
r
f
d
e
=
=
=
=
sym(pi)
sym(pi,'f')
sym(pi,'d')
sym(pi,'e')
r =
pi
f =
884279719003555/281474976710656
d =
3.1415926535897931159979634685442
e =
pi - (198*eps)/359
Although the toolbox displays these numbers differently on the screen, they are rational
approximations of pi. Use vpa to convert these rational approximations of pi back to
floating-point values.
Set the number of digits to 4. Three of the four approximations give the same result.
digits(4)
vpa(r)
vpa(f)
vpa(d)
vpa(e)
ans =
3.142
ans =
3.142
ans =
3.142
ans =
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digits
3.142 - 0.5515*eps
Now, set the number of digits to 40. The differences between the symbolic
approximations of pi become more visible.
digits(40)
vpa(r)
vpa(f)
vpa(d)
vpa(e)
ans =
3.141592653589793238462643383279502884197
ans =
3.141592653589793115997963468544185161591
ans =
3.1415926535897931159979634685442
ans =
3.141592653589793238462643383279502884197 -...
0.5515320334261838440111420612813370473538*eps
Input Arguments
d New accuracy setting
number | symbolic number
New accuracy setting, specified as a number or symbolic number. The setting specifies
the number of significant decimal digits to be used for variable-precision calculations. If
the value d is not an integer, digits rounds it to the nearest integer.
Output Arguments
d1 Current accuracy setting
double-precision number
Current accuracy setting, returned as a double-precision number. The setting
specifies the number of significant decimal digits currently used for variable-precision
calculations.
4-287
See Also
double | vpa
Related Examples
4-288
dilog
dilog
Dilogarithm function
Syntax
dilog(X)
Description
dilog(X) returns the dilogarithm function.
Examples
Dilogarithm Function for Numeric and Symbolic Arguments
Depending on its arguments, dilog returns floating-point or exact symbolic results.
Compute the dilogarithm function for these numbers. Because these numbers are not
symbolic objects, dilog returns floating-point results.
A = dilog([-1, 0, 1/4, 1/2, 1, 2])
A =
2.4674 - 2.1776i
0.5822 + 0.0000i
1.6449 + 0.0000i
0.0000 + 0.0000i
0.9785 + 0.0000i...
-0.8225 + 0.0000i
Compute the dilogarithm function for the numbers converted to symbolic objects. For
many symbolic (exact) numbers, dilog returns unresolved symbolic calls.
symA = dilog(sym([-1, 0, 1/4, 1/2, 1, 2]))
symA =
[ pi^2/4 - pi*log(2)*i, pi^2/6, dilog(1/4), pi^2/12 - log(2)^2/2, 0, -pi^2/12]

4-289
vpa(symA)
ans =
[ 2.467401100272339654708622749969 - 2.1775860903036021305006888982376*i,...
1.644934066848226436472415166646,...
0.97846939293030610374306666652456,...
0.58224052646501250590265632015968,...
0,...
-0.82246703342411321823620758332301]
Plot the Dilogarithm Function

Plot the dilogarithm function on the interval from 0 to 10.
syms x
ezplot(dilog(x), [0, 10])
grid on
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dilog
Handle Expressions Containing the Dilogarithm Function

Many functions, such as diff, int, and limit, can handle expressions containing
dilog.
Find the first and second derivatives of the dilogarithm function:
syms x
diff(dilog(x), x)
diff(dilog(x), x, x)
ans =
-log(x)/(x - 1)
4-291
ans =
log(x)/(x - 1)^2 - 1/(x*(x - 1))
Find the indefinite integral of the dilogarithm function:

int(dilog(x), x)
ans =
x*(dilog(x) + log(x) - 1) - dilog(x)
Find the limit of this expression involving dilog:

limit(dilog(x)/x, Inf)
ans =
0
Input Arguments
X Input
More About
Dilogarithm Function
There are two common definitions of the dilogarithm function.
The implementation of the dilog function uses the following definition:
x
dilog ( x ) =
ln ( t )
1 - t dt
1
Another common definition of the dilogarithm function is

4-292
dilog
0
ln ( 1 - t)
(
)
Li 2 x =
dt
t
x
Thus, dilog(x)=Li2(1x).
Tips
dilog(sym(-1)) returns pi^2/4 - pi*log(2)*i.
dilog(sym(0)) returns pi^2/6.
dilog(sym(1/2)) returns pi^2/12 - log(2)^2/2.
dilog(sym(1)) returns 0.
dilog(sym(2)) returns -pi^2/12.
dilog(sym(i)) returns pi^2/16 - (pi*log(2)*i)/4 - catalan*i.
dilog(sym(-i)) returns catalan*i + (pi*log(2)*i)/4 + pi^2/16.
dilog(sym(1 + i)) returns - catalan*i - pi^2/48.
dilog(sym(1 - i)) returns catalan*i - pi^2/48.
dilog(sym(Inf)) returns -Inf.
References
[1] Stegun, I. A. Miscellaneous Functions. Handbook of Mathematical Functions with
Formulas, Graphs, and Mathematical Tables. (M. Abramowitz and I. A. Stegun,
eds.). New York: Dover, 1972.
See Also
log | zeta
4-293
dirac
Dirac delta function
Syntax
dirac(x)
dirac(n,x)
Description
dirac(x) represents the Dirac delta function of x.
dirac(n,x) represents the nth derivative of the Dirac delta function at x.
Examples
Handle Expressions Involving Dirac and Heaviside Functions
Compute derivatives and integrals of expressions involving the Dirac delta and Heaviside
functions.
Find the first and second derivatives of the Heaviside function. The result is the Dirac
delta function and its first derivative.
syms x
diff(heaviside(x), x)
diff(heaviside(x), x, x)
ans =
dirac(x)
ans =
dirac(1, x)
Find the indefinite integral of the Dirac delta function. The integral of the Dirac delta
function is the Heaviside function.
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dirac
int(dirac(x), x)
ans =
heaviside(x)
Find the integral of this expression involving the Dirac delta function.
syms a
int(dirac(x - a)*sin(x), x, -Inf, Inf)
ans =
sin(a)
Use Assumptions on Variables

dirac takes into account assumptions on variables.
syms x real
assumeAlso(x ~= 0)
dirac(x)
ans =
0
For further computations, clear the assumptions.

syms x clear
Evaluate the Dirac delta Function for Symbolic Matrix

Compute the Dirac delta function of x and its first three derivatives.
Use a vector n = [0, 1, 2, 3] to specify the order of derivatives. The dirac function
expands the scalar into a vector of the same size as n and computes the result.
n = [0, 1, 2, 3];
d = dirac(n, x)
d =
[ dirac(x), dirac(1, x), dirac(2, x), dirac(3, x)]
Substitute x with 0.
subs(d, x, 0)
4-295
ans =
[ Inf, -Inf, Inf, -Inf]
Input Arguments
x Input
function | vector | matrix | multidimensional array
Input, specified as a number, symbolic number, variable, expression, or function,
representing a real number. This input can also be a vector, matrix, or multidimensional
array of numbers, symbolic numbers, variables, expressions, or functions.
n Order of derivative
nonnegative number | symbolic variable | symbolic expression | symbolic function |
vector | matrix | multidimensional array
Order of derivative, specified as a nonnegative number, or symbolic variable, expression,
or function representing a nonnegative number. This input can also be a vector, matrix,
or multidimensional array of nonnegative numbers, symbolic numbers, variables,
More About
Dirac delta Function
The Dirac delta function, (x), has the value 0 for all x0, and for x=0.
For any smooth function f and a real number a,
dirac(x a) * f (x) = f (a)
Tips
For complex values x with nonzero imaginary parts, dirac returns NaN.
dirac returns floating-point results for numeric arguments that are not symbolic
objects.
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dirac
dirac acts element-wise on nonscalar inputs.

vector or a matrix, then dirac expands the scalar into a vector or matrix of the same
See Also
heaviside | kroneckerDelta
4-297
disp
Display symbolic input
Syntax
disp(X)
Description
disp(X) displays the symbolic input X. disp does not display the arguments name.
Examples
Display a Symbolic Scalar
syms x
y = x^3 - exp(x);
disp(y)
x^3 - exp(x)
Display a Symbolic Matrix

A = sym('a%d%d',[3 3]);
disp(A)
[ a11, a12, a13]
[ a21, a22, a23]
[ a31, a32, a33]
Display a Symbolic Function

syms f(x)
f(x) = x+1;
disp(f)
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disp
x + 1
symbolic function inputs: x
Display a Sentence with Text and Symbolic Expressions

Display the sentence Eulers formula is eix = cos ( x ) + i sin ( x) .
To concatenate strings with symbolic expressions, convert the symbolic expressions to
strings using char.
syms x
disp(['Euler''s formula is ',char(exp(i*x)),' = ',char(cos(x)+i*sin(x)),'.'])
Euler's formula is exp(x*i) = cos(x) + sin(x)*i.
Because ' terminates the string, repeat it in Euler''s for MATLAB to interpret it as an
apostrophe and not a string terminator.
Input Arguments
X Symbolic input to display
symbolic variable | symbolic vector | symbolic matrix | symbolic function | symbolic
multidimensional array | symbolic expression
Symbolic input to display, specified as a symbolic variable, vector, matrix, function,
multidimensional array, or expression.
See Also
char | disp | display | pretty
4-299
display
Display symbolic input
Syntax
display(X)
Description
display(X) displays the symbolic input X.
Examples
Display a Symbolic Scalar
syms x
y = x^3 - exp(x);
display(y)
y =
x^3 - exp(x)
Display a Symbolic Matrix

A = sym('a%d%d',[3 3]);
display(A)
A
[
[
[
=
a11, a12, a13]
a21, a22, a23]
a31, a32, a33]
Display a Symbolic Function

syms f(x)
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display
f(x) = x+1;
display(f)
f(x) =
x + 1
Display a Sentence with Text and Symbolic Expressions

Display the sentence Eulers formula is eix = cos ( x ) + i sin ( x) .
To concatenate strings with symbolic expressions, convert the symbolic expressions to
strings using char.
syms x
display(['Euler''s formula is ',char(exp(i*x)),' = ',char(cos(x)+i*sin(x)),'.'])
Euler's formula is exp(x*i) = cos(x) + sin(x)*i.
Because ' terminates the string, you need to repeat it in Euler''s for MATLAB to
interpret it as an apostrophe and not a string terminator.
Input Arguments
X Symbolic input to display
multidimensional array | symbolic expression
Symbolic input to display, specified as a symbolic variable, vector, matrix, function,
multidimensional array, or expression.
See Also
char | disp | display | pretty
4-301
divergence
Divergence of vector field
Syntax
divergence(V,X)
Description
divergence(V,X) returns the divergence of the vector field V with respect to the vector
X in Cartesian coordinates. Vectors V and X must have the same length.
Input Arguments
V
Vector of symbolic expressions or symbolic functions.
X
Vector with respect to which you compute the divergence.
Examples
Compute the divergence of the vector field V(x, y, z)=(x, 2y2, 3z3) with respect to vector
X=(x, y, z) in Cartesian coordinates:
syms x y z
divergence([x, 2*y^2, 3*z^3], [x, y, z])
ans =
9*z^2 + 4*y + 1
Compute the divergence of the curl of this vector field. The divergence of the curl of any
vector field is 0.
4-302
divergence
syms x y z
divergence(curl([x, 2*y^2, 3*z^3], [x, y, z]), [x, y, z])
ans =
0
Compute the divergence of the gradient of this scalar function. The result is the
Laplacian of the scalar function:
syms x y z
f = x^2 + y^2 + z^2;
divergence(gradient(f, [x, y, z]), [x, y, z])
ans =
6
More About
Divergence of a Vector Field
The divergence of the vector field V=(V1,...,Vn) with respect to the vector X=(X1,...,Xn) in
Cartesian coordinates is the sum of partial derivatives of V with respect to X1,...,Xn:
n
div(V ) = V =
xii
i=1
See Also
curl | diff | gradient | jacobian | hessian | laplacian | potential |

vectorPotential
4-303
divisors
Divisors of integer or expression
Syntax
divisors(n)
divisors(expr,vars)
Description
divisors(n) finds all nonnegative divisors of an integer n.
divisors(expr,vars) finds the divisors of a polynomial expression expr. Here, vars
are polynomial variables.
Examples
Divisors of Integers
Find all nonnegative divisors of these integers.
Find the divisors of integers. You can use double precision numbers or numbers
converted to symbolic objects. If you call divisors for a double-precision number, then it
returns a vector of double-precision numbers.
divisors(42)
ans =
1
14
21
42
Find the divisors of negative integers. divisors returns nonnegative divisors for
negative integers.
divisors(-42)
ans =
4-304
divisors
14
21
42
If you call divisors for a symbolic number, it returns a symbolic vector.

divisors(sym(42))
ans =
[ 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 14, 21, 42]
The only divisor of 0 is 0.

divisors(0)
ans =
0
Divisors of Univariate Polynomials

Find the divisors of univariate polynomial expressions.
Find the divisors of this univariate polynomial. You can specify the polynomial as a
symbolic expression.
syms x
divisors(x^4 - 1, x)
ans =
[ 1, x - 1, x + 1, (x - 1)*(x + 1), x^2 + 1, (x^2 + 1)*(x - 1),...
(x^2 + 1)*(x + 1), (x^2 + 1)*(x - 1)*(x + 1)]
You also can use a symbolic function to specify the polynomial.

syms f(t)
f(t) = t^5;
divisors(f,t)
ans(t) =
[ 1, t, t^2, t^3, t^4, t^5]
When finding the divisors of a polynomial, divisors does not return the divisors of the
constant factor.
f(t) = 9*t^5;
divisors(f,t)
4-305
ans(t) =
[ 1, t, t^2, t^3, t^4, t^5]
Divisors of Multivariate Polynomials

Find the divisors of multivariate polynomial expressions.
Find the divisors of the multivariate polynomial expression. Suppose that u and v are
variables, and a is a symbolic parameter. Specify the variables as a symbolic vector.
syms a u v
divisors(a*u^2*v^3, [u,v])
ans =
[ 1, u, u^2, v, u*v, u^2*v, v^2, u*v^2, u^2*v^2, v^3, u*v^3, u^2*v^3]
Now, suppose that this expression contains only one variable (for example, v), while
a and u are symbolic parameters. Here, divisors treats the expression a*u^2 as a
constant and ignores it, returning only the divisors of v^3.
divisors(a*u^2*v^3, v)
ans =
[ 1, v, v^2, v^3]
Input Arguments
n Number for which to find divisors
number | symbolic number
Number for which to find the divisors, specified as a number or symbolic number.
expr Polynomial expression for which to find divisors
Polynomial expression for which to find divisors, specified as a symbolic expression or
symbolic function.
vars Polynomial variables
symbolic variable | vector of symbolic variables
Polynomial variables, specified as a symbolic variable or a vector of symbolic variables.
4-306
divisors
More About
Tips
divisors(0) returns 0.
divisors(expr,vars) does not return the divisors of the constant factor when
finding the divisors of a polynomial.
If you do not specify polynomial variables, divisors returns as many divisors as
it can find, including the divisors of constant symbolic expressions. For example,
divisors(sym(pi)^2*x^2) returns [ 1, pi, pi^2, x, pi*x, pi^2*x, x^2,
pi*x^2, pi^2*x^2] while divisors(sym(pi)^2*x^2, x) returns [ 1, x,
x^2].
For rational numbers, divisors returns all divisors of the numerator divided by all
divisors of the denominator. For example, divisors(sym(9/8)) returns [ 1, 3,
9, 1/2, 3/2, 9/2, 1/4, 3/4, 9/4, 1/8, 3/8, 9/8].
See Also
coeffs | factor | numden
4-307
doc
Get help for MuPAD functions
Syntax
doc(symengine)
doc(symengine,'MuPAD_function_name')
Description
doc(symengine) opens Getting Started with MuPAD.
doc(symengine,'MuPAD_function_name') opens the documentation page for
MuPAD_function_name.
Examples
doc(symengine,'simplify') opens the documentation page for the MuPAD
simplify function.
4-308
double
double
Convert symbolic matrix to MATLAB numeric form
Syntax
r = double(S)
Description
r = double(S) converts the symbolic object S to a numeric object r.
Input Arguments
S
Symbolic constant, constant expression, or symbolic matrix whose entries are constants
or constant expressions.
Output Arguments
r
If S is a symbolic constant or constant expression, r is a double-precision floatingpoint number representing the value of S. If S is a symbolic matrix whose entries
are constants or constant expressions, r is a matrix of double precision floating-point
numbers representing the values of the entries of S.
Examples
Find the numeric value for the expression
1+ 5
:
2
4-309
double(sym('(1+sqrt(5))/2')))
1.6180
Find the numeric value for the entries of this matrix T:

a = sym(2*sqrt(2));
b = sym((1-sqrt(3))^2);
T = [a, b; a*b, b/a];
double(T)
ans =
2.8284
1.5157
0.5359
0.1895
Find the numeric value for this expression. By default, double uses a new upper limit of
664 digits for the working precision and returns the value 0:
x = sym('((exp(200) + 1)/(exp(200) - 1)) - 1');
double(x)
ans =
0
To get a more accurate result, increase the precision of computations:

digits(1000)
double(x)
ans =
2.7678e-87
More About
Tips
The working precision for double depends on the input argument. It is also
ultimately limited by 664 digits. If your computation requires a larger working
precision, specify the number of digits explicitly using the digits function.
See Also
sym | vpa
4-310
double
Related Examples
4-311
dsolve
Ordinary differential equation and system solver
Syntax
S = dsolve(eqn)
S = dsolve(eqn,cond)
S = dsolve(eqn,cond,Name,Value)
Y = dsolve(eqns)
Y = dsolve(eqns,conds)
Y = dsolve(eqns,conds,Name,Value)
[y1,...,yN] = dsolve(eqns)
[y1,...,yN] = dsolve(eqns,conds)
[y1,...,yN] = dsolve(eqns,conds,Name,Value)
Description
S = dsolve(eqn) solves the ordinary differential equation eqn. Here eqn is a symbolic
equation containing diff to indicate derivatives. Alternatively, you can use a string with
the letter D indicating derivatives. For example, syms y(x); dsolve(diff(y) == y
+ 1) and dsolve('Dy = y + 1','x') both solve the equation dy/dx = y + 1 with
respect to the variable x. Also, eqn can be an array of such equations or strings.
S = dsolve(eqn,cond) solves the ordinary differential equation eqn with the initial or
boundary condition cond.
S = dsolve(eqn,cond,Name,Value) uses additional options specified by one or more
Y = dsolve(eqns) solves the system of ordinary differential equations eqns and
returns a structure array that contains the solutions. The number of fields in the
structure array corresponds to the number of independent variables in the system.
Y = dsolve(eqns,conds) solves the system of ordinary differential equations eqns
with the initial or boundary conditions conds.
Y = dsolve(eqns,conds,Name,Value) uses additional options specified by one or
more Name,Value pair arguments.
4-312
dsolve
[y1,...,yN] = dsolve(eqns) solves the system of ordinary differential equations

eqns and assigns the solutions to the variables y1,...,yN.
[y1,...,yN] = dsolve(eqns,conds) solves the system of ordinary differential
equations eqns with the initial or boundary conditions conds.
[y1,...,yN] = dsolve(eqns,conds,Name,Value) uses additional options specified
by one or more Name,Value pair arguments.
Input Arguments
eqn
Symbolic equation, string representing an ordinary differential equation, or array of
symbolic equations or strings.
When representing eqn as a symbolic equation, you must create a symbolic function,
for example y(x). Here x is an independent variable for which you solve an ordinary
differential equation. Use the == operator to create an equation. Use the diff function to
2
2
indicate differentiation. For example, to solve d y(x)/dx = x*y(x), enter:
syms y(x)
dsolve(diff(y, 2) == x*y)
When representing eqn as a string, use the letter D to indicate differentiation. By

default, dsolve assumes that the independent variable is t. Thus, Dy means dy/dt. You
can specify the independent variable. The letter D followed by a digit indicates repeated
differentiation. Any character immediately following a differentiation operator is a
dependent variable. For example, to solve y''(x) = x*y(x), enter:
dsolve('D2y = x*y','x')
or
dsolve('D2y == x*y','x')
cond
Equation or string representing an initial or boundary condition. If you use equations,
assign expressions with diff to some intermediate variables. For example, use Dy, D2y,
and so on as intermediate variables:
4-313
Dy = diff(y);
D2y = diff(y, 2);
Then define initial conditions using symbolic equations, such as y(a) == b and Dy(a)
== b. Here a and b are constants.
If you represent initial and boundary conditions as strings, you do not need to create
intermediate variables. In this case, follow the same rules as you do when creating an
equation eqn as a string. For example, specify 'y(a) = b' and 'Dy(a) = b'. When
using strings, you can use = or == in equations.
eqns
Symbolic equations or strings separated by commas and representing a system of
ordinary differential equations. Each equation or string represents an ordinary
differential equation.
conds
Symbolic equations or strings separated by commas and representing initial or boundary
conditions or both types of conditions. Each equation or string represents an initial or
boundary condition. If the number of the specified conditions is less than the number of
dependent variables, the resulting solutions contain arbitrary constants C1, C2,....

'IgnoreAnalyticConstraints'
By default, the solver applies the purely algebraic simplifications to the expressions
on both sides of equations. These simplifications might not be generally valid.
Therefore, by default the solver does not guarantee general correctness and
completeness of the results. To solve ordinary differential equations without additional
assumptions, set IgnoreAnalyticConstraints to false. The results obtained with
IgnoreAnalyticConstraints set to false are correct for all values of the arguments.
If you do not set IgnoreAnalyticConstraints to false, always verify results
returned by the dsolve command.
4-314
dsolve
Default: true
'MaxDegree'
Do not use explicit formulas that involve radicals when solving polynomial equations of
degrees larger than the specified value. This value must be a positive integer smaller
than 5.
Default: 2
Output Arguments
S
Symbolic array that contains solutions of an equation. The size of a symbolic array
corresponds to the number of the solutions.
Y
Structure array that contains solutions of a system of equations. The number of fields in
the structure array corresponds to the number of independent variables in a system.
y1,...,yN
Variables to which the solver assigns the solutions of a system of equations. The number
of output variables or symbolic arrays must equal the number of independent variables
in a system. The toolbox sorts independent variables alphabetically, and then assigns the
solutions for these variables to output variables or symbolic arrays.
Examples
Solve these ordinary differential equations. Use == to create an equation, and diff to
indicate differentiation:
syms a x(t)
dsolve(diff(x) == -a*x)
ans =
C2*exp(-a*t)
4-315
syms f(t)
dsolve(diff(f) == f + sin(t))
ans =
C4*exp(t) - sin(t)/2 - cos(t)/2
Solve this ordinary differential equation with the initial condition y(0) = b:
syms a b y(t)
dsolve(diff(y) == a*y, y(0) == b)
Specifying the initial condition lets you eliminate arbitrary constants, such as C1,
C2,...:
ans =
b*exp(a*t)
Solve this ordinary differential equation with the initial and boundary conditions. To
specify a condition that contains a derivative, assign the derivative to a variable:
syms a y(t)
Dy = diff(y);
dsolve(diff(y, 2) == -a^2*y, y(0) == 1, Dy(pi/a) == 0)
Because the equation contains the second-order derivative d y/dt , specifying two
conditions lets you eliminate arbitrary constants in the solution:
2
ans =
exp(-a*t*i)/2 + exp(a*t*i)/2
Solve this system of ordinary differential equations:

syms x(t) y(t)
z = dsolve(diff(x) == y, diff(y) == -x)
When you assign the solution of a system of equations to a single output, dsolve returns
a structure containing the solutions:
z =
y: [1x1 sym]
x: [1x1 sym]
To see the results, enter z.x and z.y:

z.x
4-316
dsolve
ans =
C12*cos(t) + C11*sin(t)
z.y
ans =
C11*cos(t) - C12*sin(t)
By default, the solver applies a set of purely algebraic simplifications that are not correct
in general, but that can produce simple and practical solutions:
syms a y(t)
dsolve(diff(y) == a/sqrt(y) + y, y(a) == 1)
ans =
(exp((3*t)/2 - (3*a)/2 + log(a + 1)) - a)^(2/3)
To obtain complete and generally correct solutions, set the value of

IgnoreAnalyticConstraints to false:
dsolve(diff(y) == a/sqrt(y) + y, y(a) == 1, 'IgnoreAnalyticConstraints', false)
Warning: The solutions are subject to the following
conditions:
PI/2 < angle(-a) in(C23, 'integer')
.
> In dsolve at 219
ans =
(- a + exp((3*t)/2 - (3*a)/2 + log(a + 1) + C23*pi*2*i))^(2/3)
If you apply algebraic simplifications, you can get explicit solutions for some equations
for which the solver cannot compute them using strict mathematical rules:
syms y(t)
dsolve(sqrt(diff(y)) == sqrt(y) + log(y))
Warning: Explicit solution could not be found; implicit solution returned.
ans =
4*lambertw(0, 1/2)^2
4*lambertw(0, -1/2)^2
solve(int(1/(log(y) + y^(1/2))^2, y, 'IgnoreAnalyticConstraints', true) - t - C28 == 0, y)
versus
dsolve(sqrt(diff(y)) == sqrt(y) + log(y), 'IgnoreAnalyticConstraints', false)
4-317
ans =
solve(C32 + t - int(1/(log(y) + y^(1/2))^2, y), y)...
intersect solve(signIm(log(y(t))*i + y(t)^(1/2)*i) == 1, y(t))
When you solve a higher-order polynomial equation, the solver sometimes uses RootOf
to return the results:
syms a y(x)
dsolve(diff(y) == a/(y^2 + 1))
ans =
RootOf(z^3 + 3*z - 3*a*x - 3*C36, z)
To get an explicit solution for such equations, try calling the solver with MaxDegree. The
option specifies the maximum degree of polynomials for which the solver tries to return
explicit solutions. The default value is 2. By increasing this value, you can get explicit
solutions for higher-order polynomials. For example, increase the value of MaxDegree to
4 and get explicit solutions instead of RootOf for this equation:
s = dsolve(diff(y) == a/(y^2 + 1), 'MaxDegree', 4);
pretty(s)
/
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
\
1
#1 - -#1
/ 1
\
sqrt(3) | -- + #1 | i
\ #1
/
1
#1
--------------------- + ---- - -2
2 #1
2
/ 1
\
sqrt(3) | -- + #1 | i
1
\ #1
/
#1
---- - --------------------- - -2 #1
2
2
\
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
/
where
/
| 3 C40
4-318
3 a x
/
2
| 9 (C40 + a x)
\ \1/3
| |
dsolve
#1 == | ----- + ----- + sqrt| -------------- + 1 | |

\
2
2
\
4
/ /
If dsolve can find neither an explicit nor an implicit solution, then it issues a warning
and returns the empty sym:
syms y(x)
dsolve(exp(diff(y)) == 0)
Warning: Explicit solution could not be found.
ans =
[ empty sym ]
Returning the empty symbolic object does not prove that there are no solutions.
Solve this equation specifying it as a string. By default, dsolve assumes that the
independent variable is t:
dsolve('Dy^2 + y^2 == 1')
ans =
1
-1
cosh(C49 + t*i)
cosh(C45 - t*i)
Now solve this equation with respect to the variable s:

dsolve('Dy^2 + y^2 == 1','s')
ans =
1
-1
cosh(C57 + s*i)
cosh(C53 - s*i)
More About
Tips
The names of symbolic variables used in differential equations should not contain the
letter D because dsolve assumes that D is a differential operator and any character
immediately following D is a dependent variable.
4-319
If dsolve cannot find a closed-form (explicit) solution, it attempts to find an implicit

solution. When dsolve returns an implicit solution, it issues this warning:
Warning: Explicit solution could not be found;
implicit solution returned.
If dsolve can find neither an explicit nor an implicit solution, then it issues a
warning and returns the empty sym. In this case, try to find a numeric solution using
the MATLAB ode23 or ode45 function. In some cases, the output is an equivalent
lower-order differential equation or an integral.
Algorithms
If you do not set the value of IgnoreAnalyticConstraints to false, the solver
applies these rules to the expressions on both sides of an equation:
log(a) + log(b)=log(ab) for all values of a and b. In particular, the following equality
is valid for all values of a, b, and c:
(ab)c=acbc.
log(ab)=blog(a) for all values of a and b. In particular, the following equality is valid
for all values of a, b, and c:
(ab)c=abc.
If f and g are standard mathematical functions and f(g(x))=x for all small positive
numbers, f(g(x))=x is assumed to be valid for all complex x. In particular:
log(ex)=x
asin(sin(x))=x, acos(cos(x))=x, atan(tan(x))=x
asinh(sinh(x))=x, acosh(cosh(x))=x, atanh(tanh(x))=x
Wk(xex)=x for all values of k
The solver can multiply both sides of an equation by any expression except 0.
The solutions of polynomial equations must be complete.
See Also
linsolve | ode23 | ode45 | odeToVectorField | solve | syms | vpasolve
4-320
ei
ei
One-argument exponential integral function
Syntax
ei(x)
Description
ei(x) returns the one-argument exponential integral defined as follows:
x
ei ( x) =
et
dt
t
Examples
Exponential Integral for Floating-Point and Symbolic Numbers
Compute the exponential integrals for these numbers. Because these numbers are not
s = [ei(-2), ei(-1/2), ei(1), ei(sqrt(2))]
s =
-0.0489
-0.5598
1.8951
3.0485
Compute the exponential integrals for the same numbers converted to symbolic objects.
For most symbolic (exact) numbers, ei returns unresolved symbolic calls.
s = [ei(sym(-2)), ei(sym(-1/2)), ei(sym(1)), ei(sqrt(sym(2)))]
s =
[ ei(-2), ei(-1/2), ei(1), ei(2^(1/2))]
Use vpa to approximate this result with the 10 digits accuracy:

4-321
vpa(s, 10)
ans =
[ -0.04890051071, -0.5597735948, 1.895117816, 3.048462479]
Branch Cut at the Negative Real Axis

Compute the exponential integrals for these numbers. The negative real axis is a branch
cut. The exponential integral has a jump of height 2i when crossing this cut:
[ei(-1), ei(-1 + 10^(-10)*i), ei(-1 - 10^(-10)*i)]
ans =
-0.2194 + 0.0000i
-0.2194 + 3.1416i
-0.2194 - 3.1416i
Derivatives of the Exponential Integral

Compute the first, second, and third derivatives of the one-argument exponential
integral:
syms x
diff(ei(x), x)
diff(ei(x), x, 2)
diff(ei(x), x, 3)
ans =
exp(x)/x
ans =
exp(x)/x - exp(x)/x^2
ans =
exp(x)/x - (2*exp(x))/x^2 + (2*exp(x))/x^3
Limits of the Exponential Integral

Compute the limits of this one-argument exponential integral:
syms x
limit(ei(2*x^2/(1+x)), x, -Inf)
limit(ei(2*x^2/(1+x)), x, 0)
limit(ei(2*x^2/(1+x)), x, Inf)
4-322
ei
ans =
0
ans =
-Inf
ans =
Inf
Input Arguments
x Input
floating-point number | symbolic number | symbolic variable | symbolic expression |
symbolic function | symbolic vector | symbolic matrix
Input specified as a floating-point or symbolic number, variable, expression, function,
vector, or matrix.
More About
Tips
The one-argument exponential integral is singular at x = 0. The toolbox uses this
special value: ei(0) = -Inf.
References
[1] Gautschi, W., and W. F. Gahill Exponential Integral and Related Functions.
See Also
Ei | expint | expint | int | vpa
4-323
eig
Eigenvalues and eigenvectors of symbolic matrix
Syntax
lambda = eig(A)
[V,D] = eig(A)
[V,D,P] = eig(A)
lambda = eig(vpa(A))
[V,D] = eig(vpa(A))
Description
lambda = eig(A) returns a symbolic vector containing the eigenvalues of the square
symbolic matrix A.
[V,D] = eig(A) returns matrices V and D. The columns of V present eigenvectors of A.
The diagonal matrix D contains eigenvalues. If the resulting V has the same size as A, the
matrix A has a full set of linearly independent eigenvectors that satisfy A*V = V*D.
[V,D,P] = eig(A) returns a vector of indices P. The length of P equals to the total
number of linearly independent eigenvectors, so that A*V = V*D(P,P).
lambda = eig(vpa(A)) returns numeric eigenvalues using variable-precision
arithmetic.
[V,D] = eig(vpa(A)) returns numeric eigenvectors using variable-precision
arithmetic. If A does not have a full set of eigenvectors, the columns of V are not linearly
independent.
Examples
Compute the eigenvalues for the magic square of order 5:
M = sym(magic(5));
eig(M)
4-324
eig
ans =
65
(625/2 - (5*3145^(1/2))/2)^(1/2)
((5*3145^(1/2))/2 + 625/2)^(1/2)
-(625/2 - (5*3145^(1/2))/2)^(1/2)
-((5*3145^(1/2))/2 + 625/2)^(1/2)
Compute the eigenvalues for the magic square of order 5 using variable-precision
arithmetic:
M = sym(magic(5));
eig(vpa(M))
ans =
65.0
21.27676547147379553062642669797423
13.12628093070921880252564308594914
-13.126280930709218802525643085949
-21.276765471473795530626426697974
Compute the eigenvalues and eigenvectors for one of the MATLAB test matrices:
A = sym(gallery(5))
[v, lambda] = eig(A)
A
[
[
[
[
[
=
-9,
11,
-21,
63,
-252]
70,
-69,
141,
-421,
1684]
-575,
575, -1149,
3451, -13801]
3891, -3891, 7782, -23345, 93365]
1024, -1024, 2048, -6144, 24572]
v =
0
21/256
-71/128
973/256
1
lambda =
[ 0, 0, 0,
[ 0, 0, 0,
[ 0, 0, 0,
[ 0, 0, 0,
[ 0, 0, 0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0]
0]
0]
0]
0]
4-325
More About
Eigenvalues on page 2-71
See Also
charpoly | svd | vpa | jordan
4-326
ellipke
ellipke
Complete elliptic integrals of the first and second kinds
Syntax
[K,E] = ellipke(m)
Description
[K,E] = ellipke(m) returns the complete elliptic integrals of the first and second
kinds.
Input Arguments
m
Symbolic number, variable, expression, or function. This argument also can be a vector or
Output Arguments
K
Complete elliptic integral of the first kind.
E
Complete elliptic integral of the second kind.
Examples
Compute the complete elliptic integrals of the first and second kinds for these numbers.
Because these numbers are not symbolic objects, you get floating-point results.
4-327
[K0, E0] = ellipke(0)

[K05, E05] = ellipke(1/2)
K0 =
1.5708
E0 =
1.5708
K05 =
1.8541
E05 =
1.3506
Compute the complete elliptic integrals for the same numbers converted to symbolic
objects. For most symbolic (exact) numbers, ellipke returns results using the
ellipticK and ellipticE functions.
[K0, E0] = ellipke(sym(0))
[K05, E05] = ellipke(sym(1/2))
K0 =
pi/2
E0 =
pi/2
K05 =
ellipticK(1/2)
E05 =
ellipticE(1/2)
Use vpa to approximate K05 and E05 with floating-point numbers:

vpa([K05, E05], 10)
ans =
[ 1.854074677, 1.350643881]
If the argument does not belong to the range from 0 to 1, then convert that argument to a
symbolic object before using ellipke:
[K, E] = ellipke(sym(pi/2))
4-328
ellipke
K =
ellipticK(pi/2)
E =
ellipticE(pi/2)
Alternatively, use ellipticK and ellipticE to compute the integrals of the first and
the second kinds separately:
K = ellipticK(sym(pi/2))
E = ellipticE(sym(pi/2))
K =
ellipticK(pi/2)
E =
ellipticE(pi/2)
Call ellipke for this symbolic matrix. When the input argument is a matrix, ellipke
computes the complete elliptic integrals of the first and second kinds for each element.
[K, E] = ellipke(sym([-1 0; 1/2 1]))
K =
[ ellipticK(-1), pi/2]
[ ellipticK(1/2), Inf]
E =
[ ellipticE(-1), pi/2]
[ ellipticE(1/2),
1]
Alternatives
You can use ellipticK and ellipticE to compute elliptic integrals of the first and
second kinds separately.
More About
Complete Elliptic Integral of the First Kind
The complete elliptic integral of the first kind is defined as follows:
4-329
K (m ) = F | m =
2
p 2
1
1 - m sin2 q
dq
Note that some definitions use the elliptical modulus k or the modular angle instead of
the parameter m. They are related as m=k2=sin2.
Complete Elliptic Integral of the Second Kind
The complete elliptic integral of the second kind is defined as follows:
E ( m) = E | m =
2
p 2
1 - m sin 2 q dq
Tips
Calling ellipke for numbers that are not symbolic objects invokes the MATLAB
ellipke function. This function accepts only 0 <= x <= 1. To compute the complete
elliptic integrals of the first and second kinds for the values out of this range, use sym
to convert the numbers to symbolic objects, and then call ellipke for those symbolic
objects. Alternatively, use the ellipticK and ellipticE functions to compute the
integrals separately.
For most symbolic (exact) numbers, ellipke returns results using the ellipticK
and ellipticE functions. You can approximate such results with floating-point
numbers using vpa.
If m is a vector or a matrix, then [K,E] = ellipke(m) returns the complete elliptic
integrals of the first and second kinds, evaluated for each element of m.
References
[1] Milne-Thomson, L. M. Elliptic Integrals. Handbook of Mathematical Functions with
4-330
ellipke
See Also
ellipke | ellipticE | ellipticE | ellipticK | ellipticK | vpa
4-331
ellipticCE
Complementary complete elliptic integral of the second kind
Syntax
ellipticCE(m)
Description
ellipticCE(m) returns the complementary complete elliptic integral of the second
kind.
Input Arguments
m
Number, symbolic number, variable, expression, or function. This argument also can be a
vector or matrix of numbers, symbolic numbers, variables, expressions, or functions.
Examples
Compute the complementary complete elliptic integrals of the second kind for these
numbers. Because these numbers are not symbolic objects, you get floating-point results.
s = [ellipticCE(0), ellipticCE(pi/4),...
ellipticCE(1), ellipticCE(pi/2)]
s =
1.0000
1.4828
1.5708
1.7753
Compute the complementary complete elliptic integrals of the second kind for the same
numbers converted to symbolic objects. For most symbolic (exact) numbers, ellipticCE
returns unresolved symbolic calls.
4-332
ellipticCE
s = [ellipticCE(sym(0)), ellipticCE(sym(pi/4)),...
ellipticCE(sym(1)), ellipticCE(sym(pi/2))]
s =
[ 1, ellipticCE(pi/4), pi/2, ellipticCE(pi/2)]
Use vpa to approximate this result with floating-point numbers:

vpa(s, 10)
ans =
[ 1.0, 1.482786927, 1.570796327, 1.775344699]
Differentiate these expressions involving the complementary complete elliptic integral of

the second kind:
syms m
diff(ellipticCE(m))
diff(ellipticCE(m^2), m, 2)
ans =
ellipticCE(m)/(2*m - 2) - ellipticCK(m)/(2*m - 2)
ans =
(2*ellipticCE(m^2))/(2*m^2 - 2) -...
(2*ellipticCK(m^2))/(2*m^2 - 2) +...
2*m*(((2*m*ellipticCK(m^2))/(2*m^2 - 2) -...
ellipticCE(m^2)/(m*(m^2 - 1)))/(2*m^2 - 2) +...
(2*m*(ellipticCE(m^2)/(2*m^2 - 2) -...
ellipticCK(m^2)/(2*m^2 - 2)))/(2*m^2 - 2) -...
(4*m*ellipticCE(m^2))/(2*m^2 - 2)^2 +...
(4*m*ellipticCK(m^2))/(2*m^2 - 2)^2)
Here, ellipticCK represents the complementary complete elliptic integral of the first
kind.
Plot the complementary complete elliptic integral of the second kind:
syms m
ezplot(ellipticCE(m))
title('Complementary complete elliptic integral of the second kind')
ylabel('ellipticCE(m)')
grid on
4-333
Call ellipticCE for this symbolic matrix. When the input argument is a matrix,
ellipticCE computes the complementary complete elliptic integral of the second kind
for each element.
ellipticCE(sym([pi/6 pi/4; pi/3 pi/2]))
ans =
[ ellipticCE(pi/6), ellipticCE(pi/4)]
[ ellipticCE(pi/3), ellipticCE(pi/2)]
4-334
ellipticCE
More About
Complementary Complete Elliptic Integral of the Second Kind
The complementary complete elliptic integral of the second kind is defined as
E'(m)=E(1m), where E(m) is the complete elliptic integral of the second kind:
E ( m) = E | m =
2
p 2
1 - m sin 2 q dq
Tips
ellipticCE returns floating-point results for numeric arguments that are not
symbolic objects.
For most symbolic (exact) numbers, ellipticCE returns unresolved symbolic calls.
You can approximate such results with floating-point numbers using vpa.
If m is a vector or a matrix, then ellipticCE(m) returns the complementary
complete elliptic integral of the second kind, evaluated for each element of m.
References
See Also
ellipke | ellipticCE | ellipticCK | ellipticCPi | ellipticE | ellipticF |

ellipticK | ellipticPi | vpa
4-335
ellipticCK
Complementary complete elliptic integral of the first kind
Syntax
ellipticCK(m)
Description
ellipticCK(m) returns the complementary complete elliptic integral of the first kind.
Input Arguments
m
Examples
Compute the complementary complete elliptic integrals of the first kind for these
s = [ellipticCK(1/2), ellipticCK(pi/4), ellipticCK(1), ellipticCK(inf)]
s =
1.8541
1.6671
1.5708
NaN
Compute the complete elliptic integrals of the first kind for the same numbers converted
to symbolic objects. For most symbolic (exact) numbers, ellipticCK returns unresolved
symbolic calls.
s = [ellipticCK(sym(1/2)), ellipticCK(sym(pi/4)),...
4-336
ellipticCK
ellipticCK(sym(1)), ellipticCK(sym(inf))]
s =
[ ellipticCK(1/2), ellipticCK(pi/4), pi/2, ellipticCK(Inf)]

vpa(s, 10)
ans =
[ 1.854074677, 1.667061338, 1.570796327, NaN]

the first kind:
syms m
diff(ellipticCK(m))
diff(ellipticCK(m^2), m, 2)
ans =
ellipticCE(m)/(2*m*(m - 1)) - ellipticCK(m)/(2*m - 2)
ans =
(2*(ellipticCE(m^2)/(2*m^2 - 2) -...
ellipticCK(m^2)/(2*m^2 - 2)))/(m^2 - 1) -...
(2*ellipticCE(m^2))/(m^2 - 1)^2 -...
(2*ellipticCK(m^2))/(2*m^2 - 2) +...
(8*m^2*ellipticCK(m^2))/(2*m^2 - 2)^2 +...
(2*m*((2*m*ellipticCK(m^2))/(2*m^2 - 2) -...
ellipticCE(m^2)/(m*(m^2 - 1))))/(2*m^2 - 2) -...
ellipticCE(m^2)/(m^2*(m^2 - 1))
Here, ellipticCE represents the complementary complete elliptic integral of the second
kind.
Plot the complementary complete elliptic integral of the first kind:
syms m
ezplot(ellipticCK(m), [0.1, 5])
title('Complementary complete elliptic integral of the first kind')
ylabel('ellipticCK(m)')
grid on
hold off
4-337
Call ellipticCK for this symbolic matrix. When the input argument is a matrix,
ellipticCK computes the complementary complete elliptic integral of the first kind for
each element.
ellipticCK(sym([pi/6 pi/4; pi/3 pi/2]))
ans =
[ ellipticCK(pi/6), ellipticCK(pi/4)]
[ ellipticCK(pi/3), ellipticCK(pi/2)]
4-338
ellipticCK
More About
Complementary Complete Elliptic Integral of the First Kind
The complementary complete elliptic integral of the first kind is defined as
K'(m)=K(1m), where K(m) is the complete elliptic integral of the first kind:
K (m ) = F | m =
2
p 2
1
1 - m sin2 q
dq
Tips
ellipticK returns floating-point results for numeric arguments that are not
symbolic objects.
For most symbolic (exact) numbers, ellipticCK returns unresolved symbolic
calls. You can approximate such results with floating-point numbers using the vpa
function.
If m is a vector or a matrix, then ellipticCK(m) returns the complementary
complete elliptic integral of the first kind, evaluated for each element of m.
References
See Also

4-339
ellipticCPi
Complementary complete elliptic integral of the third kind
Syntax
ellipticCPi(n,m)
Description
ellipticCPi(n,m) returns the complementary complete elliptic integral of the third
kind.
Input Arguments
n
Number, symbolic number, variable, expression, or function specifying the characteristic.
This argument also can be a vector or matrix of numbers, symbolic numbers, variables,
m
Number, symbolic number, variable, expression, or function specifying the parameter.
Examples
Compute the complementary complete elliptic integrals of the third kind for these
s = [ellipticCPi(-1, 1/3), ellipticCPi(0, 1/2),...
ellipticCPi(9/10, 1), ellipticCPi(-1, 0)]
s =
1.3703
4-340
1.8541
4.9673
Inf
ellipticCPi
Compute the complementary complete elliptic integrals of the third kind for the
same numbers converted to symbolic objects. For most symbolic (exact) numbers,
ellipticCPi returns unresolved symbolic calls.
s = [ellipticCPi(-1, sym(1/3)), ellipticCPi(sym(0), 1/2),...
ellipticCPi(sym(9/10), 1), ellipticCPi(-1, sym(0))]
s =
[ ellipticCPi(-1, 1/3), ellipticCK(1/2), (pi*10^(1/2))/2, Inf]
Here, ellipticCK represents the complementary complete elliptic integrals of the first
kind.
vpa(s, 10)
ans =
[ 1.370337322, 1.854074677, 4.967294133, Inf]

the third kind:
syms n m
diff(ellipticCPi(n, m), n)
diff(ellipticCPi(n, m), m)
ans =
ellipticCK(m)/(2*n*(n - 1)) -...
ellipticCE(m)/(2*(n - 1)*(m + n - 1)) -...
(ellipticCPi(n, m)*(n^2 + m - 1))/(2*n*(n - 1)*(m + n - 1))
ans =
ellipticCE(m)/(2*m*(m + n - 1)) - ellipticCPi(n, m)/(2*(m + n - 1))
Here, ellipticCK and ellipticCE represent the complementary complete elliptic

integrals of the first and second kinds.
More About
Complementary Complete Elliptic Integral of the Third Kind
The complementary complete elliptic integral of the third kind is defined as
'(m)=(n,1m), where (n,m) is the complete elliptic integral of the third kind:
4-341
P ( n, m) = P n; | m =
2
p 2
2
0 ( 1 - n sin q )
1 - m sin 2 q
dq
Tips
ellipticCPi returns floating-point results for numeric arguments that are not
symbolic objects.
For most symbolic (exact) numbers, ellipticCPi returns unresolved symbolic calls.
vector or a matrix, then ellipticCPi expands the scalar into a vector or matrix of
the same size as the other argument with all elements equal to that scalar.
References
See Also

4-342
ellipticE
ellipticE
Complete and incomplete elliptic integrals of the second kind
Syntax
ellipticE(m)
ellipticE(phi,m)
Description
ellipticE(m) returns the complete elliptic integral of the second kind.
ellipticE(phi,m) returns the incomplete elliptic integral of the second kind.
Input Arguments
m
phi
Number, symbolic number, variable, expression, or function specifying the amplitude.
Examples
Compute the complete elliptic integrals of the second kind for these numbers. Because
s = [ellipticE(-10.5), ellipticE(-pi/4),...
ellipticE(0), ellipticE(1)]
4-343
s =
3.7096
1.8443
1.5708
1.0000
Compute the complete elliptic integral of the second kind for the same numbers
converted to symbolic objects. For most symbolic (exact) numbers, ellipticE returns
unresolved symbolic calls.
s = [ellipticE(sym(-10.5)), ellipticE(sym(-pi/4)),...
ellipticE(sym(0)), ellipticE(sym(1))]
s =
[ ellipticE(-21/2), ellipticE(-pi/4), pi/2, 1]

vpa(s, 10)
ans =
[ 3.70961391, 1.844349247, 1.570796327, 1.0]
Differentiate these expressions involving elliptic integrals of the second kind:

syms m
diff(ellipticE(pi/3, m))
diff(ellipticE(m^2), m, 2)
ans =
ellipticE(pi/3, m)/(2*m) - ellipticF(pi/3, m)/(2*m)
ans =
2*m*((ellipticE(m^2)/(2*m^2) -...
ellipticK(m^2)/(2*m^2))/m - ellipticE(m^2)/m^3 +...
ellipticK(m^2)/m^3 + (ellipticK(m^2)/m +...
ellipticE(m^2)/(m*(m^2 - 1)))/(2*m^2)) +...
ellipticE(m^2)/m^2 - ellipticK(m^2)/m^2
Here, ellipticK and ellipticF represent the complete and incomplete elliptic
integrals of the first kind, respectively.
Plot the incomplete elliptic integrals ellipticE(phi,m) for phi = pi/4 and phi =
pi/3. Also plot the complete elliptic integral ellipticE(m):
syms m
ezplot(ellipticE(pi/4, m))
hold on
4-344
ellipticE
ezplot(ellipticE(pi/3, m))
ezplot(ellipticE(m))
title('Elliptic integrals of the second kind')
ylabel('ellipticE(m)')
legend('E(pi/4|m', 'E(pi/3|m)', 'E(m)', 'Location', 'Best')
grid on
hold off
Call ellipticE for this symbolic matrix. When the input argument is a matrix,
ellipticE computes the complete elliptic integral of the second kind for each element.
ellipticE(sym([1/3 1; 1/2 0]))
ans =
4-345
[ ellipticE(1/3),
1]
[ ellipticE(1/2), pi/2]
Alternatives
You can use ellipke to compute elliptic integrals of the first and second kinds in one
function call.
More About
Incomplete Elliptic Integral of the Second Kind
The incomplete elliptic integral of the second kind is defined as follows:
E (j | m ) =
1 - m sin2 q dq
Complete Elliptic Integral of the Second Kind
The complete elliptic integral of the second kind is defined as follows:
E ( m) = E | m =
2
p 2
1 - m sin 2 q dq
Tips
ellipticE returns floating-point results for numeric arguments that are not
symbolic objects.
For most symbolic (exact) numbers, ellipticE returns unresolved symbolic calls.
4-346
ellipticE
If m is a vector or a matrix, then ellipticE(m) returns the complete elliptic integral

of the second kind, evaluated for each element of m.
vector or a matrix, then ellipticE expands the scalar into a vector or matrix of the
ellipticE(pi/2, m) = ellipticE(m).
References
See Also

4-347
ellipticF
Incomplete elliptic integral of the first kind
Syntax
ellipticF(phi,m)
Description
ellipticF(phi,m) returns the incomplete elliptic integral of the first kind.
Input Arguments
m
phi
Examples
Compute the incomplete elliptic integrals of the first kind for these numbers. Because
s = [ellipticF(pi/3, -10.5), ellipticF(pi/4, -pi),...
ellipticF(1, -1), ellipticF(pi/2, 0)]
s =
4-348
ellipticF
0.6184
0.6486
0.8964
1.5708
Compute the incomplete elliptic integrals of the first kind for the same numbers
converted to symbolic objects. For most symbolic (exact) numbers, ellipticF returns
s = [ellipticF(sym(pi/3), -10.5), ellipticF(sym(pi/4), -pi),...
ellipticF(sym(1), -1), ellipticF(pi/6, sym(0))]
s =
[ ellipticF(pi/3, -21/2), ellipticF(pi/4, -pi), ellipticF(1, -1), pi/6]

vpa(s, 10)
ans =
[ 0.6184459461, 0.6485970495, 0.8963937895, 0.5235987756]
Differentiate this expression involving the incomplete elliptic integral of the first kind:
syms m
diff(ellipticF(pi/4, m))
ans =
1/(4*(1 - m/2)^(1/2)*(m - 1)) - ellipticF(pi/4, m)/(2*m) -...
ellipticE(pi/4, m)/(2*m*(m - 1))
Here, ellipticE represents the incomplete elliptic integral of the second kind.
Plot the incomplete elliptic integrals ellipticF(phi, m) for phi = pi/4 and phi =
pi/3. Also plot the complete elliptic integral ellipticK(m):
syms m
ezplot(ellipticF(pi/4, m))
hold on
ezplot(ellipticF(pi/3, m))
ezplot(ellipticK(m))
title('Elliptic integrals of the first kind')
ylabel('ellipticF(m)')
legend('F(pi/4|m', 'F(pi/3|m)', 'K(m)', 'Location', 'Best')
grid on
4-349
hold off
More About
Incomplete Elliptic Integral of the First Kind
F (j | m ) =
4-350
1
1 - m sin2 q
dq
ellipticF
Tips
ellipticF returns floating-point results for numeric arguments that are not
symbolic objects.
For most symbolic (exact) numbers, ellipticF returns unresolved symbolic calls.
vector or a matrix, ellipticF expands the scalar into a vector or matrix of the same
ellipticF(pi/2, m) = ellipticK(m).
References
See Also

4-351
ellipticK
Complete elliptic integral of the first kind
Syntax
ellipticK(m)
Description
ellipticK(m) returns the complete elliptic integral of the first kind.
Input Arguments
m
Examples
Compute the complete elliptic integrals of the first kind for these numbers. Because these
s = [ellipticK(1/2), ellipticK(pi/4), ellipticK(1),
ellipticK(-5.5)]
s =
1.8541
2.2253
Inf
0.9325
Compute the complete elliptic integrals of the first kind for the same numbers converted
to symbolic objects. For most symbolic (exact) numbers, ellipticK returns unresolved
symbolic calls.
s = [ellipticK(sym(1/2)), ellipticK(sym(pi/4)),...
4-352
ellipticK
ellipticK(sym(1)),
ellipticK(sym(-5.5))]
s =
[ ellipticK(1/2), ellipticK(pi/4), Inf, ellipticK(-11/2)]

vpa(s, 10)
ans =
[ 1.854074677, 2.225253684, Inf, 0.9324665884]
Differentiate these expressions involving the complete elliptic integral of the first kind:
syms m
diff(ellipticK(m))
diff(ellipticK(m^2), m, 2)
ans =
- ellipticK(m)/(2*m) - ellipticE(m)/(2*m*(m - 1))
ans =
(2*ellipticE(m^2))/(m^2 - 1)^2 - (2*(ellipticE(m^2)/(2*m^2) -...
ellipticK(m^2)/(2*m^2)))/(m^2 - 1) + ellipticK(m^2)/m^2 +...
(ellipticK(m^2)/m + ellipticE(m^2)/(m*(m^2 - 1)))/m +...
ellipticE(m^2)/(m^2*(m^2 - 1))
Here, ellipticE represents the complete elliptic integral of the second kind.
Plot the complete elliptic integral of the first kind:
syms m
ezplot(ellipticK(m))
title('Complete elliptic integral of the first kind')
ylabel('ellipticK(m)')
grid on
4-353
Call ellipticK for this symbolic matrix. When the input argument is a matrix,
ellipticK computes the complete elliptic integral of the first kind for each element.
ellipticK(sym([-2*pi -4; 0 1]))
ans =
[ ellipticK(-2*pi), ellipticK(-4)]
[
pi/2,
Inf]
Alternatives
You can use ellipke to compute elliptic integrals of the first and second kinds in one
function call.
4-354
ellipticK
More About
Complete Elliptic Integral of the First Kind
K (m ) = F | m =
2
p 2
1
1 - m sin2 q
dq
Tips
ellipticK returns floating-point results for numeric arguments that are not
symbolic objects.
For most symbolic (exact) numbers, ellipticK returns unresolved symbolic calls.
If m is a vector or a matrix, then ellipticK(m) returns the complete elliptic integral
of the first kind, evaluated for each element of m.
References
See Also

4-355
ellipticPi
Complete and incomplete elliptic integrals of the third kind
Syntax
ellipticPi(n,m)
ellipticPi(n,phi,m)
Description
ellipticPi(n,m) returns the complete elliptic integral of the third kind.
ellipticPi(n,phi,m) returns the incomplete elliptic integral of the third kind.
Input Arguments
n
Number, symbolic number, variable, expression, or function specifying the characteristic.
m
phi
4-356
ellipticPi
Examples
Compute the incomplete elliptic integrals of the third kind for these numbers. Because
s = [ellipticPi(-2.3, pi/4, 0), ellipticPi(1/3, pi/3, 1/2),...
ellipticPi(-1, 0, 1), ellipticPi(2, pi/6, 2)]
s =
0.5877
1.2850
0.7507
Compute the incomplete elliptic integrals of the third kind for the same numbers
converted to symbolic objects. For most symbolic (exact) numbers, ellipticPi returns
s = [ellipticPi(-2.3, sym(pi/4), 0), ellipticPi(sym(1/3), pi/3, 1/2),...
ellipticPi(-1, sym(0), 1), ellipticPi(2, pi/6, sym(2))]
s =
[ ellipticPi(-23/10, pi/4, 0), ellipticPi(1/3, pi/3, 1/2),...
0, (2^(1/2)*3^(1/2))/2 - ellipticE(pi/6, 2)]
Here, ellipticE represents the incomplete elliptic integral of the second kind.
vpa(s, 10)
ans =
[ 0.5876852228, 1.285032276, 0, 0.7507322117]
Differentiate these expressions involving the complete elliptic integral of the third kind:
syms n m
diff(ellipticPi(n, m), n)
diff(ellipticPi(n, m), m)
ans =
ellipticK(m)/(2*n*(n - 1)) + ellipticE(m)/(2*(m - n)*(n - 1)) -...
(ellipticPi(n, m)*(- n^2 + m))/(2*n*(m - n)*(n - 1))
ans =
- ellipticPi(n, m)/(2*(m - n)) - ellipticE(m)/(2*(m - n)*(m - 1))
Here, ellipticK and ellipticE represent the complete elliptic integrals of the first
and second kinds.
4-357
Call ellipticPi for the scalar and the matrix. When one input argument is a matrix,
ellipticPi expands the scalar argument to a matrix of the same size with all its
elements equal to the scalar.
ellipticPi(sym(0), sym([1/3 1; 1/2 0]))
ans =
[ ellipticK(1/3), Inf]
[ ellipticK(1/2), pi/2]
Here, ellipticK represents the complete elliptic integral of the first kind.
More About
Incomplete Elliptic Integral of the Third Kind
The incomplete elliptic integral of the third kind is defined as follows:
P ( n;j | m ) =
(
0
1 - n sin 2 q ) 1 - m sin 2 q
dq
Complete Elliptic Integral of the Third Kind
The complete elliptic integral of the third kind is defined as follows:
P ( n, m) = P n; | m =
2
p 2
2
0 ( 1 - n sin q )
1 - m sin 2 q
dq
Tips
ellipticPi returns floating-point results for numeric arguments that are not
symbolic objects.
4-358
ellipticPi
For most symbolic (exact) numbers, ellipticPi returns unresolved symbolic calls.
All non-scalar arguments must have the same size. If one or two input arguments are
non-scalar, then ellipticPi expands the scalars into vectors or matrices of the same
size as the non-scalar arguments, with all elements equal to the corresponding scalar.
ellipticPi(n, pi/2, m) = ellipticPi(n, m).
References
See Also

4-359
eq
Define equation
Note: In previous releases, eq evaluated equations and returned logical 1 or 0. Now it

returns unevaluated equations letting you create equations that you can pass to solve,
assume, and other functions. To obtain the same results as in previous releases, wrap
equations in logical or isAlways. For example, use logical(A == B).
Syntax
A == B
eq(A,B)
Description
A == B creates a symbolic equation.
eq(A,B) is equivalent to A == B.
Input Arguments
A
Number (integer, rational, floating-point, complex, or symbolic), symbolic variable or
expression, or array of numbers, symbolic variables or expressions.
B
Examples
Solve this trigonometric equation. To define the equation, use the relational operator ==.
4-360
eq
syms x
solve(sin(x) == cos(x), x)
ans =
pi/4
Plot this trigonometric equation. To define the equation, use the relational operator ==.
syms x y
ezplot(sin(x^2) == sin(y^2))
Check the equality of two symbolic matrices. Because the elements of both matrices are
numbers, == returns logical 1s and 0s:
4-361
A = sym(hilb(3));
B = sym([1, 1/2, 5; 1/2, 2, 1/4; 1/3, 1/8, 1/5]);
A == B
ans =
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
1
1
If you use == to compare a matrix and a scalar, then == expands the scalar into a matrix
of the same dimensions as the input matrix:
A = sym(hilb(3));
B = sym(1/2);
A == B
ans =
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
If the input arguments are symbolic variables or expression, == does not return logical 1s
and 0s. Instead, it creates equations:
syms x
x + 1 == x + 1
sin(x)/cos(x) == tan(x)
ans =
x + 1 == x + 1
ans =
sin(x)/cos(x) == tan(x)
To test the equality of two symbolic expressions, use logical or isAlways. Use
logical when expressions on both sides of the equation do not require simplification or
transformation:
logical(x + 1 == x + 1)
ans =
1
Use isAlways when expressions need to be simplified or transformed or when you use
assumptions on variables:
4-362
eq
isAlways(sin(x)/cos(x) == tan(x))
ans =
1
More About
Tips
If A and B are both numbers, then A == B compares A and B and returns logical 1
(true) or logical 0 (false). Otherwise, A == B returns a symbolic equation. You can
use that equation as an argument for such functions as solve, assume, ezplot, and
subs.
If both A and B are arrays, then these arrays must have the same dimensions. A ==
B returns an array of equations A(i,j,...)==B(i,j,...)
If one input is scalar and the other an array, then == expands the scalar into an
array of the same dimensions as the input array. In other words, if A is a variable
(for example, x), and B is an m-by-n matrix, then A is expanded into m-by-n matrix of
elements, each set to x.
Solve Equations on page 1-25
See Also
ge | gt | isAlways | le | logical | lt | ne | solve
4-363
equationsToMatrix
Convert set of linear equations to matrix form
Syntax
[A,b] = equationsToMatrix(eqns,vars)
[A,b] = equationsToMatrix(eqns)
A = equationsToMatrix(eqns,vars)
A = equationsToMatrix(eqns)
Description
[A,b] = equationsToMatrix(eqns,vars) converts eqns to the matrix form. Here
eqns must be linear equations in vars.
[A,b] = equationsToMatrix(eqns) converts eqns to the matrix form. Here
eqns must be a linear system of equations in all variables that symvar finds in these
equations.
A = equationsToMatrix(eqns,vars) converts eqns to the matrix form and returns
only the coefficient matrix. Here eqns must be linear equations in vars.
A = equationsToMatrix(eqns) converts eqns to the matrix form and returns only the
coefficient matrix. Here eqns must be a linear system of equations in all variables that
symvar finds in these equations.
Input Arguments
eqns
Vector of equations or equations separated by commas. Each equation is either a
symbolic equation defined by the relation operator == or a symbolic expression. If you
specify a symbolic expression (without the right side), equationsToMatrix assumes
that the right side is 0.
Equations must be linear in terms of vars.
4-364
equationsToMatrix
vars
Independent variables of eqns. You can specify vars as a vector. Alternatively, you can
list variables separating them by commas.
Default: Variables determined by symvar
Output Arguments
A
Coefficient matrix of the system of linear equations.
b
Vector containing the right sides of equations.
Examples
Convert this system of linear equations to the matrix form. To get the coefficient matrix
and the vector of the right sides of equations, assign the result to a vector of two output
arguments:
syms x y z
[A, b] = equationsToMatrix([x + y - 2*z == 0, x + y + z == 1,...
2*y - z + 5 == 0], [x, y, z])
A
[
[
[
=
1, 1, -2]
1, 1, 1]
0, 2, -1]
b =
0
1
-5
Convert this system of linear equations to the matrix form. Assigning the result of the
equationsToMatrix call to a single output argument, you get the coefficient matrix. In
this case, equationsToMatrix does not return the vector containing the right sides of
equations:
4-365
syms x y z
A = equationsToMatrix([x + y - 2*z == 0, x + y + z == 1,...
2*y - z + 5 == 0], [x, y, z])
A
[
[
[
=
1, 1, -2]
1, 1, 1]
0, 2, -1]
Convert this linear system of equations to the matrix form without specifying
independent variables. The toolbox uses symvar to identify variables:
syms s t
[A, b] = equationsToMatrix([s - 2*t + 1 == 0, 3*s - t == 10])
A =
[ 1, -2]
[ 3, -1]
b =
-1
10
Find the vector of variables determined for this system by symvar:

X = symvar([s - 2*t + 1 == 0, 3*s - t == 10])
X =
[ s, t]
Convert X to a column vector:

X = X.'
X =
s
t
Verify that A, b, and X form the original equations:

A*X == b
ans =
s - 2*t == -1
3*s - t == 10
4-366
equationsToMatrix
If the system is only linear in some variables, specify those variables explicitly:
syms a s t
[A, b] = equationsToMatrix([s - 2*t + a == 0, 3*s - a*t == 10], [t, s])
A =
[ -2, 1]
[ -a, 3]
b =
-a
10
You also can specify equations and variables all together, without using vectors and
simply separating each equation or variable by a comma. Specify all equations first, and
then specify variables:
syms x y
[A, b] = equationsToMatrix(x + y == 1, x - y + 1, x, y)
A =
[ 1, 1]
[ 1, -1]
b =
1
-1
Now change the order of the input arguments as follows. equationsToMatrix

finds the variable y, then it finds the expression x y + 1. After that, it assumes
that all remaining arguments are equations, and stops looking for variables. Thus,
equationsToMatrix finds the variable y and the system of equations x + y = 1, x
= 0, x - y + 1 = 0:
[A, b] = equationsToMatrix(x + y == 1, x, x - y + 1, y)
A =
1
0
-1
b =
1 - x
-x
- x - 1
4-367
If you try to convert a nonlinear system of equations, equationsToMatrix throws an

error:
syms x y
[A, b] = equationsToMatrix(x^2 + y^2 == 1, x - y + 1, x, y)
Error using symengine (line 56)
Cannot convert to matrix form because
the system does not seem to be linear.
More About
Matrix Representation of a System of Linear Equations
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + + a1n xn = b1
a21 x1 + a22 x2 + + a2n xn = b2
L
r r
can be represented as the matrix equation A x = b , where A is the coefficient matrix:
a11 a1n
A= M
O
M
a
m1 L amn
r
and b is the vector containing the right sides of equations:
b
r 1
b= M
b
m
Tips
If you specify equations and variables all together, without dividing them into two
vectors, specify all equations first, and then specify variables. If input arguments are
4-368
equationsToMatrix
not vectors, equationsToMatrix searches for variables starting from the last input
argument. When it finds the first argument that is not a single variable, it assumes
that all remaining arguments are equations, and therefore stops looking for variables.
See Also
linsolve | odeToVectorField | solve | symvar
Related Examples
4-369
erf
Error function
Syntax
erf(X)
Description
erf(X) represents the error function of X. If X is a vector or a matrix, erf(X) computes
the error function of each element of X.
Examples
Error Function for Floating-Point and Symbolic Numbers
Depending on its arguments, erf can return floating-point or exact symbolic results.
Compute the error function for these numbers. Because these numbers are not symbolic
objects, you get the floating-point results:
A = [erf(1/2), erf(1.41), erf(sqrt(2))]
A =
0.5205
0.9539
0.9545
Compute the error function for the same numbers converted to symbolic objects. For most
symbolic (exact) numbers, erf returns unresolved symbolic calls:
symA = [erf(sym(1/2)), erf(sym(1.41)), erf(sqrt(sym(2)))]
symA =
[ erf(1/2), erf(141/100), erf(2^(1/2))]
Use vpa to approximate symbolic results with the required number of digits:
4-370
erf
d = digits(10);
vpa(symA)
digits(d)
ans =
[ 0.5204998778, 0.9538524394, 0.9544997361]
Error Function for Variables and Expressions

For most symbolic variables and expressions, erf returns unresolved symbolic calls.
Compute the error function for x and sin(x) + x*exp(x):
syms x
f = sin(x) + x*exp(x);
erf(x)
erf(f)
ans =
erf(x)
ans =
erf(sin(x) + x*exp(x))
Error Function for Vectors and Matrices

If the input argument is a vector or a matrix, erf returns the error function for each
element of that vector or matrix.
Compute the error function for elements of matrix M and vector V:
M = sym([0 inf; 1/3 -inf]);
V = sym([1; -i*inf]);
erf(M)
erf(V)
ans =
[
0, 1]
[ erf(1/3), -1]
ans =
erf(1)
-Inf*i
4-371
Special Values of the Error Function

erf returns special values for particular parameters.
Compute the error function for x = 0, x = , and x = . Use sym to convert 0 and
infinities to symbolic objects. The error function has special values for these parameters:
[erf(sym(0)), erf(sym(Inf)), erf(sym(-Inf))]
ans =
[ 0, 1, -1]
Compute the error function for complex infinities. Use sym to convert complex infinities
to symbolic objects:
[erf(sym(i*Inf)), erf(sym(-i*Inf))]
ans =
[ Inf*i, -Inf*i]
Handling Expressions That Contain the Error Function

Many functions, such as diff and int, can handle expressions containing erf.
Compute the first and second derivatives of the error function:
syms x
diff(erf(x), x)
diff(erf(x), x, 2)
ans =
(2*exp(-x^2))/pi^(1/2)
ans =
-(4*x*exp(-x^2))/pi^(1/2)
Compute the integrals of these expressions:

int(erf(x), x)
int(erf(log(x)), x)
ans =
exp(-x^2)/pi^(1/2) + x*erf(x)
ans =
x*erf(log(x)) - int((2*exp(-log(x)^2))/pi^(1/2), x)
4-372
erf
Plot the Error Function

Plot the error function on the interval from -5 to 5.
syms x
ezplot(erf(x),[-5,5])
grid on
Input Arguments
X Input
4-373

More About
Error Function
The following integral defines the error function:
erf ( x) =
-t 2
dt
Tips
Calling erf for a number that is not a symbolic object invokes the MATLAB erf
function. This function accepts real arguments only. If you want to compute the error
function for a complex number, use sym to convert that number to a symbolic object,
and then call erf for that symbolic object.
For most symbolic (exact) numbers, erf returns unresolved symbolic calls. You can
approximate such results with floating-point numbers using vpa.
Algorithms
The toolbox can simplify expressions that contain error functions and their inverses. For
real values x, the toolbox applies these simplification rules:
erfinv(erf(x)) = erfinv(1 - erfc(x)) = erfcinv(1 - erf(x)) =
erfcinv(erfc(x)) = x
erfinv(-erf(x)) = erfinv(erfc(x) - 1) = erfcinv(1 + erf(x)) =
erfcinv(2 - erfc(x)) = -x
For any value x, the system applies these simplification rules:
erfcinv(x) = erfinv(1 - x)
erfinv(-x) = -erfinv(x)
erfcinv(2 - x) = -erfcinv(x)
erf(erfinv(x)) = erfc(erfcinv(x)) = x
4-374
erf
erf(erfcinv(x)) = erfc(erfinv(x)) = 1 - x
References
[1] Gautschi, W. Error Function and Fresnel Integrals. Handbook of Mathematical
See Also
erfc | erfcinv | erfi | erfinv
4-375
erfc
Complementary error function
Syntax
erfc(X)
erfc(K,X)
Description
erfc(X) represents the complementary error function of X, that is,erfc(X) = 1 erf(X).
erfc(K,X) represents the iterated integral of the complementary error function of X,
that is, erfc(K, X) = int(erfc(K - 1, y), y, X, inf).
Examples
Complementary Error Function for Floating-Point and Symbolic Numbers
Depending on its arguments, erfc can return floating-point or exact symbolic results.
Compute the complementary error function for these numbers. Because these numbers
are not symbolic objects, you get the floating-point results:
A = [erfc(1/2), erfc(1.41), erfc(sqrt(2))]
A =
0.4795
0.0461
0.0455
Compute the complementary error function for the same numbers converted to symbolic
objects. For most symbolic (exact) numbers, erfc returns unresolved symbolic calls:
symA = [erfc(sym(1/2)), erfc(sym(1.41)), erfc(sqrt(sym(2)))]
4-376
erfc
symA =
[ erfc(1/2), erfc(141/100), erfc(2^(1/2))]
d = digits(10);
vpa(symA)
digits(d)
ans =
[ 0.4795001222, 0.04614756064, 0.0455002639]
Error Function for Variables and Expressions

For most symbolic variables and expressions, erfc returns unresolved symbolic calls.
Compute the complementary error function for x and sin(x) + x*exp(x):
syms x
erfc(x)
erfc(f)
ans =
erfc(x)
ans =
erfc(sin(x) + x*exp(x))
Complementary Error Function for Vectors and Matrices

If the input argument is a vector or a matrix, erfc returns the complementary error
function for each element of that vector or matrix.
Compute the complementary error function for elements of matrix M and vector V:
M = sym([0 inf; 1/3 -inf]);
V = sym([1; -i*inf]);
erfc(M)
erfc(V)
ans =
4-377
[
1, 0]
[ erfc(1/3), 2]
ans =
erfc(1)
Inf*i + 1
Compute the iterated integral of the complementary error function for the elements of V
and M, and the integer -1:
erfc(-1, M)
erfc(-1, V)
ans =
[
2/pi^(1/2), 0]
[ (2*exp(-1/9))/pi^(1/2), 0]
ans =
(2*exp(-1))/pi^(1/2)
Inf
Special Values of the Complementary Error Function

erfc returns special values for particular parameters.
Compute the complementary error function for x = 0, x = , and x = . The
complementary error function has special values for these parameters:
[erfc(0), erfc(Inf), erfc(-Inf)]
ans =
1
Compute the complementary error function for complex infinities. Use sym to convert
complex infinities to symbolic objects:
[erfc(sym(i*Inf)), erfc(sym(-i*Inf))]
[ 1 - Inf*i, Inf*i + 1]
Handling Expressions That Contain the Complementary Error Function

Many functions, such as diff and int, can handle expressions containing erfc.
4-378
erfc
Compute the first and second derivatives of the complementary error function:
syms x
diff(erfc(x), x)
diff(erfc(x), x, 2)
ans =
-(2*exp(-x^2))/pi^(1/2)
ans =
(4*x*exp(-x^2))/pi^(1/2)

syms x
int(erfc(-1, x), x)
ans =
erf(x)
int(erfc(x), x)
ans =
x*erfc(x) - exp(-x^2)/pi^(1/2)
int(erfc(2, x), x)
ans =
(x^3*erfc(x))/6 - exp(-x^2)/(6*pi^(1/2)) +...
(x*erfc(x))/4 - (x^2*exp(-x^2))/(6*pi^(1/2))
Plot the Complementary Error Function

Plot the complementary error function on the interval from -5 to 5.
syms x
ezplot(erfc(x),[-5,5])
grid on
4-379
Input Arguments
X Input
K Input representing an integer larger than -2
function | symbolic vector | symbolic matrix
4-380
erfc
Input representing an integer larger than -2, specified as a number, symbolic number,
variable, expression, or function. This arguments can also be a vector or matrix of
numbers, symbolic numbers, variables, expressions, or functions.
More About
Complementary Error Function
The following integral defines the complementary error function:
erfc( x) =
-t 2
dt = 1 - erf ( x)
Here erf(x) is the error function.

Iterated Integral of the Complementary Error Function
The following integral is the iterated integral of the complementary error function:
erfc ( k, x ) = erfc ( k - 1, y ) dy
Here, erfc ( 0, x) = erfc ( x ) .

Tips
Calling erfc for a number that is not a symbolic object invokes the MATLAB erfc
function. This function accepts real arguments only. If you want to compute the
complementary error function for a complex number, use sym to convert that number
to a symbolic object, and then call erfc for that symbolic object.
For most symbolic (exact) numbers, erfc returns unresolved symbolic calls. You can
approximate such results with floating-point numbers using vpa.
vector or a matrix, then erfc expands the scalar into a vector or matrix of the same
4-381
Algorithms
For any value x, the system applies these simplification rules:
References
See Also
erf | erfcinv | erfi | erfinv
4-382
erfcinv
erfcinv
Inverse complementary error function
Syntax
erfcinv(X)
Description
erfcinv(X) computes the inverse complementary error function of X. If X is a vector
or a matrix, erfcinv(X) computes the inverse complementary error function of each
element of X.
Examples
Inverse Complementary Error Function for Floating-Point and Symbolic
Numbers
Depending on its arguments, erfcinv can return floating-point or exact symbolic
results.
Compute the inverse complementary error function for these numbers. Because these
numbers are not symbolic objects, you get floating-point results:
A = [erfcinv(1/2), erfcinv(1.33), erfcinv(3/2)]
A =
0.4769
-0.3013
-0.4769
Compute the inverse complementary error function for the same numbers converted
to symbolic objects. For most symbolic (exact) numbers, erfcinv returns unresolved
symbolic calls:
symA = [erfcinv(sym(1/2)), erfcinv(sym(1.33)), erfcinv(sym(3/2))]
4-383
symA =
[ -erfcinv(3/2), erfcinv(133/100), erfcinv(3/2)]
d = digits(10);
vpa(symA)
digits(d)
ans =
[ 0.4769362762, -0.3013321461, -0.4769362762]
Inverse Complementary Error Function for Complex Numbers

To compute the inverse complementary error function for complex numbers, first convert
them to symbolic numbers.
Compute the inverse complementary error function for complex numbers. Use sym to
convert complex numbers to symbolic objects:
[erfcinv(sym(2 + 3*i)), erfcinv(sym(1 - i))]
ans =
[ erfcinv(2 + 3*i), -erfcinv(1 + i)]
Inverse Complementary Error Function for Variables and Expressions

For most symbolic variables and expressions, erfcinv returns unresolved symbolic calls.
Compute the inverse complementary error function for x and sin(x) + x*exp(x). For
most symbolic variables and expressions, erfcinv returns unresolved symbolic calls:
syms x
erfcinv(x)
erfcinv(f)
ans =
erfcinv(x)
ans =
4-384
erfcinv
erfcinv(sin(x) + x*exp(x))
Inverse Complementary Error Function for Vectors and Matrices

If the input argument is a vector or a matrix, erfcinv returns the inverse
complementary error function for each element of that vector or matrix.
Compute the inverse complementary error function for elements of matrix M and vector V:
M = sym([0 1 + i; 1/3 1]);
V = sym([2; inf]);
erfcinv(M)
erfcinv(V)
ans =
[
Inf, erfcinv(1 + i)]
[ -erfcinv(5/3),
0]
ans =
-Inf
erfcinv(Inf)
Special Values of the Inverse Complementary Error Function

erfcinv returns special values for particular parameters.
Compute the inverse complementary error function for x = 0, x = 1, and x = 2. The inverse
complementary error function has special values for these parameters:
[erfcinv(0), erfcinv(1), erfcinv(2)]
ans =
Inf
-Inf
Handling Expressions That Contain the Inverse Complementary Error

Function
Many functions, such as diff and int, can handle expressions containing erfcinv.
Compute the first and second derivatives of the inverse complementary error function:
4-385
syms x
diff(erfcinv(x), x)
diff(erfcinv(x), x, 2)
ans =
-(pi^(1/2)*exp(erfcinv(x)^2))/2
ans =
(pi*exp(2*erfcinv(x)^2)*erfcinv(x))/2
Compute the integral of the inverse complementary error function:

int(erfcinv(x), x)
ans =
exp(-erfcinv(x)^2)/pi^(1/2)
Plot the Inverse Complementary Error Function

Plot the inverse complementary error function on the interval from 0 to 2.
syms x
ezplot(erfcinv(x),[0,2]);
grid on
4-386
erfcinv
Input Arguments
X Input
4-387
More About
Inverse Complementary Error Function
The inverse complementary error function is defined as erfc-1(x), such that
erfc(erfc-1(x))=x. Here
erfc( x) =
-t 2
dt = 1 - erf ( x)
is the complementary error function.

Tips
Calling erfcinv for a number that is not a symbolic object invokes the MATLAB
erfcinv function. This function accepts real arguments only. If you want to compute
the inverse complementary error function for a complex number, use sym to convert
that number to a symbolic object, and then call erfcinv for that symbolic object.
If x<0 or x>2, the MATLAB erfcinv function returns NaN. The symbolic erfcinv
function returns unresolved symbolic calls for such numbers. To call the symbolic
erfcinv function, convert its argument to a symbolic object using sym.
Algorithms
For any value x, the toolbox applies these simplification rules:
4-388
erfcinv
References
See Also
erf | erfc | erfi | erfinv
4-389
erfi
Imaginary error function
Syntax
erfi(x)
Description
erfi(x) returns the Imaginary Error Function on page 4-394 of x. If x is a vector or
a matrix, erfi(x) returns the imaginary error function of each element of x.
Examples
Imaginary Error Function for Floating-Point and Symbolic Numbers
Depending on its arguments, erfi can return floating-point or exact symbolic results.
Compute the imaginary error function for these numbers. Because these numbers are not
s = [erfi(1/2), erfi(1.41), erfi(sqrt(2))]
s =
0.6150
3.7382
3.7731
Compute the imaginary error function for the same numbers converted to symbolic
objects. For most symbolic (exact) numbers, erfi returns unresolved symbolic calls.
s = [erfi(sym(1/2)), erfi(sym(1.41)), erfi(sqrt(sym(2)))]
s =
[ erfi(1/2), erfi(141/100), erfi(2^(1/2))]
Use vpa to approximate this result with the 10-digit accuracy:

vpa(s, 10)
ans =
4-390
erfi
[ 0.6149520947, 3.738199581, 3.773122512]
Imaginary Error Function for Variables and Expressions

Compute the imaginary error function for x and sin(x) + x*exp(x). For most
symbolic variables and expressions, erfi returns unresolved symbolic calls.
syms x
erfi(x)
erfi(f)
ans =
erfi(x)
ans =
erfi(sin(x) + x*exp(x))
Imaginary Error Function for Vectors and Matrices

If the input argument is a vector or a matrix, erfi returns the imaginary error function
for each element of that vector or matrix.
Compute the imaginary error function for elements of matrix M and vector V:
M = sym([0 inf; 1/3 -inf]);
V = sym([1; -i*inf]);
erfi(M)
erfi(V)
ans =
[
0, Inf]
[ erfi(1/3), -Inf]
ans =
erfi(1)
-i
Special Values of Imaginary Error Function

Compute the imaginary error function for x = 0, x = , and x = . Use sym to convert
0 and infinities to symbolic objects. The imaginary error function has special values for
these parameters:
4-391
[erfi(sym(0)), erfi(sym(inf)), erfi(sym(-inf))]

ans =
[ 0, Inf, -Inf]
Compute the imaginary error function for complex infinities. Use sym to convert complex
infinities to symbolic objects:
[erfi(sym(i*inf)), erfi(sym(-i*inf))]
ans =
[ i, -i]
Handling Expressions That Contain the Imaginary Error Function

Many functions, such as diff and int, can handle expressions containing erfi.
Compute the first and second derivatives of the imaginary error function:
syms x
diff(erfi(x), x)
diff(erfi(x), x, 2)
ans =
(2*exp(x^2))/pi^(1/2)
ans =
(4*x*exp(x^2))/pi^(1/2)

int(erfi(x), x)
int(erfi(log(x)), x)
ans =
x*erfi(x) - exp(x^2)/pi^(1/2)
ans =
x*erfi(log(x)) - int((2*exp(log(x)^2))/pi^(1/2), x)
Plot the Imaginary Error Function

Plot the imaginary error function on the interval from -2 to 2.
4-392
erfi
syms x
ezplot(erfi(x),[-2,2])
grid on
Input Arguments
x Input
floating-point number | symbolic number | symbolic variable | symbolic expression |
symbolic function | symbolic vector | symbolic matrix
Input, specified as a floating-point or symbolic number, variable, expression, function,
vector, or matrix.
4-393
More About
Imaginary Error Function
The imaginary error function is defined as:
erfi ( x ) = - i erf ( ix ) =
t2
dt
Tips
erfi returns special values for these parameters:
erfi(0) = 0
erfi(inf) = inf
erfi(-inf) = -inf
erfi(i*inf) = i
erfi(-i*inf) = -i
See Also
erf | erfc | erfcinv | erfinv | vpa
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erfinv
erfinv
Inverse error function
Syntax
erfinv(X)
Description
erfinv(X) computes the inverse error function of X. If X is a vector or a matrix,
erfinv(X) computes the inverse error function of each element of X.
Examples
Inverse Error Function for Floating-Point and Symbolic Numbers
Depending on its arguments, erfinv can return floating-point or exact symbolic results.
Compute the inverse error function for these numbers. Because these numbers are not
symbolic objects, you get floating-point results:
A = [erfinv(1/2), erfinv(0.33), erfinv(-1/3)]
A =
0.4769
0.3013
-0.3046
Compute the inverse error function for the same numbers converted to symbolic objects.
For most symbolic (exact) numbers, erfinv returns unresolved symbolic calls:
symA = [erfinv(sym(1)/2), erfinv(sym(0.33)), erfinv(sym(-1)/3)]
symA =
[ erfinv(1/2), erfinv(33/100), -erfinv(1/3)]
d = digits(10);
vpa(symA)
digits(d)
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ans =
[ 0.4769362762, 0.3013321461, -0.3045701942]
Inverse Error Function for Complex Numbers

To compute the inverse error function for complex numbers, first convert them to
symbolic numbers.
Compute the inverse error function for complex numbers. Use sym to convert complex
numbers to symbolic objects:
[erfinv(sym(2 + 3*i)), erfinv(sym(1 - i))]
ans =
[ erfinv(2 + 3*i), erfinv(1 - i)]
Inverse Error Function for Variables and Expressions

For most symbolic variables and expressions, erfinv returns unresolved symbolic calls.
Compute the inverse error function for x and sin(x) + x*exp(x). For most symbolic
variables and expressions, erfinv returns unresolved symbolic calls:
syms x
erfinv(x)
erfinv(f)
ans =
erfinv(x)
ans =
erfinv(sin(x) + x*exp(x))
Inverse Error Function for Vectors and Matrices

If the input argument is a vector or a matrix, erfinv returns the inverse error function
for each element of that vector or matrix.
Compute the inverse error function for elements of matrix M and vector V:
M = sym([0 1 + i; 1/3 1]);
V = sym([-1; inf]);
erfinv(M)
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erfinv
erfinv(V)
ans =
[
0, erfinv(1 + i)]
[ erfinv(1/3),
Inf]
ans =
-Inf
erfinv(Inf)
Special Values of the Inverse Complementary Error Function

erfinv returns special values for particular parameters.
Compute the inverse error function for x = 1, x = 0, and x = 1. The inverse error function
has special values for these parameters:
[erfinv(-1), erfinv(0), erfinv(1)]
ans =
-Inf
Inf
Handling Expressions That Contain the Inverse Complementary Error

Function
Many functions, such as diff and int, can handle expressions containing erfinv.
Compute the first and second derivatives of the inverse error function:
syms x
diff(erfinv(x), x)
diff(erfinv(x), x, 2)
ans =
(pi^(1/2)*exp(erfinv(x)^2))/2
ans =
(pi*exp(2*erfinv(x)^2)*erfinv(x))/2
Compute the integral of the inverse error function:

int(erfinv(x), x)
ans =
-exp(-erfinv(x)^2)/pi^(1/2)
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Plot the Inverse Error Function

Plot the inverse error function on the interval from -1 to 1.
syms x
ezplot(erfinv(x),[-1,1])
grid on
Input Arguments
X Input
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erfinv

More About
Inverse Error Function
The inverse error function is defined as erf-1(x), such that erf(erf-1(x))=erf-1(erf(x))=x.
Here
erf ( x) =
-t 2
dt
is the error function.

Tips
Calling erfinv for a number that is not a symbolic object invokes the MATLAB
erfinv function. This function accepts real arguments only. If you want to compute
the inverse error function for a complex number, use sym to convert that number to a
symbolic object, and then call erfinv for that symbolic object.
If x<1 or x>1, the MATLAB erfinv function returns NaN. The symbolic erfinv
function returns unresolved symbolic calls for such numbers. To call the symbolic
erfinv function, convert its argument to a symbolic object using sym.
Algorithms
For any value x, the toolbox applies these simplification rules:
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References
See Also
erf | erfc | erfcinv | erfi
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euler
euler
Euler numbers and polynomials
Syntax
euler(n)
euler(n,x)
Description
euler(n) returns the nth Euler number.
euler(n,x) returns the nth Euler polynomial.
Examples
Euler Numbers with Odd and Even Indices
The Euler numbers with even indices alternate the signs. Any Euler number with an odd
index is 0.
Compute the even-indexed Euler numbers with the indices from 0 to 10:
euler(0:2:10)
ans =
1
1385
-1
-50521
-61...
Compute the odd-indexed Euler numbers with the indices from 1 to 11:
euler(1:2:11)
ans =
0
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Euler Polynomials
For the Euler polynomials, use euler with two input arguments.
Compute the first, second, and third Euler polynomials in variables x, y, and z,
respectively:
syms x y
euler(1,
euler(2,
euler(3,
z
x)
y)
z)
ans =
x - 1/2
ans =
y^2 - y
ans =
z^3 - (3*z^2)/2 + 1/4
If the second argument is a number, euler evaluates the polynomial at that number.
Here, the result is a floating-point number because the input arguments are not symbolic
numbers:
euler(2, 1/3)
ans =
-0.2222
To get the exact symbolic result, convert at least one number to a symbolic object:
euler(2, sym(1/3))
ans =
-2/9
Plot the Euler Polynomials

Plot the first six Euler polynomials.
syms x
for n = 0:5
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euler
ezplot(euler(n, x), [-1, 2])

hold on
end
title('Euler Polynomials')
grid on
hold off
Handle Expressions Containing the Euler Polynomials

Many functions, such as diff and expand, can handle expressions containing euler.
Find the first and second derivatives of the Euler polynomial:
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syms n x
diff(euler(n,x^2), x)
ans =
2*n*x*euler(n - 1, x^2)
diff(euler(n,x^2), x, x)
ans =
2*n*euler(n - 1, x^2) + 4*n*x^2*euler(n - 2, x^2)*(n - 1)
Expand these expressions containing the Euler polynomials:

expand(euler(n, 2 - x))
ans =
2*(1 - x)^n - (-1)^n*euler(n, x)
expand(euler(n, 2*x))
ans =
(2*2^n*bernoulli(n + 1, x + 1/2))/(n + 1) -...
(2*2^n*bernoulli(n + 1, x))/(n + 1)
Input Arguments
n Index of the Euler number or polynomial
nonnegative integer | symbolic nonnegative integer | symbolic variable | symbolic
expression | symbolic function | symbolic vector | symbolic matrix
Index of the Euler number or polynomial, specified as a nonnegative integer, symbolic
nonnegative integer, variable, expression, function, vector, or matrix. If n is a vector or
matrix, euler returns Euler numbers or polynomials for each element of n. If one input
argument is a scalar and the other one is a vector or a matrix, euler(n,x) expands the
scalar into a vector or matrix of the same size as the other argument with all elements
equal to that scalar.
x Polynomial variable
symbolic variable | symbolic expression | symbolic function | symbolic vector | symbolic
matrix
Polynomial variable, specified as a symbolic variable, expression, function, vector, or
matrix. If x is a vector or matrix, euler returns Euler numbers or polynomials for
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euler
each element of x. When you use the euler function to find Euler polynomials, at least
one argument must be a scalar or both arguments must be vectors or matrices of the
same size. If one input argument is a scalar and the other one is a vector or a matrix,
euler(n,x) expands the scalar into a vector or matrix of the same size as the other
More About
Euler Polynomials
The Euler polynomials are defined as follows:
2 ext
et + 1
tn
euler (n, x ) n !
n =0
Euler Numbers
The Euler numbers are defined as follows:
1
euler ( n ) = 2n euler n,
2
See Also
bernoulli
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eulergamma
Euler-Mascheroni constant
Syntax
eulergamma
Description
eulergamma represents the Euler-Mascheroni constant. To get a floating-point
approximation with the current precision set by digits, use vpa(eulergamma).
Examples
Approximate the Euler-Mascheroni Constant
Get a floating-point approximation of the Euler-Mascheroni constant with the default
number of digits and with the 10-digit precision.
Use vpa to approximate the Euler-Mascheroni constant with the default 32digit
precision:
vpa(eulergamma)
ans =
0.5772156649015328606065120900824
Set the number of digits to 10 and approximate the Euler-Mascheroni constant:

old = digits(10);
vpa(eulergamma)
ans =
0.5772156649
Restore the default number of digits:

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eulergamma
digits(old)
More About
Euler-Mascheroni Constant
The Euler-Mascheroni constant is defined as follows:
n 1
g = lim - log ( n )
n
k= 1 k
See Also
coshint
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evalin
Evaluate MuPAD expressions without specifying their arguments
Syntax
result = evalin(symengine,MuPAD_expression)
[result,status] = evalin(symengine,MuPAD_expression)
Description
result = evalin(symengine,MuPAD_expression) evaluates the MuPAD
expression MuPAD_expression, and returns result as a symbolic object. If
MuPAD_expression throws an error in MuPAD, then this syntax throws an error in
MATLAB.
[result,status] = evalin(symengine,MuPAD_expression) lets you catch errors
thrown by MuPAD. This syntax returns the error status in status and the error message
in result if status is nonzero. If status is 0, result is a symbolic object; otherwise, it is a
string.
Input Arguments
MuPAD_expression
String containing a MuPAD expression.
Output Arguments
result
Symbolic object or string containing a MuPAD error message.
status
Integer indicating the error status. If MuPAD_expression executes without errors, the
error status is 0.
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evalin
Examples
Compute the discriminant of the following polynomial:
evalin(symengine,'polylib::discrim(a*x^2+b*x+c,x)')
ans =
b^2 - 4*a*c
Try using polylib::discrim to compute the discriminant of the following

nonpolynomial expression:
[result, status] = evalin(symengine,'polylib::discrim(a*x^2+b*x+c*ln(x),x)')
result =
Error: An arithmetical expression is expected. [normal]
status =
2
Alternatives
feval lets you evaluate MuPAD expressions with arguments. When using feval, you
must explicitly specify the arguments of the MuPAD expression.
More About
Tips
Results returned by evalin can differ from the results that you get using a MuPAD
notebook directly. The reason is that evalin sets a lower level of evaluation to
achieve better performance.
evalin does not open a MuPAD notebook, and therefore, you cannot use this function
to access MuPAD graphics capabilities.
Evaluations in Symbolic Computations
Level of Evaluation
See Also
feval | read | symengine

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Related Examples
4-410
evaluateMuPADNotebook
Evaluate MuPAD notebook
Syntax
evaluateMuPADNotebook(nb)
evaluateMuPADNotebook(nb,'IgnoreErrors',true)
Description
evaluateMuPADNotebook(nb) evaluates the MuPAD notebook with the handle nb and
returns logical 1 (true) if evaluation runs without errors. If nb is a vector of notebook
handles, then this syntax returns a vector of logical 1s.
evaluateMuPADNotebook(nb,'IgnoreErrors',true) does not stop evaluating the
notebook when it encounters an error. This syntax skips any input region of a MuPAD
notebook that causes errors, and proceeds to the next one. If the evaluation runs without
errors, this syntax returns logical 1 (true). Otherwise, it returns logical 0 (false). The
error messages appear in the MuPAD notebook only.
By default, evaluateMuPADNotebook uses 'IgnoreErrors',false, and therefore,
evaluateMuPADNotebook stops when it encounters an error in a notebook. The error
messages appear in the MATLAB Command Window and in the MuPAD notebook.
Examples
Evaluate a Particular Notebook
Execute commands in all input regions of a MuPAD notebook. Results of the evaluation
appear in the output regions of the notebook.
Suppose that your current folder contains a MuPAD notebook named myFile1.mn. Open
this notebook keeping its handle in the variable nb1:
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Evaluate all input regions in this notebook. If all calculations run without an error, then
evaluateMuPADNotebook returns logical 1 (true):
evaluateMuPADNotebook(nb1)
ans =
1
Evaluate Several Notebooks

Use a vector of notebook handles to evaluate several notebooks.
nb3 = mupad
nb1 =
myFile1
nb2 =
myFile2
nb3 =
Notebook1
Evaluate myFile1.mn and myFile2.mn:

evaluateMuPADNotebook([nb1, nb2])
ans =
1
Evaluate All Open Notebooks

Identify and evaluate all open MuPAD notebooks.
4-412
nb3 = mupad
nb1 =
myFile1
nb2 =
myFile2
nb3 =
Notebook1

Evaluate all notebooks. If all calculations run without an error, then

evaluateMuPADNotebook returns an array of logical 1s (true):
evaluateMuPADNotebook(allNBs)
ans =
1
1
1
Evaluate All Open Notebooks Ignoring Errors

Identify and evaluate all open MuPAD notebooks skipping evaluations that cause errors.
nb3 = mupad
nb1 =
myFile1
nb2 =
myFile2
nb3 =
Notebook1
4-413

Evaluate all notebooks using 'IgnoreErrors',true to skip any calculations that cause
errors. If all calculations run without an error, then evaluateMuPADNotebook returns
an array of logical 1s (true):
evaluateMuPADNotebook(allNBs,'IgnoreErrors',true)
ans =
1
1
1
Otherwise, it returns logical 0s for notebooks that cause errors (false):

ans =
0
1
1
Input Arguments
Pointer to MuPAD notebook, specified as a MuPAD notebook handle or a vector of
handles. You create the notebook handle when opening a notebook with the mupad or
openmn function.
You can get the list of all open notebooks using the allMuPADNotebooks
function. evaluateMuPADNotebook accepts a vector of handles returned by
allMuPADNotebooks.
4-414
See Also
allMuPADNotebooks | close | getVar | mupad | mupadNotebookTitle | openmn |

setVar
4-415
expand
Symbolic expansion of polynomials and elementary functions
Syntax
expand(S)
expand(S,Name,Value)
Description
expand(S) expands the symbolic expression S. expand is often used with polynomials.
It also expands trigonometric, exponential, and logarithmic functions.
expand(S,Name,Value) expands S using additional options specified by one or more
Input Arguments
S
Symbolic expression or symbolic matrix.

'ArithmeticOnly'
If the value is true, expand the arithmetic part of an expression without expanding
trigonometric, hyperbolic, logarithmic, and special functions. This option does not
prevent expansion of powers and roots.
Default: false
4-416
expand
If the value is true, apply purely algebraic simplifications to an expression.
With IgnoreAnalyticConstraints, expand can return simpler results for the
expressions for which it would return more complicated results otherwise. Using
IgnoreAnalyticConstraints also can lead to results that are not equivalent to the
initial expression.
Default: false
Examples
Expand the expression:
syms x
expand((x-2)*(x-4))
ans =
x^2 - 6*x + 8
Expand the trigonometric expression:

syms x y
expand(cos(x+y))
ans =
cos(x)*cos(y) - sin(x)*sin(y)
Expand the exponent:

syms a b
expand(exp((a + b)^2))
ans =
exp(a^2)*exp(b^2)*exp(2*a*b)
Expand the expressions that form a vector:

syms t
expand([sin(2*t), cos(2*t)])
ans =
[ 2*cos(t)*sin(t), 2*cos(t)^2 - 1]
4-417
Expand this expression. By default, expand works on all subexpressions including

trigonometric subexpressions:
syms x
expand((sin(3*x) - 1)^2)
ans =
2*sin(x) + sin(x)^2 - 8*cos(x)^2*sin(x) - 8*cos(x)^2*sin(x)^2...
+ 16*cos(x)^4*sin(x)^2 + 1
To prevent expansion of trigonometric, hyperbolic, and logarithmic subexpressions and

subexpressions involving special functions, use ArithmeticOnly:
expand((sin(3*x) - 1)^2, 'ArithmeticOnly', true)
ans =
sin(3*x)^2 - 2*sin(3*x) + 1
Expand this logarithm. By default, the expand function does not expand logarithms
because expanding logarithms is not valid for generic complex values:
syms a b c
expand(log((a*b/c)^2))
ans =
log((a^2*b^2)/c^2)
To apply the simplification rules that let the expand function expand logarithms, use
IgnoreAnalyticConstraints:
expand(log((a*b/c)^2), 'IgnoreAnalyticConstraints', true)
ans =
2*log(a) + 2*log(b) - 2*log(c)
More About
Algorithms
When you use IgnoreAnalyticConstraints, expand applies these rules:
4-418
expand
(ab)c=acbc.
(ab)c=abc.
log(ex)=x
See Also
collect | combine | factor | horner | numden | rewrite | simplify |

simplifyFraction
4-419
expint
Exponential integral function
Syntax
expint(x)
expint(n,x)
Description
expint(x) returns the one-argument exponential integral function defined as follows:
exp int ( x) =
-t
dt
t
expint(n,x) returns the two-argument exponential integral function defined as follows:

exp int ( n, x) =
- xt
tn
dt
Examples
One-Argument Exponential Integral for Floating-Point and Symbolic
Numbers
Compute the exponential integrals for these numbers. Because these numbers are not
s = [expint(1/3), expint(1), expint(-2)]
s =
4-420
expint
0.8289 + 0.0000i
0.2194 + 0.0000i
-4.9542 - 3.1416i
Compute the exponential integrals for the same numbers converted to symbolic objects.
For positive values x, expint(x) returns -ei(-x). For negative values x, it returns pi*i - ei(-x).
s = [expint(sym(1)/3), expint(sym(1)), expint(sym(-2))]
s =
[ -ei(-1/3), -ei(-1), - pi*i - ei(2)]
Use vpa to approximate this result with the 10-digit accuracy:

vpa(s, 10)
ans =
[ 0.8288877453, 0.2193839344, - 4.954234356 - 3.141592654*i]
Two-Argument Exponential Integral for Floating-Point and Symbolic

Numbers
When computing two-argument exponential integrals, convert numbers to symbolic
objects:
s = [expint(2, sym(1)/3), expint(sym(1), Inf), expint(-1, sym(-2))]
s =
[ expint(2, 1/3), 0, -exp(2)/4]
Use vpa to approximate this result with the 25- digit accuracy:
vpa(s, 25)
ans =
[ 0.4402353954575937050522018, 0, -1.847264024732662556807607]
Two-Argument Exponential Integral with a Nonpositive First Argument

Compute these two-argument exponential integrals. If n is a nonpositive integer, then
expint(n, x) returns an explicit expression in the form exp(-x)*p(1/x), where p is
a polynomial of degree 1 - n.
syms x
4-421
expint(0, x)
expint(-1, x)
expint(-2, x)
ans =
exp(-x)/x
ans =
exp(-x)*(1/x + 1/x^2)
ans =
exp(-x)*(1/x + 2/x^2 + 2/x^3)
Derivatives of the Exponential Integral

Compute the first, second, and third derivatives of the one-argument exponential
integral:
syms x
diff(expint(x), x)
diff(expint(x), x, 2)
diff(expint(x), x, 3)
ans =
-exp(-x)/x
ans =
exp(-x)/x + exp(-x)/x^2
ans =
- exp(-x)/x - (2*exp(-x))/x^2 - (2*exp(-x))/x^3
Compute the first derivatives of the two-argument exponential integral:

syms n x
diff(expint(n, x), x)
diff(expint(n, x), n)
ans =
-expint(n - 1, x)
ans =
- hypergeom([1 - n, 1 - n], [2 - n, 2 - n], -x)/(n - 1)^2 -...
(pi*x^(n - 1)*(psi(n) - log(x) + pi*cot(pi*n)))/(sin(pi*n)*gamma(n))
4-422
expint
Input Arguments
x Input
Input specified as a symbolic number, variable, expression, function, vector, or matrix.
n Input
When you compute the two-argument exponential integral function, at least one
argument must be a scalar.
More About
Tips
expint(x) is uniquely defined for positive numbers. It is approximated for the rest of
the complex plane.
Calling expint for numbers that are not symbolic objects invokes the MATLAB
expint function. This function accepts one argument only. To compute the twoargument exponential integral, use sym to convert the numbers to symbolic objects,
and then call expint for those symbolic objects. You can approximate the results with
floating-point numbers using vpa.
The following values of the exponential integral differ from those returned by the
MATLAB expint function: expint(sym(Inf)) = 0, expint(-sym(Inf)) = Inf, expint(sym(NaN)) = NaN.
For positive x, expint(x) = -ei(-x). For negative x, expint(x) = -pi*i ei(-x).
If one input argument is a scalar and the other one is a vector or a matrix,
expint(n,x) expands the scalar into a vector or matrix of the same size as the other
See Also
Ei | ei | expint | vpa
4-423
expm
Matrix exponential
Syntax
R = expm(A)
Description
R = expm(A) computes the matrix exponential of the square matrix A.
Examples
Matrix Exponential
Compute the matrix exponential for the 2-by-2 matrix and simplify the result.
syms x
A = [0 x; -x 0];
simplify(expm(A))
ans =
[ cos(x), sin(x)]
[ -sin(x), cos(x)]
Input Arguments
A Input matrix
square matrix
Input matrix, specified as a square symbolic matrix.
4-424
expm
Output Arguments
R Resulting matrix
symbolic matrix
Resulting function, returned as a symbolic matrix.
See Also
eig | funm | jordan | logm | sqrtm
4-425
ezcontour
Contour plotter
Syntax
ezcontour(f)
ezcontour(f,domain)
ezcontour(...,n)
Description
ezcontour(f) plots the contour lines of f(x,y), where f is a symbolic expression that
represents a mathematical function of two variables, such as x and y.
The function f is plotted over the default domain 2<x<2, 2<y<2. MATLAB
software chooses the computational grid according to the amount of variation that occurs;
if the function f is not defined (singular) for points on the grid, then these points are not
plotted.
ezcontour(f,domain) plots f(x,y) over the specified domain. domain can be either a
4-by-1 vector [xmin, xmax, ymin, ymax] or a 2-by-1 vector [min, max] (where, min < x <
max, min < y < max).
If f is a function of the variables u and v (rather than x and y), then the domain endpoints
umin, umax, vmin, and vmax are sorted alphabetically. Thus, ezcontour(u^2 - v^3,
[0,1],[3,6]) plots the contour lines for u2 - v3 over 0 < u < 1, 3 < v < 6.
ezcontour(...,n) plots f over the default domain using an n-by-n grid. The default
value for n is 60.
ezcontour automatically adds a title and axis labels.
Examples
Plot the Contour Lines of a Symbolic Expression
The following mathematical expression defines a function of two variables, x and y.
4-426
ezcontour
2
2
2 2
x
2 2 1
f ( x, y) = 3(1 - x)2 e- x -( y+1) - 10 - x3 - y5 e- x - y - e-( x +1)) - y .
5
ezcontour requires a sym argument that expresses this function using MATLAB syntax
to represent exponents, natural logs, etc. This function is represented by the symbolic
expression
syms x y
f = 3*(1-x)^2*exp(-(x^2)-(y+1)^2)...
- 10*(x/5 - x^3 - y^5)*exp(-x^2-y^2)...
- 1/3*exp(-(x+1)^2 - y^2);
For convenience, this expression is written on three lines.

Pass the sym f to ezcontour along with a domain ranging from -3 to 3 and specify a
computational grid of 49-by-49.
ezcontour(f,[-3,3],49)
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In this particular case, the title is too long to fit at the top of the graph so MATLAB
abbreviates the string.
See Also
contour | ezcontourf | ezmesh | ezmeshc | ezplot | ezplot3 | ezpolar |

ezsurf | ezsurfc
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ezcontourf
ezcontourf
Filled contour plotter
Syntax
ezcontour(f)
ezcontour(f,domain)
ezcontourf(...,n)
Description
ezcontour(f) plots the contour lines of f(x,y), where f is a sym that represents a
mathematical function of two variables, such as x and y.
plotted.
ezcontour(f,domain) plots f(x,y) over the specified domain. domain can be either a
4-by-1 vector [xmin, xmax, ymin, ymax] or a 2-by-1 vector [min, max] (where, min < x <
max, min < y < max).
umin, umax, vmin, and vmax are sorted alphabetically. Thus, ezcontourf(u^2 - v^3,
[0,1],[3,6]) plots the contour lines for u2 - v3 over 0 < u < 1, 3 < v < 6.
ezcontourf(...,n) plots f over the default domain using an n-by-n grid. The default
value for n is 60.
ezcontourf automatically adds a title and axis labels.
Examples
The following mathematical expression defines a function of two variables, x and y.
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2
2
2 2
x
2 2 1
f ( x, y) = 3(1 - x)2 e- x -( y+1) - 10 - x3 - y5 e- x - y - e-( x +1)) - y .
5
ezcontourf requires a sym argument that expresses this function using MATLAB
syntax to represent exponents, natural logs, etc. This function is represented by the
symbolic expression
syms x y
f = 3*(1-x)^2*exp(-(x^2)-(y+1)^2)...
- 10*(x/5 - x^3 - y^5)*exp(-x^2-y^2)...
- 1/3*exp(-(x+1)^2 - y^2);
For convenience, this expression is written on three lines.

Pass the sym f to ezcontourf along with a domain ranging from -3 to 3 and specify a
grid of 49-by-49.
ezcontourf(f,[-3,3],49)
4-430
ezcontourf
In this particular case, the title is too long to fit at the top of the graph so MATLAB
abbreviates the string.
See Also
contourf | ezcontour | ezmesh | ezmeshc | ezplot | ezplot3 | ezpolar |

ezsurf | ezsurfc
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ezmesh
3-D mesh plotter
Syntax
ezmesh(f)
ezmesh(f, domain)
ezmesh(x,y,z)
ezmesh(x,y,z,[smin,smax,tmin,tmax])
ezmesh(x,y,z,[min,max])
ezmesh(...,n)
ezmesh(...,'circ')
Description
ezmesh(f) creates a graph of f(x,y), where f is a symbolic expression that represents a
plotted.
ezmesh(f, domain) plots f over the specified domain. domain can be either a 4-by-1
vector [xmin, xmax, ymin, ymax] or a 2-by-1 vector [min, max] (where, min < x < max,
min < y < max).
umin, umax, vmin, and vmax are sorted alphabetically. Thus, ezmesh(u^2 - v^3,
[0,1],[3,6]) plots u2 - v3 over 0 < u < 1, 3 < v < 6.
ezmesh(x,y,z) plots the parametric surface x = x(s,t), y = y(s,t), and z = z(s,t) over the
square 2<s<2, 2<t<2.
ezmesh(x,y,z,[smin,smax,tmin,tmax]) or ezmesh(x,y,z,[min,max]) plots the
parametric surface using the specified domain.
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ezmesh
ezmesh(...,n) plots f over the default domain using an n-by-n grid. The default value
for n is 60.
ezmesh(...,'circ') plots f over a disk centered on the domain.
Examples
This example visualizes the function,
2 2
f ( x, y) = xe -x - y ,
with a mesh plot drawn on a 40-by-40 grid. The mesh lines are set to a uniform blue color
by setting the colormap to a single color.
syms x y
ezmesh(x*exp(-x^2-y^2),[-2.5,2.5],40)
colormap([0 0 1])
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See Also
ezcontour | ezcontourf | ezmeshc | ezplot | ezplot3 | ezpolar | ezsurf |

ezsurfc | mesh
4-434
ezmeshc
ezmeshc
Combined mesh and contour plotter
Syntax
ezmeshc(f)
ezmeshc(f,domain)
ezmeshc(x,y,z)
ezmeshc(x,y,z,[smin,smax,tmin,tmax])
ezmeshc(x,y,z,[min,max])
ezmeshc(...,n)
ezmeshc(...,'circ')
Description
ezmeshc(f) creates a graph of f(x,y), where f is a symbolic expression that represents a
plotted.
ezmeshc(f,domain) plots f over the specified domain. domain can be either a 4-by-1
min < y < max).
umin, umax, vmin, and vmax are sorted alphabetically. Thus, ezmeshc(u^2 - v^3,
[0,1],[3,6]) plots u2v3 over 0 < u < 1, 3 < v < 6.
ezmeshc(x,y,z) plots the parametric surface x = x(s,t), y = y(s,t), and z = z(s,t) over the
ezmeshc(x,y,z,[smin,smax,tmin,tmax]) or ezmeshc(x,y,z,[min,max]) plots
the parametric surface using the specified domain.
4-435
ezmeshc(...,n) plots f over the default domain using an n-by-n grid. The default value
for n is 60.
ezmeshc(...,'circ') plots f over a disk centered on the domain.
Examples
Create a mesh/contour graph of the expression,
f ( x, y) =
y
2
1 + x + y2
over the domain 5 < x < 5, 2 < y < 2. Use the mouse to rotate the axes to better
observe the contour lines (this picture uses a view of azimuth = 65 and elevation = 26).
syms x y
ezmeshc(y/(1 + x^2 + y^2),[-5,5,-2*pi,2*pi])
4-436
ezmeshc
See Also
ezcontour | ezcontourf | ezmesh | ezplot | ezplot3 | ezpolar | ezsurf |

ezsurfc | meshc
4-437
ezplot
Plot symbolic expression, equation, or function
Syntax
ezplot(f)
ezplot(f,[min,max])
ezplot(f,[xmin,xmax,ymin,ymax])
ezplot(f,fign)
ezplot(x,y)
ezplot(x,y,[tmin,tmax])
ezplot(f,figure_handle)
Description
ezplot(f) plots a symbolic expression, equation, or function f. By default, ezplot plots
a univariate expression or function over the range [22] or over a subinterval of this
range. If f is an equation or function of two variables, the default range for both variables
is [22] or over a subinterval of this range.
ezplot(f,[min,max]) plots f over the specified range. If f is a univariate expression or
function, then [min,max] specifies the range for that variable. This is the range along the
abscissa (horizontal axis). If f is an equation or function of two variables, then [min,max]
specifies the range for both variables, that is the ranges along both the abscissa and the
ordinate.
ezplot(f,[xmin,xmax,ymin,ymax]) plots f over the specified ranges along the
abscissa and the ordinate.
ezplot(f,fign) displays the plot in the plot window with the number fign. The title
of each plot window contains the word Figure and the number, for example, Figure 1,
Figure 2, and so on. If the plot window with the number fign is already opened, ezplot
overwrites the content of that window with the new plot.
ezplot(x,y) plots the parametrically defined planar curve x=x(t) and y=y(t) over the
default range 0<=t<=2 or over a subinterval of this range.
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ezplot
ezplot(x,y,[tmin,tmax]) plots x=x(t) and y=y(t) over the specified range

tmin<=t<=tmax.
ezplot(f,figure_handle) plots f in the plot window identified by the handle
figure_handle.
Input Arguments
f
Symbolic expression, equation, or function.
[min,max]
Numbers specifying the plotting range. For a univariate expression or function, the
plotting range applies to that variable. For an equation or function of two variables,
the plotting range applies to both variables. In this case, the range is the same for the
abscissa and the ordinate.
Default: [-2*pi,2*pi] or its subinterval.
[xmin,xmax,ymin,ymax]
Numbers specifying the plotting range along the abscissa (first two numbers) and the
ordinate (last two numbers).
Default: [-2*pi,2*pi,-2*pi,2*pi] or its subinterval.
fign
Number of the figure window where you want to display a plot.
Default: If no plot windows are open, then 1. If one plot window is open, then the
number in the title of that window. If more than one plot window is open, then the
highest number in the titles of open windows.
x,y
Symbolic expressions or functions defining a parametric curve x=x(t) and y=y(t).
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[tmin,tmax]
Numbers specifying the plotting range for a parametric curve.
Default: [0,2*pi] or its subinterval.
figure_handle
Figure handle specifying the plot window in which you create or modify a plot.
Default: Current figure handle returned by gcf.
Examples
Plot Over a Particular Range
Plot the expression erf(x)*sin(x) over the range [,]:
syms x
ezplot(erf(x), [-pi, pi])
4-440
ezplot
Plot Over the Default Range

Plot this equation over the default range.
syms x y
ezplot(x^2 == y^4)
4-441
Plot a Symbolic Function

Create this symbolic function f(x, y):
syms x y
f(x, y) = sin(x + y)*sin(x*y);
Plot this function over the default range:

ezplot(f)
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ezplot
Plot a Parametric Curve

Plot this parametric curve:
syms t
x = t*sin(5*t);
y = t*cos(5*t);
ezplot(x, y)
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More About
Tips
If you do not specify a plot range, ezplot uses the interval [22] as a starting
point. Then it can choose to display a part of the plot over a subinterval of [22]
where the plot has significant variation. Also, when selecting the plotting range,
ezplot omits extreme values associated with singularities.
ezplot open a plot window and displays a plot there. If any plot windows are already
open, ezplot does not create a new window. Instead, it displays the new plot in the
currently active window. (Typically, it is the window with the highest number.) To
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ezplot
display the new plot in a new plot window or in an existing window other than that
with highest number, use fign.
If f is an equation or function of two variables, then the alphabetically first variable
defines the abscissa (horizontal axis) and the other variable defines the ordinate
(vertical axis). Thus, ezplot(x^2 == a^2,[-3,3,-2,2]) creates the plot of the
equation x2=a2 with 3<=a<=3 along the horizontal axis, and 2<=x<=2 along
the vertical axis.
Create Plots
See Also
ezcontour | ezcontourf | ezmesh | ezmeshc | ezplot3 | ezpolar | ezsurf |

ezsurfc | plot
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ezplot3
3-D parametric curve plotter
Syntax
ezplot3(x,y,z)
ezplot3(x,y,z,[tmin,tmax])
ezplot3(...,'animate')
Description
ezplot3(x,y,z) plots the spatial curve x = x(t), y = y(t), and z = z(t) over the default
domain 0<t<2.
ezplot3(x,y,z,[tmin,tmax]) plots the curve x = x(t), y = y(t), and z = z(t) over the
domain tmin < t < tmax.
ezplot3(...,'animate') produces an animated trace of the spatial curve.
Examples
Plot the parametric curve x=sin(t), y=cos(t), z=t over the domain [0,6].
syms t
ezplot3(sin(t), cos(t), t,[0,6*pi])
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ezplot3
See Also
ezcontour | ezcontourf | ezmesh | ezmeshc | ezplot | ezpolar | ezsurf |

ezsurfc | plot3
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ezpolar
Polar coordinate plotter
Syntax
ezpolar(f)
ezpolar(f, [a, b])
Description
ezpolar(f) plots the polar curve r = f() over the default domain 0<<2.
ezpolar(f, [a, b]) plots f for a < < b.
Examples
This example creates a polar plot of the function, 1 + cos(t), over the domain [0,2].
syms t
ezpolar(1 + cos(t))
4-448
ezpolar
4-449
ezsurf
Plot 3-D surface
Syntax
ezsurf(f)
ezsurf(f,[xmin,xmax])
ezsurf(f,[xmin,xmax,ymin,ymax])
ezsurf(x,y,z)
ezsurf(x,y,z,[smin,smax])
ezsurf(x,y,z,[smin,smax,tmin,tmax])
ezsurf( ___ ,n)
ezsurf( ___ ,'circ')
h = ezsurf( ___ )
Description
ezsurf(f) plots a two-variable symbolic expression or function f(x,y) over the range
-2*pi < x < 2*pi, -2*pi < y < 2*pi.
ezsurf(f,[xmin,xmax]) plots f(x,y) over the specified range xmin < x < xmax.
This is the range along the abscissa (horizontal axis).
ezsurf(f,[xmin,xmax,ymin,ymax]) plots f(x,y) over the specified ranges along the
abscissa, xmin < x < xmax, and the ordinate, ymin < y < ymax.
When determining the range values, ezsurf sorts variables alphabetically. For example,
ezsurf(x^2 - a^3, [0,1,3,6]) plots x^2 - a^3 over 0 < a < 1, 3 < x < 6.
ezsurf(x,y,z) plots the parametric surface x = x(s,t), y = y(s,t), z = z(s,t)
over the range -2*pi < s < 2*pi, -2*pi < t < 2*pi.
ezsurf(x,y,z,[smin,smax]) plots the parametric surface x = x(s,t), y =
y(s,t), z = z(s,t) over the specified range smin < s < smax.
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ezsurf
ezsurf(x,y,z,[smin,smax,tmin,tmax]) plots the parametric surface x = x(s,t),

y = y(s,t), z = z(s,t) over the specified ranges smin < s < smax and tmin < t
< tmax.
ezsurf( ___ ,n) specifies the grid. You can specify n after the input arguments in any
of the previous syntaxes. By default, n = 60.
ezsurf( ___ ,'circ') creates the surface plot over a disk centered on the range. You
can specify'circ' after the input arguments in any of the previous syntaxes.
h = ezsurf( ___ ) returns a handle h to the surface plot object. You can use the output
argument h with any of the previous syntaxes.
Examples
Plot a Function Over the Default Range
Plot the symbolic function f(x,y) = real(atan(x + i*y)) over the default range
-2*pi < x < 2*pi, -2*pi < y < 2*pi.
Create the symbolic function.
syms f(x,y)
f(x,y) = real(atan(x + i*y));
Plot this function using ezsurf.

ezsurf(f)
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Specify Plotting Ranges

Plot the symbolic expression x^2 + y^2 over the range -1 < x < 1. Because you do
not specify the range for the y-axis, ezsurf chooses it automatically.
syms x y
ezsurf(x^2 + y^2, [-1, 1])
4-452
ezsurf
Specify the range for both axes.

ezsurf(x^2 + y^2, [-1, 1, -0.5, 1.5])
4-453
Plot a Parameterized Surface

Define the parametric surface x(s,t), y(s,t), z(s,t) as follows.
syms s t
r = 2 + sin(7*s + 5*t);
x = r*cos(s)*sin(t);
y = r*sin(s)*sin(t);
z = r*cos(t);
Plot the function using ezsurf.

ezsurf(x, y, z, [0, 2*pi, 0, pi])
title('Parametric surface')
4-454
ezsurf
To create a smoother plot, increase the number of mesh points.

ezsurf(x, y, z, [0, 2*pi, 0, pi], 120)
title('Parametric surface with grid = 120')
4-455
Specify a Disk Plotting Range

First, plot the expression sin(x^2 + y^2) over the square range -pi/2 < x < pi/2,
-pi/2 < y < pi/2.
syms x y
ezsurf(sin(x^2 + y^2), [-pi/2, pi/2, -pi/2, pi/2])
4-456
ezsurf
Now, plot the same expression over the disk range.

ezsurf(sin(x^2 + y^2), [-pi/2, pi/2, -pi/2, pi/2],'circ')
4-457
Use a Handle to the Surface Plot

Plot the symbolic expression sin(x)cos(x), and assign the result to the handle h.
syms x y
h = ezsurf(sin(x)*cos(y), [-pi, pi])
h =
Surface with properties:
EdgeColor: [0 0 0]
LineStyle: '-'
FaceColor: 'flat'
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ezsurf
FaceLighting:
FaceAlpha:
XData:
YData:
ZData:
CData:
'flat'
1
[60x60
[60x60
[60x60
[60x60
double]
double]
double]
double]
Use GET to show all properties
You can use this handle to change properties of the plot. For example, change the color of
the area outline.
h.EdgeColor = 'red'
4-459
h =
Surface with properties:
EdgeColor:
LineStyle:
FaceColor:
FaceLighting:
FaceAlpha:
XData:
YData:
ZData:
CData:
[1 0 0]
'-'
'flat'
'flat'
1
[60x60 double]
[60x60 double]
[60x60 double]
[60x60 double]
Use GET to show all properties
4-460
ezsurf
Create Plots
Input Arguments
f Function to plot
symbolic expression with two variables | symbolic function of two variables
Function to plot, specified as a symbolic expression or function of two variables.
Example: ezsurf(x^2 + y^2)
x,y,z Parametric function to plot
three symbolic expressions with two variables | three symbolic functions of two variables
4-461
Parametric function to plot, specified as three symbolic expressions or functions of two

variables.
Example: ezsurf(s*cos(t), s*sin(t), t)
n Grid value
integer
Grid value, specified as an integer. The default grid value is 60.
Output Arguments
h Surface plot handle
scalar
Surface plot handle, returned as a scalar. It is a unique identifier, which you can use to
query and modify properties of the surface plot.
More About
Tips
ezsurf chooses the computational grid according to the amount of variation that
occurs. If f is singular for some points on the grid, then ezsurf omits these points.
The value at these points is set to NaN.
See Also
ezcontour | ezcontourf | ezmesh | ezmeshc | ezplot | ezpolar | ezsurfc |

surf
4-462
ezsurfc
ezsurfc
Combined surface and contour plotter
Syntax
ezsurfc(f)
ezsurfc(f,domain)
ezsurfc(x,y,z)
ezsurfc(x,y,z,[smin,smax,tmin,tmax])
ezsurfc(x,y,z,[min,max])
ezsurfc(...,n)
ezsurfc(...,'circ')
Description
ezsurfc(f) creates a graph of f(x,y), where f is a symbolic expression that represents a
plotted.
ezsurfc(f,domain) plots f over the specified domain. domain can be either a 4-by-1
min < y < max).
umin, umax, vmin, and vmax are sorted alphabetically. Thus, ezsurfc(u^2 - v^3,
[0,1],[3,6]) plots u2v3 over 0<u<1, 3<v<6.
ezsurfc(x,y,z) plots the parametric surface x = x(s,t), y = y(s,t), and z = z(s,t) over the
ezsurfc(x,y,z,[smin,smax,tmin,tmax]) or ezsurfc(x,y,z,[min,max]) plots
the parametric surface using the specified domain.
4-463
ezsurfc(...,n) plots f over the default domain using an n-by-n grid. The default value
for n is 60.
ezsurfc(...,'circ') plots f over a disk centered on the domain.
Examples
Create a surface/contour plot of the expression,
f ( x, y) =
y
2
1 + x + y2
over the domain 5 < x < 5, 2 < y < 2, with a computational grid of size 35-by-35. Use
the mouse to rotate the axes to better observe the contour lines (this picture uses a view
of azimuth = -65 and elevation = 26).
syms x y
ezsurfc(y/(1 + x^2 + y^2),[-5,5,-2*pi,2*pi],35)
4-464
ezsurfc
See Also
ezcontour | ezcontourf | ezmesh | ezmeshc | ezplot | ezpolar | ezsurf |

surfc
4-465
factor
Factorization
Syntax
F = factor(x)
F = factor(x,vars)
Description
F = factor(x) returns all irreducible factors of x in vector F. If x is an integer, factor
returns the prime factorization of x. If x is a symbolic expression, factor returns the
subexpressions that are factors of x.
F = factor(x,vars) returns an array of factors F, where vars specifies the variables
of interest. All factors not containing a variable in vars are separated into the first entry
F(1). The other entries are irreducible factors of x that contain one or more variables
from vars.
Examples
Factor an Integer
F = factor(823429252)
F =
2
59
283
12329
To factor integers greater than flintmax, convert the integer to a symbolic object using
sym. Then place the number in quotation marks to represent it accurately.
F = factor(sym('82342925225632328'))
F =
[ 2, 2, 2, 251, 401, 18311, 5584781]
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factor
To factor a negative integer, convert it to a symbolic object using sym.

F = factor(sym(-92465))
F =
[ -1, 5, 18493]
Perform Prime Factorization of a Large Number

Perform prime factorization for 41758540882408627201. Since the integer is greater
than flintmax, convert it to a symbolic object using sym, and place the number in
quotation marks to represent it accurately.
n = sym('41758540882408627201');
factor(n)
ans =
[ 479001599, 87178291199]
Factor a Symbolic Fraction

Factor the fraction 112/81 by converting it into a symbolic object using sym.
F = factor(sym(112/81))
F =
[ 2, 2, 2, 2, 7, 1/3, 1/3, 1/3, 1/3]
Factor a Polynomial
Factor the polynomial x^6-1.
syms x
F = factor(x^6-1)
F =
[ x - 1, x + 1, x^2 + x + 1, x^2 - x + 1]
Factor the polynomial y^6-x^6.

syms y
F = factor(y^6-x^6)
F =
4-467
[ -1, x - y, x + y, x^2 + x*y + y^2, x^2 - x*y + y^2]
Separate Factors Containing Specified Variables

Factor y^2*x^2 for factors containing x.
syms x y
F = factor(y^2*x^2,x)
F =
[ y^2, x, x]
factor combines all factors without x into the first element. The remaining elements of
F contain irreducible factors that contain x.
Factor the polynomial y for factors containing symbolic variables b and c.
syms a b c d
y = -a*b^5*c*d*(a^2 - 1)*(a*d - b*c);
F = factor(y,[b c])
F =
[ -a*d*(a - 1)*(a + 1), b, b, b, b, b, c, a*d - b*c]
factor combines all factors without b or c into the first element of F. The remaining
elements of F contain irreducible factors of y that contain either b or c.
Input Arguments
x Input to factor
number | symbolic number | symbolic expression | symbolic function
Input to factor, specified as a number, or a symbolic number, expression, or function.
vars Variables of interest
symbolic variable | vector of symbolic variables
Variables of interest, specified as a symbolic variable or a vector of symbolic variables.
Factors that do not contain a variable specified in vars are grouped into the first element
of F. The remaining elements of F contain irreducible factors of x that contain a variable
in vars.
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factor
Output Arguments
F Factors of input
symbolic vector
Factors of input, returned as a symbolic vector.
More About
Tips
To factor an integer greater than flintmax, wrap the integer with sym. Then
place the integer in quotation marks to represent it accurately, for example,
sym('465971235659856452').
To factor a negative integer, wrap the integer with sym, for example, sym(-3).
See Also
collect | combine | divisors | expand | horner | numden | rewrite | simplify

| simplifyFraction
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factorial
Factorial function
Syntax
factorial(n)
factorial(A)
Description
factorial(n) returns the factorial of n.
factorial(A) returns the factorials of each element of A.
Input Arguments
n
Symbolic variable or expression representing a nonnegative integer.
A
Vector or matrix of symbolic variables or expressions representing nonnegative integers.
Examples
Compute the factorial function for these expressions:
syms n
f = factorial(n^2 + 1)
f =
factorial(n^2 + 1)
Now substitute the variable n with the value 3:

4-470
factorial
subs(f, n, 3)
ans =
3628800
Differentiate the expression involving the factorial function:

syms n
diff(factorial(n^2 + n + 1))
ans =
factorial(n^2 + n + 1)*psi(n^2 + n + 2)*(2*n + 1)
Expand the expression involving the factorial function:

syms n
expand(factorial(n^2 + n + 1))
ans =
factorial(n^2 + n)*(n^2 + n + 1)
Compute the limit for the expression involving the factorial function:
syms n
limit(factorial(n)/exp(n), n, inf)
ans =
Inf
Call factorial for the matrix A. The result is a matrix of the factorial functions:
A = sym([1 2; 3 4]);
factorial(A)
ans =
[ 1, 2]
[ 6, 24]
More About
Factorial Function
This product defines the factorial function of a positive integer:
4-471
n! =
k
k=1
The factorial function 0!=1.

Tips
Calling factorial for a number that is not a symbolic object invokes the MATLAB
factorial function.
See Also
beta | gamma | nchoosek | psi
4-472
feval
feval
Evaluate MuPAD expressions specifying their arguments
Syntax
result = feval(symengine,F,x1,...,xn)
[result,status] = feval(symengine,F,x1,...,xn)
Description
result = feval(symengine,F,x1,...,xn) evaluates F, which is either a MuPAD
function name or a symbolic object, with arguments x1,...,xn, with result a symbolic
object. If F with the arguments x1,...,xn throws an error in MuPAD, then this syntax
throws an error in MATLAB.
[result,status] = feval(symengine,F,x1,...,xn) lets you catch errors thrown
by MuPAD. This syntax returns the error status in status, and the error message in
result if status is nonzero. If status is 0, result is a symbolic object. Otherwise, result is
a string.
Input Arguments
F
MuPAD function name or symbolic object.
x1,...,xn
Arguments of F.
Output Arguments
result
Symbolic object or string containing a MuPAD error message.
4-473
status
Integer indicating the error status. If F with the arguments x1,...,xn executes without
errors, the error status is 0.
Examples
syms a b c x
p = a*x^2+b*x+c;
feval(symengine,'polylib::discrim', p, x)
ans =
b^2 - 4*a*c
Alternatively, the same calculation based on variables not defined in the MATLAB
workspace is:
feval(symengine,'polylib::discrim', 'a*x^2 + b*x + c', 'x')
ans =
b^2 - 4*a*c
Try using polylib::discrim to compute the discriminant of the following

nonpolynomial expression:
[result, status] = feval(symengine,'polylib::discrim',...
'a*x^2 + b*x + c*ln(x)', 'x')
result =
Error: An arithmetical expression is expected. [normal]
status =
2
Alternatives
evalin lets you evaluate MuPAD expressions without explicitly specifying their
arguments.
4-474
feval
More About
Tips
Results returned by feval can differ from the results that you get using a MuPAD
notebook directly. The reason is that feval sets a lower level of evaluation to achieve
better performance.
feval does not open a MuPAD notebook, and therefore, you cannot use this function
to access MuPAD graphics capabilities.
Evaluations in Symbolic Computations
Level of Evaluation
See Also
evalin | read | symengine
Related Examples
4-475
findDecoupledBlocks
Search for decoupled blocks in systems of equations
Syntax
[eqsBlocks,varsBlocks] = findDecoupledBlocks(eqs,vars)
Description
[eqsBlocks,varsBlocks] = findDecoupledBlocks(eqs,vars) identifies subsets
(blocks) of equations that can be used to define subsets of variables. The number of
variables vars must coincide with the number of equations eqs.
The ith block is the set of equations determining the variables in
vars(varsBlocks{i}). The variables in vars([varsBlocks{1},
,varsBlocks{i-1}]) are determined recursively by the previous blocks of equations.
After you solve the first block of equations for the first block of variables, the second
block of equations, given by eqs(eqsBlocks{2}), defines a decoupled subset of
equations containing only the subset of variables given by the second block of variables,
vars(varsBlock{2}), plus the variables from the first block (these variables are
known at this time). Thus, if a nontrivial block decomposition is possible, you can split
the solution process for a large system of equations involving many variables into several
steps, where each step involves a smaller subsystem.
The number of blocks length(eqsBlocks) coincides with length(varsBlocks).
If length(eqsBlocks) = length(varsBlocks) = 1, then a nontrivial block
decomposition of the equations is not possible.
Examples
Block Lower Triangular Decomposition of DAE System
Compute a block lower triangular decomposition (BLT decomposition) of a symbolic
system of differential algebraic equations (DAEs).
4-476
findDecoupledBlocks
Create the following system of four differential algebraic equations. Here, the symbolic
function calls x1(t), x2(t), x3(t), and x4(t) represent the state variables of the
system. The system also contains symbolic parameters c1, c2, c3, c4, and functions
f(t,x,y) and g(t,x,y).
syms x1(t) x2(t) x3(t) x4(t)
syms c1 c2 c3 c4
syms f(t,x,y) g(t,x,y)
eqs = [c1*diff(x1(t),t)+c2*diff(x3(t),t)==c3*f(t,x1(t),x3(t));...
c2*diff(x1(t),t)+c1*diff(x3(t),t)==c4*g(t,x3(t),x4(t));...
x1(t)==g(t,x1(t),x3(t));...
x2(t)==f(t,x3(t),x4(t))];
vars = [x1(t), x2(t), x3(t), x4(t)];
Use findDecoupledBlocks to find the block structure of the system.

[eqsBlocks, varsBlocks] = findDecoupledBlocks(eqs, vars)
eqsBlocks =
[1x2 double]
[2]
[4]
varsBlocks =
[1x2 double]
[4]
[2]
The first block contains two equations in two variables.

eqs(eqsBlocks{1})
ans =
c1*diff(x1(t), t) + c2*diff(x3(t), t) == c3*f(t, x1(t), x3(t))
x1(t) == g(t, x1(t), x3(t))
vars(varsBlocks{1})
ans =
[ x1(t), x3(t)]
After you solve this block for the variables x1(t), x3(t), you can solve the next block of
equations. This block consists of one equation.
eqs(eqsBlocks{2})
ans =
4-477
c2*diff(x1(t), t) + c1*diff(x3(t), t) == c4*g(t, x3(t), x4(t))
The block involves one variable.

vars(varsBlocks{2})
ans =
x4(t)
After you solve the equation from block 2 for the variable x4(t), the remaining
block of equations, eqs(eqsBlocks{3}), defines the remaining variable,
vars(varsBlocks{3}).
eqs(eqsBlocks{3})
vars(varsBlocks{3})
ans =
x2(t) == f(t, x3(t), x4(t))
ans =
x2(t)
Find the permutations that convert the system to a block lower triangular form.
eqsPerm = [eqsBlocks{:}]
varsPerm = [varsBlocks{:}]
eqsPerm =
1
varsPerm =
1
3
Convert the system to a block lower triangular system of equations.

eqs = eqs(eqsPerm)
vars = vars(varsPerm)
eqs =
c1*diff(x1(t), t) + c2*diff(x3(t), t) ==
x1(t)
c2*diff(x1(t), t) + c1*diff(x3(t), t) ==
x2(t)
vars =
[ x1(t), x3(t), x4(t), x2(t)]
4-478
c3*f(t,
== g(t,
c4*g(t,
== f(t,
x1(t),
x1(t),
x3(t),
x3(t),
x3(t))
x3(t))
x4(t))
x4(t))
findDecoupledBlocks
Find the incidence matrix of the resulting system. The incidence matrix shows that the
system of permuted equations has three diagonal blocks of size 2-by-2, 1-by-1, and 1by-1.
incidenceMatrix(eqs, vars)
ans =
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
1
BLT Decomposition and Solution of Linear System

Find blocks of equations in a linear algebraic system, and then solve the system by
sequentially solving each block of equations starting from the first one.
Create the following system of linear algebraic equations.
syms x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 x6 c1 c2 c3
eqs = [c1*x1 + x3 + x5 == c1 + c2 + 1;...
x1 + x3 + x4 + 2*x6 == 4 + c2;...
x1 + 2*x3 + c3*x5 == 1 + 2*c2 + c3;...
x2 + x3 + x4 + x5 == 2 + c2;...
x1 - c2*x3 + x5 == 2 - c2^2;...
x1 - x3 + x4 - x6 == 1 - c2];
vars = [x1, x2, x3, x4, x5, x6];
Use findDecoupledBlocks to convert the system to a lower triangular form. For this
system, findDecoupledBlocks identifies three blocks of equations and corresponding
variables.
[eqsBlocks, varsBlocks] = findDecoupledBlocks(eqs, vars)
eqsBlocks =
[1x3 double]
[1x2 double]
[4]
varsBlocks =
[1x3 double]
[1x2 double]
[2]
Identify the variables in the first block. This block consists of three equations in three
variables.
4-479
vars(varsBlocks{1})
ans =
[ x1, x3, x5]
Solve the first block of equations for the first block of variables assigning the solutions to
the corresponding variables.
[x1,x3,x5] = solve(eqs(eqsBlocks{1}), vars(varsBlocks{1}))
x1 =
1
x3 =
c2
x5 =
1
Identify the variables in the second block. This block consists of two equations in two
variables.
vars(varsBlocks{2})
ans =
[ x4, x6]
Solve this block of equations assigning the solutions to the corresponding variables.
[x4, x6] = solve(eqs(eqsBlocks{2}), vars(varsBlocks{2}))
x4 =
x3/3 - x1 - c2/3 + 2
x6 =
(2*c2)/3 - (2*x3)/3 + 1
Use subs to evaluate the result for the already known values of variables x1, x3, and x5.
x4 = subs(x4)
x6 = subs(x6)
x4 =
1
x6 =
4-480
findDecoupledBlocks
Identify the variables in the third block. This block consists of one equation in one
variable.
vars(varsBlocks{3})
ans =
x2
Solve this equation assigning the solution to x2.

x2 = solve(eqs(eqsBlocks{3}), vars(varsBlocks{3}))
x2 =
c2 - x3 - x4 - x5 + 2
Use subs to evaluate the result for the already known values of all other variables of this
system.
x2 = subs(x2)
x2 =
0
Alternatively, you can rewrite this example using the for-loop. This approach lets you
use the example for larger systems of equations.
syms x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 x6 c1 c2 c3
eqs = [c1*x1 + x3 + x5 == c1 + c2 + 1;...
x1 + x3 + x4 + 2*x6 == 4 + c2;...
x1 + 2*x3 + c3*x5 == 1 + 2*c2 + c3;...
x2 + x3 + x4 + x5 == 2 + c2;...
x1 - c2*x3 + x5 == 2 - c2^2
x1 - x3 + x4 - x6 == 1 - c2];
vars = [x1, x2, x3, x4, x5, x6];
[eqsBlocks, varsBlocks] = findDecoupledBlocks(eqs, vars);
vars_sol = vars;
for i = 1:numel(eqsBlocks)
sol = solve(eqs(eqsBlocks{i}), vars(varsBlocks{i}));
4-481
vars_sol_per_block = subs(vars(varsBlocks{i}), sol);

for k=1:i-1
vars_sol_per_block = subs(vars_sol_per_block, vars(varsBlocks{k}),...
vars_sol(varsBlocks{k}));
end
vars_sol(varsBlocks{i}) = vars_sol_per_block
end
vars_sol =
[ 1, x2, c2, x4, 1, x6]
vars_sol =
[ 1, x2, c2, 1, 1, 1]
vars_sol =
[ 1, 0, c2, 1, 1, 1]
Input Arguments
eqs System of equations
System of equations, specified as a vector of symbolic equations or expressions.
vars Variables
vector of symbolic variables | vector of symbolic functions | vector of symbolic function
calls
Variables, specified as a vector of symbolic variables, functions, or function calls, such as
x(t).
Output Arguments
eqsBlocks Indices defining blocks of equations
cell array
Indices defining blocks of equations, returned as a cell array. Each block of indices
is a row vector of double-precision integer numbers. The ith block of equations
4-482
findDecoupledBlocks
consists of the equations eqs(eqsBlocks{i}) and involves only the variables in

vars(varsBlocks{1:i}).
varsBlocks Indices defining blocks of variables
cell array
Indices defining blocks of variables, returned as a cell array. Each block of indices
is a row vector of double-precision integer numbers. The ith block of equations
consists of the equations eqs(eqsBlocks{i}) and involves only the variables in
vars(varsBlocks{1:i}).
More About
Tips
The implemented algorithm requires that for each variable in vars there must be at
least one matching equation in eqs involving this variable. The same equation cannot
also be matched to another variable. If the system does not satisfy this condition, then
findDecoupledBlocks throws an error. In particular, findDecoupledBlocks
requires that length(eqs) = length(vars).
Applying the permutations e = [eqsBlocks{:}] to the vector eqs and
v = [varsBlocks{:}] to the vector vars produces an incidence matrix
incidenceMatrix(eqs(e), vars(v)) that has a block lower triangular sparsity
pattern.
See Also
daeFunction | decic | diag | incidenceMatrix | isLowIndexDAE

| massMatrixForm | reduceDAEIndex | reduceDAEToODE |
reduceDifferentialOrder | reduceRedundancies | tril | triu
4-483
finverse
Functional inverse
Syntax
g = finverse(f)
g = finverse(f,var)
Description
g = finverse(f) returns the inverse of function f. Here f is an expression or function
of one symbolic variable, for example, x. Then g is an expression or function, such that
1
1
f(g(x)) = x. That is, finverse(f) returns f , provided f exists.
g = finverse(f,var) uses the symbolic variable var as the independent variable.
Then g is an expression or function, such that f(g(var)) = var. Use this form when f
contains more than one symbolic variable.
Input Arguments
f
Symbolic expression or function.
var
Symbolic variable.
Output Arguments
g
4-484
finverse
Examples
Compute functional inverse for this trigonometric function:
syms x
f(x) = 1/tan(x);
g = finverse(f)
g(x) =
atan(1/x)
Compute functional inverse for this exponent function:

syms u v
finverse(exp(u - 2*v), u)
ans =
2*v + log(u)
More About
Tips
finverse does not issue a warning when the inverse is not unique.
See Also
compose | syms
4-485
fix
Round toward zero
Syntax
fix(X)
Description
fix(X) is the matrix of the integer parts of X.
fix(X) = floor(X) if X is positive and ceil(X) if X is negative.
See Also
round | ceil | floor | frac
4-486
floor
floor
Round symbolic matrix toward negative infinity
Syntax
floor(X)
Description
floor(X) is the matrix of the greatest integers less than or equal to X.
Examples
x = sym(-5/2);
ans =
[ -2, -3, -3, -2, -1/2]
See Also
round | ceil | fix | frac
4-487
formula
Mathematical expression defining symbolic function
Syntax
formula(f)
Description
formula(f) returns the mathematical expression that defines f.
Input Arguments
f
Symbolic function.
Examples
syms x y
f(x, y) = x + y;
Use formula to find the mathematical expression that defines f:

formula(f)
ans =
x + y

syms f(x, y)
If you do not specify a mathematical expression for the symbolic function, formula
returns the symbolic function definition as follows:
4-488
formula
formula(f)
ans =
f(x, y)
See Also
argnames | sym | syms | symvar
4-489
fortran
Fortran representation of symbolic expression
Syntax
fortran(S)
fortran(S,'file',fileName)
Description
fortran(S) returns the Fortran code equivalent to the expression S.
fortran(S,'file',fileName) writes an optimized Fortran code fragment that
evaluates the symbolic expression S to the file named fileName. Optimized means
intermediate variables are automatically generated in order to simplify the code.
MATLAB generates intermediate variables as a lowercase letter t followed by an
automatically generated number, for example t32.
Examples
The statements
syms x
fortran(f)
return
ans =
t0 = x-x**2*(1.0D0/2.0D0)+x**3*(1.0D0/3.0D0)-x**4*(1.0D0/4.0D0)+x*
&*5*(1.0D0/5.0D0)
The statements
H = sym(hilb(3));
fortran(H)
return
4-490
fortran
ans =
H(1,1)
H(1,2)
H(1,3)
H(2,1)
H(2,2)
H(2,3)
H(3,1)
H(3,2)
H(3,3)
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
1.0D0
1.0D0/2.0D0
1.0D0/3.0D0
1.0D0/2.0D0
1.0D0/3.0D0
1.0D0/4.0D0
1.0D0/3.0D0
1.0D0/4.0D0
1.0D0/5.0D0
The statements
syms x
z = exp(-exp(-x));
fortran(diff(z,3),'file','fortrantest')
return a file named fortrantest containing the following:

t7 = exp(-x)
t8 = exp(-t7)
t0 = t8*exp(x*(-2))*(-3)+t8*exp(x*(-3))+t7*t8
See Also
ccode | latex | matlabFunction | pretty
4-491
fourier
Fourier transform
Syntax
fourier(f,trans_var,eval_point)
Description
fourier(f,trans_var,eval_point) computes the Fourier transform of f with
respect to the transformation variable trans_var at the point eval_point.
Input Arguments
f
Symbolic expression, symbolic function, or vector or matrix of symbolic expressions or
functions.
trans_var
Symbolic variable representing the transformation variable. This variable is often called
the time variable or the space variable.
Default: The variable x. If f does not contain x, then the default variable is determined
by symvar.
eval_point
Symbolic variable, expression, vector or matrix representing the evaluation point. This
variable is often called the frequency variable.
Default: The variable w. If w is the transformation variable of f, then the default
evaluation point is the variable v.
4-492
fourier
Examples
Compute the Fourier transform of this expression with respect to the variable x at the
evaluation point y:
syms x y
f = exp(-x^2);
fourier(f, x, y)
ans =
pi^(1/2)*exp(-y^2/4)
Compute the Fourier transform of this expression calling the fourier function with
one argument. If you do not specify the transformation variable, then fourier uses the
variable x.
syms x t y
f = exp(-x^2)*exp(-t^2);
fourier(f, y)
ans =
pi^(1/2)*exp(-t^2)*exp(-y^2/4)
If you also do not specify the evaluation point, fourier uses the variable w:
fourier(f)
ans =
pi^(1/2)*exp(-t^2)*exp(-w^2/4)
Compute the following Fourier transforms that involve the Dirac and Heaviside
functions:
syms t w
fourier(t^3, t, w)
ans =
-pi*dirac(3, w)*2*i
syms t0
fourier(heaviside(t - t0), t, w)
ans =
exp(-t0*w*i)*(pi*dirac(w) - i/w)
4-493
If fourier cannot find an explicit representation of the transform, it returns an

unevaluated call:
syms f(t) w
F = fourier(f, t, w)
F =
fourier(f(t), t, w)
ifourier returns the original expression:

ifourier(F, w, t)
ans =
f(t)
For further computations, remove the assumption on variable x:

syms x clear
The Fourier transform of a function is related to the Fourier transform of its derivative:
syms f(t) w
fourier(diff(f(t), t), t, w)
ans =
w*fourier(f(t), t, w)*i
Find the fourier transform of this matrix. Use matrices of the same size to specify the
transformation variable and evaluation point.
syms a b c d w x y z
fourier([exp(x), 1; sin(y), i*z],[w, x; y, z],[a, b; c, d])
ans =
[
2*pi*exp(x)*dirac(a),
2*pi*dirac(b)]
[ -pi*(dirac(c - 1) - dirac(c + 1))*i, -2*pi*dirac(1, d)]
When the input arguments are nonscalars, fourier acts on them element-wise. If
fourier is called with both scalar and nonscalar arguments, then fourier expands
the scalar arguments into arrays of the same size as the nonscalar arguments with all
elements of the array equal to the scalar.
syms w x y z a b c d
fourier(x,[x, w; y, z],[a, b; c, d])
4-494
fourier
ans =
[ pi*dirac(1, a)*2*i, 2*pi*x*dirac(b)]
[
2*pi*x*dirac(c), 2*pi*x*dirac(d)]
Note that nonscalar input arguments must have the same size.
When the first argument is a symbolic function, the second argument must be a scalar.
syms f1(x) f2(x) a b
f1(x) = exp(x);
f2(x) = x;
fourier([f1, f2],x,[a, b])
ans =
[ fourier(exp(x), x, a), pi*dirac(1, b)*2*i]
More About
Fourier Transform
The Fourier transform of the expression f=f(x) with respect to the variable x at the point
w is defined as follows:
F ( w) = c
f ( x) eiswx dx.
Here, c and s are parameters of the Fourier transform. The fourier function uses c=1,
s=1.
Tips
If you call fourier with two arguments, it assumes that the second argument is the
evaluation point eval_point.
If f is a matrix, fourier acts element-wise on all components of the matrix.
If eval_point is a matrix, fourier acts element-wise on all components of the matrix.
To compute the inverse Fourier transform, use ifourier.

4-495
References
Oberhettinger F., Tables of Fourier Transforms and Fourier Transforms of
Distributions, Springer, 1990.
See Also
ifourier | ilaplace | iztrans | laplace | ztrans
4-496
frac
frac
Symbolic matrix element-wise fractional parts
Syntax
frac(X)
Description
frac(X) is the matrix of the fractional parts of the elements: frac(X) = X - fix(X).
Examples
x = sym(-5/2);
ans =
[ -2, -3, -3, -2, -1/2]
See Also
round | ceil | floor | fix
4-497
fresnelc
Fresnel cosine integral function
Syntax
fresnelc(z)
Description
fresnelc(z) returns the Fresnel cosine integral of z.
Examples
Fresnel Cosine Integral Function for Numeric and Symbolic Input
Arguments
Find the Fresnel cosine integral function for these numbers. Since these are not symbolic
objects, you receive floating-point results.
fresnelc([-2 0.001 1.22+0.31i])
ans =
-0.4883 + 0.0000i
0.0010 + 0.0000i
0.8617 - 0.2524i
Find the Fresnel cosine integral function symbolically by converting the numbers to
symbolic objects:
y = fresnelc(sym([-2 0.001 1.22+0.31i]))
y =
[ -fresnelc(2), fresnelc(1/1000), fresnelc(61/50 + (31*i)/100)]
Use vpa to approximate results:

vpa(y)
ans =
[ -0.48825340607534075450022350335726, 0.00099999999999975325988997279422003,...
0.86166573430841730950055370401908 - 0.25236540291386150167658349493972*i]
4-498
fresnelc
Fresnel Cosine Integral Function for Special Values

Find the Fresnel cosine integral function for special values:
fresnelc([0 Inf -Inf i*Inf -i*Inf])
ans =
0.0000 + 0.0000i
0.5000 + 0.0000i -0.5000 + 0.0000i...
0.0000 + 0.5000i
0.0000 - 0.5000i
Fresnel Cosine Integral for a Symbolic Function

Find the Fresnel cosine integral for the function exp(x) + 2*x:
syms f(x)
f = exp(x)+2*x;
fresnelc(f)
ans =
fresnelc(2*x + exp(x))
Fresnel Cosine Integral for Symbolic Vectors and Arrays

Find the Fresnel cosine integral for elements of vector V and matrix M:
syms x
V = [sin(x) 2i -7];
M = [0 2; i exp(x)];
fresnelc(V)
fresnelc(M)
ans =
[ fresnelc(sin(x)), fresnelc(2*i), -fresnelc(7)]
ans =
[
0,
fresnelc(2)]
[ fresnelc(i), fresnelc(exp(x))]
Plot the Fresnel Cosine Integral Function

Plot the Fresnel cosine integral function from x = -5 to x = 5:
syms x
ezplot(fresnelc(x),[-5,5])
4-499
grid on
Differentiate and Find Limits of Fresnel Cosine Integral

The functions diff and limit handle expressions containing fresnelc.
Find the third derivative of the Fresnel cosine integral function:
syms x
diff(fresnelc(x),x,3)
ans =
- pi*sin((pi*x^2)/2) - pi^2*x^2*cos((pi*x^2)/2)
Find the limit of the Fresnel cosine integral function as x tends to infinity:
4-500
fresnelc
syms x
limit(fresnelc(x),Inf)
ans =
1/2
Taylor Series Expansion of Fresnel Cosine Integral

Use taylor to expand the Fresnel cosine integral in terms of the Taylor series:
syms x
taylor(fresnelc(x))
ans =
x - (pi^2*x^5)/40
Simplify Expressions Containing fresnelc

Use simplify to simplify expressions:
syms x
simplify(3*fresnelc(x)+2*fresnelc(-x))
ans =
fresnelc(x)
Input Arguments
z Upper limit on Fresnel cosine integral
numeric value | vector | matrix | N-D array | symbolic variable | symbolic expression |
symbolic vector | symbolic matrix | symbolic function
Upper limit on the Fresnel cosine integral, specified as a numeric value, vector, matrix,
or as N-D array, or a symbolic variable, expression, vector, matrix, or function.
More About
Fresnel Cosine Integral
The Fresnel cosine integral of z is
4-501
fresnelc ( z ) =
p t2
dt.
2
0 cos
Algorithms
fresnelc is analytic throughout the complex plane. It satisfies fresnelc(-z) = -fresnelc(z),
conj(fresnelc(z)) = fresnelc(conj(z)), and fresnelc(i*z) = i*fresnelc(z) for all complex values
of z.
fresnelc returns special values for z = 0, z = , and z = i which are 0, 5, and 0.5i.
fresnelc(z) returns symbolic function calls for all other symbolic values of z.
See Also
erf | fresnels
4-502
fresnels
fresnels
Fresnel sine integral function
Syntax
fresnels(z)
Description
fresnels(z) returns the Fresnel sine integral of z.
Examples
Fresnel Sine Integral Function for Numeric and Symbolic Arguments
Find the Fresnel sine integral function for these numbers. Since these are not symbolic
objects, you receive floating-point results.
fresnels([-2 0.001 1.22+0.31i])
ans =
-0.3434 + 0.0000i
0.0000 + 0.0000i
0.7697 + 0.2945i
Find the Fresnel sine integral function symbolically by converting the numbers to
symbolic objects:
y = fresnels(sym([-2 0.001 1.22+0.31i]))
y =
[ -fresnels(2), fresnels(1/1000), fresnels(61/50 + (31*i)/100)]
Use vpa to approximate the results:

vpa(y)
ans =
[ -0.34341567836369824219530081595807, 0.00000000052359877559820659249174920261227,...
0.76969209233306959998384249252902 + 0.29449530344285433030167256417637*i]
4-503
Fresnel Sine Integral for Special Values

Find the Fresnel sine integral function for special values:
fresnels([0 Inf -Inf i*Inf -i*Inf])
ans =
0.0000 + 0.0000i
0.5000 + 0.0000i
0.0000 + 0.5000i
-0.5000 + 0.0000i
0.0000 - 0.5000i...
Fresnel Sine Integral for a Symbolic Function

Find the Fresnel sine integral for the function exp(x) + 2*x:
syms x
f = symfun(exp(x)+2*x,x);
fresnels(f)
ans(x) =
fresnels(2*x + exp(x))
Fresnel Sine Integral for Symbolic Vectors and Arrays

Find the Fresnel sine integral for elements of vector V and matrix M:
syms x
V = [sin(x) 2i -7];
M = [0 2; i exp(x)];
fresnels(V)
fresnels(M)
ans =
[ fresnels(sin(x)), fresnels(2*i), -fresnels(7)]
ans =
[
0,
fresnels(2)]
[ fresnels(i), fresnels(exp(x))]
Fresnel Sine Integral Function

Plot the Fresnel sine integral function from x = -5 to x = 5.
syms x
ezplot(fresnels(x),[-5,5])
4-504
fresnels
grid on
Differentiate and Find Limits of Fresnel Sine Integral

The functions diff and limit handle expressions containing fresnels.
Find the fourth derivative of the Fresnel sine integral function:
syms x
diff(fresnels(x),x,4)
ans =
- 3*pi^2*x*sin((pi*x^2)/2) - pi^3*x^3*cos((pi*x^2)/2)
Find the limit of the Fresnel sine integral function as x tends to infinity:
4-505
syms x
limit(fresnels(x),Inf)
ans =
1/2
Taylor Series Expansion of Fresnel Sine Integral

Use taylor to expand the Fresnel sine integral in terms of the Taylor series:
syms x
taylor(fresnels(x))
ans =
(pi*x^3)/6
Simplify Expressions Containing fresnels

Use simplify to simplify expressions:
syms x
simplify(3*fresnels(x)+2*fresnels(-x))
ans =
fresnels(x)
Input Arguments
z Upper limit on the Fresnel sine integral
numeric value | vector | matrix | N-D array | symbolic variable | symbolic expression |
symbolic vector | symbolic matrix | symbolic function
Upper limit on the Fresnel sine integral, specified as a numeric value, vector, matrix, or
N-D array or as a symbolic variable, expression, vector, matrix, or function.
More About
Fresnel Sine Integral
The Fresnel sine integral of z is
4-506
fresnels
fresnels( z) =
p t2
sin
2
0
dt
.
Algorithms
The fresnels(z) function is analytic throughout the complex plane. It satisfies
fresnels(-z) = -fresnels(z), conj(fresnels(z)) = fresnels(conj(z)), and fresnels(i*z) = i*fresnels(z) for all complex values of z.
fresnels(z) returns special values for z = 0, z = , and z = i which are 0, 5, and
0.5i. fresnels(z) returns symbolic function calls for all other symbolic values of z.
See Also
erf | fresnelc
4-507
funm
General matrix function
Syntax
F = funm(A,f)
Description
F = funm(A,f) computes the function f(A) for the square matrix A. For details, see
Matrix Function on page 4-512.
Examples
Matrix Cube Root
Find matrix B, such that B = A, where A is a 3-by-3 identity matrix.
3
To solve B = A, compute the cube root of the matrix A using the funm function. Create
the symbolic function f(x) = x^(1/3) and use it as the second argument for funm. The
cube root of an identity matrix is the identity matrix itself.
3
A = sym(eye(3))
syms f(x)
f(x) = x^(1/3);
B = funm(A,f)
A
[
[
[
=
1, 0, 0]
0, 1, 0]
0, 0, 1]
B =
[ 1, 0, 0]
4-508
funm
[ 0, 1, 0]
[ 0, 0, 1]
Replace one of the 0 elements of matrix A with 1 and compute the matrix cube root again.
A(1,2) = 1
B = funm(A,f)
A
[
[
[
=
1, 1, 0]
0, 1, 0]
0, 0, 1]
B
[
[
[
=
1, 1/3, 0]
0,
1, 0]
0,
0, 1]
Now, compute the cube root of the upper triangular matrix.

A(1:2,2:3) = 1
B = funm(A,f)
A
[
[
[
=
1, 1, 1]
0, 1, 1]
0, 0, 1]
B
[
[
[
=
1, 1/3, 2/9]
0,
1, 1/3]
0,
0,
1]
Verify that B = A.
3
B^3
ans =
[ 1, 1, 1]
[ 0, 1, 1]
[ 0, 0, 1]
Matrix Lambert W Function

Find the matrix Lambert W function.
4-509
First, create a 3-by-3 matrix A using variable-precision arithmetic with five digit
accuracy. In this example, using variable-precision arithmetic instead of exact symbolic
numbers lets you speed up computations and decrease memory usage. Using only five
digits helps the result to fit on screen.
savedefault = digits(5)
A = vpa(magic(3))
Create the symbolic function f(x) = lambertw(x).

syms f(x)
f(x) = lambertw(x);
To find the Lambert W function (W0 branch) in a matrix sense, callfunm using f(x) as its
second argument.
W0 = funm(A,f)
W0 =
[ 1.5335 + 0.053465*i, 0.11432 + 0.47579*i, 0.36208 - 0.52925*i]
[ 0.21343 + 0.073771*i, 1.3849 + 0.65649*i, 0.41164 - 0.73026*i]
[ 0.26298 - 0.12724*i, 0.51074 - 1.1323*i,
1.2362 + 1.2595*i]
Verify that this result is a solution of the matrix equation A = W0e

specified accuracy.
W0
within the
W0*expm(W0)
ans =
[ 8.0 - 2.2737e-13*i, 1.0 - 9.0949e-13*i, 6.0 + 6.8212e-13*i]
[ 3.0 - 3.4106e-13*i, 5.0 + 4.5475e-13*i, 7.0 - 1.1369e-13*i]
[ 4.0 + 4.5475e-13*i, 9.0 - 4.5475e-13*i, 2.0 + 4.5475e-13*i]
Now, create the symbolic function f(x) representing the branch W-1 of the Lambert W
function.
f(x) = lambertw(-1,x);
Find the W-1 branch for the matrix A.

Wm1 = funm(A,f)
Wm1 =
[
0.40925 - 4.7154*i, 0.54204 + 0.5947*i, 0.13764 - 0.80906*i]
[ 0.38028 + 0.033194*i, 0.65189 - 3.8732*i, 0.056763 - 1.0898*i]
[
0.2994 - 0.24756*i, - 0.105 - 1.6513*i, 0.89453 - 3.0309*i]
4-510
funm
Verify that this result is the solution of the matrix equation A = Wm1e
specified accuracy.
Wm1
within the
Wm1*expm(Wm1)
ans =
[ 8.0 + 5.6417e-12*i, 1.0 - 1.5064e-12*i, 6.0 + 8.2423e-13*i]
[ 3.0 - 3.4106e-13*i, 5.0 - 2.558e-13*i, 7.0 - 7.3896e-13*i]
[ 4.0 + 5.6843e-14*i, 9.0 - 9.3081e-13*i, 2.0 - 1.1369e-13*i]
Matrix Exponential, Logarithm, and Square Root

You can use funm with appropriate second arguments to find matrix exponential,
logarithm, and square root. However, the more efficient approach is to use the functions
expm, logm, and sqrtm for this task.
Create this square matrix and find its exponential, logarithm, and square root.
syms x
A = [1 -1; 0 x]
expA = expm(A)
logA = logm(A)
sqrtA = sqrtm(A)
A =
[ 1, -1]
[ 0, x]
expA =
[ exp(1), (exp(1) - exp(x))/(x - 1)]
[
0,
exp(x)]
logA =
[ 0, -log(x)/(x - 1)]
[ 0,
log(x)]
sqrtA =
[ 1, 1/(x - 1) - x^(1/2)/(x - 1)]
[ 0,
x^(1/2)]
Find the matrix exponential, logarithm, and square root of A using funm. Use the
symbolic expressions exp(x), log(x), and sqrt(x) as the second argument of funm.
The results are identical.
4-511
expA = funm(A,exp(x))
logA = funm(A,log(x))
sqrtA = funm(A,sqrt(x))
expA =
[ exp(1), exp(1)/(x - 1) - exp(x)/(x - 1)]
[
0,
exp(x)]
logA =
[ 0, -log(x)/(x - 1)]
[ 0,
log(x)]
sqrtA =
[ 1, 1/(x - 1) - x^(1/2)/(x - 1)]
[ 0,
x^(1/2)]
Input Arguments
A Input matrix
square matrix
Input matrix, specified as a square symbolic or numeric matrix.
f Function
symbolic function | symbolic expression
Function, specified as a symbolic function or expression.
Output Arguments
F Resulting matrix
symbolic matrix
More About
Matrix Function
Matrix function is a scalar function that maps one matrix to another.
4-512
funm
Suppose, f(x), where x is a scalar, has a Taylor series expansion. Then the matrix
function f(A), where A is a matrix, is defined by the Taylor series of f(A), with addition
and multiplication performed in the matrix sense.
If A can be represented as A = PDP , where D is a diagonal matrix, such that
-1
d1 L 0
D= M O M
0 L d
n
then the matrix function f(A) can be computed as follows:
f ( d1 ) L
0
f ( A) = P M
O
M P -1
0
L f ( dn )
Non-diagonalizable matrices can be represented as A = PJP , where J is a Jordan

form of the matrix A. Then, the matrix function f(A) can be computed by using the
following definition on each Jordan block:
-1
0
f M
M
0
1
O
O
O
L
0
O
O
O
L
L
O
O
O
0
f (l )
0!
0 0
0 = M

1
M
l
f (l )
1!
O
O
O
L
f (l )
f n-1 ( l )
L
(n - 1)!
2!
O
O
M
f ( l )
O
O
2!
f (l )
O
O
1!
f (l )
L
0
0!
Tips
For compatibility with the MATLAB funm function, funm accepts the following
arguments:
Function handles such as @exp and @sin, as its second input argument.
4-513
The options input argument, such as funm(A,f,options).

Additional input arguments of the function f, such as
funm(A,f,options,p1,p2,...)
The exitflag output argument, such as [F,exitflag] = funm(A,f). Here,
exitflag is 1 only if the funm function call errors, for example, if it encounters a
division by zero. Otherwise, exitflag is 0.
For more details and a list of all acceptable function handles, see the MATLAB funm
function.
If the input matrix A is numeric (not a symbolic object) and the second argument f is a
function handle, then the funm call invokes the MATLAB funm function.
See Also
eig | expm | jordan | logm | sqrtm
4-514
funtool
funtool
Function calculator
Syntax
funtool
Description
funtool is a visual function calculator that manipulates and displays functions of one
variable. At the click of a button, for example, funtool draws a graph representing the
sum, product, difference, or ratio of two functions that you specify. funtool includes a
function memory that allows you to store functions for later retrieval.
At startup, funtool displays graphs of a pair of functions, f(x) = x and g(x) = 1.
The graphs plot the functions over the domain [-2*pi, 2*pi]. funtool also displays a
control panel that lets you save, retrieve, redefine, combine, and transform f and g.
4-515
Text Fields
The top of the control panel contains a group of editable text fields.
4-516
f=
Displays a symbolic expression representing f. Edit this field to

redefine f.
g=
Displays a symbolic expression representing g. Edit this field to

redefine g.
x=
Displays the domain used to plot f and g. Edit this field to specify
a different domain.
funtool
a=
Displays a constant factor used to modify f (see button

descriptions in the next section). Edit this field to change the value
of the constant factor.
funtool redraws f and g to reflect any changes you make to the contents of the control
panel's text fields.
Control Buttons
The bottom part of the control panel contains an array of buttons that transform f and
perform other operations.
The first row of control buttons replaces f with various transformations of f.
df/dx
Derivative of f
int f
Integral of f
simplify f
Simplified form of f, if possible
num f
Numerator of f
den f
Denominator of f
1/f
Reciprocal of f
finv
Inverse of f
The operators int f and finv can fail if the corresponding symbolic expressions do not
exist in closed form.
The second row of buttons translates and scales f and the domain of f by a constant
factor. To specify the factor, enter its value in the field labeled a= on the calculator
control panel. The operations are
f+a
Replaces f(x) by f(x) + a.
f-a
Replaces f(x) by f(x) - a.
f*a
Replaces f(x) by f(x) * a.
f/a
Replaces f(x) by f(x) / a.
fâ
Replaces f(x) by f(x) ^ a.
f(x+a)
Replaces f(x) by f(x + a).
f(x*a)
Replaces f(x) by f(x * a).

4-517
The first four buttons of the third row replace f with a combination of f and g.
f+g
Replaces f(x) by f(x) + g(x).
f-g
Replaces f(x) by f(x)-g(x).
f*g
Replaces f(x) by f(x) * g(x).
f/g
Replaces f(x) by f(x) / g(x).
The remaining buttons on the third row interchange f and g.

g=f
Replaces g with f.
swap
Replaces f with g and g with f.
The first three buttons in the fourth row allow you to store and retrieve functions from
the calculator's function memory.
Insert
Adds f to the end of the list of stored functions.
Cycle
Replaces f with the next item on the function list.
Delete
Deletes f from the list of stored functions.
The other four buttons on the fourth row perform miscellaneous functions:
Reset
Resets the calculator to its initial state.
Help
Displays the online help for the calculator.
Demo
Runs a short demo of the calculator.
Close
Closes the calculator's windows.
See Also
ezplot | syms
4-518
gamma
gamma
Gamma function
Syntax
gamma(X)
Description
gamma(X) returns the gamma function of a symbolic variable or symbolic expression X.
Examples
Gamma Function for Numeric and Symbolic Arguments
Depending on its arguments, gamma returns floating-point or exact symbolic results.
Compute the gamma function for these numbers. Because these numbers are not
A = gamma([-11/3, -7/5, -1/2, 1/3, 1, 4])
A =
0.2466
2.6593
-3.5449
2.6789
1.0000
6.0000
Compute the gamma function for the numbers converted to symbolic objects. For many
symbolic (exact) numbers, gamma returns unresolved symbolic calls.
symA = gamma(sym([-11/3, -7/5, -1/2, 1/3, 1, 4]))
symA =
[ (27*pi*3^(1/2))/(440*gamma(2/3)), gamma(-7/5),...
-2*pi^(1/2), (2*pi*3^(1/2))/(3*gamma(2/3)), 1, 6]

4-519
vpa(symA)
ans =
[ 0.24658411512650858900694446388517,...
2.6592718728800305399898810505738,...
-3.5449077018110320545963349666823,...
2.6789385347077476336556929409747,...
1.0, 6.0]
Plot the Gamma Function

Plot the gamma function and add grid lines.
syms x
ezplot(gamma(x)); grid on
4-520
gamma
Handle Expressions Containing the Gamma Function

Many functions, such as diff, limit, and simplify, can handle expressions containing
gamma.
Differentiate the gamma function, and then substitute the variable t with the value 1:
syms t
u = diff(gamma(t^3 + 1))
u1 = subs(u, t, 1)
u =
3*t^2*gamma(t^3 + 1)*psi(t^3 + 1)
4-521
u1 =
3 - 3*eulergamma
Approximate the result using vpa:

vpa(u1)
ans =
1.2683530052954014181804637297528
Compute the limit of the following expression that involves the gamma function:
syms x
limit(x/gamma(x), x, inf)
ans =
0
Simplify the following expression:

syms x
simplify(gamma(x)*gamma(1 - x))
ans =
pi/sin(pi*x)
Input Arguments
X Input
Input, specified as symbolic number, variable, expression, function, or as a vector or
More About
Gamma Function
The following integral defines the gamma function:
4-522
gamma
( z ) = tz 1 et dt.
0
See Also
beta | factorial | gammaln | nchoosek | pochhammer | psi
4-523
gammaln
Logarithmic gamma function
Syntax
gammaln(X)
Description
gammaln(X) returns the logarithmic gamma function for each element of X.
Examples
Logarithmic Gamma Function for Numeric and Symbolic Arguments
Depending on its arguments, gammaln returns floating-point or exact symbolic results.
Compute the logarithmic gamma function for these numbers. Because these numbers are
not symbolic objects, you get floating-point results.
A = gammaln([1/5, 1/2, 2/3, 8/7, 3])
A =
1.5241
0.5724
0.3032
-0.0667
0.6931
Compute the logarithmic gamma function for the numbers converted to symbolic objects.
For many symbolic (exact) numbers, gammaln returns results in terms of the gammaln,
log, and gamma functions.
symA = gammaln(sym([1/5, 1/2, 2/3, 8/7, 3]))
symA =
[ gammaln(1/5), log(pi^(1/2)), gammaln(2/3),...
log(gamma(1/7)/7), log(2)]

4-524
gammaln
vpa(symA)
ans =
[ 1.5240638224307845248810564939263,...
0.57236494292470008707171367567653,...
0.30315027514752356867586281737201,...
-0.066740877459477468649396334098109,...
0.69314718055994530941723212145818]
Definition of the Logarithmic Gamma Function on the Complex Plane

gammaln is defined for all complex arguments, except negative infinity.
Compute the logarithmic gamma function for positive integer arguments. For such
arguments, the logarithmic gamma function is defined as the natural logarithm of the
gamma function, gammaln(x) = log(gamma(x)).
pos = gammaln(sym([1/4, 1/3, 1, 5, Inf]))
pos =
[ log((pi*2^(1/2))/gamma(3/4)), log((2*pi*3^(1/2))/(3*gamma(2/3))), 0, log(24), Inf]
Compute the logarithmic gamma function for nonpositive integer arguments. For
nonpositive integers, gammaln returns Inf.
nonposint = gammaln(sym([0, -1, -2, -5, -10]))
nonposint =
[ Inf, Inf, Inf, Inf, Inf]
Compute the logarithmic gamma function for complex and negative rational arguments.
For these arguments, gammaln returns unresolved symbolic calls.
complex = gammaln(sym([i, -1 + 2*i , -2/3, -10/3]))
complex =
[ gammaln(i), gammaln(- 1 + 2*i), gammaln(-2/3), gammaln(-10/3)]

vpa(complex)
ans =
[ - 0.65092319930185633888521683150395 - 1.8724366472624298171188533494366*i,...
- 3.3739449232079248379476073664725 - 3.4755939462808110432931921583558*i,...
1.3908857550359314511651871524423 - 3.1415926535897932384626433832795*i,...
- 0.93719017334928727370096467598178 - 12.566370614359172953850573533118*i]
4-525
Compute the logarithmic gamma function of negative infinity:

gammaln(sym(-Inf))
ans =
NaN
Plot the Logarithmic Gamma Function

Plot the logarithmic gamma function on the interval from 0 to 10.
syms x
ezplot(gammaln(x), 0, 10)
grid on
4-526
gammaln
To see the negative values better, plot the same function on the interval from 1 to 2.
ezplot(gammaln(x), 1, 2)
grid on
Handle Expressions Containing the Logarithmic Gamma Function

Many functions, such as diff and limit, can handle expressions containing lngamma.
Differentiate the logarithmic gamma function:
syms x
diff(gammaln(x), x)
4-527
ans =
psi(x)
Compute the limits of these expressions containing the logarithmic gamma function:
syms x
limit(1/gammaln(x), x, Inf)
ans =
0
limit(gammaln(x - 1) - gammaln(x - 2), x, 0)
ans =
pi*i + log(2)
Input Arguments
X Input
Input, specified as symbolic number, variable, expression, function, or as a vector or
See Also
beta | gamma | log | nchoosek | psi
4-528
gcd
gcd
Greatest common divisor
Syntax
G = gcd(A)
G = gcd(A,B)
[G,C,D] = gcd(A,B,X)
Description
G = gcd(A) finds the greatest common divisor of all elements of A.
G = gcd(A,B) finds the greatest common divisor of A and B.
[G,C,D] = gcd(A,B,X) finds the greatest common divisor of A and B, and also returns
the Bzout coefficients, C and D, such that G = A*C + B*D, and X does not appear in
the denominator of Cand D. If you do not specify X, then gcd uses the default variable
determined by symvar.
Examples
Greatest Common Divisor of Four Integers
To find the greatest common divisor of three or more values, specify those values as a
symbolic vector or matrix.
Find the greatest common divisor of these four integers, specified as elements of a
symbolic vector.
A = sym([4420, -128, 8984, -488])
gcd(A)
A =
4-529
[ 4420, -128, 8984, -488]

ans =
4
Alternatively, specify these values as elements of a symbolic matrix.

A = sym([4420, -128; 8984, -488])
gcd(A)
A =
[ 4420, -128]
[ 8984, -488]
ans =
4
Greatest Common Divisor of Rational Numbers

The greatest common divisor of rational numbers a1,a2,... is a number g, such that g/
a1,g/a2,... are integers, and gcd(g) = 1.
Find the greatest common divisor of these rational numbers, specified as elements of a
symbolic vector.
gcd(sym([1/4, 1/3, 1/2, 2/3, 3/4]))
ans =
1/12
Greatest Common Divisor of Complex Numbers

gcd computes the greatest common divisor of complex numbers over the Gaussian
integers (complex numbers with integer real and imaginary parts). It returns a complex
number with a positive real part and a nonnegative imaginary part.
Find the greatest common divisor of these complex numbers.
gcd(sym([10 - 5*i, 20 - 10*i, 30 - 15*i]))
ans =
5 + 10*i
4-530
gcd
Greatest Common Divisor of Elements of Matrices

For vectors and matrices, gcd finds the greatest common divisors element-wise.
Nonscalar arguments must be the same size.
Find the greatest common divisors for the elements of these two matrices.
A = sym([309, 186; 486, 224]);
B = sym([558, 444; 1024, 1984]);
gcd(A,B)
ans =
[ 3, 6]
[ 2, 32]
Find the greatest common divisors for the elements of matrix A and the value 200. Here,
gcd expands 200 into the 2-by-2 matrix with all elements equal to 200.
gcd(A,200)
ans =
[ 1, 2]
[ 2, 8]
Greatest Common Divisor of Polynomials

Find the greatest common divisor of univariate and multivariate polynomials.
Find the greatest common divisor of these univariate polynomials.
syms x
gcd(x^3 - 3*x^2 + 3*x - 1, x^2 - 5*x + 4)
ans =
x - 1
Find the greatest common divisor of these multivariate polynomials. Because there are
more than two polynomials, specify them as elements of a symbolic vector.
syms x y
gcd([x^2*y + x^3, (x + y)^2, x^2 + x*y^2 + x*y + x + y^3 + y])
ans =
4-531
x + y
Bzout Coefficients
Find the greatest common divisor and the Bzout coefficients of these polynomials.
For multivariate expressions, use the third input argument to specify the polynomial
variable. When computing Bzout coefficients, gcd ensures that the polynomial variable
does not appear in their denominators.
Find the greatest common divisor and the Bzout coefficients of these polynomials with
respect to variable x.
[G,C,D] = gcd(x^2*y + x^3, (x + y)^2, x)
G =
x + y
C =
1/y^2
D =
1/y - x/y^2
Find the greatest common divisor and the Bzout coefficients of the same polynomials
with respect to variable y.
[G,C,D] = gcd(x^2*y + x^3, (x + y)^2, y)
G =
x + y
C =
1/x^2
D =
0
If you do not specify the polynomial variable, then the toolbox uses symvar to determine
the variable.
[G,C,D] = gcd(x^2*y + x^3, (x + y)^2)
G =
4-532
gcd
x + y
C =
1/y^2
D =
1/y - x/y^2
Solution to Diophantine Equation

Solve the Diophantine equation, 30x + 56y = 8, for x and y.
Find the greatest common divisor and a pair of Bzout coefficients for 30 and 56.
[G,C,D] = gcd(sym(30),56)
G =
2
C =
-13
D =
7
C = -13 and D = 7 satisfy the Bzout's identity, (30*(-13)) + (56*7) = 2.

Rewrite Bzout's identity so that it looks more like the original equation. Do this by
multiplying by 4. Use == to verify that both sides of the equation are equal.
(30*C*4) + (56*D*4) == G*4
ans =
1
Calculate the values of x and y that solve the problem.

x = C*4
y = D*4
x =
-52
y =
4-533
28
Input Arguments
A Input value
Input value, specified as a number, symbolic number, variable, expression, function, or a
B Input value
X Polynomial variable
symbolic variable
Output Arguments
G Greatest common divisor
Greatest common divisor, returned as a symbolic number, variable, expression, function,
or a vector or matrix of symbolic numbers, variables, expressions, or functions.
C,D Bzout coefficients
Bzout coefficients, returned as symbolic numbers, variables, expressions, functions, or
vectors or matrices of symbolic numbers, variables, expressions, or functions.
4-534
gcd
More About
Tips
Calling gcd for numbers that are not symbolic objects invokes the MATLAB gcd
function.
The MATLAB gcd function does not accept rational or complex arguments. To find
the greatest common divisor of rational or complex numbers, convert these numbers
to symbolic objects by using sym, and then use gcd.
Nonscalar arguments must be the same size. If one input argument is nonscalar,
then gcd expands the scalar into a vector or matrix of the same size as the nonscalar
argument, with all elements equal to the corresponding scalar.
See Also
lcm
4-535
ge
Define greater than or equal to relation
Syntax
A >= B
ge(A,B)
Description
A >= B creates a greater than or equal to relation.
ge(A,B) is equivalent to A >= B.
Input Arguments
A
B
Examples
Use assume and the relational operator >= to set the assumption that x is greater than
or equal to 3:
syms x
assume(x >= 3)
Solve this equation. The solver takes into account the assumption on variable x, and
therefore returns these two solutions.
4-536
ge
solve((x - 1)*(x - 2)*(x - 3)*(x - 4) == 0, x)

ans =
3
4
Use the relational operator >= to set this condition on variable x:

syms x
cond = (abs(sin(x)) >= 1/2);
for i = 0:sym(pi/12):sym(pi)
if subs(cond, x, i)
disp(i)
end
end
Use the for loop with step /24 to find angles from 0 to that satisfy that condition:
pi/6
pi/4
pi/3
(5*pi)/12
pi/2
(7*pi)/12
(2*pi)/3
(3*pi)/4
(5*pi)/6
Alternatives
You can also define this relation by combining an equation and a greater than relation.
Thus, A >= B is equivalent to (A > B) & (A == B).
More About
Tips
If A and B are both numbers, then A >= B compares A and B and returns logical
1 (true) or logical 0 (false). Otherwise, A >= B returns a symbolic greater than
or equal to relation. You can use that relation as an argument for such functions as
assume, assumeAlso, and subs.
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If both A and B are arrays, then these arrays must have the same dimensions. A >=
B returns an array of relations A(i,j,...)>=B(i,j,...)
If one input is scalar and the other an array, then the scalar input is expanded into
an array of the same dimensions as the other array. In other words, if A is a variable
The field of complex numbers is not an ordered field. MATLAB projects complex
numbers in relations to a real axis. For example, x >= i becomes x >= 0, and x >=
3 + 2*i becomes x >= 3.
See Also
eq | gt | isAlways | le | logical | lt | ne
4-538
gegenbauerC
gegenbauerC
Gegenbauer polynomials
Syntax
gegenbauerC(n,a,x)
Description
gegenbauerC(n,a,x) represents the nth-degree Gegenbauer (ultraspherical)
polynomial with parameter a at the point x.
Examples
First Four Gegenbauer Polynomials
Find the first four Gegenbauer polynomials for the parameter a and variable x.
syms a x
gegenbauerC([0, 1, 2, 3], a, x)
ans =
[ 1, 2*a*x, (2*a^2 + 2*a)*x^2 - a,...
((4*a^3)/3 + 4*a^2 + (8*a)/3)*x^3 + (- 2*a^2 - 2*a)*x]
Gegenbauer Polynomials for Numeric and Symbolic Arguments

Depending on its arguments, gegenbauerC returns floating-point or exact symbolic
results.
Find the value of the fifth-degree Gegenbauer polynomial for the parameter a = 1/3
at these points. Because these numbers are not symbolic objects, gegenbauerC returns
floating-point results.
4-539
gegenbauerC(5, 1/3, [1/6, 1/4, 1/3, 1/2, 2/3, 3/4])

ans =
0.1520
0.1911
0.1914
0.0672
-0.1483
-0.2188
Find the value of the fifth-degree Gegenbauer polynomial for the same numbers
converted to symbolic objects. For symbolic numbers, gegenbauerC returns exact
symbolic results.
gegenbauerC(5, 1/3, sym([1/6, 1/4, 1/3, 1/2, 2/3, 3/4]))
ans =
[ 26929/177147, 4459/23328, 33908/177147, 49/729, -26264/177147, -7/32]

Floating-point evaluation of Gegenbauer polynomials by direct calls of gegenbauerC is
unstable.
Find the value of the 500th-degree Gegenbauer polynomial for the parameter 4 at 1/3
and vpa(1/3). Floating-point evaluation is numerically stable.
gegenbauerC(500, 4, 1/3)
gegenbauerC(500, 4, vpa(1/3))
ans =
-1.9161e+05
ans =
-191609.10250897532784888518393655
Now, find the symbolic polynomial C500 = gegenbauerC(500, 4, x), and substitute
x = vpa(1/3) into the result. This approach is numerically unstable.
syms x
C500 = gegenbauerC(500, 4, x);
subs(C500, x, vpa(1/3))
ans =
-8.0178726380235741521208852037291e35
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gegenbauerC

subs(vpa(C500), x, sym(1/3))
ans =
-8.1125412405858470246887213923167e36
Plot Gegenbauer Polynomials

Plot the first five Gegenbauer polynomials for the parameter a = 3.
syms x y
for n = [0, 1, 2, 3, 4]
ezplot(gegenbauerC(n,3,x))
hold on
end
hold off
axis([-1, 1, -10, 10])
grid on
ylabel('G_n^3(x)')
legend('G_0^3(x)', 'G_1^3(x)', 'G_2^3(x)', 'G_3^3(x)', 'G_4^3(x)',...
'Location', 'Best')
title('Gegenbauer polynomials')
4-541
Input Arguments
vector | matrix
4-542
gegenbauerC
a Parameter
Parameter, specified as a nonnegative integer, symbolic variable, expression, or function,
or as a vector or matrix of numbers, symbolic numbers, variables, expressions, or
functions.
x Evaluation point
or functions.
More About
Gegenbauer Polynomials
Gegenbauer polynomials are defined by this recursion formula.
G ( 0, a, x ) = 1,
G (1, a, x) = 2 ax,
G ( n, a, x ) =
2x ( n + a - 1)
n
G ( n - 1, a, x ) -
n + 2a - 2
G ( n - 2, a, x )
n
For all real a>-1/2, Gegenbauer polynomials are orthogonal on the interval -1x1
with respect to the weight function
w ( x) = 1 - x2
a-
1
2
Chebyshev polynomials of the first and second kinds are a special case of the Gegenbauer
polynomials.
T ( n, x) =
n
G ( n, 0, x )
2
U ( n, x) = G ( n,1, x )
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Legendre polynomials are also a special case of the Gegenbauer polynomials.
1
P ( n, x ) = G n, , x
2
Tips
gegenbauerC returns floating-point results for numeric arguments that are not
symbolic objects.
gegenbauerC acts element-wise on nonscalar inputs.
All nonscalar arguments must have the same size. If one or two input arguments are
nonscalar, then gegenbauerC expands the scalars into vectors or matrices of the
same size as the nonscalar arguments, with all elements equal to the corresponding
scalar.
References
See Also
chebyshevT | chebyshevU | hermiteH | jacobiP | laguerreL | legendreP
4-544
getVar
getVar
Get variable from MuPAD notebook
Syntax
MATLABvar = getVar(nb,'MuPADvar')
Description
MATLABvar = getVar(nb,'MuPADvar') assigns the variable MuPADvar in the
MuPAD notebook nb to a symbolic variable MATLABvar in the MATLAB workspace.
Examples
Copy a Variable from MuPAD to MATLAB
Copy a variable with a value assigned to it from a MuPAD notebook to the MATLAB
workspace.
Create a new MuPAD notebook and specify a handle mpnb to that notebook:
mpnb = mupad;
In the MuPAD notebook, enter the following command. This command creates the
variable f and assigns the value x^2 to this variable. At this point, the variable and its
value exist only in MuPAD.
f := x^2
Return to the MATLAB Command Window and use the getVar function:
f = getVar(mpnb,'f')
f =
x^2
After you call getVar, the variable f appears in the MATLAB workspace. The value of
the variable f in the MATLAB workspace is x^2.
4-545
Now, use getVar to copy variables a and b from the same notebook. Although you do not
specify these variables explicitly, and they do not have any values assigned to them, they
exist in MuPAD.
a = getVar(mpnb,'a')
b = getVar(mpnb,'b')
a =
a
b =
b
Input Arguments
Pointer to a MuPAD notebook, specified as a MuPAD notebook handle or a vector of
openmn function.
MuPADvar Variable in MuPAD notebook
variable
Variable in a MuPAD notebook, specified as a variable. A variable exists in MuPAD even
if it has no value assigned to it.
Output Arguments
MATLABvar Variable in MATLAB workspace
symbolic variable
Variable in the MATLAB workspace, returned as a symbolic variable.
See Also
mupad | openmu | setVar

4-546
gradient
gradient
Gradient vector of scalar function
Syntax
gradient(f,v)
Description
gradient(f,v) finds the gradient vector of the scalar function f with respect to vector v
in Cartesian coordinates.
If you do not specify v, then gradient(f) finds the gradient vector of the scalar function
f with respect to a vector constructed from all symbolic variables found in f. The order of
variables in this vector is defined by symvar.
Examples
Find the Gradient of a Function
The gradient of a function f with respect to the vector v is the vector of the first partial
derivatives of f with respect to each element of v.
Find the gradient vector of f(x, y, z) with respect to vector [x, y, z]. The gradient
is a vector with these components.
syms x y z
f = 2*y*z*sin(x) + 3*x*sin(z)*cos(y);
gradient(f, [x, y, z])
ans =
3*cos(y)*sin(z) + 2*y*z*cos(x)
2*z*sin(x) - 3*x*sin(y)*sin(z)
2*y*sin(x) + 3*x*cos(y)*cos(z)
4-547
Plot the Gradient of a Function

Find the gradient of a function f(x, y), and plot it as a quiver (velocity) plot.
Find the gradient vector of f(x, y) with respect to vector [x, y]. The gradient is
vector g with these components.
syms x y
f = -(sin(x) + sin(y))^2;
g = gradient(f, [x, y])
g =
-2*cos(x)*(sin(x) + sin(y))
-2*cos(y)*(sin(x) + sin(y))
Now plot the vector field defined by these components. MATLAB provides the quiver
plotting function for this task. The function does not accept symbolic arguments. First,
replace symbolic variables in expressions for components of g with numeric values. Then
use quiver:
[X, Y] = meshgrid(-1:.1:1,-1:.1:1);
G1 = subs(g(1), [x y], {X,Y}); G2 = subs(g(2), [x y], {X,Y});
quiver(X, Y, G1, G2)
4-548
gradient
Input Arguments
f Scalar function
Scalar function, specified as symbolic expression or symbolic function.
v Vector with respect to which you find gradient vector
symbolic vector
Vector with respect to which you find gradient vector, specified as a symbolic vector.
By default, v is a vector constructed from all symbolic variables found in f. The order of
4-549
If v is a scalar, gradient(f,v) = diff(f,v). If v is an empty symbolic object, such as

sym([]), then gradient returns an empty symbolic object.
More About
Gradient Vector
The gradient vector of f(x) with respect to the vector x is the vector of the first partial
derivatives of f.
f f
f
f =
,
, ,
xn
x1 x2
See Also
curl | diff | divergence | hessian | jacobian | laplacian | potential |

quiver | vectorPotential
4-550
gt
gt
Define greater than relation
Syntax
A > B
gt(A,B)
Description
A > B creates a greater than relation.
gt(A,B) is equivalent to A > B.
Input Arguments
A
B
Examples
Use assume and the relational operator > to set the assumption that x is greater than 3:
syms x
assume(x > 3)
therefore returns this solution.
4-551
solve((x - 1)*(x - 2)*(x - 3)*(x - 4) == 0, x)

ans =
4
Use the relational operator > to set this condition on variable x:

syms x
cond = abs(sin(x)) + abs(cos(x)) > 7/5;
if subs(cond, x, i)
disp(i)
end
end
(5*pi)/24
pi/4
(7*pi)/24
(17*pi)/24
(3*pi)/4
(19*pi)/24
More About
Tips
If A and B are both numbers, then A > B compares A and B and returns logical
1 (true) or logical 0 (false). Otherwise, A > B returns a symbolic greater than
relation. You can use that relation as an argument for such functions as assume,
assumeAlso, and subs.
If both A and B are arrays, then these arrays must have the same dimensions. A > B
returns an array of relations A(i,j,...)>B(i,j,...)
numbers in relations to a real axis. For example, x > i becomes x > 0, and x > 3
+ 2*i becomes x > 3.
4-552
gt
See Also
eq | ge | isAlways | le | logical | lt | ne
4-553
harmonic
Harmonic function (harmonic number)
Syntax
harmonic(x)
Description
harmonic(x) returns the harmonic function of x. For integer values of x, harmonic(x)
generates harmonic numbers.
Examples
Generate Harmonic Numbers
Generate the first 10 harmonic numbers.
harmonic(sym(1:10))
ans =
[ 1, 3/2, 11/6, 25/12, 137/60, 49/20, 363/140, 761/280, 7129/2520, 7381/2520]
Harmonic Function for Numeric and Symbolic Arguments

Find the harmonic function for these numbers. Since these are not symbolic objects, you
get floating-point results.
harmonic([2 i 13/3])
ans =
1.5000 + 0.0000i
0.6719 + 1.0767i
2.1545 + 0.0000i
Find the harmonic function symbolically by converting the numbers to symbolic objects.
4-554
harmonic
y = harmonic(sym([2 i 13/3]))
y =
[ 3/2, harmonic(i), 8571/1820 - (pi*3^(1/2))/6 - (3*log(3))/2]
If the denominator of x is 2, 3, 4, or 6, and |x| < 500, then the result is expressed in
terms of pi and log.
Use vpa to approximate the results obtained.
vpa(y)
ans =
[ 1.5, 0.67186598552400983787839057280431...
+ 1.07667404746858117413405079475*i,...
2.1545225442213858782694336751358]
For |x| > 1000, harmonic returns the function call as it is. Use vpa to force harmonic
to evaluate the function call.
harmonic(sym(1001))
vpa(harmonic(sym(1001)))
ans =
harmonic(1001)
ans =
7.4864698615493459116575172053329
Harmonic Function for Special Values

Find the harmonic function for special values.
harmonic([0 1 -1 Inf -Inf])
ans =
0
Inf
Inf
NaN
Harmonic Function for the Symbolic Function

Find the harmonic function for the symbolic function f.
syms f(x)
f(x) = exp(x) + tan(x);
4-555
y = harmonic(f)
y(x) =
harmonic(exp(x) + tan(x))
Harmonic Function for Symbolic Vectors and Matrices

Find the harmonic function for elements of vector V and matrix M.
syms x
V = [x sin(x) 3*i];
M = [exp(i*x) 2; -6 Inf];
harmonic(V)
harmonic(M)
ans =
[ harmonic(x), harmonic(sin(x)), harmonic(3*i)]
ans =
[ harmonic(exp(x*i)), 3/2]
[
Inf, Inf]
Plot Harmonic Function

Plot the harmonic function from x = -5 to x = 5.
syms x
ezplot(harmonic(x),[-5,5]), grid on
4-556
harmonic
Differentiate and Find the Limit of the Harmonic Function

The functions diff and limit handle expressions containing harmonic.
Find the second derivative of harmonic(x^2+1).
syms x
diff(harmonic(x^2+1),x,2)
ans =
2*psi(1, x^2 + 2) + 4*x^2*psi(2, x^2 + 2)
Find the limit of harmonic(x) as x tends to and of (x+1)*harmonic(x) as x tends to

-1.
4-557
syms x
limit(harmonic(x),Inf)
limit((x+1)*harmonic(x),-1)
ans =
Inf
ans =
-1
Taylor Series Expansion of the Harmonic Function

Use taylor to expand the harmonic function in terms of the Taylor series.
syms x
taylor(harmonic(x))
ans =
(pi^6*x^5)/945 - zeta(5)*x^4 + (pi^4*x^3)/90...
- zeta(3)*x^2 + (pi^2*x)/6
Expand the Harmonic Function

Use expand to expand the harmonic function.
syms x
expand(harmonic(2*x+3))
ans =
harmonic(x + 1/2)/2 + log(2) + harmonic(x)/2 - 1/(2*(x + 1/2))...
+ 1/(2*x + 1) + 1/(2*x + 2) + 1/(2*x + 3)
Input Arguments
x Input
number | vector | matrix | N-D array | symbolic variable | symbolic expression |
symbolic function | symbolic vector | symbolic matrix | symbolic N-D array
Input, specified as number, vector, matrix, or as an N-D array or symbolic variable,
expression, function, vector, matrix, or N-D array.
4-558
harmonic
More About
Harmonic Function
The harmonic function for x is defined as
x
1
k=1 k
harmonic ( x) = S
It is also defined as
harmonic ( x) = Y ( x ) + g
where (x) is the polygamma function and is the Euler-Mascheroni constant.

Algorithms
The harmonic function is defined for all complex arguments z except for negative integers
-1, -2,... where a singularity occurs.
If x has denominator 1, 2, 3, 4, or 6, then an explicit result is computed and
returned. For other rational numbers, harmonic uses the functional equation
harmonic ( x + 1) = harmonic ( x ) +
1
to obtain a result with an argument x from the
x
interval [0, 1].

expand expands harmonic using the equations harmonic ( x + 1) = harmonic ( x ) +
1
,
x
1
+ p cot ( p x ) , and the Gauss multiplication formula for
x
harmonic(kx), where k is an integer.
harmonic ( - x ) = harmonic ( x) -
harmonic implements the following explicit formulae:

-1
harmonic = - 2 ln ( 2 )
2
4-559
3
3
2
harmonic - = - ln ( 3 ) p
3
2
6
3
3
1
harmonic - = - ln ( 3 ) +
p
3
2
6
p
-3
harmonic = -3 ln ( 2 ) 4
2
p
-1
harmonic = - 3 ln ( 2 ) +
4
2
3
3
-5
harmonic = -2 ln ( 2 ) - ln ( 3 ) p
6
2
2
3
3
-1
harmonic = - 2 ln ( 2 ) - ln ( 3 ) +
p
6
2
2
harmonic ( 0 ) = 0
1
harmonic = 2 - 2 ln ( 2 )
2
3
3
1
harmonic = 3 - ln ( 3 ) p
3
2
6
3
2 3 3
harmonic = - ln ( 3 ) +
p
3 2 2
6
p
1
harmonic = 4 - 3 ln ( 2 ) 4
2
4-560
harmonic
p
3 4
harmonic = - 3 ln ( 2 ) +
4 3
2
3
3
1
harmonic = 6 - 2 ln ( 2 ) - ln ( 3 ) p
6
2
2
3
3
5 6
harmonic = - 2 ln ( 2 ) - ln ( 3 ) +
p
6 5
2
2
harmonic (1 ) = 1
harmonic ( ) =
harmonic ( - ) = NaN
See Also
beta | factorial | gamma | gammaln | nchoosek | zeta
4-561
heaviside
Heaviside step function
Syntax
heaviside(x)
Description
heaviside(x) returns the value 0 for x < 0, 1 for x > 0, and 1/2 for x = 0.
Examples
Evaluate the Heaviside Function for Numeric and Symbolic Arguments
Depending on the argument value, heaviside returns one of these values: 0, 1, or 1/2.
If the argument is a floating-point number (not a symbolic object), then heaviside
returns floating-point results.
For x < 0, the function heaviside(x) returns 0:
heaviside(sym(-3))
ans =
0
For x > 0, the function heaviside(x) returns 1:

heaviside(sym(3))
ans =
1
For x = 0, the function heaviside(x) returns 1/2:

4-562
heaviside
heaviside(sym(0))
ans =
1/2
For numeric x = 0, the function heaviside(x) returns the numeric result:

heaviside(0)
ans =
0.5000
Use Assumptions on Variables

heaviside takes into account assumptions on variables.
syms x
assume(x < 0)
heaviside(x)
ans =
0

syms x clear
Plot the Heaviside Function

Plot the Heaviside step function for x and x - 1 .
syms x
ezplot(heaviside(x), [-2, 2])
4-563
ezplot(heaviside(x - 1), [-2, 2])
4-564
heaviside
Evaluate the Heaviside Function for a Symbolic Matrix

Call heaviside for this symbolic matrix. When the input argument is a matrix,
heaviside computes the Heaviside function for each element.
syms x
heaviside(sym([-1 0; 1/2 x]))
ans =
[ 0,
1/2]
[ 1, heaviside(x)]
4-565
Differentiate and Integrate Expressions Involving the Heaviside Function

Compute derivatives and integrals of expressions involving the Heaviside function.
Find the first derivative of the Heaviside function. The first derivative of the Heaviside
function is the Dirac delta function.
syms x
diff(heaviside(x), x)
ans =
dirac(x)
Find the integral of the expression involving the Heaviside function:

syms x
int(exp(-x)*heaviside(x), x, -Inf, Inf)
ans =
1
Input Arguments
x Input
Input, specified as a symbolic number, variable, expression, function, vector, or matrix.
See Also
dirac
4-566
hermiteH
hermiteH
Hermite polynomials
Syntax
hermiteH(n,x)
Description
hermiteH(n,x) represents the nth-degree Hermite polynomial at the point x.
Examples
First Five Hermite Polynomials
Find the first five Hermite polynomials of the second kind for the variable x.
syms x
hermiteH([0, 1, 2, 3, 4], x)
ans =
[ 1, 2*x, 4*x^2 - 2, 8*x^3 - 12*x, 16*x^4 - 48*x^2 + 12]
Hermite Polynomials for Numeric and Symbolic Arguments

Depending on its arguments, hermiteH returns floating-point or exact symbolic results.
Find the value of the fifth-degree Hermite polynomial at these points. Because these
numbers are not symbolic objects, hermiteH returns floating-point results.
hermiteH(5, [1/6, 1/3, 1/2, 2/3, 3/4])
4-567
ans =
19.2634
34.2058
41.0000
36.8066
30.0938
Find the value of the fifth-degree Hermite polynomial for the same numbers converted to
symbolic objects. For symbolic numbers, hermiteH returns exact symbolic results.
hermiteH(5, sym([1/6, 1/3, 1/2, 2/3, 3/4]))
ans =
[ 4681/243, 8312/243, 41, 8944/243, 963/32]
Plot Hermite Polynomials

Plot the first five Hermite polynomials.
syms x y
for n = [0, 1, 2, 3, 4]
ezplot(hermiteH(n,x))
hold on
end
hold off
axis([-2, 2, -30, 30])
grid on
ylabel('H_n(x)')
legend('H_0(x)', 'H_1(x)', 'H_2(x)', 'H_3(x)', 'H_4(x)', 'Location', 'Best')
title('Hermite polynomials')
4-568
hermiteH
Input Arguments
vector | matrix
4-569
x Evaluation point
or functions.
More About
Hermite Polynomials
Hermite polynomials are defined by this recursion formula:
H ( 0, x) = 1,
H (1, x) = 2 x,
H ( n, x ) = 2 xH ( n - 1, x) - 2 ( n - 1 ) H ( n - 2, x )
Hermite polynomials are orthogonal on the real line with respect to the weight function
2
w ( x ) = e- x
Tips
hermiteH returns floating-point results for numeric arguments that are not symbolic
objects.
hermiteH acts element-wise on nonscalar inputs.
vector or a matrix, then hermiteH expands the scalar into a vector or matrix of the
References
See Also
chebyshevT | chebyshevU | gegenbauerC | jacobiP | laguerreL | legendreP

4-570
hessian
hessian
Hessian matrix of scalar function
Syntax
hessian(f,v)
Description
hessian(f,v) finds the Hessian matrix of the scalar function f with respect to vector v
in Cartesian coordinates.
If you do not specify v, then hessian(f) finds the Hessian matrix of the scalar function
f with respect to a vector constructed from all symbolic variables found in f. The order of
Examples
Find Hessian Matrix of a Scalar Function
Find the Hessian matrix of a function by using hessian. Then find the Hessian matrix
of the same function as the Jacobian of the gradient of the function.
Find the Hessian matrix of this function of three variables:
syms x y z
f = x*y + 2*z*x;
hessian(f,[x,y,z])
ans =
[ 0, 1, 2]
[ 1, 0, 0]
[ 2, 0, 0]
Alternatively, compute the Hessian matrix of this function as the Jacobian of the
gradient of that function:
4-571
jacobian(gradient(f))
ans =
[ 0, 1, 2]
[ 1, 0, 0]
[ 2, 0, 0]
Input Arguments
f Scalar function
Scalar function, specified as symbolic expression or symbolic function.
v Vector with respect to which you find Hessian matrix
symbolic vector
Vector with respect to which you find Hessian matrix, specified as a symbolic vector.
By default, v is a vector constructed from all symbolic variables found in f. The order of
If v is an empty symbolic object, such as sym([]), then hessian returns an empty
symbolic object.
More About
Hessian Matrix
The Hessian matrix of f(x) is the square matrix of the second partial derivatives of f(x).
2f
2
x1
2
f
H ( f ) = x2 x1
2f
xn x1
4-572
2 f
x1 x2
2 f
x22
M
2 f
xn x2
2 f
x1 xn
2 f
L
x2 xn
O
M
2 f
L
xn2
L
hessian
See Also
curl | diff | divergence | gradient | jacobian | laplacian | potential |

vectorPotential
4-573
horner
Horner nested polynomial representation
Syntax
horner(P)
Description
Suppose P is a matrix of symbolic polynomials. horner(P) transforms each element of P
into its Horner, or nested, representation.
Examples
Find nested polynomial representation of the polynomial:
syms x
horner(x^3 - 6*x^2 + 11*x - 6)
ans =
x*(x*(x - 6) + 11) - 6
Find nested polynomial representation for the polynomials that form a vector:
syms x y
horner([x^2 + x; y^3 - 2*y])
ans =
x*(x + 1)
y*(y^2 - 2)
See Also
collect | combine | expand | factor | numden | rewrite | simplify |

simplifyFraction
4-574
horzcat
horzcat
Concatenate symbolic arrays horizontally
Syntax
horzcat(A1,...,AN)
[A1 ... AN]
Description
horzcat(A1,...,AN) horizontally concatenates the symbolic arrays A1,...,AN.
For vectors and matrices, all inputs must have the same number of rows. For
multidimensional arrays, horzcat concatenates inputs along the second dimension. The
remaining dimensions must match.
[A1 ... AN] is a shortcut for horzcat(A1,...,AN).
Examples
Concatenate Two Symbolic Matrices Horizontally
Create matrices A and B.
A = sym('a%d%d',[2 2])
B = sym('b%d%d',[2 2])
A
[
[
B
[
[
=
a11,
a21,
=
b11,
b21,
a12]
a22]
b12]
b22]
Concatenate A and B.
horzcat(A,B)
4-575
ans =
[ a11, a12, b11, b12]
[ a21, a22, b21, b22]
Alternatively, use the shortcut [A B].

[A B]
ans =
[ a11, a12, b11, b12]
[ a21, a22, b21, b22]
Concatenate Multiple Symbolic Arrays Horizontally

A = sym('a%d',[3 1]);
B = sym('b%d%d',[3 3]);
C = sym('c%d%d',[3 2]);
horzcat(C,A,B)
ans =
[ c11, c12, a1, b11, b12, b13]
[ c21, c22, a2, b21, b22, b23]
[ c31, c32, a3, b31, b32, b33]
Alternatively, use the shortcut [C A B].

[C A B]
ans =
[ c11, c12, a1, b11, b12, b13]
[ c21, c22, a2, b21, b22, b23]
[ c31, c32, a3, b31, b32, b33]
Concatenate Multidimensional Arrays Horizontally

Create the 3-D symbolic arrays A and B.
A = sym('a%d%d',[2 3]);
A(:,:,2) = -A
B = sym('b%d%d', [2 2]);
B(:,:,2) = -B
A(:,:,1) =
[ a11, a12, a13]
[ a21, a22, a23]
4-576
horzcat
A(:,:,2) =
[ -a11, -a12, -a13]
[ -a21, -a22, -a23]
B(:,:,1) =
[ b11, b12]
[ b21, b22]
B(:,:,2) =
[ -b11, -b12]
[ -b21, -b22]
Use horzcat to concatenate A and B.

horzcat(A,B)
ans(:,:,1) =
[ a11, a12, a13, b11, b12]
[ a21, a22, a23, b21, b22]
ans(:,:,2) =
[ -a11, -a12, -a13, -b11, -b12]
[ -a21, -a22, -a23, -b21, -b22]
Alternatively, use the shortcut [A B].

[A B]
ans(:,:,1) =
[ a11, a12, a13, b11, b12]
[ a21, a22, a23, b21, b22]
ans(:,:,2) =
[ -a11, -a12, -a13, -b11, -b12]
[ -a21, -a22, -a23, -b21, -b22]
Input Arguments
symbolic variable | symbolic vector | symbolic matrix | symbolic multidimensional array
arrays.
See Also
cat | vertcat
4-577
hypergeom
Hypergeometric function
Syntax
hypergeom(a,b,z)
Description
hypergeom(a,b,z) represents the generalized hypergeometric function.
Examples
Hypergeometric Function for Numeric and Symbolic Arguments
Depending on its arguments, hypergeom can return floating-point or exact symbolic
results.
Compute the hypergeometric function for these numbers. Because these numbers are not
A = [hypergeom([1, 2], 2.5, 2),
hypergeom(1/3, [2, 3], pi),
hypergeom([1, 1/2], 1/3, 3*i)]
A =
-1.2174 - 0.8330i
1.2091 + 0.0000i
-0.2028 + 0.2405i
Compute the hypergeometric function for the numbers converted to symbolic objects. For
most symbolic (exact) numbers, hypergeom returns unresolved symbolic calls.
symA = [hypergeom([1, 2], 2.5, sym(2)),
hypergeom(1/3, [2, 3], sym(pi)),
4-578
hypergeom
hypergeom([1, 1/2], sym(1/3), 3*i)]

symA =
hypergeom([1, 2], [5/2], 2)
hypergeom([1/3], [2, 3], pi)
hypergeom([1/2, 1], [1/3], 3*i)
vpa(symA,10)
ans =
- 1.21741893 - 0.8330405509*i
1.209063189
- 0.2027516975 + 0.2405013423*i
Special Values
The hypergeometric function has special values for some parameters:
syms a b c d x
hypergeom([], [], x)
hypergeom([a, b, c, d], [a, b, c, d], x)
hypergeom(a, [], x)
ans =
exp(x)
ans =
exp(x)
ans =
1/(1 - x)â
Any hypergeometric function, evaluated at 0, has the value 1:

syms a b c d
hypergeom([a, b], [c, d], 0)
ans =
1
If, after canceling identical parameters, the list of upper parameters contains 0, the
resulting hypergeometric function is constant with the value 1:
4-579
hypergeom([0, 0, 2, 3], [a, 0, 4], x)

ans =
1
If, after canceling identical parameters, the upper parameters contain a negative integer
larger than the largest negative integer in the lower parameters, the hypergeometric
function is a polynomial. If all parameters as well as the argument x are numeric, a
corresponding explicit value is returned:
hypergeom([(-4), -2 , 3], [-3, 1, 4], x*pi*sqrt(2))
ans =
(6*pi^2*x^2)/5 - 2*2^(1/2)*pi*x + 1
Hypergeometric functions also reduce to other special functions for some parameters:
hypergeom([1], [a], x)
hypergeom([a], [a, b], x)
ans =
(exp(x/2)*whittakerM(1 - a/2, a/2 - 1/2, -x))/(-x)^(a/2)
ans =
x^(1/2 - b/2)*gamma(b)*besseli(b - 1, 2*x^(1/2))
Handling Expressions That Contain Hypergeometric Functions

Many functions, such as diff and taylor, can handle expressions containing
hypergeom.
Differentiate this expression containing hypergeometric function:
syms a b c d x
diff(1/x*hypergeom([a, b], [c, d], x), x)
ans =
(a*b*hypergeom([a + 1, b + 1], [c + 1, d + 1], x))/(c*d*x)...
- hypergeom([a, b], [c, d], x)/x^2
Compute the Taylor series of this hypergeometric function:

taylor(hypergeom([1, 2], [3], x), x)
ans =
4-580
hypergeom
(2*x^5)/7 + x^4/3 + (2*x^3)/5 + x^2/2 + (2*x)/3 + 1
Input Arguments
a Upper parameters of hypergeometric function
function | symbolic vector
Upper parameters of hypergeometric function, specified as a number, variable, symbolic
expression, symbolic function, or vector.
b Lower parameters of hypergeometric function
Lower parameters of hypergeometric function, specified as a number, variable, symbolic
expression, symbolic function, or vector.
z Argument of hypergeometric function
Argument of hypergeometric function, specified as a number, variable, symbolic
expression, symbolic function, or vector. If z is a vector, hypergeom(a,b,z) is evaluated
element-wise.
More About
Generalized Hypergeometric Function
The generalized hypergeometric function of order p, q is defined as follows:
p Fq
( a1 ) ( a2 ) ( a p ) k
k
k
k z
( a; b; z) =

( b1 ) ( b2 ) ( bq ) k !
k= 0
k
k
k
Here a=[a1,a2,...,ap] and b=[b1,b2,...,bq] are vectors of lengths p and q, respectively.

(a)k and (b)k are Pochhammer symbols.
4-581
For empty vectors a and b, hypergeom is defined as follows:
p F0 ( a;; z) =
0 F0 ( ;; z )
(b ) (b ) (b ) zk!
q k
k =0 1 k 2 k
0 Fq ( ; b; z ) =
( a1 )k (a2 )k ( ap )k zk!
k= 0
zk! = ez
k= 0
Pochhammer Symbol
The Pochhammer symbol is defined as follows:
(
)
( x )n = G x + n
(
)
G x
If n is a positive integer, then (x)n=x(x+1)...(x + n-1).
Tips
For most exact arguments, the hypergeometric function returns a symbolic function
call. If an upper parameter coincides with a lower parameter, these values cancel and
are removed from the parameter lists.
If, after cancellation of identical parameters, the upper parameters contain a negative
integer larger than the largest negative integer in the lower parameters, then
pFq(a;b;z) is a polynomial in z.
The following special values are implemented:
pFp(a;a;z)=0F0(;;z)
pFq(a;b;z)=1
pFq(a;b;0)=1.
if the list of upper parameters a contains more 0s than the list of

lower parameters b.
Algorithms
The series
4-582
= ez.
hypergeom
p Fq
( a1 ) ( a2 ) ( a p ) k
k
k
k z
( a; b; z) =

b
k!
b b
k= 0 ( 1 ) k ( 2 ) k ( q ) k
Converges for any |z|< if pq.

Converges for |z|<1 if p=q+1. For |z|>=1, the series diverges, and pFq is defined
by analytic continuation.
Diverges for any z<>0 if p>q+1. The series defines an asymptotic expansion of
pFq(a;b;z) around z=0. The positive real axis is the branch cut.
If one of the parameters in a is equal to 0 or a negative integer, then the series
terminates, turning into what is called a hypergeometric polynomial.
pFq(a;b;z)
is symmetric with respect to the parameters, that is, it does not depend on the
order of the arrangement a1, a2, in a or b1, b2, in b.
If at least one upper parameter equals n=0,-1,-2,, the function turns into a
polynomial of degree n. If the previous condition for the lower parameters b is relaxed,
and there is some lower parameter equal to m=0,-1,-2,, then the function pFq(a;b;z)
also reduces to a polynomial in z provided n > m. It is undefined if m>n or if no upper
parameter is a nonpositive integer (resulting in division by 0 in one of the series
coefficients). The case m=n is handled by the following rule.
. If for r values of the upper parameters, there are r values of the lower parameters equal
to them (that is, a = [a1,,ap - r, c1,,cr], b = [b1,,bq - r, c1,,cr]), then the order (p, q) of
the function pFq(a;b;z) is reduced to (p - r, q - r):
( a1 ,, a p-r , c1,, cr ; b1,, bq -r , c1 ,, cr ; z) =

p-r Fq- r ( a1 ,, a p- r ; b1 , , bq -r ; z )
p Fq
This rule applies even if any of the ci is zero or a negative integer. For details, see Luke,
Y.L. "The Special Functions and Their Approximations", vol. 1, p. 42.
U ( z) =
p Fq
( a; b; z )
satisfies a differential equation in z:
d (d + b - 1) - z(d + a) U ( z ) = 0 , d = z ,
z
4-583
where ( + a) and ( + b) stand for

p
(d + ai )
i =1
and
q
(d + b j ),
j =1
respectively. Thus, the order of this differential equation is max(p, q+1) and the
hypergeometric function is only one of its solutions. If p<q+1, this differential equation
has a regular singularity at z=0 and an irregular singularity at z=. If p=q+1, the
points z=0, z=1, and z= are regular singularities, thus explaining the convergence
properties of the hypergeometric series.
References
[1] Oberhettinger, F. Hypergeometric Functions. Handbook of Mathematical Functions
[2] Luke, Y.L. "The Special Functions and Their Approximations", Vol. 1, Academic
Press, New York, 1969.
[3] Prudnikov, A.P., Yu.A. Brychkov, and O.I. Marichev, "Integrals and Series", Vol. 3:
More Special Functions, Gordon and Breach, 1990.
See Also
kummerU | whittakerM | whittakerW
4-584
ifourier
ifourier
Inverse Fourier transform
Syntax
ifourier(F,trans_var,eval_point)
Description
ifourier(F,trans_var,eval_point) computes the inverse Fourier transform of F
with respect to the transformation variable trans_var at the point eval_point.
Input Arguments
F
functions.
trans_var
the frequency variable.
Default: The variable w. If F does not contain w, then the default variable is determined
by symvar.
eval_point
Symbolic variable or expression representing the evaluation point. This variable is often
called the time variable or the space variable.
Default: The variable x. If x is the transformation variable of F, then the default
evaluation point is the variable t.
4-585
Examples
Compute the inverse Fourier transform of this expression with respect to the variable y
at the evaluation point x:
syms x y
F = sqrt(sym(pi))*exp(-y^2/4);
ifourier(F, y, x)
ans =
exp(-x^2)
Compute the inverse Fourier transform of this expression calling the ifourier function
with one argument. If you do not specify the transformation variable, ifourier uses the
variable w:
syms a w t real
F = exp(-w^2/(4*a^2));
ifourier(F, t)
ans =
exp(-a^2*t^2)/(2*pi^(1/2)*(1/(4*a^2))^(1/2))
If you also do not specify the evaluation point, ifourier uses the variable x:
ifourier(F)
ans =
exp(-a^2*x^2)/(2*pi^(1/2)*(1/(4*a^2))^(1/2))
For further computations, remove the assumptions:

syms a w t clear
Compute the following inverse Fourier transforms that involve the Dirac and Heaviside
functions:
syms t w
ifourier(dirac(w), w, t)
ans =
1/(2*pi)
ifourier(2*exp(-abs(w)) - 1, w, t)
4-586
ifourier
ans =
-(2*pi*dirac(t) - 4/(t^2 + 1))/(2*pi)
ifourier(1/(w^2 + 1), w, t)
ans =
(pi*exp(-t)*heaviside(t) + pi*heaviside(-t)*exp(t))/(2*pi)
If ifourier cannot find an explicit representation of the transform, it returns results in

terms of the direct Fourier transform:
syms F(w) t
f = ifourier(F, w, t)
f =
fourier(F(w), w, -t)/(2*pi)
Find the inverse fourier transform of this matrix. Use matrices of the same size to specify
the transformation variable and evaluation point.
ifourier([exp(x), 1; sin(y), i*z],[w, x; y, z],[a, b; c, d])
ans =
[
exp(x)*dirac(a),
dirac(b)]
[ (dirac(c - 1)*i)/2 - (dirac(c + 1)*i)/2, dirac(1, d)]
When the input arguments are nonscalars, ifourier acts on them element-wise. If
ifourier is called with both scalar and nonscalar arguments, then ifourier expands
ifourier(x,[x, w; y, z],[a, b; c, d])
ans =
[ -dirac(1, a)*i, x*dirac(b)]
[
x*dirac(c), x*dirac(d)]
4-587
f1(x) = exp(x);
f2(x) = x;
ifourier([f1, f2],x,[a, b])
ans =
[ fourier(exp(x), x, -a)/(2*pi), -dirac(1, b)*i]
More About
Inverse Fourier Transform
The inverse Fourier transform of the expression F=F(w) with respect to the variable w
at the point x is defined as follows:
f (x) =
s
2p c
F ( w ) e-iswx dw.
Here, c and s are parameters of the inverse Fourier transform. The ifourier function
uses c=1, s=1.
Tips
If you call ifourier with two arguments, it assumes that the second argument is the
If F is a matrix, ifourier acts element-wise on all components of the matrix.
If eval_point is a matrix, ifourier acts element-wise on all components of the
matrix.
The toolbox computes the inverse Fourier transform via the direct Fourier transform:
ifourier ( F, w, t ) =
1
fourier ( F, w, -t )
2p
If ifourier cannot find an explicit representation of the inverse Fourier transform,

it returns results in terms of the direct Fourier transform.
To compute the direct Fourier transform, use fourier.
4-588
ifourier
References
Oberhettinger, F. Tables of Fourier Transforms and Fourier Transforms of
Distributions, Springer, 1990.
See Also
fourier | ilaplace | iztrans | laplace | ztrans
4-589
igamma
Incomplete gamma function
Syntax
igamma(nu,z)
Description
igamma(nu,z) returns the incomplete gamma function.
igamma uses the definition of the upper incomplete gamma function. See Upper
Incomplete Gamma Function on page 4-592. The MATLAB gammainc function
uses the definition of the lower incomplete gamma function, gammainc(z, nu) = 1
- igamma(nu, z)/gamma(nu). The order of input arguments differs between these
functions.
Examples
Compute the Incomplete Gamma Function for Numeric and Symbolic
Arguments
Depending on its arguments, igamma returns floating-point or exact symbolic results.
Compute the incomplete gamma function for these numbers. Because these numbers are
A = [igamma(0, 1), igamma(3, sqrt(2)), igamma(pi, exp(1)), igamma(3, Inf)]
A =
0.2194
1.6601
1.1979
Compute the incomplete gamma function for the numbers converted to symbolic objects:
symA = [igamma(sym(0), 1), igamma(3, sqrt(sym(2))),...
4-590
igamma
igamma(sym(pi), exp(sym(1))), igamma(3, sym(Inf))]

symA =
[ -ei(-1), exp(-2^(1/2))*(2*2^(1/2) + 4), igamma(pi, exp(1)), 0]

vpa(symA)
ans =
[ 0.21938393439552027367716377546012,...
1.6601049038903044104826564373576,...
1.1979302081330828196865548471769,...
0]
Compute the Lower Incomplete Gamma Function

igamma is implemented according to the definition of the upper incomplete gamma
function. If you want to compute the lower incomplete gamma function, convert results
returned by igamma as follows.
Compute the lower incomplete gamma function for these arguments using the MATLAB
gammainc function:
A = [-5/3, -1/2, 0, 1/3];
gammainc(A, 1/3)
ans =
1.1456 + 1.9842i
0.5089 + 0.8815i
0.0000 + 0.0000i
0.7175 + 0.0000i
Compute the lower incomplete gamma function for the same arguments using igamma:
1 - igamma(1/3, A)/gamma(1/3)
ans =
1.1456 + 1.9842i
0.5089 + 0.8815i
0.0000 + 0.0000i
0.7175 + 0.0000i
If one or both arguments are complex numbers, use igamma to compute the lower
incomplete gamma function. gammainc does not accept complex arguments.
1 - igamma(1/2, i)/gamma(1/2)
ans =
0.9693 + 0.4741i
4-591
Input Arguments
nu Input
z Input
More About
Upper Incomplete Gamma Function
The following integral defines the upper incomplete gamma function:
G (h, z ) = th -1e- t dt
Lower Incomplete Gamma Function

The following integral defines the lower incomplete gamma function:
z
g (h ,z ) = th -1 e-t dt
0
Tips
The MATLAB gammainc function does not accept complex arguments. For complex
arguments, use igamma.
4-592
igamma
gammainc(z, nu) = 1 - igamma(nu, z)/gamma(nu) represents the lower

incomplete gamma function in terms of the upper incomplete gamma function.
igamma(nu,z) = gamma(nu)(1 - gammainc(z, nu)) represents the upper
incomplete gamma function in terms of the lower incomplete gamma function.
gammainc(z, nu, 'upper') = igamma(nu, z)/gamma(nu).
See Also
ei | erfc | factorial | gamma | gammainc | int
4-593
ilaplace
Inverse Laplace transform
Syntax
ilaplace(F,trans_var,eval_point)
Description
ilaplace(F,trans_var,eval_point) computes the inverse Laplace transform of F
with respect to the transformation variable trans_var at the point eval_point.
Input Arguments
F
Symbolic expression or function, vector or matrix of symbolic expressions or functions.
trans_var
the complex frequency variable.
Default: The variable s. If F does not contain s, then the default variable is determined
by symvar.
eval_point
called the time variable.
Default: The variable t. If t is the transformation variable of F, then the default
evaluation point is the variable x.
4-594
ilaplace
Examples
Compute the inverse Laplace transform of this expression with respect to the variable y
at the evaluation point x:
syms x y
F = 1/y^2;
ilaplace(F, y, x)
ans =
x
Compute the inverse Laplace transform of this expression calling the ilaplace function
with one argument. If you do not specify the transformation variable, ilaplace uses the
variable s.
syms a s x
F = 1/(s - a)^2;
ilaplace(F, x)
ans =
x*exp(a*x)
If you also do not specify the evaluation point, ilaplace uses the variable t:
ilaplace(F)
ans =
t*exp(a*t)
Compute the following inverse Laplace transforms that involve the Dirac and Heaviside
functions:
syms s t
ilaplace(1, s, t)
ans =
dirac(t)
ilaplace(exp(-2*s)/(s^2 + 1) + s/(s^3 + 1), s, t)
ans =
heaviside(t - 2)*sin(t - 2) - exp(-t)/3 +...
(exp(t/2)*(cos((3^(1/2)*t)/2) + 3^(1/2)*sin((3^(1/2)*t)/2)))/3
4-595
If ilaplace cannot find an explicit representation of the transform, it returns an

unevaluated call:
syms F(s) t
f = ilaplace(F, s, t)
f =
ilaplace(F(s), s, t)
laplace returns the original expression:

laplace(f, t, s)
ans =
F(s)
Find the inverse Laplace transform of this matrix. Use matrices of the same size to
specify the transformation variable and evaluation point.
ilaplace([exp(x), 1; sin(y), i*z],[w, x; y, z],[a, b; c, d])
ans =
[
exp(x)*dirac(a),
dirac(b)]
[ ilaplace(sin(y), y, c), dirac(1, d)*i]
When the input arguments are nonscalars, ilaplace acts on them element-wise. If
ilaplace is called with both scalar and nonscalar arguments, then ilaplace expands
ilaplace(x,[x, w; y, z],[a, b; c, d])
ans =
[ dirac(1, a), x*dirac(b)]
[ x*dirac(c), x*dirac(d)]
f1(x) = exp(x);
f2(x) = x;
4-596
ilaplace
ilaplace([f1, f2],x,[a, b])

ans =
[ ilaplace(exp(x), x, a), dirac(1, b)]
More About
Inverse Laplace Transform
The inverse Laplace transform is defined by a contour integral in the complex plane:
f (t ) =
1
2p i
c+i
F ( s) e st ds.
c-i
Here, c is a suitable complex number.

Tips
If you call ilaplace with two arguments, it assumes that the second argument is the
If F is a matrix, ilaplace acts element-wise on all components of the matrix.
If eval_point is a matrix, ilaplace acts element-wise on all components of the
matrix.
To compute the direct Laplace transform, use laplace.
See Also
fourier | ifourier | iztrans | laplace | ztrans
4-597
imag
Imaginary part of complex number
Syntax
imag(z)
imag(A)
Description
imag(z) returns the imaginary part of z.
imag(A) returns the imaginary part of each element of A.
Input Arguments
z
A
Examples
Find the imaginary parts of these numbers. Because these numbers are not symbolic
[imag(2 + 3/2*i), imag(sin(5*i)), imag(2*exp(1 + i))]
ans =
1.5000
4-598
74.2032
4.5747
imag
Compute the imaginary parts of the numbers converted to symbolic objects:

[imag(sym(2) + 3/2*i), imag(4/(sym(1) + 3*i)),
imag(sin(sym(5)*i))]
ans =
[ 3/2, -6/5, sinh(5)]
Compute the imaginary part of this symbolic expression:

imag(sym('2*exp(1 + i)'))
ans =
2*exp(1)*sin(1)
In general, imag cannot extract the entire imaginary parts from symbolic expressions
containing variables. However, imag can rewrite and sometimes simplify the input
expression:
syms a x y
imag(a + 2)
imag(x + y*i)
ans =
imag(a)
ans =
imag(x) + real(y)
If you assign numeric values to these variables or if you specify that these variables are
real, imag can extract the imaginary part of the expression:
syms a
a = 5 + 3*i;
imag(a + 2)
ans =
3
syms x y real
imag(x + y*i)
ans =
y
Clear the assumption that x and y are real:

4-599
syms x y clear
Find the imaginary parts of the elements of matrix A:

A = sym('[-1 + i, sinh(x); exp(10 + 7*i), exp(pi*i)]');
imag(A)
ans =
[
1, imag(sinh(x))]
[ exp(10)*sin(7),
0]
Alternatives
You can compute the imaginary part of z via the conjugate: imag(z)= (z conj(z))/2i.
More About
Tips
Calling imag for a number that is not a symbolic object invokes the MATLAB imag
function.
See Also
conj | in | real | sign | signIm
4-600
in
in
Numeric type of symbolic input
Syntax
in(x,type)
Description
in(x,type) returns logical 1 (true) if the symbolic input x is of the specified type, and
logical 0 (false) if it is not of the specified type. When in(x,type) appears in output, it
expresses the logical condition that x is of the specified type.
Examples
Test if Numeric Input Is an Integer, Real, or Rational
Test if 5 is an integer, real, or rational. Since in only accepts symbolic inputs, convert 5
to a symbolic object using sym.
in(sym(5),'integer')
in(sym(5),'real')
in(sym(5),'rational')
ans =
1
ans =
1
ans =
1
in returns logical 1 (true) for all types, which means 5 is an integer, real, and rational.
Test if 1i is integer, real, or rational.
in(sym(1i),'integer')
4-601
in(sym(1i),'real')
in(sym(1i),'rational')
ans =
0
ans =
0
ans =
0
in returns logical 0 (false) for all types, which means 1i is not an integer, real, or
rational.
Test if the symbolic variable x is an integer, real, or rational.
syms x
in(x,'integer')
in(x,'real')
in(x,'rational')
ans =
in(x, 'integer')
ans =
in(x, 'real')
ans =
in(x, 'rational')
in cannot decide if x is of the specified types, and returns the function call.
Express Condition on Symbolic Variable or Expression

The syntax in(x,type) expresses the condition that x is of the specified type. Express
the condition that x is of type Real.
syms x
cond = in(x,'real')
cond =
in(x, 'real')
Evaluate the condition using isAlways. Because isAlways cannot determine the
condition, it issues a warning and returns logical 0 (false).
isAlways(cond)
4-602
in
Warning: Cannot prove 'in(x, 'real')'.

In sym.isAlways at 38
ans =
0
Assume the condition cond is true using assume, and evaluate the condition again. The
isAlways function returns logical 1 (true) indicating that the condition is true.
assume(cond)
isAlways(cond)
ans =
1
Clear the assumption on x to use it in further computations.

syms x clear
Express Conditions in Output

Functions such as solve use in in output to express conditions.
Solve the equation sin(x) == 0 using solve. Set the option ReturnConditions to
true to return conditions on the solution. The solve function uses in to express the
conditions.
[solx, params, conds] = solve(sin(x) == 0,'ReturnConditions',true)
solx =
pi*k
params =
k
conds =
in(k, 'integer')
The solution is pi*k with parameter k under the condition in(k, 'integer'). You can
use this condition to set an assumption for further computations.
assume(conds)
solve(solx>0, solx<2*pi, params)
ans =
1
Under the assumption, solve returns only integer values of k.

4-603
Clear the assumption on k to use it in further computations.

sym(params, 'clear')
Test if the Floating-Point Number is an Integer

Test if the floating-point numbers -1.0, 5.3, and Inf are integers. Since in only accepts
symbolic inputs, convert the numbers to symbolic objects using sym.
in(sym(-1.0),'integer')
in(sym(5.3),'integer')
in(sym(Inf),'integer')
ans =
1
ans =
0
ans =
in(Inf, 'integer')
in returns logical 1 (true) meaning -1.0 is an integer and logical 0 (false) meaning
5.3 is not an integer. The in function cannot decide if Inf is an integer and therefore
returns the function call. To return a logical output, use isAlways.
isAlways(in(sym(Inf),'integer'))
ans =
0
Test if the Symbolic Expression Is an Integer, Real, or Rational

Test if the expression expr1 is integer or real.
expr1 = sym(5 + 8i);
in(expr1,'integer')
in(expr1,'real')
ans =
0
ans =
0
in returns logical 0 (false) for both types, which means expr1 is not real or rational.
4-604
in
Test if expression expr2 is rational.

syms x y
expr2 = y*sin(x);
in(expr2,'rational')
ans =
in(y*sin(x), 'rational')
in returns the function call because it cannot decide if expr2 is rational.
Test If the Symbolic Function Is Real

Test if the symbolic function f is real.
syms f(x)
f(x) = 50*x;
y = in(f,'real')
y(x) =
in(50*x, 'real')
in returns the function call because it cannot decide if f is real.
Test if Elements of the Symbolic Matrix Are Rational

Create symbolic matrix M.
syms x y z
M = sym([1.22 i x; sin(y) 3*x 0; Inf sqrt(3) sym(22/7)])
M =
[ 61/50,
i,
x]
[ sin(y),
3*x,
0]
[
Inf, 3^(1/2), 22/7]
Test if the elements of M are rational. The in function acts on M element by element.
in(M,'rational')
ans =
[ in(61/50, 'rational'),
[ in(sin(y), 'rational'),
in(i, 'rational'),
in(3*x, 'rational'),
in(x, 'rational')]
in(0, 'rational')]
4-605
in(Inf, 'rational'), in(3^(1/2), 'rational'), in(22/7, 'rational')]
Though in can decide some elements of M, in returns the function call because the
matrix contains other elements that cannot be decided. The in function cannot partially
evaluate a matrix. To force a logical evaluation of all elements and return a logical
output, use isalways. Note that isalways returns logical 0 (false) for statements that
cannot be decided and issues a warning for those statements.
isAlways(in(M,'rational'))
Warning: Cannot prove 'in(sin(y), 'rational')'.
Warning: Cannot prove 'in(3*x, 'rational')'.
Warning: Cannot prove 'in(x, 'rational')'.
ans =
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
Input Arguments
x Symbolic input
symbolic number | symbolic vector | symbolic matrix | symbolic multidimensional array
| symbolic expression | symbolic function
Symbolic input, specified as a symbolic number, vector, matrix, multidimensional array,
expression, or function.
type Type of number
integer | rational | real
Type of number, specified as integer, rational, or real.
More About
Tips
in does not consider assumptions on symbolic variables.
in cannot partially evaluate a vector, matrix, or multidimensional array. If such an
input contains undecidable elements, then in does not evaluate any element of the
input. To force an evaluation, use isAlways on the function call to in, for example,
4-606
in
isAlways(in(x,'real')). See Test if Elements of the Symbolic Matrix Are

Rational on page 4-605.
See Also
assume | assumeAlso | false | imag | isalways | isequaln | isfinite | isinf

| logical | real | true
4-607
incidenceMatrix
Find incidence matrix of system of equations
Syntax
A = incidenceMatrix(eqs,vars)
Description
A = incidenceMatrix(eqs,vars) for m equations eqs and n variables vars returns
an m-by-n matrix A. Here, A(i,j) = 1 if eqs(i) contains vars(j) or any derivative of
vars(j). All other elements of A are 0s.
Examples
Incidence Matrix
Find the incidence matrix of a system of five equations in five variables.
Create the following symbolic vector eqs containing five symbolic differential equations.
syms y1(t) y2(t) y3(t) y4(t) y5(t) c1 c3
eqs = [diff(y1(t),t) == y2(t),...
diff(y2(t),t) == c1*y1(t) + c3*y3(t),...
diff(y3(t),t) == y2(t) + y4(t),...
diff(y4(t),t) == y3(t) + y5(t),...
diff(y5(t),t) == y4(t)];
Create the vector of variables. Here, c1 and c3 are symbolic parameters (not variables)
of the system.
vars = [y1(t), y2(t), y3(t), y4(t), y5(t)];
Find the incidence matrix A for the equations eqs and with respect to the variables vars.
A = incidenceMatrix(eqs, vars)
4-608
incidenceMatrix
A =
1
1
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
0
0
1
1
Input Arguments
eqs Equations
Equations, specified as a vector of symbolic equations or expressions.
vars Variables
vector of symbolic variables | vector of symbolic functions | vector of symbolic function
calls
Variables, specified as a vector of symbolic variables, symbolic functions, or function
calls, such as x(t).
Output Arguments
A Incidence matrix
matrix of double-precision values
Incidence matrix, returned as a matrix of double-precision values.
See Also
daeFunction | decic | findDecoupledBlocks | isLowIndexDAE

reduceDifferentialOrder | reduceRedundancies | spy
4-609
int
Definite and indefinite integrals
Syntax
int(expr,var)
int(expr,var,a,b)
int( ___ ,Name,Value)
Description
int(expr,var) computes the indefinite integral of expr with respect to the symbolic
scalar variable var. Specifying the variable var is optional. If you do not specify it, int
uses the default variable determined by symvar. If expr is a constant, then the default
variable is x.
int(expr,var,a,b) computes the definite integral of expr with respect to var from a to
b. If you do not specify it, int uses the default variable determined by symvar. If expr is
a constant, then the default variable is x.
int(expr,var,[a,b]), int(expr,var,[a b]), and int(expr,var,[a;b]) are
equivalent to int(expr,var,a,b).
int( ___ ,Name,Value) uses additional options specified by one or more Name,Value
pair arguments.
Examples
Indefinite Integral of a Univariate Expression
Find an indefinite integral of this univariate expression:
syms x
int(-2*x/(1 + x^2)^2)
4-610
int
ans =
1/(x^2 + 1)
Indefinite Integrals of a Multivariate Expression

Find indefinite integrals of this multivariate expression with respect to the variables x
and z:
syms x z
int(x/(1 + z^2), x)
int(x/(1 + z^2), z)
ans =
x^2/(2*(z^2 + 1))
ans =
x*atan(z)
If you do not specify the integration variable, int uses the variable returned by symvar.
For this expression, symvar returns x:
symvar(x/(1 + z^2), 1)
ans =
x
Definite Integrals of Univariate Expressions

Integrate this expression from 0 to 1:
syms x
int(x*log(1 + x), 0, 1)
ans =
1/4
Integrate this expression from sin(t) to 1 specifying the integration range as a vector:
syms x t
int(2*x, [sin(t), 1])
ans =
cos(t)^2
4-611
Integrals of Matrix Elements

Find indefinite integrals for the expressions listed as the elements of a matrix:
syms a x t z
int([exp(t), exp(a*t); sin(t), cos(t)])
ans =
[ exp(t), exp(a*t)/a]
[ -cos(t),
sin(t)]
Apply IgnoreAnalyticConstraints
Compute this indefinite integral. By default, int uses strict mathematical rules. These
rules do not let int rewrite asin(sin(x)) and acos(cos(x)) as x.
syms x
int(acos(sin(x)), x)
ans =
x*acos(sin(x)) + (x^2*sign(cos(x)))/2
If you want a simple practical solution, try IgnoreAnalyticConstraints:

int(acos(sin(x)), x, 'IgnoreAnalyticConstraints', true)
ans =
(x*(pi - x))/2
Ignore Special Cases

Compute this integral with respect to the variable x:
syms x t
int(x^t, x)
By default, int returns the integral as a piecewise object where every branch
corresponds to a particular value (or a range of values) of the symbolic parameter t:
ans =
piecewise([t == -1, log(x)], [t ~= -1, x^(t + 1)/(t + 1)])
To ignore special cases of parameter values, use IgnoreSpecialCases:

4-612
int
int(x^t, x, 'IgnoreSpecialCases', true)
With this option, int ignores the special case t=-1 and returns only the branch where
t<>1:
ans =
x^(t + 1)/(t + 1)
Find the Cauchy Principal Value

Compute this definite integral, where the integrand has a pole in the interior of the
interval of integration. Mathematically, this integral is not defined.
syms x
int(1/(x - 1), x, 0, 2)
ans =
NaN
However, the Cauchy principal value of the integral exists. Use PrincipalValue to
compute the Cauchy principal value of the integral:
int(1/(x - 1), x, 0, 2, 'PrincipalValue', true)
ans =
0
Approximate Indefinite Integrals

If int cannot compute a closed form of an integral, it returns an unresolved integral:
syms x
F = sin(sinh(x));
int(F, x)
ans =
int(sin(sinh(x)), x)
If int cannot compute a closed form of an indefinite integral, try to approximate the
expression around some point using taylor, and then compute the integral. For
example, approximate the expression around x = 0:
int(taylor(F, x, 'ExpansionPoint', 0, 'Order', 10), x)
ans =
4-613
x^10/56700 - x^8/720 - x^6/90 + x^2/2
Approximate Definite Integrals

Compute this definite integral:
syms x
F = int(cos(x)/sqrt(1 + x^2), x, 0, 10)
F =
int(cos(x)/(x^2 + 1)^(1/2), x, 0, 10)
If int cannot compute a closed form of a definite integral, try approximating that
integral numerically using vpa. For example, approximate F with five significant digits:
vpa(F, 5)
ans =
0.37571
Input Arguments
expr Integrand
symbolic expression | symbolic function | symbolic vector | symbolic matrix | symbolic
number
Integrand, specified as a symbolic expression or function, a constant, or a vector or
matrix of symbolic expressions, functions, or constants.
var Integration variable
symbolic variable
Integration variable, specified as a symbolic variable. If you do not specify this variable,
int uses the default variable determined by symvar(expr,1). If expr is a constant,
then the default variable is x.
a Lower bound
function
Lower bound, specified as a number, symbolic number, variable, expression or function
(including expressions and functions with infinities).
4-614
int
b Upper bound
function
Upper bound, specified as a number, symbolic number, variable, expression or function
(including expressions and functions with infinities).

Example: 'IgnoreAnalyticConstraints',true specifies that int applies purely
algebraic simplifications to the integrand.
'IgnoreAnalyticConstraints' Indicator for applying purely algebraic simplifications
to integrand
Indicator for applying purely algebraic simplifications to integrand, specified as true
or false. If the value is true, apply purely algebraic simplifications to the integrand.
This option can provide simpler results for expressions, for which the direct use of the
integrator returns complicated results. In some cases, it also enables int to compute
integrals that cannot be computed otherwise.
Note that using this option can lead to wrong or incomplete results.
'IgnoreSpecialCases' Indicator for ignoring special cases
Indicator for ignoring special cases, specified as true or false. If the value is true and
integration requires case analysis, ignore cases that require one or more parameters to
be elements of a comparatively small set, such as a fixed finite set or a set of integers.
'PrincipalValue' Indicator for returning principal value
Indicator for returning principal value, specified as true or false. If the value is true,
compute the Cauchy principal value of the integral.
4-615
More About
Tips
In contrast to differentiation, symbolic integration is a more complicated task. If int
cannot compute an integral of an expression, one of these reasons might apply:
The antiderivative does not exist in a closed form.
The antiderivative exists, but int cannot find it.
If int cannot compute a closed form of an integral, it returns an unresolved integral.
Try approximating such integrals by using one of these methods:
For indefinite integrals, use series expansions. Use this method to approximate an
integral around a particular value of the variable.
For definite integrals, use numeric approximations.
Results returned by int do not include integration constants.
For indefinite integrals, int implicitly assumes that the integration variable var is
real. For definite integrals, int restricts the integration variable var to the specified
integration interval. If one or both integration bounds a and b are not numeric, int
assumes that a <= b unless you explicitly specify otherwise.
Algorithms
When you use IgnoreAnalyticConstraints, int applies these rules:
(ab)c=acbc.
(ab)c=abc.
numbers, then f(g(x))=x is assumed to be valid for all complex values x. In particular:
log(ex)=x
4-616
int

Integration on page 2-12
See Also
diff | symprod | symsum | symvar
4-617
int8int16int32int64
Convert symbolic matrix to signed integers
Syntax
int8(S)
int16(S)
int32(S)
int64(S)
Description
int8(S) converts a symbolic matrix S to a matrix of signed 8-bit integers.
int16(S) converts S to a matrix of signed 16-bit integers.
Note The output of int8, int16, int32, and int64 does not have data type symbolic.
The following table summarizes the output of these four functions.
Function
Output Range
Output Type
Bytes per
Element
Output Class
int8
-128 to 127
Signed 8-bit
integer
int8
int16
-32,768 to 32,767
Signed 16-bit
integer
int16
int32
-2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647
Signed 32-bit
integer
int32
int64
-9,223,372,036,854,775,808 to
9,223,372,036,854,775,807
Signed 64-bit
integer
int64
4-618
int8int16int32int64
See Also
sym | vpa | single | uint8 | double | uint16 | uint32 | uint64
4-619
inv
Compute symbolic matrix inverse
Syntax
R = inv(A)
Description
R = inv(A) returns inverse of the symbolic matrix A.
Examples
Compute the inverse of the following matrix of symbolic numbers:
A = sym([2,-1,0;-1,2,-1;0,-1,2]);
inv(A)
ans =
[ 3/4, 1/2, 1/4]
[ 1/2,
1, 1/2]
[ 1/4, 1/2, 3/4]
Compute the inverse of the following symbolic matrix:

syms a b c d
A = [a b; c d];
inv(A)
ans =
[ d/(a*d - b*c), -b/(a*d - b*c)]
[ -c/(a*d - b*c), a/(a*d - b*c)]
Compute the inverse of the symbolic Hilbert matrix:

inv(sym(hilb(4)))
ans =
4-620
inv
[
16, -120,
240, -140]
[ -120, 1200, -2700, 1680]
[ 240, -2700, 6480, -4200]
[ -140, 1680, -4200, 2800]
See Also
eig | det | rank
4-621
isAlways
Check whether equation or inequality holds for all values of its variables
Compatibility
isAlways issues a warning when returning false for undecidable inputs. To suppress the
warning, set the Unknown option to false as isAlways(cond,'Unknown','false').
For details, see Handle Output for Undecidable Conditions on page 4-623.
Syntax
isAlways(cond)
isAlways(cond,Name,Value)
Description
isAlways(cond) checks if the condition cond is valid for all possible values of the
symbolic variables in cond. When verifying cond, the isAlways function considers all
assumptions on the variables in cond. If the condition holds, isAlways returns logical 1
(true). Otherwise it returns logical 0 (false).
isAlways(cond,Name,Value) uses additional options specified by one or more
Examples
Test a Condition
Check if this inequality is valid for all values of x.
syms x
isAlways(abs(x) >= 0)
4-622
isAlways
ans =
1
isAlways returns logical 1 (true) indicating that the inequality abs(x) >= 0 is valid
for all values of x.
Check if this equation is valid for all values of x.
isAlways(sin(x)^2 + cos(x)^2 == 1)
ans =
1
isAlways returns logical 1 (true) indicating that the inequality is valid for all values of
x.
Test if One of Several Conditions Is Valid

Check if at least one of these two conditions is valid. To check if at least one of several
conditions is valid, combine them using the logical operator or or its shortcut |.
syms x
isAlways(sin(x)^2 + cos(x)^2 == 1 | x^2 > 0)
ans =
1
Check if both conditions are valid. To check if several conditions are valid, combine them
using the logical operator and or its shortcut &.
isAlways(sin(x)^2 + cos(x)^2 == 1 & abs(x) > 2*abs(x))
ans =
0
Handle Output for Undecidable Conditions

Test this condition. When isAlways cannot determine if the condition is valid, it returns
logical 0 (false) and issues a warning by default.
syms x
isAlways(2*x >= x)
4-623
Warning: Cannot prove 'x <= 2*x'.

ans =
0
To change this default behavior, use Unknown. For example, specify Unknown as false
to suppress the warning and make isAlways return logical 0 (false) if it cannot
determine the validity of the condition.
isAlways(2*x >= x,'Unknown','false')
ans =
0
Instead of false, you can also specify error to return an error, and true to return
logical 1 (true).
Test a Condition with Assumptions

Check this inequality under the assumption that x is positive. When isAlways tests an
equation or inequality, it takes into account assumptions on variables in that equation or
inequality.
syms x
assume(x < 0)
isAlways(2*x < x)
ans =
1
For further computations, clear the assumption on x.

syms x clear
Input Arguments
cond Condition to check
symbolic condition | vector of symbolic conditions | matrix of symbolic conditions |
multidimensional array of symbolic conditions
Condition to check, specified as a symbolic condition, or a vector, matrix, or
multidimensional array of symbolic conditions.
4-624
isAlways

Example: isAlways(cond,'Unknown',true) makes isAlways return logical 1 (true)
when the specified condition cannot be decided.
'Unknown' Return value for undecidable condition
falseWithWarning (default) | false | true | error
Return value for an undecidable condition, specified as the comma-separated pair of
'Unknown' and one of these values.
falseWithWarning (default)
On undecidable inputs, return logical 0

(false) and a warning that the condition
cannot be proven.
false

(false).
true

(true).
error
On undecidable inputs, return an error.
More About
See Also
assume | assumeAlso | assumptions | in | isequaln | isfinite | isinf | isnan

| logical | sym | syms
4-625
isequaln
Test symbolic objects for equality, treating NaN values as equal
Syntax
isequaln(A,B)
isequaln(A1,A2,...,An)
Description
isequaln(A,B) returns logical 1 (true) if A and B are the same size and their contents
are of equal value. Otherwise, isequaln returns logical 0 (false). All NaN (not a number)
values are considered to be equal to each other. isequaln recursively compares the
contents of symbolic data structures and the properties of objects. If all contents in the
respective locations are equal, isequaln returns logical 1 (true).
isequaln(A1,A2,...,An) returns logical 1 (true) if all the inputs are equal.
Examples
Compare Two Expressions
Use isequaln to compare these two expressions:
syms x
isequaln(abs(x), x)
ans =
0
For positive x, these expressions are identical:

assume(x > 0)
isequaln(abs(x), x)
ans =
1
4-626
isequaln
For further computations, remove the assumption:

syms x clear
Compare Two Matrices

Use isequaln to compare these two matrices:
A = hilb(3);
B = sym(A);
isequaln(A, B)
ans =
1
Compare Vectors Containing NaN Values

Use isequaln to compare these vectors:
syms x
A1 = [x NaN NaN];
A2 = [x NaN NaN];
A3 = [x NaN NaN];
isequaln(A1, A2, A3)
ans =
1
Input Arguments
A,B Inputs to compare
symbolic numbers | symbolic variables | symbolic expressions | symbolic functions |
symbolic vectors | symbolic matrices
Inputs to compare, specified as symbolic numbers, variables, expressions, functions,
vectors, or matrices. If one of the arguments is a symbolic object and the other one is
numeric, the toolbox converts the numeric object to symbolic before comparing them.
A1,A2,...,An Series of inputs to compare
symbolic numbers | symbolic variables | symbolic expressions | symbolic functions |
symbolic vectors | symbolic matrices
4-627
Series of inputs to compare, specified as symbolic numbers, variables, expressions,

functions, vectors, or matrices. If at least one of the arguments is a symbolic object, the
toolbox converts all other arguments to symbolic objects before comparing them.
More About
Tips
Calling isequaln for arguments that are not symbolic objects invokes the MATLAB
isequaln function. If one of the arguments is symbolic, then all other arguments are
converted to symbolic objects before comparison.
See Also
in | isAlways | isequaln | isfinite | isinf | isnan | logical
4-628
isfinite
isfinite
Check whether symbolic array elements are finite
Syntax
isfinite(A)
Description
isfinite(A) returns an array of the same size as A containing logical 1s (true) where
the elements of A are finite, and logical 0s (false) where they are not. For a complex
number, isfinite returns 1 if both the real and imaginary parts of that number are
finite. Otherwise, it returns 0.
Examples
Determine Which Elements of a Symbolic Array Are Finite Values
Using isfinite, determine which elements of this symbolic matrix are finite values:
isfinite(sym([pi NaN Inf; 1 + i Inf + i NaN + i]))
ans =
1
1
0
0
0
0
Determine If the Exact and Approximated Values Are Finite

Approximate these symbolic values with the 50-digit accuracy:
V = sym([pi, 2*pi, 3*pi, 4*pi]);
V_approx = vpa(V, 50);
The cotangents of the exact values are not finite:

cot(V)
4-629
isfinite(cot(V))
ans =
[ Inf, Inf, Inf, Inf]
ans =
0
Nevertheless, the cotangents of the approximated values are finite due to the round-off
errors:
isfinite(cot(V_approx))
ans =
1
Input Arguments
A Input value
symbolic array | symbolic vector | symbolic matrix
Input value, specified as a symbolic number, variable, expression, or function, or as an
array, vector, or matrix of symbolic numbers, variables, expressions, functions.
More About
Tips
For any A, exactly one of the three quantities isfinite(A), isinf(A), or isnan(A)
is 1 for each element.
Elements of A are recognized as finite if they are
Not symbolic NaN
Not symbolic Inf or -Inf
Not sums or products containing symbolic infinities Inf or -Inf
See Also
in | isAlways | isequaln | isinf | isnan | logical

4-630
isinf
isinf
Check whether symbolic array elements are infinite
Syntax
isinf(A)
Description
isinf(A) returns an array of the same size as A containing logical 1s (true) where
the elements of A are infinite, and logical 0s (false) where they are not. For a complex
number, isinf returns 1 if the real or imaginary part of that number is infinite or both
real and imaginary parts are infinite. Otherwise, it returns 0.
Examples
Determine Which Elements of a Symbolic Array Are Infinite
Using isinf, determine which elements of this symbolic matrix are infinities:
isinf(sym([pi NaN Inf; 1 + i Inf + i NaN + i]))
ans =
0
0
0
1
1
0
Determine If the Exact and Approximated Values Are Infinite

Approximate these symbolic values with the 50-digit accuracy:
V = sym([pi, 2*pi, 3*pi, 4*pi]);
V_approx = vpa(V, 50);
The cotangents of the exact values are infinite:

cot(V)
4-631
isinf(cot(V))
ans =
[ Inf, Inf, Inf, Inf]
ans =
1
Nevertheless, the cotangents of the approximated values are not infinite due to the
round-off errors:
isinf(cot(V_approx))
ans =
0
Input Arguments
A Input value
More About
Tips
The elements of A are recognized as infinite if they are
Symbolic Inf or -Inf
Sums or products containing symbolic Inf or -Inf and not containing the value
NaN.
See Also
in | isAlways | isequaln | isfinite | isnan | logical

4-632
isLowIndexDAE
isLowIndexDAE
Check if differential index of system of equations is lower than 2
Syntax
Description
isLowIndexDAE(eqs,vars) checks if the system eqs of first-order semilinear
differential algebraic equations (DAEs) has a low differential index. If the differential
index of the system is 0 or 1, then isLowIndexDAE returns logical 1 (true). If the
differential index of eqs is higher than 1, then isLowIndexDAE returns logical 0 (false).
The number of equations eqs must match the number of variables vars.
Examples
Check Differential Index of a DAE System
Check if a system of first-order semilinear DAEs has a low differential index (0 or 1).
Create the following system of two differential algebraic equations. Here, x(t) and y(t)
are the state variables of the system. Specify the equations and variables as two symbolic
function calls.
syms x(t) y(t)
eqs = [diff(x(t),t) == x(t) + y(t), x(t)^2 + y(t)^2 == 1];
vars = [x(t), y(t)];
Use isLowIndexDAE to check the differential order of the system. The differential order
of this system is 1. For systems of index 0 and 1, isLowIndexDAE returns 1 (true).
isLowIndexDAE(eqs, vars)
4-633
ans =
1
Reduce Differential Index of a DAE System

Check if the following DAE system has a low or high differential index. If the index is
higher than 1, then use reduceDAEIndex to reduce it.
Create the following system of two differential algebraic equations. Here, x(t), y(t),
and z(t) are the state variables of the system. Specify the equations and variables as
two symbolic vectors: equations as a vector of symbolic equations, and variables as a
vector of symbolic function calls.
syms x(t) y(t) z(t) f(t)
eqs = [diff(x(t),t) == x(t) + z(t),...
diff(y(t),t) == f(t), x(t) == y(t)];
vars = [x(t), y(t), z(t)];
Use isLowIndexDAE to check the differential index of the system. For this system
isLowIndexDAE returns 0 (false). This means that the differential index of the system
is 2 or higher.
ans =
0
Use reduceDAEIndex to rewrite the system so that the differential index is 1. Calling
this function with four output arguments also shows the differential index of the original
system. The new system has one additional state variable, Dyt(t).
[newEqs, newVars, ~, oldIndex] = reduceDAEIndex(eqs, vars)
newEqs =
diff(x(t), t) - z(t)
Dyt(t)
x(t)
diff(x(t), t) newVars =
x(t)
y(t)
z(t)
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- x(t)
- f(t)
- y(t)
Dyt(t)
isLowIndexDAE
Dyt(t)
oldIndex =
2
Check if the differential order of the new system is lower than 2.

isLowIndexDAE(newEqs, newVars)
ans =
1
Input Arguments
eqs System of first-order semilinear differential algebraic equations
System of first-order semilinear differential algebraic equations, specified as a vector of
symbolic equations or expressions.
Example: [x(t),y(t)]
See Also
daeFunction | decic | findDecoupledBlocks | incidenceMatrix

4-635
isnan
Check whether symbolic array elements are NaNs
Syntax
isnan(A)
Description
isnan(A) returns an array of the same size as A containing logical 1s (true) where the
elements of A are symbolic NaNs, and logical 0s (false) where they are not.
Examples
Determine Which Elements of a Symbolic Array Are NaNs
Using isnan, determine which elements of this symbolic matrix are NaNs:
isnan(sym([pi NaN Inf; 1 + i Inf + i NaN + i]))
ans =
0
0
1
0
0
1
Input Arguments
A Input value
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isnan
More About
Tips
Symbolic expressions and functions containing NaN evaluate to NaN. For example,
sym(NaN + i) returns symbolic NaN.
See Also
isAlways | isequaln | isfinite | isinf | logical
4-637
iztrans
Inverse Z-transform
Syntax
iztrans(F,trans_index,eval_point)
Description
iztrans(F,trans_index,eval_point) computes the inverse Z-transform of F with
respect to the transformation index trans_index at the point eval_point.
Input Arguments
F
functions.
trans_index
Symbolic variable representing the transformation index. This variable is often called the
complex frequency variable.
Default: The variable z. If F does not contain z, then the default variable is determined
by symvar.
eval_point
called the discrete time variable.
Default: The variable n. If n is the transformation index of F, then the default
evaluation point is the variable k.
4-638
iztrans
Examples
Compute the inverse Z-transform of this expression with respect to the transformation
index x at the evaluation point k:
syms k x
F = 2*x/(x - 2)^2;
iztrans(F, x, k)
ans =
2^k + 2^k*(k - 1)
Compute the inverse Z-transform of this expression calling the iztrans function with
one argument. If you do not specify the transformation index, iztrans uses the variable
z.
syms z a k
F = exp(a/z);
iztrans(F, k)
ans =
a^k/factorial(k)
If you also do not specify the evaluation point, iztrans uses the variable n:
iztrans(F)
ans =
a^n/factorial(n)
Compute the inverse Z-transforms of these expressions. The results involve the
Kroneckers delta function.
syms n z
iztrans(1/z, z, n)
ans =
kroneckerDelta(n - 1, 0)
iztrans((z^3 + 3*z^2 + 6*z + 5)/z^5, z, n)
ans =
kroneckerDelta(n - 2, 0) + 3*kroneckerDelta(n - 3, 0) +...
6*kroneckerDelta(n - 4, 0) + 5*kroneckerDelta(n - 5, 0)
4-639
If iztrans cannot find an explicit representation of the transform, it returns an

unevaluated call:
syms F(z) n
f = iztrans(F, z, n)
f =
iztrans(F(z), z, n)
ztrans returns the original expression:

ztrans(f, n, z)
ans =
F(z)
Find the inverse Z-transform of this matrix. Use matrices of the same size to specify the
iztrans([exp(x), 1; sin(y), i*z],[w, x; y, z],[a, b; c, d])
ans =
[ exp(x)*kroneckerDelta(a, 0), kroneckerDelta(b, 0)]
[
iztrans(sin(y), y, c),
iztrans(z, z, d)*i]
When the input arguments are nonscalars, iztrans acts on them element-wise. If
iztrans is called with both scalar and nonscalar arguments, then iztrans expands
iztrans(x,[x, w; y, z],[a, b; c, d])
ans =
[
iztrans(x, x, a), x*kroneckerDelta(b, 0)]
[ x*kroneckerDelta(c, 0), x*kroneckerDelta(d, 0)]
f1(x) = exp(x);
f2(x) = x;
4-640
iztrans
iztrans([f1, f2],x,[a, b])

ans =
[ iztrans(exp(x), x, a), iztrans(x, x, b)]
More About
Inverse Z-Transform
If R is a positive number, such that the function F(z) is analytic on and outside the circle
|z|=R, then the inverse Z-transform is defined as follows:
f (n ) =
1
2p i
F ( z) zn -1dz,
n = 0, 1, 2 ...
z =R
Tips
If you call iztrans with two arguments, it assumes that the second argument is the
If F is a matrix, iztrans acts element-wise on all components of the matrix.
If eval_point is a matrix, iztrans acts element-wise on all components of the matrix.
To compute the direct Z-transform, use ztrans.
See Also
fourier | ifourier | ilaplace | kroneckerDelta | laplace | ztrans
4-641
jacobian
Jacobian matrix
Syntax
jacobian(f,v)
Description
jacobian(f,v) computes the Jacobian matrix of f with respect to v. The (i,j) element of
f ( i )
the result is
.
v ( j )
Examples
Jacobian of a Vector Function
The Jacobian of a vector function is a matrix of the partial derivatives of that function.
Compute the Jacobian matrix of [x*y*z, y^2, x + z] with respect to [x, y, z].
syms x y z
jacobian([x*y*z, y^2, x + z], [x, y, z])
ans =
[ y*z, x*z, x*y]
[
0, 2*y,
0]
[
1,
0,
1]
Now, compute the Jacobian of [x*y*z, y^2, x + z] with respect to [x; y; z].
jacobian([x*y*z, y^2, x + z], [x; y; z])
Jacobian of a Scalar Function

The Jacobian of a scalar function is the transpose of its gradient.
4-642
jacobian
Compute the Jacobian of 2*x + 3*y + 4*z with respect to [x, y, z].
syms x y z
jacobian(2*x + 3*y + 4*z, [x, y, z])
ans =
[ 2, 3, 4]
Now, compute the gradient of the same expression.

gradient(2*x + 3*y + 4*z, [x, y, z])
ans =
2
3
4
Jacobian with Respect to a Scalar

The Jacobian of a function with respect to a scalar is the first derivative of that function.
For a vector function, the Jacobian with respect to a scalar is a vector of the first
derivatives.
Compute the Jacobian of [x^2*y, x*sin(y)] with respect to x.
syms x y
jacobian([x^2*y, x*sin(y)], x)
ans =
2*x*y
sin(y)
Now, compute the derivatives.

diff([x^2*y, x*sin(y)], x)
ans =
[ 2*x*y, sin(y)]
Input Arguments
f Scalar or vector function
symbolic expression | symbolic function | symbolic vector
4-643
Scalar or vector function, specified as a symbolic expression, function, or vector. If f is a

scalar, then the Jacobian matrix of f is the transposed gradient of f.
v Vector of variables with respect to which you compute Jacobian
symbolic variable | symbolic vector
Vector of variables with respect to which you compute Jacobian, specified as a symbolic
variable or vector of symbolic variables. If v is a scalar, then the result is equal to the
transpose of diff(f,v). If v is an empty symbolic object, such as sym([]), then
jacobian returns an empty symbolic object.
More About
Jacobian Matrix
The Jacobian matrix of the vector function f = (f1(x1,...,xn),...,fn(x1,...,xn)) is the matrix of
the derivatives of f:
f1
x
1
J ( x1 , xn ) = M
fn
x1
See Also
f1
xn
O
M
f n
L
xn
L
curl | diff | divergence | gradient | hessian | laplacian | potential |

vectorPotential
4-644
jacobiP
jacobiP
Jacobi polynomials
Syntax
jacobiP(n,a,b,x)
Description
jacobiP(n,a,b,x) returns the nth degree Jacobi Polynomial on page 4-650 with
parameters a and b at x.
Examples
Find Jacobi Polynomials for Numeric and Symbolic Inputs
Find the Jacobi polynomial of degree 2 for numeric inputs.
jacobiP(2,0.5,-3,6)
ans =
7.3438
Find the Jacobi polynomial for symbolic inputs.

syms n a b x
jacobiP(n,a,b,x)
ans =
jacobiP(n, a, b, x)
If the degree of the Jacobi polynomial is not specified, jacobiP cannot find the
polynomial and returns the function call.
Specify the degree of the Jacobi polynomial as 1 to return the form of the polynomial.
4-645
J = jacobiP(1,a,b,x)
J =
a/2 - b/2 + x*(a/2 + b/2 + 1)
To find the numeric value of a Jacobi polynomial, call jacobiP with the numeric values
directly. Do not substitute into the symbolic polynomial because the result can be
inaccurate due to round-off. Test this by using subs to substitute into the symbolic
polynomial, and compare the result with a numeric call.
J = jacobiP(300, -1/2, -1/2, x);
subs(J,x,vpa(1/2))
jacobiP(300, -1/2, -1/2, vpa(1/2))
ans =
101573673381249394050.64541318209
ans =
0.032559931334979678350422392588404
When subs is used to substitute into the symbolic polynomial, the numeric result is
subject to round-off error. The direct numerical call to jacobiP is accurate.
Find the Jacobi Polynomial with Vector and Matrix Inputs

Find the Jacobi polynomials of degrees 1 and 2 by setting n = [1 2] for a = 3 and b =
1.
syms x
jacobiP([1 2],3,1,x)
ans =
[ 3*x + 1, 7*x^2 + (7*x)/2 - 1/2]
jacobiP acts on n element-wise to return a vector with two entries.

If multiple inputs are specified as a vector, matrix, or multidimensional array, these
inputs must be the same size. Find the Jacobi polynomials for a = [1 2;3 1], b = [2
2;1 3], n = 1 and x.
a = [1 2;3 1];
b = [2 2;1 3];
J = jacobiP(1,a,b,x)
4-646
jacobiP
J =
[ (5*x)/2 - 1/2,
3*x]
[
3*x + 1, 3*x - 1]
jacobiP acts element-wise on a and b to return a matrix of the same size as a and b.
Visualize Zeros of Jacobi Polynomials

Plot Jacobi polynomials of degree 1, 2, and 3 for a = 3, b = 3, and -1<x<1. To better
view the plot, set y-axis limits to -2<y<2 using ylim.
syms x
hold on
grid on
for n = 1:3
ezplot(jacobiP(n,3,3,x),[-1 1])
end
ylim([-2 2]);
ylabel('P_n^{(\alpha,\beta)}(x)')
title('Zeros of Jacobi polynomials of degree=1,2,3 with a=3 and b=3');
legend('1','2','3','Location','best')
4-647
Prove Orthogonality of Jacobi Polynomials with Respect to the Weight

Function
The Jacobi polynomials P(n,a,b,x) are orthogonal with respect to the weight function
(1 - x )a ( 1 - x )b
on the interval [-1,1].
Prove P(3,a,b,x) and P(5,a,b,x) are orthogonal with respect to the weight function
(1 - x )a ( 1 - x )b
and b = 7.2.
syms x
4-648
by integrating their product over the interval [-1,1], where a = 3.5
jacobiP
a = 3.5;
b = 7.2;
P3 = jacobiP(3, a, b, x);
P5 = jacobiP(5, a, b, x);
w = (1-x)â*(1+x)^b;
int(P3*P5*w, x, -1, 1)
ans =
0
Input Arguments
n Degree of Jacobi polynomial
nonnegative integer | vector of nonnegative integers | matrix of nonnegative integers
| multidimensional array of nonnegative integers | symbolic nonnegative integer |
expression | symbolic multidimensional array
Degree of Jacobi polynomial, specified as a nonnegative integer, or a vector, matrix,
or multidimensional array of nonnegative integers, or a symbolic nonnegative integer,
variable, vector, matrix, function, expression, or multidimensional array.
a Input
number | vector | matrix | multidimensional array | symbolic number | symbolic
vector | symbolic matrix | symbolic function | symbolic expression | symbolic
multidimensional array
Input, specified as a number, vector, matrix, multidimensional array, or a symbolic
number, vector, matrix, function, expression, or multidimensional array.
b Input
number, vector, matrix, function, expression, or multidimensional array.
x Evaluation point
4-649
Evaluation point, specified as a number, vector, matrix, multidimensional array, or a

symbolic number, vector, matrix, function, expression, or multidimensional array.
More About
Jacobi Polynomial
The Jacobi polynomials are given by the recursion formula
2 ncn c2n -2 P ( n, a, b, x) = c2n -1 c2n -2 c2 n x + a2 - b 2 P ( n - 1, a, b, x)

- 2 ( n - 1 + a) ( n - 1 + b ) c2 n P ( n - 2, a, b, x) ,
where
cn = n + a + b
P ( 0, a, b, x ) = 1
P (1, a, b, x ) =
a-b
a+b
+ 1 +
x.
2
2
For fixed real a>-1 and b>-1, the Jacobi polynomials are orthogonal on the interval
[-1,1] with respect to the weight function w ( x) = (1 - x )
( 1 + x) b .
For a=0 and b=0, the Jacobi polynomials P(n,0,0,x) reduce to the Legendre polynomials
P(n, x).
The relation between Jacobi polynomials P(n,a,b,x) and Chebyshev polynomials of the
first kind T(n,x) is
T ( n, x) =
2 2n ( n !)
( 2 n) !
1 1
P n, - , - , x .
2 2
The relation between Jacobi polynomials P(n,a,b,x) and Chebyshev polynomials of the
second kind U(n,x) is
U ( n, x) =
4-650
2 2n n ! ( n + 1 ) !
( 2n + 1 ) !
1 1
P n, , , x .
2 2
jacobiP
The relation between Jacobi poynomials P(n,a,b,x) and Gegenbauer polynomials G(n,a,x)
is
G a + G (n + 2a )
2
1
1
G ( n, a, x ) =
P n, a - , a - , x .
1
2
2
G ( 2a ) G n + a +
2
See Also
chebyshevT | chebyshevU | gegenbauerC | hermiteH | hypergeom | laguerreL |

legendreP
4-651
jordan
Jordan form of matrix
Syntax
J = jordan(A)
[V,J] = jordan(A)
Description
J = jordan(A) computes the Jordan canonical form (also called Jordan normal form)
of a symbolic or numeric matrix A. The Jordan form of a numeric matrix is extremely
sensitive to numerical errors. To compute Jordan form of a matrix, represent the
elements of the matrix by integers or ratios of small integers, if possible.
[V,J] = jordan(A) computes the Jordan form J and the similarity transform V. The
matrix V contains the generalized eigenvectors of A as columns, and V\A*V = J.
Examples
Compute the Jordan form and the similarity transform for this numeric matrix. Verify
that the resulting matrix V satisfies the condition V\A*V = J:
A = [1 -3 -2; -1 1 -1; 2 4 5]
[V, J] = jordan(A)
V\A*V
A =
1
-1
2
-3
1
4
-2
-1
5
-1
-1
2
1
0
0
-1
0
1
V =
4-652
jordan
J =
2
0
0
1
2
0
0
0
3
1
2
0
0
0
3
ans =
2
0
0
See Also
charpoly | eig | inv
4-653
kroneckerDelta
Kronecker delta function
Syntax
kroneckerDelta(m)
kroneckerDelta(m,n)
Description
kroneckerDelta(m) returns 1 if m == 0 and 0 if m ~= 0.
kroneckerDelta(m,n) returns 1 if m == n and 0 if m ~= n.
Examples
Compare Two Symbolic Variables
Set symbolic variable m equal to symbolic variable n and test their equality using
kroneckerDelta.
syms m n
m = n;
kroneckerDelta(m, n)
ans =
1
kroneckerDelta returns 1 indicating that the inputs are equal.

Compare symbolic variables p and q.
syms p q
kroneckerDelta(p, q)
ans =
4-654
kroneckerDelta
kroneckerDelta(p - q, 0)
kroneckerDelta cannot decide if p == q and returns the function call with the
undecidable input. Note that kroneckerDelta(p, q) is equal to kroneckerDelta(p
- q, 0).
To force a logical result for undecidable inputs, use isAlways. The isAlways function
issues a warning and returns logical 0 (false) for undecidable inputs. Set the Unknown
option to false to suppress the warning.
isAlways(kroneckerDelta(p, q), 'Unknown', 'false')
ans =
0
Compare the Symbolic Variable with Zero

Set symbolic variable m to 0 and test m for equality with 0. The kroneckerDelta
function errors because it does not accept numeric inputs of type double.
m = 0;
kroneckerDelta(m)
Undefined function 'kroneckerDelta' for input arguments of type 'double'.
Use sym to convert 0 to a symbolic object before assigning it to m. This is because

kroneckerDelta only accepts symbolic inputs.
syms m
m = sym(0);
kroneckerDelta(m)
ans =
1
kroneckerDelta returns 1 indicating that m is equal to 0. Note that

kroneckerDelta(m) is equal to kroneckerDelta(m, 0).
Compare a Vector of Numbers with a Symbolic Variable

Compare a vector of numbers [1 2 3 4] with symbolic variable m. Set m to 3.
V = 1:4
4-655
syms m
m = sym(3)
sol = kroneckerDelta(V, m)
V =
1
2
m =
3
sol =
[ 0, 0, 1, 0]
kroneckerDelta acts on V element-wise to return a vector, sol, which is the same size
as V. The third element of sol is 1 indicating that the third element of V equals m.
Compare Two Matrices

Compare matrices A and B.
Declare matrices A and B.
syms m
A = [m m+1 m+2;m-2 m-1 m]
B = [m m+3 m+2;m-1 m-1 m+1]
A
[
[
B
[
[
=
m,
m - 2,
=
m,
m - 1,
m + 1, m + 2]
m - 1,
m]
m + 3, m + 2]
m - 1, m + 1]
Compare A and B using kroneckerDelta.

sol = kroneckerDelta(A, B)
sol =
[ 1, 0, 1]
[ 0, 1, 0]
kroneckerDelta acts on A and B element-wise to return the matrix sol which is the
same size as A and B. The elements of sol that are 1 indicate that the corresponding
elements of A and B are equal. The elements of sol that are 0 indicate that the
corresponding elements of A and B are not equal.
4-656
kroneckerDelta
Use kroneckerDelta in Inputs to Other Functions

kroneckerDelta appears in the output of iztrans.
syms z n
sol = iztrans(1/(z-1), z, n)
sol =
1 - kroneckerDelta(n, 0)
Use this output as input to ztrans to return the initial input expression.
ztrans(sol, n, z)
ans =
z/(z - 1) - 1
Filter Response to Kronecker Delta Input

Use filter to find the response of a filter when the input is the Kronecker Delta
function. Convert k to a symbolic vector using sym because kroneckerDelta only
accepts symbolic inputs, and convert it back to double using double. Provide arbitrary
filter coefficients a and b for simplicity.
b = [0 1 1];
a = [1 -0.5 0.3];
k = -20:20;
x = double(kroneckerDelta(sym(k)));
y = filter(b,a,x);
plot(k,y)
4-657
Input Arguments
m Input
number | vector | matrix | multidimensional array | symbolic number | symbolic vector
| symbolic matrix | symbolic function | symbolic multidimensional array
number, vector, matrix, function, or multidimensional array. At least one of the inputs, m
or n, must be symbolic.
4-658
kroneckerDelta
n Input
number, vector, matrix, function, or multidimensional array. At least one of the inputs, m
or n, must be symbolic.
More About
Kronecker Delta Function
The Kronecker delta function is defined as
0 if m n
d ( m, n ) =
1 if m = n
Tips
When m or n is NaN, the kroneckerDelta function returns NaN.
See Also
iztrans | ztrans
4-659
kummerU
Confluent hypergeometric Kummer U function
Syntax
kummerU(a,b,z)
Description
kummerU(a,b,z) computes the value of confluent hypergeometric function, U(a,b,z).
If the real parts of z and a are positive values, then the integral representations of the
Kummer U function is as follows:
U ( a, b, z ) =
1
b-a -1
e-zt ta -1 (1 + t )
dt
G (a )
Examples
Equation Returning the Kummer U Function as Its Solution
dsolve can return solutions of second-order ordinary differential equations in terms of
the Kummer U function.
Solve this equation. The solver returns the results in terms of the Kummer U function
and another hypergeometric function.
syms t z y(z)
dsolve(z^3*diff(y,2) + (z^2 + t)*diff(y) + z*y)
ans =
(C3*hypergeom([i/2], [1 + i], t/(2*z^2)))/zî + (C2*kummerU(i/2, 1 + i, t/(2*z^2)))/zî
4-660
kummerU
Kummer U Function for Numeric and Symbolic Arguments

Depending on its arguments, kummerU can return floating-point or exact symbolic
results.
Compute the Kummer U function for these numbers. Because these numbers are not
A = [kummerU(-1/3, 2.5, 2)
kummerU(1/3, 2, pi)
kummerU(1/2, 1/3, 3*i)]
A =
0.8234 + 0.0000i
0.7284 + 0.0000i
0.4434 - 0.3204i
Compute the Kummer U function for the numbers converted to symbolic objects. For
most symbolic (exact) numbers, kummerU returns unresolved symbolic calls.
symA = [kummerU(-1/3, 2.5, sym(2))
kummerU(1/3, 2, sym(pi))
kummerU(1/2, sym(1/3), 3*i)]
symA =
kummerU(-1/3, 5/2, 2)
kummerU(1/3, 2, pi)
kummerU(1/2, 1/3, 3*i)
Use vpa to approximate symbolic results with the required number of digits.
vpa(symA,10)
ans =
0.8233667846
0.7284037305
0.4434362538 - 0.3204327531*i
Some Special Values of Kummer U

The Kummer U function has special values for some parameters.
If a is a negative integer, the Kummer U function reduces to a polynomial.
4-661
syms a b z
[kummerU(-1, b, z)
kummerU(-2, b, z)
kummerU(-3, b, z)]
ans =
z - b
b - 2*z*(b + 1) + b^2 + z^2
6*z*(b^2/2 + (3*b)/2 + 1) - 2*b - 6*z^2*(b/2 + 1) - 3*b^2 - b^3 + z^3
If b = 2*a, the Kummer U function reduces to an expression involving the modified

Bessel function of the second kind.
kummerU(a, 2*a, z)
ans =
(z^(1/2 - a)*exp(z/2)*besselk(a - 1/2, z/2))/pi^(1/2)
If a = 1 or a = b, the Kummer U function reduces to an expression involving the

incomplete gamma function.
kummerU(1, b, z)
ans =
z^(1 - b)*exp(z)*igamma(b - 1, z)
kummerU(a, a, z)
ans =
exp(z)*igamma(1 - a, z)
If a = 0, the Kummer U function is 1.

kummerU(0, a, z)
ans =
1
Handle Expressions Containing the Kummer U Function

Many functions, such as diff, int, and limit, can handle expressions containing
kummerU.
Find the first derivative of the Kummer U function with respect to z.
syms a b z
4-662
kummerU
diff(kummerU(a, b, z), z)
ans =
(a*kummerU(a + 1, b, z)*(a - b + 1))/z - (a*kummerU(a, b, z))/z
Find the indefinite integral of the Kummer U function with respect to z.

int(kummerU(a, b, z), z)
ans =
((b - 2)/(a - 1) - 1)*kummerU(a, b, z) +...
(kummerU(a + 1, b, z)*(a - a*b + a^2))/(a - 1) -...
(z*kummerU(a, b, z))/(a - 1)
Find the limit of this Kummer U function.

limit(kummerU(1/2, -1, z), z, 0)
ans =
4/(3*pi^(1/2))
Input Arguments
a Parameter of Kummer U function
Parameter of Kummer U function, specified as a number, variable, symbolic expression,
symbolic function, or vector.
b Parameter of Kummer U function
Parameter of Kummer U function, specified as a number, variable, symbolic expression,
symbolic function, or vector.
z Argument of Kummer U function
Argument of Kummer U function, specified as a number, variable, symbolic expression,
symbolic function, or vector. If z is a vector, kummerU(a,b,z) is evaluated element-wise.
4-663
More About
Confluent Hypergeometric Function (Kummer U Function)
The confluent hypergeometric function (Kummer U function) is one of the solutions of the
differential equation
z
2
2
y + ( b - z)
y - ay = 0
z
The other solution is the hypergeometric function 1F1(a,b,z).

The Whittaker W function can be expressed in terms of the Kummer U function:
Wa,b ( z ) = e- z
zb+1
U b - a + , 2b + 1, z
2
Tips
kummerU returns floating-point results for numeric arguments that are not symbolic
objects.
kummerU acts element-wise on nonscalar inputs.
All nonscalar arguments must have the same size. If one or two input arguments are
nonscalar, then kummerU expands the scalars into vectors or matrices of the same size
as the nonscalar arguments, with all elements equal to the corresponding scalar.
References
[1] Slater,L.J. Confluent Hypergeometric Functions. Handbook of Mathematical
See Also
hypergeom | whittakerM | whittakerW
4-664
laguerreL
laguerreL
Generalized Laguerre Function and Laguerre Polynomials
Syntax
laguerreL(n,x)
laguerreL(n,a,x)
Description
laguerreL(n,x) returns the Laguerre polynomial of degree n if n is a nonnegative
integer. When n is not a nonnegative integer, laguerreL returns the Laguerre function.
For details, see Generalized Laguerre Function on page 4-670.
laguerreL(n,a,x) returns the generalized Laguerre polynomial of degree n if n is
a nonnegative integer. When n is not a nonnegative integer, laguerreL returns the
generalized Laguerre function.
Examples
Find the Laguerre Polynomials for Numeric and Symbolic Inputs
Find the Laguerre polynomial of degree 3 for input 4.3.
laguerreL(3,4.3)
ans =
2.5838
Find the Laguerre polynomial for symbolic inputs. Specify degree n as 3 to return the
explicit form of the polynomial.
syms x
4-665
laguerreL(3,x)
ans =
- x^3/6 + (3*x^2)/2 - 3*x + 1
If the degree of the Laguerre polynomial n is not specified, laguerreL cannot find the
polynomial. When laguerreL cannot find the polynomial, it returns the function call.
syms n x
laguerreL(n,x)
ans =
laguerreL(n, x)
Find the Generalized Laguerre Polynomial

Find the explicit form of the generalized Laguerre polynomial L(n,a,x) of degree n =
2.
syms a x
laguerreL(2,a,x)
ans =
(3*a)/2 - x*(a + 2) + a^2/2 + x^2/2 + 1
Return the Generalized Laguerre Function

When n is not a nonnegative integer, laguerreL(n,a,x) returns the generalized
Laguerre function.
laguerreL(-2.7,3,2)
ans =
0.2488
laguerreL is not defined for certain inputs and returns an error.

syms x
laguerreL(-5/2, -3/2, x)
Error using mupadmex
Error in MuPAD command: The function 'laguerreL' is not
4-666
laguerreL
defined for parameter values '-5/2' and '-3/2'.

[lasterror]
Evaluating: trapfcn
Find the Laguerre Polynomial with Vector and Matrix Inputs

Find the Laguerre polynomials of degrees 1 and 2 by setting n = [1 2].
syms x
laguerreL([1 2],x)
ans =
[ 1 - x, x^2/2 - 2*x + 1]
laguerreL acts element-wise on n to return a vector with two elements.

If multiple inputs are specified as a vector, matrix, or multidimensional array, the
inputs must be the same size. Find the generalized Laguerre polynomials where input
arguments n and x are matrices.
syms a
n = [2 3; 1 2];
xM = [x^2 11/7; -3.2 -x];
laguerreL(n,a,xM)
ans =
[ a^2/2 - a*x^2 + (3*a)/2 + x^4/2 - 2*x^2 + 1,...
a^3/6 + (3*a^2)/14 - (253*a)/294 - 676/1029]
[
a + 21/5,...
a^2/2 + a*x + (3*a)/2 + x^2/2 + 2*x + 1]
laguerreL acts element-wise on n and x to return a matrix of the same size as n and x.
Differentiate and Find Limits of the Laguerre Polynomials

Use limit to find the limit of a generalized Laguerre polynomial of degree 3 as x tends
to .
syms x
expr = laguerreL(3,2,x);
limit(expr,x,Inf)
4-667
ans =
-Inf
Use diff to find the third derivative of the generalized Laguerre polynomial
laguerreL(n,a,x).
syms n a
expr = laguerreL(n,a,x);
diff(expr,x,3)
ans =
-laguerreL(n - 3, a + 3, x)
Find the Taylor Series Expansion of a Laguerre Polynomial

Use taylor to find the Taylor series expansion of the generalized Laguerre polynomial
of degree 2 at x = 0.
syms a x
expr = laguerreL(2,a,x);
taylor(expr,x)
ans =
(3*a)/2 - x*(a + 2) + a^2/2 + x^2/2 + 1
Plot Laguerre Polynomials

Plot the Laguerre polynomials of orders 1 through 4 for -2<x<10. To better view the plot,
use ylim to set the y-axis limits.
syms x
hold on
grid on
for n = 1:4
ezplot(laguerreL(n,x),[-2 10])
end
ylim([-10, 10])
ylabel('L_n(x)')
title('Laguerre polynomials of orders 1 through 4')
legend('1','2','3','4','Location','best')
4-668
laguerreL
Input Arguments
Degree of polynomial, specified as a number, vector, matrix, multidimensional array, or a
symbolic number, vector, matrix, function, or multidimensional array.
x Input
4-669

number, vector, matrix, function, or multidimensional array.
a Input
More About
Generalized Laguerre Function
The generalized Laguerre function is defined in terms of the hypergeometric function as
n + a
laguerreL ( n, a, x ) =
1 F1 ( - n; a + 1; x ) .
a
For nonnegative integer values of n, the function returns the generalized Laguerre
polynomials that are orthogonal with respect to the scalar product
f 1, f 2 = e -x x a f 1 ( x ) f 2 ( x) dx.
In particular,
0
laguerreL ( n, a, x) ,laguerreL ( m, a, x) = G ( a + n + 1)
n!
if n m
if n = m.
Algorithms
The generalized Laguerre function is not defined for all values of parameters n
and a because certain restrictions on the parameters exist in the definition of the
hypergeometric functions. If the generalized Laguerre function is not defined for a
4-670
laguerreL
particular pair of n and a, the laguerreL function returns an error message. See
Return the Generalized Laguerre Function on page 4-666.
The calls laguerreL(n,x) and laguerreL(n,0,x) are equivalent.
If n is a nonnegative integer, the laguerreL function returns the explicit form of the
corresponding Laguerre polynomial.
n + a
The special values laguerreL ( n, a,0 ) =
are implemented for arbitrary values of
a
n and a.
If n is a negative integer and a is a numerical noninteger value satisfying a-n, then

laguerreL returns 0.
If n is a negative integer and a is an integer satisfying a < -n, the function returns an
explicit expression defined by the reflection rule
a
laguerreL ( n, a, x ) = ( - 1) ex laguerreL ( - n - a - 1, a, - x )
If all arguments are numerical and at least one argument is a floating-point number,
then laguerreL(x) returns a floating-point number. For all other arguments,
laguerreL(n,a,x) returns a symbolic function call.
See Also
chebyshevT | chebyshevU | gegenbauerC | hermiteH | hypergeom | jacobiP |

legendreP
4-671
lambertw
Lambert W function
Syntax
lambertw(x)
lambertw(k,x)
Description
lambertw(x) is the Lambert W function of x. This syntax returns the principal branch
of the Lambert W function, and, therefore, it is equivalent to lambertw(0,x).
lambertw(k,x) is the kth branch of the Lambert W function.
Examples
Equation Returning the Lambert W Function as Its Solution
The Lambert W function W(x) is a set of solutions of the equation x = W(x)e
W(x)
Solve this equation. The solutions is the Lambert W function.

syms x W
solve(x == W*exp(W), W)
ans =
lambertw(0, x)
Verify that various branches of the Lambert W function are valid solutions of the
W
equation x = W*e :
k = -2:2
4-672
lambertw
syms x
simplify(x - subs(W*exp(W), W, lambertw(k,x))) == 0
k =
-2
-1
ans =
1
Lambert W Function for Numeric and Symbolic Arguments

Depending on its arguments, lambertw can return floating-point or exact symbolic
results.
Compute the Lambert W functions for these numbers. Because these numbers are not
A = [0 -1/exp(1); pi i];
lambertw(A)
lambertw(-1, A)
ans =
0.0000 + 0.0000i
1.0737 + 0.0000i
-1.0000 + 0.0000i
0.3747 + 0.5764i
ans =
-Inf + 0.0000i
-0.3910 - 4.6281i
-1.0000 + 0.0000i
-1.0896 - 2.7664i
Compute the Lambert W functions for the numbers converted to symbolic objects. For
most symbolic (exact) numbers, lambertw returns unresolved symbolic calls.
A = [0 -1/exp(sym(1)); pi i];
W0 = lambertw(A)
Wmin1 = lambertw(-1, A)
W0 =
[
0,
-1]
[ lambertw(0, pi), lambertw(0, i)]
Wmin1 =
[
-Inf,
-1]
[ lambertw(-1, pi), lambertw(-1, i)]
4-673
vpa(W0, 10)
vpa(Wmin1, 5)
ans =
[
0,
-1.0]
[ 1.073658195, 0.3746990207 + 0.576412723*i]
ans =
[
-Inf,
-1.0]
[ - 0.39097 - 4.6281*i, - 1.0896 - 2.7664*i]
Lambert W Function Plot on the Complex Plane

Plot the principal branch of the Lambert W function on the complex plane.
Create the combined mesh and contour plot of the real value of the Lambert W function
on the complex plane.
syms x y real
ezmeshc(real(lambertw(x + i*y)), [-100, 100, -100, 100])
4-674
lambertw
Now, plot the imaginary value of the Lambert W function on the complex plane. This
function has a branch cut along the negative real axis. For better perspective, create the
mesh and contour plots separately.
ezmesh(imag(lambertw(x + i*y)), [-100, 100, -100, 100])
4-675
ezcontourf(imag(lambertw(x + i*y)), [-100, 100, -100, 100])
4-676
lambertw
Plot the absolute value of the Lambert W function on the complex plane.
ezmeshc(abs(lambertw(x + i*y)), [-100, 100, -100, 100])
4-677
For further computations, clear the assumptions on x and y:

syms x y clear
Plot of the Two Main Branches

Plot the two main branches,
Plot the principal branch
syms x
ezplot(lambertw(x))
4-678
and
:
, of the Lambert W function.
lambertw
Add the branch
hold on
ezplot(lambertw(-1, x))
4-679
Adjust the axes limits and add the title:

axis([-0.5, 4, -4, 2])
title('Lambert W function, two main branches')
4-680
lambertw
Input Arguments
x Argument of Lambert W function
Argument of Lambert W function, specified as a number, symbolic number, variable,
expression, function, or vector or matrix of numbers, symbolic numbers, variables,
expressions, or functions. If x is a vector or matrix, lambertW returns the Lambert W
function for each element of x.
4-681
k Branch of Lambert W function

integer | vector | matrix
Branch of Lambert W function, specified as an integer or a vector or matrix of integers. If
k is a vector or matrix, lambertW returns the Lambert W function for each element of k.
More About
Lambert W Function
The Lambert W function W(x) represents the solutions of the equation x = W(x)e
for any complex number x.
W(x)
Tips
The equation x = w(x)ew(x) has infinitely many solutions on the complex plane.
These solutions are represented by w= lambertw(k,x) with the branch index k
ranging over the integers.
For all real x 0, the equation x = w(x)ew(x) has exactly one real solution. It is
represented by w = lambertw(x) or, equivalently, w = lambertw(0,x).
For all real x in the range -1/e < x < 0, there are exactly two distinct real
solutions. The larger one is represented by w = lambertw(x), and the smaller one is
represented by w = lambertw(-1,x).
For w = -1/e, there is exactly one real solution lambertw(0, -exp(-1)) =
lambertw(-1, -exp(-1)) = -1.
lambertw(k,x) returns real values only if k = 0 or k = -1. For k <> {0, -1},
lambertw(k,x) is always complex.
vector or a matrix, lambertw expands the scalar into a vector or matrix of the same
References
[1] Corless, R.M, G.H. Gonnet, D.E.G. Hare, D.J. Jeffrey, and D.E. Knuth On the
Lambert W Function Advances in Computational Mathematics, vol.5, pp. 329
359, 1996.
4-682
lambertw
[2] Corless, R.M, G.H. Gonnet, D.E.G. Hare, and D.J. Jeffrey Lamberts W Function in
Maple The Maple Technical Newsletter (MapleTech), vol.9, pp. 1222, 1993.
See Also
Functions
wrightOmega
MuPAD Functions
lambertW
4-683
laplace
Laplace transform
Syntax
laplace(f,trans_var,eval_point)
Description
laplace(f,trans_var,eval_point) computes the Laplace transform of f with
respect to the transformation variable trans_var at the point eval_point.
Input Arguments
f
functions.
trans_var
the time variable.
Default: The variable t. If f does not contain t, then the default variable is determined
by symvar.
eval_point
called the complex frequency variable.
Default: The variable s. If s is the transformation variable of f, then the default
evaluation point is the variable z.
4-684
laplace
Examples
Compute the Laplace transform of this expression with respect to the variable x at the
evaluation point y:
syms x y
f = 1/sqrt(x);
laplace(f, x, y)
ans =
pi^(1/2)/y^(1/2)
Compute the Laplace transform of this expression calling the laplace function with one
argument. If you do not specify the transformation variable, laplace uses the variable
t.
syms a t y
f = exp(-a*t);
laplace(f, y)
ans =
1/(a + y)
If you also do not specify the evaluation point, laplace uses the variable s:
laplace(f)
ans =
1/(a + s)
Compute the following Laplace transforms that involve the Dirac and Heaviside
functions:
syms t s
laplace(dirac(t - 3), t, s)
ans =
exp(-3*s)
laplace(heaviside(t - pi), t, s)
ans =
exp(-pi*s)/s
If laplace cannot find an explicit representation of the transform, it returns an

unevaluated call:
4-685
syms f(t) s
F = laplace(f, t, s)
F =
laplace(f(t), t, s)
ilaplace returns the original expression:

ilaplace(F, s, t)
ans =
f(t)
The Laplace transform of a function is related to the Laplace transform of its derivative:
syms f(t) s
laplace(diff(f(t), t), t, s)
ans =
s*laplace(f(t), t, s) - f(0)
Find the Laplace transform of this matrix. Use matrices of the same size to specify the
laplace([exp(x), 1; sin(y), i*z],[w, x; y, z],[a, b; c, d])
ans =
[
exp(x)/a,
1/b]
[ 1/(c^2 + 1), i/d^2]
When the input arguments are nonscalars, laplace acts on them element-wise. If
laplace is called with both scalar and nonscalar arguments, then laplace expands
laplace(x,[x, w; y, z],[a, b; c, d])
ans =
[ 1/a^2, x/b]
[
x/c, x/d]
4-686
laplace

f1(x) = exp(x);
f2(x) = x;
laplace([f1, f2],x,[a, b])
ans =
[ 1/(a - 1), 1/b^2]
More About
Laplace Transform
The Laplace transform is defined as follows:
F( s) =
f (t ) e
- st
dt.
Tips
If you call laplace with two arguments, it assumes that the second argument is the
If f is a matrix, laplace acts element-wise on all components of the matrix.
If eval_point is a matrix, laplace acts element-wise on all components of the matrix.
To compute the inverse Laplace transform, use ilaplace.
See Also
fourier | ifourier | ilaplace | iztrans | ztrans
4-687
laplacian
Laplacian of scalar function
Syntax
laplacian(f,x)
laplacian(f)
Description
laplacian(f,x) computes the Laplacian of the scalar function or functional expression
f with respect to the vector x in Cartesian coordinates.
laplacian(f) computes the gradient vector of the scalar function or functional
expression f with respect to a vector constructed from all symbolic variables found in f.
The order of variables in this vector is defined by symvar.
Input Arguments
f
Symbolic expression or symbolic function.
x
Vector with respect to which you compute the Laplacian.
Default: Vector constructed from all symbolic variables found in f. The order of variables
in this vector is defined by symvar.
Examples
Compute the Laplacian of this symbolic expression. By default, laplacian computes
the Laplacian of an expression with respect to a vector of all variables found in that
expression. The order of variables is defined by symvar.
4-688
laplacian
syms x y t
laplacian(1/x^3 + y^2 - log(t))
ans =
1/t^2 + 12/x^5 + 2

syms x y z
f(x, y, z) = 1/x + y^2 + z^3;
Compute the Laplacian of this function with respect to the vector [x, y, z]:
L = laplacian(f, [x y z])
L(x, y, z) =
6*z + 2/x^3 + 2
Alternatives
The Laplacian of a scalar function or functional expression is the divergence of the
gradient of that function or expression:
D f = (f )
Therefore, you can compute the Laplacian using the divergence and gradient
functions:
syms f(x, y)
divergence(gradient(f(x, y)), [x y])
More About
Laplacian of a Scalar Function
The Laplacian of the scalar function or functional expression f with respect to the vector
X=(X1,...,Xn) is the sum of the second derivatives of f with respect to X1,...,Xn:
n
Df =
2 f
x2i
i =1
4-689
Tips
If x is a scalar, gradient(f, x) = diff(f, 2, x).
See Also
curl | diff | divergence | gradient | hessian | jacobian | potential |

vectorPotential
4-690
latex
latex
LaTeX representation of symbolic expression
Syntax
latex(S)
Description
latex(S) returns the LaTeX representation of the symbolic expression S.
Examples
The statements
syms x
latex(f)
return
ans =
\frac{x^5}{5} - \frac{x^4}{4} + \frac{x^3}{3} - \frac{x^2}{2} + x
The statements
H = sym(hilb(3));
latex(H)
return
ans =
\left(\begin{array}{ccc} 1 & \frac{1}{2} & \frac{1}{3}\\...
\frac{1}{2} & \frac{1}{3} & \frac{1}{4}\\...
\frac{1}{3} & \frac{1}{4} & \frac{1}{5} \end{array}\right)
The statements
syms t
4-691
alpha = sym('alpha');
A = [alpha t alpha*t];
latex(A)
return
ans =
\left(\begin{array}{ccc} \mathrm{alpha} & t & \mathrm{alpha}\, t...
\end{array}\right)
You can use the latex command to annotate graphs:

syms x
ezplot(f)
hold on
title(['$' latex(f) '$'],'interpreter','latex')
hold off
See Also
ccode | fortran | pretty | texlabel
4-692
lcm
lcm
Least common multiple
Syntax
lcm(A)
lcm(A,B)
Description
lcm(A) finds the least common multiple of all elements of A.
lcm(A,B) finds the least common multiple of A and B.
Examples
Least Common Multiple of Four Integers
To find the least common multiple of three or more values, specify those values as a
symbolic vector or matrix.
Find the least common multiple of these four integers, specified as elements of a symbolic
vector.
A = sym([4420, -128, 8984, -488])
lcm(A)
A =
[ 4420, -128, 8984, -488]
ans =
9689064320
Alternatively, specify these values as elements of a symbolic matrix.

A = sym([4420, -128; 8984, -488])
4-693
lcm(A)
A =
[ 4420, -128]
[ 8984, -488]
ans =
9689064320
Least Common Multiple of Rational Numbers

lcm lets you find the least common multiple of symbolic rational numbers.
Find the least common multiple of these rational numbers, specified as elements of a
symbolic vector.
lcm(sym([3/4, 7/3, 11/2, 12/3, 33/4]))
ans =
924
Least Common Multiple of Complex Numbers

lcm lets you find the least common multiple of symbolic complex numbers.
Find the least common multiple of these complex numbers, specified as elements of a
symbolic vector.
lcm(sym([10 - 5*i, 20 - 10*i, 30 - 15*i]))
ans =
- 60 + 30*i
Least Common Multiple of Elements of Matrices

For vectors and matrices, lcm finds the least common multiples element-wise. Nonscalar
arguments must be the same size.
Find the least common multiples for the elements of these two matrices.
A = sym([309, 186; 486, 224]);
B = sym([558, 444; 1024, 1984]);
lcm(A,B)
4-694
lcm
ans =
[ 57474, 13764]
[ 248832, 13888]
Find the least common multiples for the elements of matrix A and the value 99. Here,
lcm expands 99 into the 2-by-2 matrix with all elements equal to 99.
lcm(A,99)
ans =
[ 10197, 6138]
[ 5346, 22176]
Least Common Multiple of Polynomials

Find the least common multiple of univariate and multivariate polynomials.
Find the least common multiple of these univariate polynomials.
syms x
lcm(x^3 - 3*x^2 + 3*x - 1, x^2 - 5*x + 4)
ans =
(x - 4)*(x^3 - 3*x^2 + 3*x - 1)
Find the least common multiple of these multivariate polynomials. Because there are
more than two polynomials, specify them as elements of a symbolic vector.
syms x y
lcm([x^2*y + x^3, (x + y)^2, x^2 + x*y^2 + x*y + x + y^3 + y])
ans =
(x^3 + y*x^2)*(x^2 + x*y^2 + x*y + x + y^3 + y)
Input Arguments
A Input value
4-695
B Input value
More About
Tips
Calling lcm for numbers that are not symbolic objects invokes the MATLAB lcm
function.
The MATLAB lcm function does not accept rational or complex arguments. To find
the least common multiple of rational or complex numbers, convert these numbers to
symbolic objects by using sym, and then use lcm.
Nonscalar arguments must have the same size. If one input arguments is nonscalar,
then lcm expands the scalar into a vector or matrix of the same size as the nonscalar
See Also
gcd
4-696
le
le
Define less than or equal to relation
Syntax
A <= B
le(A,B)
Description
A <= B creates a less than or equal to relation.
le(A,B) is equivalent to A <= B.
Input Arguments
A
B
Examples
Use assume and the relational operator <= to set the assumption that x is less than or
equal to 3:
syms x
assume(x <= 3)
4-697
therefore returns these three solutions.
solve((x - 1)*(x - 2)*(x - 3)*(x - 4) == 0, x)
ans =
1
2
3
Use the relational operator <= to set this condition on variable x:

syms x
cond = (abs(sin(x)) <= 1/2);
if subs(cond, x, i)
disp(i)
end
end
0
pi/12
pi/6
(5*pi)/6
(11*pi)/12
pi
Alternatives
You can also define this relation by combining an equation and a less than relation.
Thus, A <= B is equivalent to (A < B) & (A == B).
More About
Tips
If A and B are both numbers, then A <= B compares A and B and returns logical 1
(true) or logical 0 (false). Otherwise, A <= B returns a symbolic less than or equal
4-698
le
to relation. You can use that relation as an argument for such functions as assume,
assumeAlso, and subs.
If both A and B are arrays, then these arrays must have the same dimensions. A <=
B returns an array of relations A(i,j,...)<=B(i,j,...)
numbers in relations to a real axis. For example, x <= i becomes x <= 0, and x <=
3 + 2*i becomes x <= 3.
See Also
eq | ge | gt | isAlways | logical | lt | ne
4-699
legendreP
Legendre polynomials
Syntax
legendreP(n,x)
Description
legendreP(n,x) returns the nth degree Legendre Polynomial on page 4-704 at x.
Examples
Find the Legendre Polynomials for Numeric and Symbolic Inputs
Find the Legendre polynomial of degree 3 at 5.6.
legendreP(3,5.6)
ans =
430.6400
Find the Legendre polynomial of degree 2 at x.

syms x
legendreP(2,x)
ans =
(3*x^2)/2 - 1/2
If you do not specify a numerical value for the degree n, the legendreP function cannot
find the explicit form of the polynomial and returns the function call.
syms n
4-700
legendreP
legendreP(n,x)
ans =
legendreP(n, x)
Find the Legendre Polynomial with Vector and Matrix Inputs

Find the Legendre polynomials of degrees 1 and 2 by setting n = [1 2].
syms x
legendreP([1 2],x)
ans =
[ x, (3*x^2)/2 - 1/2]
legendreP acts element-wise on n to return a vector with two elements.

If multiple inputs are specified as a vector, matrix, or multidimensional array, the inputs
must be the same size. Find the Legendre polynomials where input arguments n and x
are matrices.
n = [2 3; 1 2];
xM = [x^2 11/7; -3.2 -x];
legendreP(n,xM)
ans =
[ (3*x^4)/2 - 1/2,
2519/343]
[
-16/5, (3*x^2)/2 - 1/2]
legendreP acts element-wise on n and x to return a matrix of the same size as n and x.
Differentiate and Find Limits of the Legendre Polynomials

Use limit to find the limit of a Legendre polynomial of degree 3 as x tends to -.
syms x
expr = legendreP(4,x);
limit(expr,x,-Inf)
ans =
Inf
Use diff to find the third derivative of the Legendre polynomial of degree 5.
4-701
syms n
diff(expr,x,3)
ans =
(945*x^2)/2 - 105/2
Find the Taylor Series Expansion of a Legendre Polynomial

Use taylor to find the Taylor series expansion of the Legendre polynomial of degree 2 at
x = 0.
syms x
taylor(expr,x)
ans =
(3*x^2)/2 - 1/2
Plot Legendre Polynomials

Plot Legendre polynomials of orders 1 through 4. To better view the plot, better set the
axes limits using axis.
syms x y
hold on
for n=1:4
ezplot(legendreP(n,x))
end
axis([-1.5,1.5,-1,1])
grid on
ylabel('P_n(x)')
title('Legendre polynomials of degrees 1 through 4')
legend('1','2','3','4','Location','best')
4-702
legendreP
Find Roots of a Legendre Polynomial

Use vpasolve to find the roots of the Legendre polynomial of degree 7.
syms x
roots = vpasolve(legendreP(7,x) == 0)
roots =
-0.94910791234275852452618968404785
-0.74153118559939443986386477328079
-0.40584515137739716690660641207696
0
0.40584515137739716690660641207696
0.74153118559939443986386477328079
4-703
0.94910791234275852452618968404785
Input Arguments
nonnegative number | vector | matrix | multidimensional array | symbolic number |
symbolic vector | symbolic matrix | symbolic function | symbolic multidimensional array
Degree of polynomial, specified as a nonnegative number, vector, matrix,
multidimensional array, or a symbolic number, vector, matrix, function, or
multidimensional array. All elements of nonscalar inputs should be nonnegative integers
or symbols.
x Input
More About
Legendre Polynomial
The Legendre polynomials are defined as
P ( n, x ) =
1
n
dn
2 n ! dx
( x2 - 1)
They satisfy the recursion formula

P ( n, x ) =
2n - 1
n- 1
xP ( n - 1, x) P ( n - 2, x) ,
n
n
where
P ( 0, x) = 1
P (1, x) = x.
4-704
legendreP
The Legendre polynomials are orthogonal on the interval [-1,1] with respect to the weight
function w(x)=1.
The relation with Gegenbauer polynomials G(n,a,x) is
1
P ( n, x ) = G n, , x .
2
The relation with Jacobi polynomials P(n,a,b,x) is
P ( n, x ) = P ( n, 0, 0, x ) .
See Also
chebyshevT | chebyshevU | gegenbauerC | hermiteH | hypergeom | jacobiP |

laguerreL
4-705
limit
Compute limit of symbolic expression
Syntax
limit(expr,x,a)
limit(expr,a)
limit(expr)
limit(expr,x,a,'left')
limit(expr,x,a,'right')
Description
limit(expr,x,a) computes bidirectional limit of the symbolic expression expr when x
approaches a.
limit(expr,a) computes bidirectional limit of the symbolic expression expr when the
default variable approaches a.
limit(expr) computes bidirectional limit of the symbolic expression expr when the
default variable approaches 0.
limit(expr,x,a,'left') computes the limit of the symbolic expression expr when x
approaches a from the left.
limit(expr,x,a,'right') computes the limit of the symbolic expression expr when
x approaches a from the right.
Examples
Compute bidirectional limits for the following expressions:
syms x h
limit(sin(x)/x)
limit((sin(x + h) - sin(x))/h, h, 0)
4-706
limit
ans =
1
ans =
cos(x)
Compute the limits from the left and right for the following expressions:
syms x
limit(1/x, x, 0, 'right')
limit(1/x, x, 0, 'left')
ans =
Inf
ans =
-Inf
Compute the limit for the functions presented as elements of a vector:

syms x a
v = [(1 + a/x)^x, exp(-x)];
limit(v, x, inf)
ans =
[ exp(a), 0]
See Also
diff | taylor
4-707
linsolve
Solve linear system of equations given in matrix form
Syntax
X = linsolve(A,B)
[X,R] = linsolve(A,B)
Description
X = linsolve(A,B) solves the matrix equation AX=B. In particular, if B is a column
vector, linsolve solves a linear system of equations given in the matrix form.
[X,R] = linsolve(A,B) solves the matrix equation AX=B and returns the reciprocal
of the condition number of A if A is a square matrix, and the rank of A otherwise.
Input Arguments
A
Coefficient matrix.
B
Matrix or column vector containing the right sides of equations.
Output Arguments
X
Matrix or vector representing the solution.
R
Reciprocal of the condition number of A if A is a square matrix. Otherwise, the rank of A.
4-708
linsolve
Examples
Define the matrix equation using the following matrices A and B:
syms x y z
A = [x 2*x y; x*z 2*x*z y*z+z; 1 0 1];
B = [z y; z^2 y*z; 0 0];
Use linsolve to solve this equation. Assigning the result of the linsolve call to a
single output argument, you get the matrix of solutions:
X = linsolve(A, B)
X =
[
0,
0]
[ z/(2*x), y/(2*x)]
[
0,
0]
To return the solution and the reciprocal of the condition number of the square coefficient
matrix, assign the result of the linsolve call to a vector of two output arguments:
syms a x y z
A = [a 0 0; 0 a 0; 0 0 1];
B = [x; y; z];
[X, R] = linsolve(A, B)
X =
x/a
y/a
z
R =
1/(max(abs(a), 1)*max(1/abs(a), 1))
If the coefficient matrix is rectangular, linsolve returns the rank of the coefficient
matrix as the second output argument:
syms a b x y
A = [a 0 1; 1 b 0];
B = [x; y];
[X, R] = linsolve(A, B)
Warning: The system is rank-deficient. Solution is not
unique.
In sym.linsolve at 67
4-709
X =
x/a
-(x - a*y)/(a*b)
0
R =
2
More About
Matrix Representation of a System of Linear Equations
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + + a1n xn = b1
a21 x1 + a22 x2 + + a2n xn = b2
L
r r
can be represented as the matrix equation A x = b , where A is the coefficient matrix:
a11 a1n
A= M
O
M
a
m1 L amn
r
and b is the vector containing the right sides of equations:
b
r 1
b= M
b
m
Tips
If the solution is not unique, linsolve issues a warning, chooses one solution and
returns it.
If the system does not have a solution, linsolve issues a warning and returns X
with all elements set to Inf.
4-710
linsolve
Calling linsolve for numeric matrices that are not symbolic objects invokes the
MATLAB linsolve function. This function accepts real arguments only. If your
system of equations uses complex numbers, use sym to convert at least one matrix to a
symbolic matrix, and then call linsolve.
See Also
cond | dsolve | equationsToMatrix | inv | norm | odeToVectorField | rank |

solve | symvar | vpasolve
Related Examples
4-711
log
Natural logarithm of entries of symbolic matrix
Syntax
Y = log(X)
Description
Y = log(X) returns the natural logarithm of X.
Input Arguments
X
Symbolic variable, expression, function, or matrix
Output Arguments
Y
Number, variable, expression, function, or matrix. If X is a matrix, Y is a matrix of the
same size, each entry of which is the logarithm of the corresponding entry of X.
Examples
Compute the natural logarithm of each entry of this symbolic matrix:
syms x
M = x*hilb(2);
log(M)
ans =
4-712
log
[
log(x), log(x/2)]
[ log(x/2), log(x/3)]
Differentiate this symbolic expression:

syms x
diff(log(x^3), x)
ans =
3/x
See Also
log10 | log2
4-713
log10
Logarithm base 10 of entries of symbolic matrix
Syntax
Y = log10(X)
Description
Y = log10(X) returns the logarithm to the base 10 of X. If X is a matrix, Y is a matrix of
the same size, each entry of which is the logarithm of the corresponding entry of X.
See Also
log | log2
4-714
log2
log2
Logarithm base 2 of entries of symbolic matrix
Syntax
Y = log2(X)
Description
Y = log2(X) returns the logarithm to the base 2 of X. If X is a matrix, Y is a matrix of
the same size, each entry of which is the logarithm of the corresponding entry of X.
See Also
log | log10
4-715
logical
Check validity of equation or inequality
Syntax
logical(cond)
Description
logical(cond) checks whether the condition cond is valid.
Input Arguments
cond
Equation, inequality, or vector or matrix of equations or inequalities. You also can
combine several conditions by using the logical operators and, or, xor, not, or their
shortcuts.
Examples
Use logical to check whether 1 if less than 2:
logical(1 < 2)
ans =
1
Check if the following two conditions are both valid. To check if several conditions are
valid at the same time, combine these conditions by using the logical operator and or its
shortcut &.
syms x
logical(1 < 2 & x == x)
4-716
logical
ans =
1
Check this inequality. Note that logical evaluates the left side of the inequality.
logical(4 - 1 > 2)
ans =
1
logical also evaluates more complicated symbolic expressions on both sides of

equations and inequalities. For example, it evaluates the integral on the left side of this
equation:
syms x
logical(int(x, x, 0, 2) - 1 == 1)
ans =
1
Check the validity of this equation using logical. Without an additional assumption
that x is nonnegative, this equation is invalid.
syms x
logical(x == sqrt(x^2))
ans =
0
Use assume to set an assumption that x is nonnegative. Now the expression sqrt(x^2)
evaluates to x, and logical returns 1:
assume(x >= 0)
logical(x == sqrt(x^2))
ans =
1
Note that logical typically ignores assumptions on variables:

syms x
assume(x == 5)
logical(x == 5)
ans =
4-717
To compare expressions taking into account assumptions on their variables, use

isAlways:
isAlways(x == 5)
ans =
1
For further computations, clear the assumption on x:

syms x clear
Do not use logical to check equations and inequalities that require simplification or
mathematical transformations. For such equations and inequalities, logical might
return unexpected results. For example, logical does not recognize mathematical
equivalence of these expressions:
syms x
logical(sin(x)/cos(x) == tan(x))
ans =
0
logical also does not realize that this inequality is invalid:

logical(sin(x)/cos(x) ~= tan(x))
ans =
1
To test the validity of equations and inequalities that require simplification or

mathematical transformations, use isAlways:
isAlways(sin(x)/cos(x) == tan(x))
ans =
1
isAlways(sin(x)/cos(x) ~= tan(x))
Warning: Cannot prove 'sin(x)/cos(x) ~= tan(x)'.
ans =
0
4-718
logical
More About
Tips
For symbolic equations, logical returns logical 1 (true) only if the left and right
sides are identical. Otherwise, it returns logical 0 (false).
For symbolic inequalities constructed with ~=, logical returns logical 0 (false)
only if the left and right sides are identical. Otherwise, it returns logical 1 (true).
For all other inequalities (constructed with <, <=, >, or >=), logical returns logical
1 if it can prove that the inequality is valid and logical 0 if it can prove that the
inequality is invalid. If logical cannot determine whether such inequality is valid or
not, it throws an error.
logical evaluates expressions on both sides of an equation or inequality, but does
not simplify or mathematically transform them. To compare two expressions applying
mathematical transformations and simplifications, use isAlways.
logical typically ignores assumptions on variables.
Clear Assumptions and Reset the Symbolic Engine on page 3-43
See Also
assume | assumeAlso | assumptions | in | isAlways | isequaln | isfinite |

isinf | isnan | sym | syms
4-719
logint
Logarithmic integral function
Syntax
logint(X)
Description
logint(X) represents the logarithmic integral function (integral logarithm).
Examples
Integral Logarithm for Numeric and Symbolic Arguments
Depending on its arguments, logint returns floating-point or exact symbolic results.
Compute integral logarithms for these numbers. Because these numbers are not symbolic
objects, logint returns floating-point results.
A = logint([-1, 0, 1/4, 1/2, 1, 2, 10])
A =
0.0737 + 3.4227i
-Inf + 0.0000i
0.0000 + 0.0000i
1.0452 + 0.0000i
-0.1187 + 0.0000i
6.1656 + 0.0000i
-0.3787 + 0.0000i...
Compute integral logarithms for the numbers converted to symbolic objects. For many
symbolic (exact) numbers, logint returns unresolved symbolic calls.
symA = logint(sym([-1, 0, 1/4, 1/2, 1, 2, 10]))
symA =
[ logint(-1), 0, logint(1/4), logint(1/2), -Inf, logint(2), logint(10)]

4-720
logint
vpa(symA)
ans =
[ 0.07366791204642548599010096523015...
+ 3.4227333787773627895923750617977*i,...
0,...
-0.11866205644712310530509570647204,...
-0.37867104306108797672720718463656,...
-Inf,...
1.0451637801174927848445888891946,...
6.1655995047872979375229817526695]
Plot the Integral Logarithm

Plot the integral logarithm function on the interval from 0 to 10.
syms x
ezplot(logint(x), [0, 10]);
grid on
4-721
Handle Expressions Containing the Integral Logarithm

Many functions, such as diff and limit, can handle expressions containing logint.
Find the first and second derivatives of the integral logarithm:
syms x
diff(logint(x), x)
diff(logint(x), x, x)
ans =
1/log(x)
ans =
4-722
logint
-1/(x*log(x)^2)
Find the right and left limits of this expression involving logint:
limit(exp(1/x)/logint(x + 1), x, 0, 'right')
ans =
Inf
limit(exp(1/x)/logint(x + 1), x, 0, 'left')
ans =
0
Input Arguments
X Input
More About
Logarithmic Integral Function
The logarithmic integral function, also called the integral logarithm, is defined as follows:
x
logint ( x) = Li ( x ) =
ln (t ) dt
0
Tips
logint(sym(0)) returns 1.
logint(sym(1)) returns -Inf.
logint(z) = ei(log(z)) for all complex z.
4-723
References
[1] Gautschi, W., and W. F. Cahill. Exponential Integral and Related Functions.
See Also
coshint | cosint | ei | expint | int | log | sinhint | sinint | ssinint
4-724
logm
logm
Matrix logarithm
Syntax
R = expm(A)
Description
R = expm(A) computes the matrix logarithm of the square matrix A.
Examples
Matrix Logarithm
Compute the matrix logarithm for the 2-by-2 matrix.
syms x
A = [x 1; 0 -x];
logm(A)
ans =
[ log(x), log(x)/(2*x) - log(-x)/(2*x)]
[
0,
log(-x)]
Input Arguments
A Input matrix
square matrix
Input matrix, specified as a square symbolic matrix.
4-725
Output Arguments
R Resulting matrix
symbolic matrix
See Also
eig | expm | funm | jordan | sqrtm
4-726
lt
lt
Define less than relation
Syntax
A < B
lt(A,B)
Description
A < B creates a less than relation.
lt(A,B) is equivalent to A < B.
Input Arguments
A
B
Examples
Use assume and the relational operator < to set the assumption that x is less than 3:
syms x
assume(x < 3)
therefore returns these two solutions.
4-727
solve((x - 1)*(x - 2)*(x - 3)*(x - 4) == 0, x)

ans =
1
2
Use the relational operator < to set this condition on variable x:

syms x
cond = abs(sin(x)) + abs(cos(x)) < 6/5;
if subs(cond, x, i)
disp(i)
end
end
0
pi/24
(11*pi)/24
pi/2
(13*pi)/24
(23*pi)/24
pi
More About
Tips
If A and B are both numbers, then A < B compares A and B and returns logical 1
(true) or logical 0 (false). Otherwise, A < B returns a symbolic less than relation.
You can use that relation as an argument for such functions as assume, assumeAlso,
and subs.
If both A and B are arrays, then these arrays must have the same dimensions. A < B
returns an array of relations A(i,j,...)<B(i,j,...)
4-728
lt
numbers in relations to a real axis. For example, x < i becomes x < 0, and x < 3
+ 2*i becomes x < 3.
See Also
eq | ge | gt | isAlways | le | logical | ne
4-729
lu
LU factorization
Syntax
[L,U] = lu(A)
[L,U,P] = lu(A)
[L,U,p] = lu(A,'vector')
[L,U,p,q] = lu(A,'vector')
[L,U,P,Q,R] = lu(A)
[L,U,p,q,R] = lu(A,'vector')
lu(A)
Description
[L,U] = lu(A) returns an upper triangular matrix U and a matrix L, such that A =
L*U. Here, L is a product of the inverse of the permutation matrix and a lower triangular
matrix.
[L,U,P] = lu(A) returns an upper triangular matrix U, a lower triangular matrix L,
and a permutation matrix P, such that P*A = L*U.
[L,U,p] = lu(A,'vector') returns the permutation information as a vector p, such
that A(p,:) = L*U.
[L,U,p,q] = lu(A,'vector') returns the permutation information as two row
vectors p and q, such that A(p,q) = L*U.
[L,U,P,Q,R] = lu(A) returns an upper triangular matrix U, a lower triangular
matrix L, permutation matrices P and Q, and a scaling matrix R, such that P*(R\A)*Q
= L*U.
[L,U,p,q,R] = lu(A,'vector') returns the permutation information in two row
vectors p and q, such that R(:,p)\A(:,q) = L*U.
lu(A) returns the matrix that contains the strictly lower triangular matrix L (the matrix
without its unit diagonal) and the upper triangular matrix U as submatrices. Thus,
4-730
lu
lu(A) returns the matrix U + L - eye(size(A)), where L and U are defined as

[L,U,P] = lu(A). The matrix A must be square.
Input Arguments
A
Square or rectangular symbolic matrix.
'vector'
Flag that prompts lu to return the permutation information in row vectors.
Output Arguments
L
Lower triangular matrix or a product of the inverse of the permutation matrix and a
lower triangular matrix.
U
Upper triangular matrix.
P
Permutation matrix.
p
Row vector.
q
Row vector.
Q
Permutation matrix.
4-731
R
Diagonal scaling matrix.
Examples
Compute the LU factorization of this matrix. Because these numbers are not symbolic
[L, U] = lu([2 -3 -1; 1/2 1 -1; 0 1 -1])
L =
1.0000
0.2500
0
0
1.0000
0.5714
0
0
1.0000
2.0000
0
0
-3.0000
1.7500
0
-1.0000
-0.7500
-0.5714
U =
Now convert this matrix to a symbolic object, and compute the LU factorization:
[L, U] = lu(sym([2 -3 -1; 1/2 1 -1; 0 1 -1]))
L =
[
1,
0, 0]
[ 1/4,
1, 0]
[
0, 4/7, 1]
U
[
[
[
=
2, -3,
-1]
0, 7/4, -3/4]
0,
0, -4/7]
Compute the LU factorization returning the lower and upper triangular matrices and the
permutation matrix:
syms a
[L, U, P] = lu(sym([0 0 a; a 2 3; 0 a 2]))
L =
[ 1, 0, 0]
4-732
lu
[ 0, 1, 0]
[ 0, 0, 1]
U
[
[
[
=
a, 2, 3]
0, a, 2]
0, 0, a]
P
[
[
[
=
0, 1, 0]
0, 0, 1]
1, 0, 0]
Use the 'vector' flag to return the permutation information as a vector:

syms a
A = [0 0 a; a 2 3; 0 a 2];
[L, U, p] = lu(A, 'vector')
L
[
[
[
=
1, 0, 0]
0, 1, 0]
0, 0, 1]
U
[
[
[
=
a, 2, 3]
0, a, 2]
0, 0, a]
p =
[ 2, 3, 1]
Use isAlways to check that A(p,:) = L*U:

isAlways(A(p,:) == L*U)
ans =
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Restore the permutation matrix P from the vector p:

P = zeros(3, 3);
for i = 1:3
4-733
P(i, p(i)) = 1;
end
P
P =
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
1
0
Compute the LU factorization of this matrix returning the permutation information in

the form of two vectors p and q:
syms a
A = [a, 2, 3*a; 2*a, 3, 4*a; 4*a, 5, 6*a];
[L, U, p, q] = lu(A, 'vector')
L
[
[
[
=
1, 0, 0]
2, 1, 0]
4, 3, 1]
U
[
[
[
=
a, 2, 3*a]
0, -1, -2*a]
0, 0,
0]
p =
[ 1, 2, 3]
q =
[ 1, 2, 3]
Use isAlways to check that A(p, q) = L*U:

isAlways(A(p, q) == L*U)
ans =
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Compute the LU factorization of this matrix returning the lower and upper triangular
matrices, permutation matrices, and the scaling matrix:
syms a
4-734
lu
A = [0, a; 1/a, 0; 0, 1/5; 0,-1];

[L, U, P, Q, R] = lu(A)
L
[
[
[
[
=
1,
0, 0,
0,
1, 0,
0, 1/(5*a), 1,
0,
-1/a, 0,
0]
0]
0]
1]
U =
[ 1/a, 0]
[
0, a]
[
0, 0]
[
0, 0]
P
[
[
[
[
=
0,
1,
0,
0,
1,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
1,
0,
0]
0]
0]
1]
0,
0,
1,
0,
0]
0]
0]
1]
Q =
[ 1, 0]
[ 0, 1]
R
[
[
[
[
=
1,
0,
0,
0,
0,
1,
0,
0,
Use isAlways to check that P*(R\A)*Q = L*U:

isAlways(P*(R\A)*Q == L*U)
ans =
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Compute the LU factorization of this matrix using the 'vector' flag to return the
permutation information as vectors p and q. Also compute the scaling matrix R:
syms a
4-735
A = [0, a; 1/a, 0; 0, 1/5; 0,-1];

[L, U, p, q, R] = lu(A, 'vector')
L
[
[
[
[
=
1,
0, 0,
0,
1, 0,
0, 1/(5*a), 1,
0,
-1/a, 0,
0]
0]
0]
1]
U =
[ 1/a, 0]
[
0, a]
[
0, 0]
[
0, 0]
p =
[ 2, 1, 3, 4]
q =
[ 1, 2]
R
[
[
[
[
=
1,
0,
0,
0,
0,
1,
0,
0,
0,
0,
1,
0,
0]
0]
0]
1]
Use isAlways to check that R(:,p)\A(:,q) = L*U:

isAlways(R(:,p)\A(:,q) == L*U)
ans =
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Call the lu function for this matrix:

syms a
A = [0 0 a; a 2 3; 0 a 2];
lu(A)
ans =
[ a, 2, 3]
4-736
lu
[ 0, a, 2]
[ 0, 0, a]
Verify that the resulting matrix is equal to U + L - eye(size(A)), where L and U are
defined as [L,U,P] = lu(A):
[L,U,P] = lu(A);
U + L - eye(size(A))
ans =
[ a, 2, 3]
[ 0, a, 2]
[ 0, 0, a]
More About
LU Factorization of a Matrix
LU factorization expresses an m-by-n matrix A as P*A =L* U. Here, L is an m-by-m
lower triangular matrix, U is an m-by-n upper triangular matrix, and P is a permutation
matrix.
Permutation Vector
Permutation vector p contains numbers corresponding to row exchanges in the matrix A.
For an m-by-m matrix, p represents the following permutation matrix with indices i and j
ranging from 1 to m:
1 if j = pi
Pij = d p , j =
i
0 if j pi
Tips
Calling lu for numeric arguments that are not symbolic objects invokes the MATLAB
lu function.
The thresh option supported by the MATLAB lu function does not affect symbolic
inputs.
If you use 'matrix' instead of 'vector', then lu returns permutation matrices, as
it does by default.
4-737
L and U are nonsingular if and only if A is nonsingular. lu also can compute the LU
factorization of a singular matrix A. In this case, L or U is a singular matrix.
Most algorithms for computing LU factorization are variants of Gaussian elimination.
See Also
chol | eig | isAlways | linalg::factorLU | lu | qr | svd | vpa
4-738
massMatrixForm
massMatrixForm
Extract mass matrix and right side of semilinear system of differential algebraic
equations
Syntax
[M,F] = massMatrixForm(eqs,vars)
Description
[M,F] = massMatrixForm(eqs,vars) returns the mass matrix M and the right
side of equations F of a semilinear system of first-order differential algebraic equations
(DAEs). Algebraic equations in eqs that do not contain any derivatives of the variables in
vars correspond to empty rows of the mass matrix M.
The mass matrix M and the right side of equations F refer to the form
M ( t, x ( t ) ) x& ( t ) = F ( t, x ( t) )
Examples
Convert DAE System to Mass Matrix Form
Convert a semilinear system of differential algebraic equations to mass matrix form.
Create the following system of differential algebraic equations. Here, the functions
x1(t) and x2(t) represent state variables of the system. The system also contains
symbolic parameters r and m, and the function f(t, x1, x2). Specify the equations
and variables as two symbolic vectors: equations as a vector of symbolic equations, and
variables as a vector of symbolic function calls.
syms x1(t) x2(t) f(t, x1, x2) r m;
4-739
eqs = [m*x2(t)*diff(x1(t), t) + m*t*diff(x2(t), t) == f(t, x1(t), x2(t)),...

x1(t)^2 + x2(t)^2 == r^2];
vars = [x1(t), x2(t)];
Find the mass matrix form of this system.

[M, F] = massMatrixForm(eqs, vars)
M =
[ m*x2(t), m*t]
[
0,
0]
F =
f(t, x1(t), x2(t))
r^2 - x2(t)^2 - x1(t)^2
Solve this system using the numerical solver ode15s. Before you use ode15s, assign
the following values to symbolic parameters of the system: m = 100, r = 1, f(t, x1,
x2) = t + x1*x2. Also, replace the state variables x1(t), x2(t) by variables Y1, Y2
acceptable by matlabFunction.
syms Y1 Y2;
M = subs(M, [vars, m, r, f], [Y1, Y2, 100, 1, @(t,x1,x2) t + x1*x2]);
F = subs(F, [vars, m, r, f], [Y1, Y2, 100, 1, @(t,x1,x2) t + x1*x2]);
Create the following function handles MM and FF. You can use these function handles
as input arguments for odeset and ode15s. Note that these functions require state
variables to be specified as column vectors.
MM = matlabFunction(M, 'vars', {t, [Y1; Y2]});
FF = matlabFunction(F, 'vars', {t, [Y1; Y2]});
Use ode15s to solve the system.

opt = odeset('Mass', MM, 'InitialSlope', [0.005;0]);
ode15s(FF, [0,1], [0.5; 0.5*sqrt(3)], opt)
4-740
massMatrixForm
Input Arguments
eqs System of semilinear first-order DAEs
System of semilinear first-order DAEs, specified as a vector of symbolic equations or
expressions.
4-741
Output Arguments
M Mass matrix
symbolic matrix
Mass matrix of the system, returned as a symbolic matrix. The number of rows is the
number of equations in eqs, and the number of columns is the number of variables in
vars.
F Right sides of equations
symbolic column vector of symbolic expressions
Right sides of equations, returned as a column vector of symbolic expressions. The
number of elements in this vector coincides with the number of equations eqs.
See Also
daeFunction | decic | findDecoupledBlocks | incidenceMatrix |

isLowIndexDAE | matlabFunction | ode15s | odeset | reduceDAEIndex |
reduceDAEToODE | reduceDifferentialOrder | reduceRedundancies
4-742
matlabFunction
matlabFunction
Convert symbolic expression to function handle or file
Syntax
g
g
g
g
=
=
=
=
matlabFunction(f)
matlabFunction(f1,...,fN)
matlabFunction(f,Name,Value)
matlabFunction(f1,...,fN,Name,Value)
Description
g = matlabFunction(f) converts the symbolic expression or function f to a MATLAB
function with the handle g.
g = matlabFunction(f1,...,fN) converts a vector of the symbolic expressions or
functions f1,...,fN to a MATLAB function with multiple outputs. The function handle is g.
g = matlabFunction(f,Name,Value) converts the symbolic expression or function
f to a MATLAB function using additional options specified by one or more Name,Value
pair arguments.
g = matlabFunction(f1,...,fN,Name,Value) converts a vector of the symbolic
expressions or functions f1,...,fN to a MATLAB function with multiple outputs using
additional options specified by one or more Name,Value pair arguments.
Input Arguments
f
f1,...,fN
Vector of symbolic expressions or functions.
4-743

'file'
Generate a file with optimized code. The generated file can accept double or matrix
arguments and evaluate the symbolic expression applied to the arguments. Optimized
means intermediate variables are automatically generated to simplify or speed up the
automatically generated number, for example t32. The value of this parameter must be
a string representing the path to the file.
Default: If the value string is empty, matlabFunction generates an anonymous
function. If the string does not end in .m, the function appends .m.
'outputs'
Specify the names of output variables. The value must be a cell array of strings.
Default: The names of output variables coincide with the names you use calling
matlabFunction. If you call matlabFunction using an expression instead of
individual variables, the default names of output variables consist of the word out
followed by a number, for example, out3.
'vars'
Specify the order of the input variables or symbolic vectors in the resulting function
handle or the file. The value of this parameter must be either a cell array of strings or
symbolic arrays, or a vector of symbolic variables. The number of value entries must
equal or exceed the number of free variables in f.
Default: When converting symbolic expressions, the order is alphabetical. When
converting symbolic functions, the input arguments appear in front of other variables.
Other variables are sorted alphabetically.
4-744
matlabFunction
Output Arguments
g
MATLAB function handle.
Examples
Convert this symbolic expression to a MATLAB function with the handle ht:
syms x y
r = sqrt(x^2 + y^2);
ht = matlabFunction(sin(r)/r)
ht =
@(x,y)sin(sqrt(x.^2+y.^2)).*1.0./sqrt(x.^2+y.^2)

syms x y
f(x, y) = x^3 + y^3;
Convert f to a MATLAB function:

ht = matlabFunction(f)
ht =
@(x,y)x.^3+y.^3
Convert this expression to a MATLAB function generating the file myfile that contains
the function:
syms x y z
r = x^2 + y^2 + z^2;
f = matlabFunction(log(r)+r^(-1/2),'file','myfile');
If the file myfile.m already exists in the current folder, matlabFunction replaces
the existing function with the converted symbolic expression. You can open and edit the
resulting file:
function out1 = myfile(x,y,z)
4-745
%MYFILE
%
OUT1 = MYFILE(X,Y,Z)
t2 =
t3 =
t4 =
t5 =
out1
x.^2;
y.^2;
z.^2;
t2 + t3 + t4;
= log(t5) + 1.0./sqrt(t5);
Convert this expression to a MATLAB function using an empty string to represent a path
to the file. An empty string causes matlabFunction to generate an anonymous function:
syms x y z
r = x^2 + y^2 + z^2;
f = matlabFunction(log(r)+r^(-1/2),'file','')
f =
@(x,y,z)log(x.^2+y.^2+z.^2)+1.0./sqrt(x.^2+y.^2+z.^2)
When converting this expression to a MATLAB function, specify the order of the input
variables:
syms x y z
r = x^2 + y^2 + z^2;
matlabFunction(r, 'file', 'my_function',...
'vars', [y z x]);
The created my_function accepts variables in the required order:

function r = my_function(y,z,x)
%MY_FUNCTION
%
R = MY_FUNCTION(Y,Z,X)
r = x.^2 + y.^2 + z.^2;
When converting this expression to a MATLAB function, specify its second input
argument as a vector:
syms x y z t
r = (x^2 + y^2 + z^2)*exp(-t);
matlabFunction(r, 'file', 'my_function',...
'vars', {t, [x y z]});
The resulting function operates on vectors:

4-746
matlabFunction
function r = my_function(t,in2)
%MY_FUNCTION
%
R = MY_FUNCTION(T,IN2)
x
y
z
r
=
=
=
=
in2(:,1);
in2(:,2);
in2(:,3);
exp(-t).*(x.^2+y.^2+z.^2);
When converting this expression to a MATLAB function, specify the names of the output
variables:
syms x y z
r = x^2 + y^2 + z^2;
q = x^2 - y^2 - z^2;
f = matlabFunction(r, q, 'file', 'my_function',...
'outputs', {'name1','name2'});
The generated function returns name1 and name2:

function [name1,name2] = my_function(x,y,z)
%MY_FUNCTION
%
[NAME1,NAME2] = MY_FUNCTION(X,Y,Z)
t2 = x.^2;
t3 = y.^2;
t4 = z.^2;
name1 = t2+t3+t4;
if nargout > 1
name2 = t2-t3-t4;
end
Convert this MuPAD expression to a MATLAB function:

syms x y
matlabFunction(f, 'file', 'my_function');
The generated file contains the same expressions written in the MATLAB language:
function f = my_function(x,y)
%MY_FUNCTION
%
F = MY_FUNCTION(X,Y)
4-747
More About
Tips
To convert a MuPAD expression or function to a MATLAB function,
use f = evalin(symengine,'MuPAD_Expression') or f =
feval(symengine,'MuPAD_Function',x1,...,xn). matlabFunction cannot
correctly convert some MuPAD expressions to MATLAB functions. These expressions
do not trigger an error message. When converting a MuPAD expression or function
that is not on the MATLAB vs. MuPAD Expressions list, always check the conversion
results. To verify the results, execute the resulting function.
When you use the file argument, use rehash to make the generated function
available immediately. rehash updates the MATLAB list of known files for
directories on the search path.
Generate MATLAB Functions on page 2-220
Create MATLAB Functions from MuPAD Expressions on page 3-47
See Also
ccode | evalin | feval | fortran | matlabFunctionBlock | rehash |

simscapeEquation | subs | sym2poly
4-748
matlabFunctionBlock
matlabFunctionBlock
Convert symbolic expression to MATLAB Function block
Note: emlBlock has been removed. Use matlabFunctionBlock instead.
Syntax
matlabFunctionBlock(block,f)
matlabFunctionBlock(block,f1,...,fN)
matlabFunctionBlock(block,f,Name,Value)
matlabFunctionBlock(block,f1,...,fN,Name,Value)
Description
matlabFunctionBlock(block,f) converts the symbolic expression or function f to a
MATLAB Function block that you can use in Simulink models. Here, block specifies the
name of the block that you create or modify.
matlabFunctionBlock(block,f1,...,fN) converts a vector of the symbolic
expressions or functions f1,...,fN to a MATLAB Function block with multiple outputs.
matlabFunctionBlock(block,f,Name,Value) converts the symbolic expression or
function f to a MATLAB Function block using additional options specified by one or more
matlabFunctionBlock(block,f1,...,fN,Name,Value) converts a vector of the
symbolic expressions or functions f to a MATLAB Function block with multiple outputs
using additional options specified by one or more Name,Value pair arguments.
Input Arguments
f
4-749
f1,...,fN
block
String specifying the block name that you create or modify.

'functionName'
Specify the name of the function. The value must be a string.
Default: The value coincides with the block name.
'outputs'
Specify the names of output ports. The value must be a cell array of strings. The number
of entries must equal or exceed the number of free variables in f.
Default: The name of an output port consists of the word out followed by the output port
number, for example, out3.
'vars'
Specify the order of the variables and the corresponding input ports of a block. The value
must be either a cell array of strings or symbolic arrays, or a vector of symbolic variables.
The number of entries must equal or exceed the number of free variables in f.
Default: When converting symbolic expressions, the order is alphabetical. When
converting symbolic functions, the input arguments appear in front of other variables.
Other variables are sorted alphabetically.
Examples
Before you can convert a symbolic expression to a MATLAB Function block, create an
empty model or open an existing one:
4-750
matlabFunctionBlock
Use matlabFunctionBlock to create the block my_block containing the symbolic

expression:
syms x y z
f = x^2 + y^2 + z^2;
matlabFunctionBlock('my_system/my_block',f)
If you use the name of an existing block, matlabFunctionBlock replaces the definition
of an existing block with the converted symbolic expression.
You can open and edit the resulting block. To open a block, double-click it:
function f = my_block(x,y,z)
%#codegen
f = x.^2 + y.^2 + z.^2;
Save and close my_system:

save_system('my_system')
close_system('my_system')

syms x y z
f(x, y, z) = x^2 + y^2 + z^2;
Convert f to a MATLAB Function block:

matlabFunctionBlock('my_system/my_block',f)
Generate a block and set the function name to my_function:

syms x y z
f = x^2 + y^2 + z^2;
matlabFunctionBlock('my_system/my_block', f,...
4-751
'functionName', 'my_function')
When generating a block, specify the order of the input variables:

syms x y z
f = x^2 + y^2 + z^2;
matlabFunctionBlock('my_system/my_block', f,...
'vars', [y z x])
When generating a block, rename the output variables and the corresponding ports:
syms x y z
f = x^2 + y^2 + z^2;
matlabFunctionBlock('my_system/my_block', f, f + 1, f + 2,...
'outputs', {'name1','name2','name3'})
Call matlabFunctionBlock using several options simultaneously:

syms x y z
f = x^2 + y^2 + z^2;
matlabFunctionBlock('my_system/my_block', f, f + 1, f + 2,...
'functionName', 'my_function','vars', [y z x],...
'outputs',{'name1','name2','name3'})
Convert this MuPAD expression to a MATLAB Function block:

syms x y
matlabFunctionBlock('my_system/my_block', f)
The resulting block contains the same expressions written in the MATLAB language:
function f = my_block(x,y)
%#codegen
4-752
matlabFunctionBlock
More About
Tips
To convert a MuPAD expression or function to a MATLAB Function
block, use f = evalin(symengine,'MuPAD_Expression') or f =
feval(symengine,'MuPAD_Function',x1,...,xn). matlabFunctionBlock
cannot correctly convert some MuPAD expressions to a block. These expressions do
not trigger an error message. When converting a MuPAD expression or function that
is not on the MATLAB vs. MuPAD Expressions list, always check the conversion
results. To verify the results, you can run the simulation containing the resulting
block.
Generate MATLAB Function Blocks on page 2-225
Create MATLAB Function Blocks from MuPAD Expressions on page 3-50
See Also
ccode | evalin | feval | fortran | matlabFunction | simscapeEquation | subs

| sym2poly
4-753
max
Largest elements
Syntax
C = max(A)
C = max(A,[],dim)
[C,I] = max( ___ )
C = max(A,B)
Description
C = max(A) returns the largest element of A if A is a vector. If A is a matrix, this syntax
treats the columns of A as vectors, returning a row vector containing the largest element
from each column.
C = max(A,[],dim) returns the largest elements of matrix A along the dimension dim.
Thus, max(A,[],1) returns a row vector containing the largest elements of each column
of A, and max(A,[],2) returns a column vector containing the largest elements of each
row of A.
Here, the required argument [] serves as a divider. If you omit it, max(A,dim)
compares elements of A with the value dim.
[C,I] = max( ___ ) finds the indices of the largest elements, and returns them in
output vector I. If there are several identical largest values, this syntax returns the index
of the first largest element that it finds.
C = max(A,B) compares each element of A with the corresponding element of B and
returns C containing the largest elements of each pair.
4-754
max
Examples
Maximum of a Vector of Numbers
Find the largest of these numbers. Because these numbers are not symbolic objects, you
get a floating-point result.
max([-pi, pi/2, 1, 1/3])
ans =
1.5708
Find the largest of the same numbers converted to symbolic objects.

max(sym([-pi, pi/2, 1, 1/3]))
ans =
pi/2
Maximum of Each Column in a Symbolic Matrix

Create matrix A containing symbolic numbers, and call max for this matrix. By default,
max returns the row vector containing the largest elements of each column.
A = sym([0, 1, 2; 3, 4, 5; 1, 2, 3])
max(A)
A
[
[
[
=
0, 1, 2]
3, 4, 5]
1, 2, 3]
ans =
[ 3, 4, 5]
Maximum of Each Row in a Symbolic Matrix

Create matrix A containing symbolic numbers, and find the largest elements of each row
of the matrix. In this case, max returns the result as a column vector.
A = sym([0, 1, 2; 3, 4, 5; 1, 2, 3])
max(A,[],2)
4-755
A
[
[
[
=
0, 1, 2]
3, 4, 5]
1, 2, 3]
ans =
2
5
3
Indices of Largest Elements

Create matrix A. Find the largest element in each column and its index.
A = 1./sym(magic(3))
[Cc,Ic] = max(A)
A
[
[
[
=
1/8,
1, 1/6]
1/3, 1/5, 1/7]
1/4, 1/9, 1/2]
Cc =
[ 1/3, 1, 1/2]
Ic =
2
Now, find the largest element in each row and its index.
[Cr,Ir] = max(A,[],2)
Cr =
1
1/3
1/2
Ir =
2
1
3
If dim exceeds the number of dimensions of A, then the syntax [C,I] = max(A,
[],dim) returns C = A and I = ones(size(A)).
4-756
max
[C,I] = max(A,[],3)
C
[
[
[
=
1/8,
1, 1/6]
1/3, 1/5, 1/7]
1/4, 1/9, 1/2]
I =
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Largest Elements of Two Symbolic Matrices

Create matrices A and B containing symbolic numbers. Use max to compare each element
of A with the corresponding element of B, and return the matrix containing the largest
elements of each pair.
A = sym(pascal(3))
B = toeplitz(sym([pi/3 pi/2 pi]))
maxAB = max(A,B)
A
[
[
[
=
1, 1, 1]
1, 2, 3]
1, 3, 6]
B =
[ pi/3, pi/2,
pi]
[ pi/2, pi/3, pi/2]
[
pi, pi/2, pi/3]
maxAB =
[ pi/3, pi/2, pi]
[ pi/2,
2, 3]
[
pi,
3, 6]
Maximum of Complex Numbers

When finding the maximum of these complex numbers, max chooses the number with the
largest complex modulus.
modulus = abs([-1 - i, 1 + 1/2*i])
4-757
maximum = max(sym([1 - i, 1/2 + i]))

modulus =
1.4142
1.1180
maximum =
1 - i
If the numbers have the same complex modulus, min chooses the number with the
largest phase angle.
modulus = abs([1 - 1/2*i, 1 + 1/2*i])
phaseAngle = angle([1 - 1/2*i, 1 + 1/2*i])
maximum = max(sym([1 - 1/2*i, 1/2 + i]))
modulus =
1.1180
1.1180
phaseAngle =
-0.4636
0.4636
maximum =
1/2 + i
Input Arguments
A Input
symbolic number | symbolic vector | symbolic matrix
Input, specified as a symbolic number, vector, or matrix. All elements of A must be
convertible to floating-point numbers. If A is a scalar, then max(A) returns A. A cannot
be a multidimensional array.
positive integer
Dimension to operate along, specified as a positive integer. The default value is 1. If dim
exceeds the number of dimensions of A, then max(A,[],dim) returns A, and [C,I] =
max(A,[],dim) returns C = A and I = ones(size(A)).
B Input
4-758
max
Input, specified as a symbolic number, vector, or matrix. All elements of B must be

convertible to floating-point numbers. If A and B are scalars, then max(A,B) returns the
largest of A and B.
If one argument is a vector or matrix, the other argument must either be a scalar or have
the same dimensions as the first one. If one argument is a scalar and the other argument
is a vector or matrix, then max expands the scalar into a vector or a matrix of the same
length with all elements equal to that scalar.
B cannot be a multidimensional array.
Output Arguments
C Largest elements
symbolic number | symbolic vector
Largest elements, returned as a symbolic number or vector of symbolic numbers.
I Indices of largest elements
Indices of largest elements, returned as a symbolic number or vector of symbolic
numbers. [C,I] = max(A,[],dim) also returns matrix I = ones(size(A)) if the
value dim exceeds the number of dimensions of A.
More About
Tips
Calling max for numbers (or vectors or matrices of numbers) that are not symbolic
objects invokes the MATLAB max function.
For complex input A, max returns the complex number with the largest complex
modulus (magnitude), computed with max(abs(A)). If complex numbers have
the same modulus, max chooses the number with the largest phase angle,
max(angle(A)).
max ignores NaNs.
See Also
abs | angle | max | min | sort

4-759
mfun
Numeric evaluation of special mathematical function
Compatibility
mfun will be removed in a future release. Instead, use the appropriate special
function syntax listed in mfunlist. For example, use bernoulli(n) instead of
mfun('bernoulli',n).
Syntax
mfun('function',par1,par2,par3,par4)
Description
mfun('function',par1,par2,par3,par4) numerically evaluates one of the special
mathematical functions listed in mfunlist. Each par argument is a numeric quantity
corresponding to a parameter for function. You can use up to four parameters. The last
parameter specified can be a matrix, usually corresponding to X. The dimensions of all
other parameters depend on the specifications for function. You can access parameter
information for mfun functions in mfunlist.
MuPAD software evaluates function using 16-digit accuracy. Each element of the
result is a MATLAB numeric quantity. Any singularity in function is returned as NaN.
Examples
Evaluate the Fresnel cosine integral.
mfun('FresnelC',0:4)
ans =
0
0.7799
0.4883
Evaluate the hyperbolic cosine integral.

4-760
0.6057
0.4984
mfun
mfun('Chi',[3*i 0])
ans =
0.1196 + 1.5708i
NaN
See Also
mfunlist
4-761
mfunlist
List special functions for use with mfun
Compatibility
mfun will be removed in a future release. Instead, use the appropriate special
function syntax listed below. For example, use bernoulli(n) instead of
mfun('bernoulli',n).
Syntax
mfunlist
Description
mfunlist lists the special mathematical functions for use with the mfun function. The
following tables describe these special functions.
Syntax and Definitions of mfun Special Functions

The following conventions are used in the next table, unless otherwise indicated in the
Arguments column.
x, y
real argument
z, z1, z2
complex argument
m, n
integer argument
mfun Special Functions

Function
Name
Definition
Bernoulli
Generating functions:
numbers and
polynomials
4-762
mfun Name
Special Function
Syntax
Arguments
bernoulli(n)
bernoulli(n)
n0
bernoulli(n,t)bernoulli(n,t)
mfunlist
Function
Name
Definition
e xt
et - 1
Bessel
functions
Beta function
Binomial
coefficients
Bn (x)
n =0
B( x, y) =
Special Function
Syntax
tn -1
n!
BesselI, BesselJBessel
functions of the first kind.
BesselK, BesselYBessel
functions of the second kind.
G( x) G( y)
G( x + y)
m!
m
=
n n ! (m - n )!
Complete
elliptic
integrals
mfun Name
Arguments
0 < t < 2p
BesselJ(v,x)
besselj(v,x)
BesselY(v,x)
bessely(v,x)
BesselI(v,x)
besseli(v,x)
BesselK(v,x)
besselk(v,x)
Beta(x,y)
beta(x,y)
v is real.
binomial(m,n) nchoosek(m,n)
G( m + 1)
G ( n + 1) G( m - n + 1)
Legendre's complete elliptic

EllipticK(k) ellipticK(k)
a is real,
integrals of the first, second,
<a<.
EllipticE(k) ellipticE(k)
and third kind. This definition
k is real, 0 <
uses modulus k. The numerical
EllipticPi(a,k)
ellipticPi(a,k)
k < 1.
ellipke function and the
MuPAD functions for computing
elliptic integrals use the
parameter m = k 2 = sin2 a .
Complete
Associated complete elliptic
EllipticCK(k) ellipticCK(k) a is real,
elliptic
integrals of the first, second, and
<a<.
integrals
third kind using complementary EllipticCE(k) ellipticCE(k)
k is real, 0 <
with
modulus. This definition uses
EllipticCPi(a,k)
ellipticCPi(a,k)
k < 1.
complementarymodulus k. The numerical
modulus
4-763
Function
Name
Definition
mfun Name
Special Function
Syntax
Arguments
erfc(z)
n>0
Complementary
erfc(z)
2
error function erfc( z) = 2 e-t dt = 1 - erf ( z)
erfc(n,z)
p z
and its
iterated
integrals
2
2
erfc( -1, z) =
e- z
p
erfc(n,z)
erfc(n - 1, t)dt
erfc( n, z) =
Dawson's
integral
F( x) = e
- x2
t2
dawson(x)
dawson(x)
Psi(x)
psi(x)
dilog(x)
dilog(x)
x>1
erf(z)
erf(z)
euler(n)
euler(n)
n0
euler(n,z)
euler(n,z)
e dt
0
Digamma
function
Dilogarithm
integral
Y ( x) =
d
G( x)
ln(G( x)) =
dx
G( x)
x
f ( x) =
Error
function
erf ( z) =
ln(t)
dt
1- t
2
e-t dt
Euler
Generating function for Euler
numbers and numbers:
polynomials
1
t
=
En
cosh( t) n=0
n!
4-764
t<
p
2
mfunlist
Function
Name
Exponential
integrals
Definition
mfun Name
Special Function
Syntax
Arguments
Ei(n,z)
expint(n,x)
n0
Ei(x)
ei(x)
Real(z) > 0
FresnelC(x)
fresnelc(x)
FresnelS(x)
fresnels(x)
GAMMA(z)
gamma(z)
harmonic(n)
harmonic(n)
n>0
Shi(z)
sinhint(z)
Chi(z)
coshint(z)
- zt
Ei( n, z) =
dt
tn
x et
Ei( x) = PV
t
-
Fresnel sine
and cosine
integrals
p
C( x) = cos t2 dt
2
0
p
S( x) = sin t2 dt
2
Gamma
function
G( z) =
z-1 -t
e dt
Harmonic
function
Hyperbolic
sine and
cosine
integrals
h( n) =
1
= Y ( n + 1) + g
k= 1 k
Shi( z) =
sinh(t)
dt
t
Chi( z) = g + ln( z) +
cosh(t) - 1
dt
t
4-765
Function
Name
Definition
mfun Name
Special Function
Syntax
Arguments
(Generalized)
j
G( ni + k) k
hypergeometric
z
G( ni )
function
i =1
F(n, d, z) =
m
G(di + k)
k =0
k!
G( di )
i =1
hypergeom(n,d,x)
hypergeom(n,d,x)
n1,n2,...
are real.
where
where
d1,d2,...
n =
are real and
n =
[n1,n2,...]
nonnegative.
[n1,n2,...]
d =
where j and m are the number of
d =
[d1,d2,...]
terms in n and d, respectively.
[d1,d2,...]
Incomplete
elliptic
integrals
Legendre's incomplete elliptic

EllipticF(x,k)ellipticF(x,k) 0 < x .
integrals of the first, second,
EllipticE(x,k)ellipticF(x,k) a is real,
and third kind. This definition
<a<.
uses modulus k. The numerical
EllipticPi(x,a,k)
ellipticPi(x,a,k)
k is real, 0 <
k < 1.
Incomplete
gamma
function
Logarithm of
the gamma
function
Logarithmic
integral
Polygamma
function
GAMMA(z1,z2)
igamma(z1,z2)
z1 = a
z2 = z
z1 = a
z2 = z
lnGAMMA( z) = ln(G( z))
lnGAMMA(z)
gammaln(z)
x dt
Li( x) = PV
= Ei(ln x)
0 ln t
Li(x)
logint(x)
x>1
Psi(n,z)
psi(n,z)
n0
G( a, z) =
e-t t a-1dt
Y (n ) ( z) =
dn
Y( z)
dz
where Y( z) is the Digamma

function.
4-766
mfunlist
Function
Name
Definition
Shifted sine
integral
Ssi( z) = Si ( z) -
p
2
mfun Name
Special Function
Syntax
Arguments
Ssi(z)
ssinint(z)
The following orthogonal polynomials are available using mfun. In all cases, n is a
nonnegative integer and x is real.
Orthogonal Polynomials
Polynomial
mfun Name
Special Function
Syntax
Arguments
Chebyshev of the first T(n,x)

and second kind
U(n,x)
chebyshevT(n,x)
Gegenbauer
G(n,a,x)
gegenbauerC(n,a,x)
a is a nonrational
algebraic expression or a
rational number greater
than -1/2.
Hermite
H(n,x)
hermiteH(n,x)
Jacobi
P(n,a,b,x)
jacobiP(n,a,b,x)
a, b are nonrational
algebraic expressions or
rational numbers greater
than -1.
Laguerre
L(n,x)
laguerreL(n,x)
chebyshevU(n,x)
Generalized Laguerre L(n,a,x)
laguerreL(n,a,x)
a is a nonrational
algebraic expression or a
rational number greater
than -1.
Legendre
legendreP(n,x)
P(n,x)
Examples
mfun('H',5,10)
ans =
4-767
3041200
mfun('dawson',3.2)
ans =
0.1655
Limitations
In general, the accuracy of a function will be lower near its roots and when its arguments
are relatively large.
Running time depends on the specific function and its parameters. In general,
calculations are slower than standard MATLAB calculations.
References
[1] Abramowitz, M. and I.A., Stegun, Handbook of Mathematical Functions With
Formulas, Graphs, and Mathematical Tables. New York: Dover, 1972.
See Also
mfun
4-768
min
min
Smallest elements
Syntax
C = min(A)
C = min(A,[],dim)
[C,I] = min( ___ )
C = min(A,B)
Description
C = min(A) returns the smallest element of A if A is a vector. If A is a matrix, this
syntax treats the columns of A as vectors, returning a row vector containing the smallest
element from each column.
C = min(A,[],dim) returns the smallest elements of matrix A along the dimension
dim. Thus, min(A,[],1) returns a row vector containing the smallest elements of
each column of A, and min(A,[],2) returns a column vector containing the smallest
elements of each row of A.
Here, the required argument [] serves as a divider. If you omit it, min(A,dim)
compares elements of A with the value dim.
[C,I] = min( ___ ) finds the indices of the smallest elements, and returns them in
output vector I. If there are several identical smallest values, this syntax returns the
index of the first smallest element that it finds.
C = min(A,B) compares each element of A with the corresponding element of B and
returns C containing the smallest elements of each pair.
4-769
Examples
Minimum of a Vector of Numbers
Find the smallest of these numbers. Because these numbers are not symbolic objects, you
get a floating-point result.
min([-pi, pi/2, 1, 1/3])
ans =
-3.1416
Find the smallest of the same numbers converted to symbolic objects.

min(sym([-pi, pi/2, 1, 1/3]))
ans =
-pi
Minimum of Each Column in a Symbolic Matrix

Create matrix A containing symbolic numbers, and call min for this matrix. By default,
min returns the row vector containing the smallest elements of each column.
A = sym([0, 1, 2; 3, 4, 5; 1, 2, 3])
min(A)
A
[
[
[
=
0, 1, 2]
3, 4, 5]
1, 2, 3]
ans =
[ 0, 1, 2]
Minimum of Each Row in a Symbolic Matrix

Create matrix A containing symbolic numbers, and find the smallest elements of each
row of the matrix. In this case, min returns the result as a column vector.
A = sym([0, 1, 2; 3, 4, 5; 1, 2, 3])
min(A,[],2)
4-770
min
A
[
[
[
=
0, 1, 2]
3, 4, 5]
1, 2, 3]
ans =
0
3
1
Indices of Smallest Elements

Create matrix A. Find the smallest element in each column and its index.
A = 1./sym(magic(3))
[Cc,Ic] = min(A)
A
[
[
[
=
1/8,
1, 1/6]
1/3, 1/5, 1/7]
1/4, 1/9, 1/2]
Cc =
[ 1/8, 1/9, 1/7]
Ic =
1
Now, find the smallest element in each row and its index.
[Cr,Ir] = min(A,[],2)
Cr=
1/8
1/7
1/9
Ir =
1
3
2
If dim exceeds the number of dimensions of A, then the syntax [C,I] = min(A,
[],dim) returns C = A and I = ones(size(A)).
4-771
[C,I] = min(A,[],3)
C
[
[
[
=
1/8,
1, 1/6]
1/3, 1/5, 1/7]
1/4, 1/9, 1/2]
I =
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Smallest Elements of Two Symbolic Matrices

Create matrices A and B containing symbolic numbers. Use min to compare each element
of A with the corresponding element of B, and return the matrix containing the smallest
elements of each pair.
A = sym(pascal(3))
B = toeplitz(sym([pi/3 pi/2 pi]))
minAB = min(A,B)
A
[
[
[
=
1, 1, 1]
1, 2, 3]
1, 3, 6]
B =
[ pi/3, pi/2,
pi]
[ pi/2, pi/3, pi/2]
[
pi, pi/2, pi/3]
minAB =
[ 1,
1,
1]
[ 1, pi/3, pi/2]
[ 1, pi/2, pi/3]
Minimum of Complex Numbers

When finding the minimum of these complex numbers, min chooses the number with the
smallest complex modulus.
modulus = abs([-1 - i, 1 + 1/2*i])
4-772
min
minimum = min(sym([1 - i, 1/2 + i]))

modulus =
1.4142
1.1180
minimum =
1/2 + i
If the numbers have the same complex modulus, min chooses the number with the
smallest phase angle.
modulus = abs([1 - 1/2*i, 1 + 1/2*i])
phaseAngle = angle([1 - 1/2*i, 1 + 1/2*i])
minimum = min(sym([1 - 1/2*i, 1/2 + i]))
modulus =
1.1180
1.1180
phaseAngle =
-0.4636
0.4636
minimum =
1 - i/2
Input Arguments
A Input
Input, specified as a symbolic number, vector, or matrix. All elements of A must be
convertible to floating-point numbers. If A is a scalar, then min(A) returns A. A cannot
be a multidimensional array.
positive integer
exceeds the number of dimensions of A, then min(A,[],dim) returns A, and [C,I] =
min(A,[],dim) returns C = A and I = ones(size(A)).
B Input
4-773
Input, specified as a symbolic number, vector, or matrix. All elements of B must be

convertible to floating-point numbers. If A and B are scalars, then min(A,B) returns the
smallest of A and B.
If one argument is a vector or matrix, the other argument must either be a scalar or have
the same dimensions as the first one. If one argument is a scalar and the other argument
is a vector or matrix, then min expands the scalar into a vector or a matrix of the same
length with all elements equal to that scalar.
B cannot be a multidimensional array.
Output Arguments
C Smallest elements
symbolic number | symbolic vector
Smallest elements, returned as a symbolic number or vector of symbolic numbers.
I Indices of smallest elements
Indices of smallest elements, returned as a symbolic number or vector of symbolic
numbers. [C,I] = min(A,[],dim) also returns matrix I = ones(size(A)) if the
value dim exceeds the number of dimensions of A.
More About
Tips
Calling min for numbers (or vectors or matrices of numbers) that are not symbolic
objects invokes the MATLAB min function.
For complex input A, min returns the complex number with the smallest complex
modulus (magnitude), computed with min(abs(A)). If complex numbers have
the same modulus, min chooses the number with the smallest phase angle,
min(angle(A)).
min ignores NaNs.
See Also
abs | angle | max | min | sort

4-774
minpoly
minpoly
Minimal polynomial of matrix
Syntax
minpoly(A)
minpoly(A,var)
Description
minpoly(A) returns a vector of the coefficients of the minimal polynomial of A. If A is a
symbolic matrix, minpoly returns a symbolic vector. Otherwise, it returns a vector with
elements of type double.
minpoly(A,var) returns the minimal polynomial of A in terms of var.
Input Arguments
A
Matrix.
var
Free symbolic variable.
Default: If you do not specify var, minpoly returns a vector of coefficients of the
minimal polynomial instead of returning the polynomial itself.
Examples
Compute the minimal polynomial of the matrix A in terms of the variable x:
syms x
A = sym([1 1 0; 0 1 0; 0 0 1]);
4-775
minpoly(A, x)
ans =
x^2 - 2*x + 1
To find the coefficients of the minimal polynomial of A, call minpoly with one argument:
A = sym([1 1 0; 0 1 0; 0 0 1]);
minpoly(A)
ans =
[ 1, -2, 1]
Find the coefficients of the minimal polynomial of the symbolic matrix A. For this matrix,
minpoly returns the symbolic vector of coefficients:
A = sym([0 2 0; 0 0 2; 2 0 0]);
P = minpoly(A)
P =
[ 1, 0, 0, -8]
Now find the coefficients of the minimal polynomial of the matrix B, all elements of
which are double-precision values. Note that in this case minpoly returns coefficients as
double-precision values:
B = [0 2 0; 0 0 2; 2 0 0];
P = minpoly(B)
P =
1
-8
More About
Minimal Polynomial of a Matrix
The minimal polynomial of a square matrix A is the monic polynomial p(x) of the least
degree, such that p(A)=0.
See Also
charpoly | eig | jordan | poly2sym | sym2poly
4-776
minus, -
minus, Symbolic subtraction
Syntax
-A
A - B
minus(A,B)
Description
-A returns the negation of A.
A - B subtracts B from A and returns the result.
minus(A,B) is an alternate way to execute A - B.
Examples
Subtract a Scalar from an Array
Subtract 2 from array A.
syms x
A = [x 1;-2 sin(x)];
A - 2
ans =
[ x - 2,
-1]
[
-4, sin(x) - 2]
minus subtracts 2 from each element of A.

Subtract the identity matrix from matrix M:
syms x y z
M = [0 x; y z];
4-777
M - eye(2)
ans =
[ -1,
x]
[ y, z - 1]
Subtract Numeric and Symbolic Arguments

Subtract one number from another. Because these are not symbolic objects, you receive
floating-point results.
11/6 - 5/4
ans =
0.5833
Perform subtraction symbolically by converting the numbers to symbolic objects.

sym(11/6) - sym(5/4)
ans =
7/12
Alternatively, call minus to perform subtraction.

minus(sym(11/6),sym(5/4))
ans =
7/12
Subtract Matrices
Subtract matrices B and C from A.
A
B
C
Y
=
=
=
=
sym([3 4; 2 1]);
sym([8 1; 5 2]);
sym([6 3; 4 9]);
A - B - C
Y =
[ -11,
0]
[ -7, -10]
Use syntax -Y to negate the elements of Y.

4-778
minus, -
-Y
ans =
[ 11, 0]
[ 7, 10]
Subtract Functions
Subtract function g from function f.
syms f(x) g(x)
f = sin(x) + 2*x;
y = f - g
y(x) =
2*x - g(x) + sin(x)
Input Arguments
A Input
| symbolic function | symbolic expression
Input, specified as a symbolic variable, vector, matrix, multidimensional array, function,
or expression.
B Input
or expression.
More About
Tips
All nonscalar arguments must have the same size. If one input argument is nonscalar,
then minus expands the scalar into an array of the same size as the nonscalar
4-779
See Also
plus
4-780
mod
mod
Symbolic modulus after division
Syntax
mod(a,b)
Description
mod(a,b) finds the modulus after division. To find the remainder, use rem.
If a is a polynomial expression, then mod(a,b) finds the modulus for each coefficient.
Examples
Divide Integers by Integers
Find the modulus after division in case both the dividend and divisor are integers.
Find the modulus after division for these numbers.
[mod(sym(27), 4), mod(sym(27), -4), mod(sym(-27), 4), mod(sym(-27), -4)]
ans =
[ 3, -1, 1, -3]
Divide Rationals by Integers

Find the modulus after division in case the dividend is a rational number, and divisor is
an integer.
[mod(sym(22/3), 5), mod(sym(1/2), 7), mod(sym(27/6), -11)]
ans =
4-781
[ 7/3, 1/2, -13/2]
Divide Polynomial Expressions by Integers

Find the modulus after division in case the dividend is a polynomial expression, and
divisor is an integer. If the dividend is a polynomial expression, then mod finds the
modulus for each coefficient.
Find the modulus after division for these polynomial expressions.
syms x
mod(x^3 - 2*x + 999, 10)
ans =
x^3 + 8*x + 9
mod(8*x^3 + 9*x^2 + 10*x + 11, 7)
ans =
x^3 + 2*x^2 + 3*x + 4
Divide Elements of Matrices

For vectors and matrices, mod finds the modulus after division element-wise. Nonscalar
Find the modulus after division for the elements of these two matrices.
A = sym([27, 28; 29, 30]);
B = sym([2, 3; 4, 5]);
mod(A,B)
ans =
[ 1, 1]
[ 1, 0]
Find the modulus after division for the elements of matrix A and the value 9. Here, mod
expands 9 into the 2-by-2 matrix with all elements equal to 9.
mod(A,9)
ans =
[ 0, 1]
4-782
mod
[ 2, 3]
Input Arguments
a Dividend (numerator)
number | symbolic number | symbolic variable | polynomial expression | vector |
matrix
Dividend (numerator), specified as a number, symbolic number, variable, polynomial
expression, or a vector or matrix of numbers, symbolic numbers, variables, or polynomial
expressions.
b Divisor (denominator)
number | symbolic number | vector | matrix
Divisor (denominator), specified as a number, symbolic number, or a vector or matrix of
numbers or symbolic numbers.
More About
Modulus
The modulus of a and b is
a
mod ( a, b ) = a - b * floor ,
b
where floor rounds (a/b) towards negative infinity. For example, the modulus of -8 and
-3 is -2, but the modulus of -8 and 3 is 1.
If b=0, then mod(a,0)=0.
Tips
Calling mod for numbers that are not symbolic objects invokes the MATLAB mod
function.
All nonscalar arguments must be the same size. If one input arguments is nonscalar,
then mod expands the scalar into a vector or matrix of the same size as the nonscalar
4-783
See Also
quorem | rem
4-784
mupad
mupad
Start MuPAD notebook
Syntax
mphandle = mupad
mphandle = mupad(file)
Description
mphandle = mupad creates a MuPAD notebook, and keeps a handle (pointer) to the
notebook in the variable mphandle. You can use any variable name you like instead of
mphandle.
mphandle = mupad(file) opens the MuPAD notebook named file and keeps
a handle (pointer) to the notebook in the variable mphandle. The file name must
be a full path unless the file is in the current folder. You also can use the argument
file#linktargetname to refer to the particular link target inside a notebook. In this
case, the mupad function opens the MuPAD notebook (file) and jumps to the beginning
of the link target linktargetname. If there are multiple link targets with the name
linktargetname, the mupad function uses the last linktargetname occurrence.
Examples
To start a new notebook and define a handle mphandle to the notebook, enter:
reset(symengine);
if ~feature('ShowFigureWindows')
disp('no display available, skipping test ....');
else mphandle = mupad; end
mphandle = mupad;
To open an existing notebook named notebook1.mn located in the current folder, and
define a handle mphandle to the notebook, enter:
mphandle = mupad('notebook1.mn');
4-785
To open a notebook and jump to a particular location, create a link target at that location
inside a notebook and refer to it when opening a notebook. For example, if you have the
Conclusions section in notebook1.mn, create a link target named conclusions and
refer to it when opening the notebook. The mupad function opens notebook1.mn and
scroll it to display the Conclusions section:
mphandle = mupad('notebook1.mn#conclusions');
For information about creating link targets, see Work with Links.
More About
See Also
getVar | mupadwelcome | openmn | openmu | setVar
4-786
mupadNotebookTitle
mupadNotebookTitle
Window title of MuPAD notebook
Syntax
T = mupadNotebookTitle(nb)
Description
T = mupadNotebookTitle(nb) returns a cell array containing the window title of
the MuPAD notebook with the handle nb. If nb is a vector of handles to notebooks, then
mupadNotebookTitle(nb) returns a cell array of the same size as nb.
Examples
Find Titles of Particular Notebooks
Knowing the handles to notebooks, find the titles of these notebooks.
nb3 = mupad
nb1 =
myFile1
nb2 =
myFile2
nb3 =
Notebook1
Find the titles of myFile1.mn and myFile2.mn:

4-787
mupadNotebookTitle([nb1; nb2])
ans =
'myFile1'
'myFile2'
List Titles of All Open Notebooks

Get a cell array containing titles of all currently open MuPAD notebooks.
nb3 = mupad
nb1 =
myFile1
nb2 =
myFile2
nb3 =
Notebook1
Suppose that there are no other open notebooks. Use allMuPADNotebooks to get a
vector of handles to these notebooks:
allNBs = allMuPADNotebooks
allNBs =
myFile1
myFile2
Notebook1
List the titles of all open notebooks. The result is a cell array of strings.
mupadNotebookTitle(allNBs)
ans =
'myFile1'
'myFile2'
4-788
mupadNotebookTitle
'Notebook1
Return a Single Notebook Title as a String

mupadNotebookTitle returns a cell array of titles even if there is only one element in
that cell array. If mupadNotebookTitle returns a cell array of one element, you can
quickly convert it to a string by using char.
Create a new notebook with the handle nb:
nb = mupad;
Find the title of that notebook and convert it to a string:

titleAsStr = char(mupadNotebookTitle(nb));
Use the title the same way as any string:

disp(['The current notebook title is: ' titleAsStr])
The current notebook title is: Notebook1
Input Arguments
Pointer to MuPAD notebook, specified as a MuPAD notebook handle or a vector of
openmn function.
You can get the list of all open notebooks using the allMuPADNotebooks function.
mupadNotebookTitle accepts a vector of handles returned by allMuPADNotebooks.
4-789
Output Arguments
T Window title of MuPAD notebook
cell array
Window title of MuPAD notebook, returned as a cell array. If nb is a vector of handles to
notebooks, then T is a cell array of the same size as nb.
See Also
allMuPADNotebooks | close | evaluateMuPADNotebook | getVar | mupad |

openmn | setVar
4-790
mupadwelcome
mupadwelcome
Start MuPAD interfaces
Syntax
mupadwelcome
Description
mupadwelcome opens a window that enables you to start various interfaces:
MuPAD Notebook app, for performing calculations
MATLAB Editor, for writing programs and libraries
Documentation in the First Steps pane, for information and examples
It also enables you to access recent MuPAD files or browse for files.
4-791
More About
See Also
mupad
4-792
nchoosek
nchoosek
Binomial coefficient
Syntax
nchoosek(n,k)
Description
nchoosek(n,k) returns the binomial coefficient of n and k.
Input Arguments
n
Symbolic number, variable or expression.
k
Symbolic number, variable or expression.
Examples
Compute the binomial coefficients for these expressions:
syms n
[nchoosek(n, n), nchoosek(n, n + 1), nchoosek(n, n - 1)]
ans =
[ 1, 0, n]
If one or both parameters are negative numbers, convert these numbers to symbolic
objects:
[nchoosek(sym(-1), 3), nchoosek(sym(-7), 2), nchoosek(sym(-5), -5)]
4-793
ans =
[ -1, 28, 1]
If one or both parameters are complex numbers, convert these numbers to symbolic
objects:
[nchoosek(sym(i), 3), nchoosek(sym(i), i), nchoosek(sym(i), i + 1)]
ans =
[ 1/2 + i/6, 1, 0]
Differentiate the binomial coefficient:

syms n
diff(nchoosek(n, 2))
ans =
-(psi(n - 1) - psi(n + 1))*nchoosek(n, 2)
Expand the binomial coefficient:

syms n k
expand(nchoosek(n, k))
ans =
-(n*gamma(n))/(k^2*gamma(k)*gamma(n - k) - k*n*gamma(k)*gamma(n - k))
More About
Binomial Coefficient
If n and k are integers and 0kn, the binomial coefficient is defined as:
n
n!
= (
k k! n - k)!
For complex numbers, the binomial coefficient is defined via the gamma function:
n
G ( n + 1)
= (
k G k + 1) G ( n - k + 1)
4-794
nchoosek
Tips
Calling nchoosek for numbers that are not symbolic objects invokes the MATLAB
nchoosek function.
If one or both parameters are complex or negative numbers, convert these numbers to
symbolic objects using sym, and then call nchoosek for those symbolic objects.
Algorithms
If k<0 or nk<0, nchoosek(n,k) returns 0.
If one or both arguments are complex, nchoosek uses the formula representing the
binomial coefficient via the gamma function.
See Also
beta | gamma | factorial | psi
4-795
ne
Define inequality
Syntax
A ~= B
ne(A,B)
Description
A ~= B creates a symbolic inequality.
ne(A,B) is equivalent to A ~= B.
Input Arguments
A
B
Examples
Use assume and the relational operator ~= to set the assumption that x does not equal to
5:
syms x
assume(x ~= 5)
therefore returns only one solution.
4-796
ne
solve((x - 5)*(x - 6) == 0, x)
ans =
6
Alternatives
You can also define inequality using eq (or its shortcut ==) and the logical negation not
(or ~). Thus, A ~= B is equivalent to ~(A == B).
More About
Tips
If A and B are both numbers, then A ~= B compares A and B and returns logical 1
(true) or logical 0 (false). Otherwise, A ~= B returns a symbolic inequality. You
can use that inequality as an argument for such functions as assume, assumeAlso,
and subs.
If both A and B are arrays, then these arrays must have the same dimensions. A ~=
B returns an array of inequalities A(i,j,...)~=B(i,j,...)
See Also
eq | ge | gt | isAlways | le | logical | lt
4-797
nnz
Number of nonzero elements
Syntax
nnz(X)
Description
nnz(X) computes the number of nonzero elements in X.
Examples
Number of Nonzero Elements and Matrix Density
Compute the number of nonzero elements of a 10-by-10 symbolic matrix and its density.
Create the following matrix as an element-wise product of a random matrix composed of
0s and 1s and the symbolic Hilbert matrix.
A = gallery('rando',10).*sym(hilb(10))
A =
[
0, 1/2, 1/3,
0, 1/5, 1/6, 1/7,
0,
0, 1/10]
[ 1/2, 1/3, 1/4,
0,
0,
0,
0, 1/9,
0, 1/11]
[
0, 1/4,
0,
0, 1/7, 1/8, 1/9, 1/10,
0,
0]
[
0, 1/5,
0,
0, 1/8,
0, 1/10, 1/11,
0, 1/13]
[ 1/5,
0,
0, 1/8, 1/9,
0, 1/11, 1/12,
0,
0]
[ 1/6,
0, 1/8,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0, 1/14, 1/15]
[
0, 1/8,
0,
0, 1/11,
0,
0,
0,
0, 1/16]
[ 1/8,
0, 1/10, 1/11,
0,
0,
0, 1/15, 1/16,
0]
[
0,
0, 1/11,
0, 1/13,
0, 1/15, 1/16, 1/17,
0]
[ 1/10, 1/11,
0,
0, 1/14,
0, 1/16,
0, 1/18,
0]
Compute the number of nonzero elements in the resulting matrix.

Number = nnz(A)
4-798
nnz
Number =
48
Find the density of this sparse matrix.

Density = nnz(A)/prod(size(A)
Density =
0.4800
Input Arguments
X Input array
symbolic vector | symbolic matrix | symbolic multidimensional array
Input array, specified as a symbolic vector, matrix, or multidimensional array.
See Also
nonzeros | rank | reshape | size
4-799
nonzeros
Nonzero elements
Syntax
nonzeros(X)
Description
nonzeros(X) returns a column vector containing all nonzero elements of X.
Examples
List All Nonzero Elements of a Symbolic Matrix
Find all nonzero elements of a 10-by-10 symbolic matrix.
Create the following 5-by-5 symbolic Toeplitz matrix.
T = toeplitz(sym([0 2 3 4 0]))
T
[
[
[
[
[
=
0,
2,
3,
4,
0,
2,
0,
2,
3,
4,
3,
2,
0,
2,
3,
4,
3,
2,
0,
2,
0]
4]
3]
2]
0]
Use the triu function to return a triangular matrix that retains only the upper part of T.
T1 = triu(T)
T1 =
[ 0,
[ 0,
[ 0,
[ 0,
4-800
2,
0,
0,
0,
3,
2,
0,
0,
4,
3,
2,
0,
0]
4]
3]
2]
nonzeros
[ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0]
List all nonzero elements of this matrix. nonzeros searches for nonzero elements of a
matrix in the first column, then in the second one, and so on. It returns the column vector
containing all nonzero elements. It retains duplicate elements.
nonzeros(T1)
ans =
2
3
2
4
3
2
4
3
2
Input Arguments
X Input array
See Also
nnz | rank | reshape | size
4-801
norm
Norm of matrix or vector
Syntax
norm(A)
norm(A,p)
norm(V)
norm(V,P)
Description
norm(A) returns the 2-norm of matrix A.
norm(A,p) returns the p-norm of matrix A.
norm(V) returns the 2-norm of vector V.
norm(V,P) returns the P-norm of vector V.
Input Arguments
A
Symbolic matrix.
p
One of these values 1, 2, inf, or 'fro'.
norm(A,1) returns the 1-norm of A.
norm(A,2) or norm(A) returns the 2-norm of A.
norm(A,inf) returns the infinity norm of A.
norm(A,'fro') returns the Frobenius norm of A.
4-802
norm
Default: 2
V
Symbolic vector.
P
norm(V,P) is computed as sum(abs(V).^P)^(1/P) for 1<=P<inf.
norm(V) computes the 2-norm of V.
norm(A,inf) is computed as max(abs(V)).
norm(A,-inf) is computed as min(abs(V)).
Default: 2
Examples
Compute the 2-norm of the inverse of the 3-by-3 magic square A:
A = inv(sym(magic(3)))
norm2 = norm(A)
A =
[ 53/360, -13/90, 23/360]
[ -11/180,
1/45, 19/180]
[ -7/360, 17/90, -37/360]
norm2 =
3^(1/2)/6
Use vpa to approximate the result with 20-digit accuracy:

vpa(norm2, 20)
ans =
0.28867513459481288225
Compute the 1-norm, Frobenius norm, and infinity norm of the inverse of the 3-by-3
magic square A:
A = inv(sym(magic(3)))
norm1 = norm(A, 1)
4-803
normf = norm(A, 'fro')

normi = norm(A, inf)
A =
[ 53/360, -13/90, 23/360]
[ -11/180,
1/45, 19/180]
[ -7/360, 17/90, -37/360]
norm1 =
16/45
normf =
391^(1/2)/60
normi =
16/45
Use vpa to approximate these results 20-digit accuracy:

vpa(norm1, 20)
vpa(normf, 20)
vpa(normi, 20)
ans =
0.35555555555555555556
ans =
0.32956199888808647519
ans =
0.35555555555555555556
Compute the 1-norm, 2-norm, and 3-norm of the column vector V = [Vx; Vy; Vz]:
syms Vx Vy Vz
V = [Vx; Vy; Vz];
norm1 = norm(V, 1)
norm2 = norm(V)
norm3 = norm(V, 3)
norm1 =
abs(Vx) + abs(Vy) + abs(Vz)
norm2 =
(abs(Vx)^2 + abs(Vy)^2 + abs(Vz)^2)^(1/2)
4-804
norm
norm3 =
Compute the infinity norm, negative infinity norm, and Frobenius norm of V:
normi = norm(V, inf)
normni = norm(V, -inf)
normf = norm(V, 'fro')
normi =
max(abs(Vx), abs(Vy), abs(Vz))
normni =
min(abs(Vx), abs(Vy), abs(Vz))
normf =
More About
1-norm of a Matrix
The 1-norm of an m-by-n matrix A is defined as follows:
m
A 1 = max
Aij , where j = 1 n
j i =1
2-norm of a Matrix
The 2-norm of an m-by-n matrix A is defined as follows:
A 2 = max eigenvalue of A H A
The 2-norm is also called the spectral norm of a matrix.
Frobenius Norm of a Matrix
The Frobenius norm of an m-by-n matrix A is defined as follows:
4-805
Aij
i =1 j =1
m
Infinity Norm of a Matrix

The infinity norm of an m-by-n matrix A is defined as follows:
n
A = max
A1 j ,
j =1
j =1
j =1
A2 j ,, Amj
P-norm of a Vector
The P-norm of a 1-by-n or n-by-1 vector V is defined as follows:
n
=
Vi
i=1
Here n must be an integer greater than 1.

Frobenius Norm of a Vector
The Frobenius norm of a 1-by-n or n-by-1 vector V is defined as follows:
n
Vi
i =1
The Frobenius norm of a vector coincides with its 2-norm.

Infinity and Negative Infinity Norm of a Vector
The infinity norm of a 1-by-n or n-by-1 vector V is defined as follows:
V = max ( Vi ) , where i = 1 n
The negative infinity norm of a 1-by-n or n-by-1 vector V is defined as follows:
4-806
norm
V - = min ( Vi ) , where i = 1 n
Tips
Calling norm for a numeric matrix that is not a symbolic object invokes the MATLAB
norm function.
See Also
cond | equationsToMatrix | inv | linsolve | rank
4-807
not
Logical NOT for symbolic expressions
Syntax
~A
not(A)
Description
~A represents the logical negation. ~A is true when A is false and vice versa.
not(A) is equivalent to ~A.
Input Arguments
A
subexpressions.
Examples
Create this logical expression using ~:
syms x y
xy = ~(x > y);
Use assume to set the corresponding assumption on variables x and y:

assume(xy)
Verify that the assumption is set:

assumptions
4-808
not
ans =
~y < x
Create this logical expression using logical operators ~ and &:

syms x
range = abs(x) < 1 & ~(abs(x) < 1/3);
Replace variable x with these numeric values. Note that subs does not evaluate these
inequalities to logical 1 or 0.
x2 = subs(range, x, 2/3)
x1 =
0 < 1 & ~0 < 1/3
x2 =
2/3 < 1 & ~2/3 < 1/3

logical(x1)
isAlways(x2)
ans =
0
ans =
1
s1 = simplify(x1)
s2 = simplify(x2)
s1 =
FALSE
s2 =
TRUE

logical(s1)
4-809
logical(s2)
ans =
0
ans =
1
More About
Tips
If you call simplify for a logical expression that contains symbolic subexpressions,
you can get symbolic values TRUE or FALSE. These values are not the same as logical
1 (true) and logical 0 (false). To convert symbolic TRUE or FALSE to logical values,
use logical.
See Also
all | and | any | isAlways | logical | or | xor
4-810
null
null
Form basis for null space of matrix
Syntax
Z = null(A)
Description
Z = null(A) returns a list of vectors that form the basis for the null space of a matrix
A. The product A*Z is zero. size(Z, 2) is the nullity of A. If A has full rank, Z is empty.
Examples
Find the basis for the null space and the nullity of the magic square of symbolic numbers.
Verify that A*Z is zero:
A = sym(magic(4));
Z = null(A)
nullityOfA = size(Z, 2)
A*Z
Z =
-1
-3
3
1
nullityOfA =
1
ans =
0
0
0
0
Find the basis for the null space of the matrix B that has full rank:
4-811
B = sym(hilb(3))
Z = null(B)
B =
[
1, 1/2, 1/3]
[ 1/2, 1/3, 1/4]
[ 1/3, 1/4, 1/5]
Z =
Empty sym: 1-by-0
See Also
rank | rref | size | svd
4-812
numden
numden
Numerator and denominator
Syntax
[N,D] = numden(A)
Description
[N,D] = numden(A) converts each element of A to a rational form where the numerator
and denominator are relatively prime polynomials with integer coefficients. A is a
symbolic or a numeric matrix. N is the symbolic matrix of numerators, and D is the
symbolic matrix of denominators.
Examples
Find the numerator and denominator of the symbolic number:
[n, d] = numden(sym(4/5))
n =
4
d =
5
Find the numerator and denominator of the symbolic expression:

syms x y
[n,d] = numden(x/y + y/x)
n =
x^2 + y^2
d =
x*y
The statements
4-813
syms a b
A = [a, 1/b]
[n,d] = numden(A)
return
A =
[a, 1/b]
n =
[a, 1]
d =
[1, b]
4-814
numel
numel
Number of elements of symbolic array
Syntax
numel(A)
Description
numel(A) returns the number of elements in symbolic array A, equal to
prod(size(A)).
Examples
Number of Elements in Vector
Find the number of elements in vector V.
syms x y
V = [x y 3];
numel(V)
ans =
3
Number of Elements in 3-D Array

Create a 3-D symbolic array and find the number of elements in it.
Create the 3-D symbolic array A:
A = sym(magic(3));
A(:,:,2) = A'
A(:,:,1) =
[ 8, 1, 6]
4-815
[ 3, 5, 7]
[ 4, 9, 2]
A(:,:,2) =
[ 8, 3, 4]
[ 1, 5, 9]
[ 6, 7, 2]
Use numel to count the number of elements in A.

numel(A)
ans =
18
Input Arguments
A Input
Input, specified as a symbolic variable, vector, matrix, or multidimensional array.
See Also
prod | size
4-816
odeToVectorField
odeToVectorField
Convert higher-order differential equations to systems of first-order differential
equations
Syntax
V = odeToVectorField(eqn1,...,eqnN)
[V,Y] = odeToVectorField(eqn1,...,eqnN)
Description
V = odeToVectorField(eqn1,...,eqnN) converts higher-order differential
equations eqn1,...,eqnN to a system of first-order differential equations. This syntax
returns a symbolic vector representing the resulting system of first-order differential
equations.
[V,Y] = odeToVectorField(eqn1,...,eqnN) converts higher-order differential
equations eqn1,...,eqnN to a system of first-order differential equations. This syntax
returns two symbolic vectors. The first vector represents the resulting system of firstorder differential equations. The second vector shows the substitutions made during
conversion.
Input Arguments
eqn1,...,eqnN
Symbolic equations, strings separated by commas and representing a system of ordinary
differential equations, or array of symbolic equations or strings. Each equation or string
represents an ordinary differential equation.
When representing eqn as a symbolic equation, you must create a symbolic function,
for example y(x). Here x is an independent variable for which you solve an ordinary
differential equation. Use the == operator to create an equation. Use the diff function to
2
2
indicate differentiation. For example, to convert d y(x)/dt = x*y(x), use:
4-817
syms y(x)
V = odeToVectorField(diff(y, 2) == x*y)
When representing eqn as a string, use the letter D to indicate differentiation. By

default, odeToVectorField assumes that the independent variable is t. Thus, Dy
means dy/dt. You can specify the independent variable. The letter D followed by a digit
indicates repeated differentiation. Any character immediately following a differentiation
2
2
operator is a dependent variable. For example, to convert d y(x)/dt = x*y(x), enter:
V = odeToVectorField('D2y = x*y','x')
or
V = odeToVectorField('D2y == x*y','x')
Output Arguments
V
Symbolic vector representing the system of first-order differential equations. Each
element of this vector is the right side of the first-order differential equation Y[i]=V[i].
Y
Symbolic vector representing the substitutions made when converting the input
equations eqn1,...,eqnN to the elements of V.
Examples
Convert this fifth-order differential equation to a system of first-order differential
equations:
syms y(t)
V = odeToVectorField(t^3*diff(y, 5) + 2*t*diff(y, 4) + diff(y, 2) + y^2 == -3*t)
V =
Y[2]
Y[3]
Y[4]
Y[5]
-(3*t + Y[1]^2 + 2*t*Y[5] + Y[3])/t^3
4-818
odeToVectorField
Convert this system of first- and second-order differential equations to a system of firstorder differential equations. To see the substitutions that odeToVectorField makes for
this conversion, use two output arguments:
syms f(t) g(t)
[V,Y] = odeToVectorField(diff(f, 2) == f + g, diff(g) == -f + g)
V =
Y[1] - Y[2]
Y[3]
Y[1] + Y[2]
Y =
g
f
Df
Convert this second-order differential equation to a system of first-order differential

equations:
syms y(t)
V = odeToVectorField(diff(y, 2) == (1 - y^2)*diff(y) - y)
V =
Y[2]
- (Y[1]^2 - 1)*Y[2] - Y[1]
Generate a MATLAB function from this system of first-order differential equations using
matlabFunction with V as an input:
M = matlabFunction(V,'vars', {'t','Y'})
M =
@(t,Y)[Y(2);-(Y(1).^2-1.0).*Y(2)-Y(1)]
To solve this system, call the MATLAB ode45 numerical solver using the generated
MATLAB function as an input:
sol = ode45(M,[0 20],[2 0]);
Plot the solution using linspace to generate 100 points in the interval [0,20] and deval
to evaluate the solution for each point:
x = linspace(0,20,100);
y = deval(sol,x,1);
plot(x,y)
4-819
Convert the second-order differential equation y(x) = x with the initial condition y(0)=t
to a system. Specify the differential equation and initial condition as strings. Also specify
that x is an independent variable:
V = odeToVectorField('D2y = x', 'y(0) = t', 'x')
V =
Y[2]
x
If you define equations by strings and do not specify the independent variable,
odeToVectorField assumes that the independent variable is t. This assumption
makes the equation y(t)=x inconsistent with the initial condition y(0)=t. In this case,
y(t)=d2t/dt2=0, and odeToVectorField errors.
4-820
odeToVectorField
More About
Tips
The names of symbolic variables used in differential equations should not contain the
letter D because odeToVectorField assumes that D is a differential operator and
any character immediately following D is a dependent variable.
To generate a MATLAB function for the resulting system of first-order differential
equations, use matlabFunction with V as an input. Then, you can use the generated
MATLAB function as an input for the MATLAB numerical solvers ode23 and ode45.
The highest-order derivatives must appear in eqn1,...,eqnN linearly. For example,
odeToVectorField can convert these equations:
y(t) = t2
y*y(t) = t2. odeToVectorField can convert this equation because it can be
rewritten as y(t) = t2/y.
However, it cannot convert these equations:
y(t)2 = t2
sin(y(t)) = t2
Algorithms
To convert an nth-order differential equation
an (t) y( n ) + an-1 (t) y(n -1) + an -2 ( t) y( n -2) + + a2 (t) y + a1 (t) y + a0 ( t) y + r( t) = 0

into a system of first-order differential equations, make these substitutions:
Y1 = y
Y2 = y
Y3 = y
Yn-1 = y( n -2)
Yn = y( n -1)
4-821
Using the new variables, you can rewrite the equation as a system of n first-order
differential equations:
Y1 = y = Y2
Y2 = y = Y3
Yn-1 = y(n -1) = Yn
(t )
( t)
a
a
a (t )
a (t )
r (t )
Yn = - n -1
Yn - n- 2
Yn-1 - ... - 1
Y2 - 0
Y1 +
an ( t )
an ( t )
an ( t )
an ( t )
an ( t )
odeToVectorField returns the right sides of these equations as the elements of vector
V.
When you convert a system of higher-order differential equations to a system of
first-order differential equations, it can be helpful to see the substitutions that
odeToVectorField made during the conversion. These substitutions are listed as
elements of vector Y.
See Also
dsolve | matlabFunction | ode23 | ode45 | syms
4-822
openmn
openmn
Open MuPAD notebook
Syntax
h = openmn(file)
Description
h = openmn(file) opens the MuPAD notebook file named file, and returns a handle
to the file in h. The file name must be a full path unless the file is in the current folder.
The command h = mupad(file) accomplishes the same task.
Examples
To open a notebook named e-e-x.mn in the folder \Documents\Notes of drive H:,
enter:
h = openmn('H:\Documents\Notes\e-e-x.mn');
More About
See Also
mupad | open | openmu | openxvc | openxvz
4-823
openmu
Open MuPAD program file
Syntax
openmu(file)
Description
openmu(file) opens the MuPAD program file named file in the MATLAB Editor. The
command open(file) accomplishes the same task.
Examples
To open a program file named yyx.mu located in the folder \Documents\Notes on drive
H:, enter:
openmu('H:\Documents\Notes\yyx.mu')
This command opens yyx.mu in the MATLAB Editor.
More About
See Also
mupad | open | openmn | openxvc | openxvz
4-824
openxvc
openxvc
Open MuPAD uncompressed graphics file (XVC)
Syntax
openxvc(file)
Description
openxvc(file) opens the MuPAD XVC graphics file named file. The file name must be
a full path unless the file is in the current folder.
Input Arguments
file
MuPAD XVC graphics file.
Examples
To open a graphics file named image1.xvc in the folder \Documents\Notes of drive
H:, enter:
openxvc('H:\Documents\Notes\image1.xvc')
More About
See Also
mupad | open | openmn | openmu | openxvz
4-825
openxvz
Open MuPAD compressed graphics file (XVZ)
Syntax
openxvz(file)
Description
openxvz(file) opens the MuPAD XVZ graphics file named file. The file name must be
a full path unless the file is in the current folder.
Input Arguments
file
MuPAD XVZ graphics file.
Examples
To open a graphics file named image1.xvz in the folder \Documents\Notes of drive
H:, enter:
openxvz('H:\Documents\Notes\image1.xvz')
More About
See Also
mupad | open | openmn | openmu | openxvc
4-826
or
or
Logical OR for symbolic expressions
Syntax
A | B
or(A,B)
Description
A | B represents the logical disjunction. A | B is true when either A or B or both are
true.
or(A,B) is equivalent to A | B.
Input Arguments
A
subexpressions.
B
subexpressions.
Examples
Combine these symbolic inequalities into the logical expression using |:
syms x y
xy = x >= 0 | y >= 0;
Set the corresponding assumptions on variables x and y using assume:

4-827
assume(xy)
Verify that the assumptions are set:

assumptions
ans =
0 <= x | 0 <= y
Combine two symbolic inequalities into the logical expression using |:

syms x
range = x < -1 | x > 1;
Replace variable x with these numeric values. If you replace x with 10, one inequality
is valid. If you replace x with 0, both inequalities are invalid. Note that subs does not
evaluate these inequalities to logical 1 or 0.
x1 =
1 < 10 | 10 < -1
x2 =
0 < -1 | 1 < 0

logical(x1)
isAlways(x2)
ans =
1
ans =
0
s1 = simplify(x1)
s2 = simplify(x2)
s1 =
TRUE
4-828
or
s2 =
FALSE

logical(s1)
logical(s2)
ans =
1
ans =
0
More About
Tips
logical.
See Also
all | and | any | isAlways | logical | not | xor
4-829
orth
Orthonormal basis for range of symbolic matrix
Syntax
B
B
B
B
=
=
=
=
orth(A)
orth(A,'real')
orth(A,'skipNormalization')
orth(A,'real','skipNormalization')
Description
B = orth(A) computes an orthonormal basis for the range of A.
B = orth(A,'real') computes an orthonormal basis using a real scalar product in the
orthogonalization process.
B = orth(A,'skipNormalization') computes a non-normalized orthogonal basis. In
this case, the vectors forming the columns of B do not necessarily have length 1.
B = orth(A,'real','skipNormalization') computes a non-normalized orthogonal
basis using a real scalar product in the orthogonalization process.
Input Arguments
A
Symbolic matrix.
'real'
Flag that prompts orth to avoid using a complex scalar product in the orthogonalization
process.
4-830
orth
'skipNormalization'
Flag that prompts orth to skip normalization and compute an orthogonal basis instead
of an orthonormal basis. If you use this flag, lengths of the resulting vectors (the columns
of matrix B) are not required to be 1.
Output Arguments
B
Symbolic matrix.
Examples
Compute an orthonormal basis of the range of this matrix. Because these numbers are
A = [2 -3 -1; 1 1 -1; 0 1 -1];
B = orth(A)
B =
-0.9859
0.0290
0.1646
-0.1195
-0.8108
-0.5729
0.1168
-0.5846
0.8029
Now, convert this matrix to a symbolic object, and compute an orthonormal basis:
A = sym([2 -3 -1; 1 1 -1; 0 1 -1]);
B = orth(A)
B =
[ (2*5^(1/2))/5, -6^(1/2)/6, -(2^(1/2)*15^(1/2))/30]
[
5^(1/2)/5, 6^(1/2)/3, (2^(1/2)*15^(1/2))/15]
[
0, 6^(1/2)/6, -(2^(1/2)*15^(1/2))/6]
You can use double to convert this result to the double-precision numeric form. The
resulting matrix differs from the matrix returned by the MATLAB orth function because
these functions use different versions of the Gram-Schmidt orthogonalization algorithm:
double(B)
4-831
ans =
0.8944
0.4472
0
-0.4082
0.8165
0.4082
-0.1826
0.3651
-0.9129
Verify that B'*B = I, where I is the identity matrix:

B'*B
ans =
[ 1, 0, 0]
[ 0, 1, 0]
[ 0, 0, 1]
Now, verify that the 2-norm of each column of B is 1:

norm(B(:, 1))
norm(B(:, 2))
norm(B(:, 3))
ans =
1
ans =
1
ans =
1
Compute an orthonormal basis of this matrix using 'real' to avoid complex conjugates:
syms a
A = [a 1; 1 a];
B = orth(A,'real')
B =
[ a/(a^2 +
1)^2/(a^2
[ 1/(a^2 +
1)^2/(a^2
1)^(1/2),
-(a^2 - 1)/((a^2 +
+ 1)^2 + (a^2*(a^2 - 1)^2)/(a^2
1)^(1/2), (a*(a^2 - 1))/((a^2 +
+ 1)^2 + (a^2*(a^2 - 1)^2)/(a^2
1)*((a^2 -...
+ 1)^2)^(1/2))]
1)*((a^2 -...
+ 1)^2)^(1/2))]
Compute an orthogonal basis of this matrix using 'skipNormalization':

syms a
A = [a 1; 1 a];
4-832
orth
B = orth(A,'skipNormalization')
B =
[ a,
-(a^2 - 1)/(a*conj(a) + 1)]
[ 1, -(conj(a) - a^2*conj(a))/(a*conj(a) + 1)]
Compute an orthogonal basis of this matrix using 'skipNormalization' and 'real':

syms a
A = [a 1; 1 a];
B = orth(A,'skipNormalization','real')
B =
[ a,
-(a^2 - 1)/(a^2 + 1)]
[ 1, (a*(a^2 - 1))/(a^2 + 1)]
More About
Orthonormal Basis
An orthonormal basis for the range of matrix A is matrix B, such that:
B'*B = I, where I is the identity matrix.
The columns of B span the same space as the columns of A.
The number of columns of B is the rank of A.
Tips
Calling orth for numeric arguments that are not symbolic objects invokes the
MATLAB orth function. Results returned by MATLAB orth can differ from results
returned by orth because these two functions use different algorithms to compute an
orthonormal basis. The Symbolic Math Toolbox orth function uses the classic GramSchmidt orthogonalization algorithm. The MATLAB orth function uses the modified
Gram-Schmidt algorithm because the classic algorithm is numerically unstable.
Using 'skipNormalization' to compute an orthogonal basis instead of an orthonormal
basis can speed up your computations.
Algorithms
orth uses the classic Gram-Schmidt orthogonalization algorithm.
4-833
See Also
linalg::normalize | linalg::orthog | norm | null | orth | rank | svd
4-834
pade
pade
Pad approximant
Syntax
pade(f)
pade(f,x)
pade(f,x,a)
pade( ___ ,Name,Value)
Description
pade(f) returns the third-order Pad approximant of the expression f at x = 0, where
symvar determines x. For details, see Pad Approximant on page 4-841.
pade(f,x) returns the third-order Pad approximant of the expression f at x = 0.
pade(f,x,a) returns the third-order Pad approximant of expression f at x = a.
pade( ___ ,Name,Value) uses additional options specified by one or more Name,Value
pair arguments.
Examples
Find the Pad Approximant for Symbolic Expressions
Find the Pad approximant of sin(x). By default, pade returns a third-order Pad
approximant.
syms x
pade(sin(x))
ans =
4-835
-(x*(7*x^2 - 60))/(3*(x^2 + 20))
Specify the Expansion Variable

If you do not specify the expansion variable, symvar selects it. Find the Pad
approximant of sin(x) + cos(y). The symvar function chooses x as the expansion
variable.
syms x y
pade(sin(x) + cos(y))
ans =
(- 7*x^3 + 3*cos(y)*x^2 + 60*x + 60*cos(y))/(3*(x^2 + 20))
Specify the expansion variable as y. The pade function returns the Pad approximant
with respect to y.
pade(sin(x) + cos(y),y)
ans =
(12*sin(x) + y^2*sin(x) - 5*y^2 + 12)/(y^2 + 12)
Approximate the Value of a Function at a Point

Find the value of tan(3*pi/4). Use pade to find the Pad approximant for tan(x) and
substitute into it using subs to find tan(3*pi/4).
syms x
f = tan(x);
P = pade(f);
y = subs(P,x,3*pi/4)
y =
(pi*((9*pi^2)/16 - 15))/(4*((9*pi^2)/8 - 5))
Use vpa to convert y into a numeric value.

vpa(y)
ans =
-1.2158518789569086447244881326842
4-836
pade
Increase the Accuracy of the Pad Approximant

You can increase the accuracy of the Pad approximant by increasing the order. If
the expansion point is a pole or a zero, the accuracy can also be increased by setting
OrderMode to Relative. The OrderMode option has no effect if the expansion point is
not a pole or zero.
Find the Pad approximant of tan(x) using pade with an expansion point of 0 and
Order of [1 1]. Find the value of tan(1/5) by substituting into the Pad approximant
using subs, and use vpa to convert 1/5 into a numeric value.
syms x
p11 = pade(tan(x),x,0,'Order',[1 1])
p11 = subs(p11,x,vpa(1/5))
p11 =
x
p11 =
0.2
Find the approximation error by subtracting p11 from the actual value of tan(1/5).
y = tan(vpa(1/5));
error = y - p11
error =
0.0027100355086724833213582716475345
Increase the accuracy of the Pad approximant by increasing the order using Order. Set
Order to [2 2], and find the error.
p22 = pade(tan(x),x,0,'Order',[2 2])
p22 = subs(p22,x,vpa(1/5));
error = y - p22
p22 =
-(3*x)/(x^2 - 3)
error =
0.0000073328059697806186555689448317799
The accuracy increases with increasing order.

If the expansion point is a pole or zero, the accuracy of the Pad approximant decreases.
Setting the OrderMode option to Relative compensates for the decreased accuracy. For
4-837
details, see Pad Approximant on page 4-841. Because the tan function has a zero
at 0, setting OrderMode to Relative increases accuracy. This option has no effect if the
expansion point is not a pole or zero.
p22Rel = pade(tan(x),x,0,'Order',[2 2],'OrderMode','Relative')
p22Rel = subs(p22Rel,x,vpa(1/5));
error = y - p22Rel
p22Rel =
(x*(x^2 - 15))/(3*(2*x^2 - 5))
error =
0.0000000084084014806113311713765317725998
The accuracy increases if the expansion point is a pole or zero and OrderMode is set to
Relative.
Plot the Accuracy of the Pad Approximant

Plot the difference between exp(x) and its Pad approximants of orders [1,1] through
[4,4]. Use axis to focus on the region of interest. The plot shows that accuracy
increases with increasing order of the Pad approximant.
syms x
expr = exp(x);
hold on
grid on
for i = 1:4
ezplot(expr - pade(expr,'Order',i))
end
axis([-4 4 -4 4])
legend('Order [1,1]','Order [2,2]','Order [3,3]','Order [4,4]',...
'Location','Best')
title('Difference Between exp(x) and its Pad\''{e} Approximant',...
'interpreter','latex')
ylabel('Error')
4-838
pade
Input Arguments
f Input to approximate
symbolic number | symbolic variable | symbolic vector | symbolic matrix | symbolic
multidimensional array | symbolic function | symbolic expression
Input to approximate, specified as a symbolic number, variable, vector, matrix,
multidimensional array, function, or expression.
x Expansion variable
symbolic variable
Expansion variable, specified as a symbolic variable.
4-839
a Expansion point
number | symbolic number | symbolic variable | symbolic function | symbolic
expression
Expansion point, specified as a number, or a symbolic number, variable, function, or
expression. The expansion point cannot depend on the expansion variable. You can also
specify the expansion point as a Name,Value pair argument. If the expansion point is
specified in both ways, then the Name,Value pair argument takes precedence.

Example: pade(f,'Order',[2 2]) returns the Pad approximant of f of order m = 2
and n = 2.
'ExpansionPoint' Expansion point
number | symbolic number | symbolic variable | symbolic function | symbolic
expression
Expansion point, specified as a number, or a symbolic number, variable, function, or
expression. The expansion point cannot depend on the expansion variable. You can
also specify the expansion point using the input argument a. If the expansion point is
specified in both ways, then the Name,Value pair argument takes precedence.
'Order' Order of Pad approximant
integer | vector of two integers | symbolic integer | symbolic vector of two integers
Order of the Pad approximant, specified as an integer, a vector of two integers, or
a symbolic integer, or vector of two integers. If you specify a single integer, then the
integer specifies both the numerator order m and denominator order n producing a
Pad approximant with m=n. If you specify a vector of two integers, then the first
integer specifies m and the second integer specifies n. By default, pade returns a Pad
approximant with m=n=3.
'OrderMode' Alternative form of Pad approximant
absolute (default) | relative
4-840
pade
The default value of absolute uses the standard definition of the Pad approximant. If
you set OrderMode to relative, it only has an effect when there is a pole or a zero at
the expansion point a. In this case, to increase accuracy, pade multiplies the numerator
p
by (x-a) where p is the multiplicity of the zero or pole at the expansion point. For
details, see Pad Approximant on page 4-841.
More About
Pad Approximant
By default, pade approximates the function f(x) using the standard form of the Pad
approximant of order [m,n] around x=x0 which is
m
a0 + a1 ( x - x0 ) + ... + am ( x - x0 )
1 + b1 ( x - x0 ) + ... + bn ( x - x0 )
When OrderMode is Relative, and a pole or zero exists at the expansion point x=x0,
the pade function uses this form of the Pad approximant
( x - x0 ) p
(a
+ a1 ( x - x0 ) + ... + am ( x - x0 )
n
).
1 + b1 ( x - x0 ) + ... + bn ( x - x0 )
The parameters p and a0 are given by the leading order term f = a0( x - x0)p + O((x - x0)p + 1)
of the series expansion of f around x = x0. Thus, p is the multiplicity of the pole or zero at
x0.
Tips
If you specify the expansion point both as the input argument a and as a Name,Value
pair argument, the Name,Value pair argument is used to for the expansion point.
Algorithms
The parameters a1,,bn are chosen such that the series expansion of the Pade
approximant coincides with the series expansion of f to the maximal possible order.
The expansion points and i are not allowed.
4-841
When pade cannot find the Pad approximant, it returns the function call.
For pade to return the Pad approximant, a Taylor or Laurent series expansion of f
must exist at the expansion point.
See Also
taylor
Related Examples
4-842
Pad Approximant
pinv
pinv
Moore-Penrose inverse (pseudoinverse) of symbolic matrix
Syntax
X = pinv(A)
Description
X = pinv(A) returns the pseudoinverse of A. Pseudoinverse is also called the MoorePenrose inverse.
Input Arguments
A
Symbolic m-by-n matrix.
Output Arguments
X
Symbolic n-by-m matrix, such that A*X*A = A and X*A*X = X.
Examples
Compute the pseudoinverse of this matrix. Because these numbers are not symbolic
A = [1 1i 3; 1 3 2];
X = pinv(A)
X =
0.0729 + 0.0312i
0.0417 - 0.0312i
4-843
-0.2187 - 0.0521i
0.2917 + 0.0625i
0.3125 + 0.0729i
0.0104 - 0.0937i
Now, convert this matrix to a symbolic object, and compute the pseudoinverse:
A = sym([1 1i 3; 1 3 2]);
X = pinv(A)
X =
[
7/96 + i/32,
1/24 - i/32]
[ - 7/32 - (5*i)/96, 5/16 + (7*i)/96]
[
7/24 + i/16, 1/96 - (3*i)/32]
Check that A*X*A = A and X*A*X = X:

logical(A*X*A == A)
ans =
1
1
1
1
1
1
logical(X*A*X == X)
ans =
1
1
1
1
1
1
Now, verify that A*X and X*A are Hermitian matrices:

logical(A*X == (A*X)')
ans =
1
1
1
1
logical(X*A == (X*A)')
ans =
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Compute the pseudoinverse of this matrix:

syms a
A = [1 a; -a 1];
4-844
pinv
X = pinv(A)
X =
[ (a*conj(a) + 1)/(a^2*conj(a)^2 + a^2 + conj(a)^2 + 1) -...
(conj(a)*(a - conj(a)))/(a^2*conj(a)^2 + a^2 + conj(a)^2 + 1),
- (a - conj(a))/(a^2*conj(a)^2 + a^2 + conj(a)^2 + 1) -...
(conj(a)*(a*conj(a) + 1))/(a^2*conj(a)^2 + a^2 + conj(a)^2 + 1)]
[ (a - conj(a))/(a^2*conj(a)^2 + a^2 + conj(a)^2 + 1) +...
(conj(a)*(a*conj(a) + 1))/(a^2*conj(a)^2 + a^2 + conj(a)^2 + 1),
(a*conj(a) + 1)/(a^2*conj(a)^2 + a^2 + conj(a)^2 + 1) -...
(conj(a)*(a - conj(a)))/(a^2*conj(a)^2 + a^2 + conj(a)^2 + 1)]
Now, compute the pseudoinverse of A assuming that a is real:

assume(a,'real')
A = [1 a; -a 1];
X = pinv(A)
X =
[ 1/(a^2 + 1), -a/(a^2 + 1)]
[ a/(a^2 + 1), 1/(a^2 + 1)]

syms a clear
More About
Moore-Penrose Pseudoinverse
The pseudoinverse of an m-by-n matrix A is an n-by-m matrix X, such that A*X*A = A
and X*A*X = X. The matrices A*X and X*A must be Hermitian.
Tips
Calling pinv for numeric arguments that are not symbolic objects invokes the
MATLAB pinv function.
For an invertible matrix A, the Moore-Penrose inverse X of A coincides with the
inverse of A.
See Also
inv | linalg::pseudoInverse | pinv | rank | svd

4-845
plus, +
Symbolic addition
Syntax
A + B
plus(A,B)
Description
A + B adds A and B.
plus(A,B) is equivalent to A + B.
Examples
Add a Scalar to an Array
plus adds x to each element of the array.
syms x
A = [x sin(x) 3];
A + x
ans =
[ 2*x, x + sin(x), x + 3]
Add Two Matrices

Add the identity matrix to matrix M.
syms x
M = [x x^2;Inf 0];
M + eye(2)
ans =
4-846
plus, +
[ x + 1, x^2]
[
Inf,
1]
Alternatively, use plus(M,eye(2)).

plus(M,eye(2))
ans =
[ x + 1, x^2]
[
Inf,
1]
Add Symbolic Functions

syms f(x) g(x)
f(x) = x^2 + 5*x + 6;
g(x) = 3*x - 2;
h = f + g
h(x) =
x^2 + 8*x + 4
Add an Expression to a Symbolic Function

Add expression expr to function f.
syms
f(x)
expr
f(x)
f(x)
= x^2 + 3*x + 2;
= x^2 - 2;
= f(x) + expr
f(x) =
2*x^2 + 3*x
Input Arguments
A Input
or expression.
4-847
B Input
or expression.
More About
Tips
All nonscalar arguments must be the same size. If one input argument is nonscalar,
then plus expands the scalar into an array of the same size as the nonscalar
argument, with all elements equal to the scalar.
See Also
minus
4-848
pochhammer
pochhammer
Pochhammer symbol
Syntax
pochhammer(x,n)
Description
pochhammer(x,n) returns the Pochhammer Symbol on page 4-853 (x)n.
Examples
Find the Pochhammer Symbol for Numeric and Symbolic Inputs
Find the Pochhammer symbol for the numeric inputs x = 3 at n = 2.
pochhammer(3,2)
ans =
12
Find the Pochhammer symbol for the symbolic input x at n = 3 . The pochhammer
function does not automatically return the expanded form of the expression. Use expand
to force pochhammer to return the form of the expanded expression.
syms x
P = pochhammer(x, 3)
P = expand(P)
P =
pochhammer(x, 3)
P =
x^3 + 3*x^2 + 2*x
Rewrite and Factor the Output of Pochhammer

If conditions are satisfied, expand rewrites the solution using gamma.
4-849
syms n x
assume(x>0)
assume(n>0)
P = pochhammer(x, n);
P = expand(P)
P =
gamma(n + x)/gamma(x)
Clear assumptions on n and x to use them in further computations.

syms n x clear
To convert expanded output of pochhammer into its factors, use factor.

P = expand(pochhammer(x, 4));
P = factor(P)
P =
[ x, x + 3, x + 2, x + 1]
Differentiate the Pochhammer Symbol

Differentiate pochhammer once with respect to x.
syms n x
diff(pochhammer(x,n),x)
ans =
pochhammer(x, n)*(psi(n + x) - psi(x))
Differentiate pochhammer twice with respect to n.

diff(pochhammer(x,n),n,2)
ans =
pochhammer(x, n)*psi(n + x)^2 + pochhammer(x, n)*psi(1, n + x)
Taylor Series Expansion of the Pochhammer Symbol

Use taylor to find the Taylor series expansion of pochhammer with n = 3 around the
expansion point x = 2.
4-850
pochhammer
syms x
taylor(pochhammer(x,3),x,2)
ans =
26*x + 9*(x - 2)^2 + (x - 2)^3 - 28
Plot the Pochhammer Symbol

Plot the Pochhammer symbol from n = 0 to n = 4 for x. Use axis to display the region
of interest.
syms x
hold on
for n = 0:4
ezplot(pochhammer(x,n))
end
axis([-4 4 -4 4])
grid on
legend('n = 0','n = 1','n = 2','n = 3','n = 4','Location','Best')
title('Pochhammer symbol (x)_n for n=0 to n=4')
4-851
Input Arguments
x Input
variable | symbolic vector | symbolic matrix | symbolic multidimensional array |
Input, specified as a number, vector, matrix, or multidimensional array, or a symbolic
number, variable, vector, matrix, multidimensional array, function, or expression.
4-852
pochhammer
n Input
Input, specified as a number, vector, matrix, or multidimensional array, or a symbolic
number, variable, vector, matrix, multidimensional array, function, or expression.
More About
Pochhammer Symbol
Pochhammers symbol is defined as
(
)
( x )n = G x + n ,
(
)
G x
where is the Gamma function.
If n is a positive integer, Pochhammers symbol is
( x )n = x ( x + 1 ) ...( x + n - 1 )
Algorithms
If x and n are numerical values, then an explicit numerical result is returned.
Otherwise, a symbolic function call is returned.
If both x and x + n are nonpositive integers, then
( x )n = ( - 1) n
G (1 - x)
.
(
G 1 - x - n)
The following special cases are implemented.
4-853
( x )0 = 1
( x )1 = x
( x )-1 = 1
x -1
(1 ) n = G ( n + 1 )
(2)n = G ( n + 2)
If n is a positive integer, then expand(pochhammer(x,n)) returns the expanded
polynomial x ( x + 1 ) ...( x + n - 1 ) .
If n is not an integer, then expand(pochhammer(x,n)) returns a representation in
terms of gamma.
See Also
factorial | gamma
4-854
poles
poles
Poles of expression or function
Syntax
poles(f,var)
P = poles(f,var)
[P,N] = poles(f,var)
[P,N,R] = poles(f,var)
poles(f,var,a,b)
P = poles(f,var,a,b)
[P,N] = poles(f,var,a,b)
[P,N,R] = poles(f,var,a,b)
Description
poles(f,var) finds nonremovable singularities of f. These singularities are called the
poles of f. Here, f is a function of the variable var.
P = poles(f,var) finds the poles of f and assigns them to vector P.
[P,N] = poles(f,var) finds the poles of f and their orders. This syntax assigns the
poles to vector P and their orders to vector N.
[P,N,R] = poles(f,var) finds the poles of f and their orders and residues. This
syntax assigns the poles to vector P, their orders to vector N, and their residues to vector
R.
poles(f,var,a,b) finds the poles in the interval (a,b).
P = poles(f,var,a,b) finds the poles of f in the interval (a,b) and assigns them to
vector P.
[P,N] = poles(f,var,a,b) finds the poles of f in the interval (a,b) and their orders.
This syntax assigns the poles to vector P and their orders to vector N.
4-855
[P,N,R] = poles(f,var,a,b) finds the poles of f in the interval (a,b) and their orders
and residues. This syntax assigns the poles to vector P, their orders to vector N, and their
residues to vector R.
Input Arguments
f
var
Symbolic variable.
Default: Variable determined by symvar.
a,b
Real numbers (including infinities) that specify the search interval for function poles.
Default: Entire complex plane.
Output Arguments
P
Symbolic vector containing the values of poles.
N
Symbolic vector containing the orders of poles.
R
Symbolic vector containing the residues of poles.
Examples
Find the poles of these expressions:
4-856
poles
syms x
poles(1/(x - i))
poles(sin(x)/(x - 1))
ans =
i
ans =
1
Find the poles of this expression. If you do not specify a variable, poles uses the default
variable determined by symvar:
syms x a
poles(1/((x - 1)*(a - 2)))
ans =
1
To find the poles of this expression as a function of variable a, specify a as the second
argument:
syms x a
poles(1/((x - 1)*(a - 2)), a)
ans =
2
Find the poles of the tangent function in the interval (-pi, pi):
syms x
poles(tan(x), x, -pi, pi)
ans =
-pi/2
pi/2
The tangent function has an infinite number of poles. If you do not specify the interval,
poles cannot find all of them. It issues a warning and returns an empty symbolic object:
syms x
poles(tan(x))
Warning: Cannot determine the poles.
4-857
ans =
[ empty sym ]
If poles can prove that the expression or function does not have any poles in the
specified interval, it returns an empty symbolic object without issuing a warning:
syms x
poles(tan(x), x, -1, 1)
ans =
Empty sym: 0-by-1
Use two output vectors to find the poles of this expression and their orders. Restrict the
search interval to (-pi, 10*pi):
syms x
[Poles, Orders] = poles(tan(x)/(x - 1)^3, x, -pi, pi)
Poles =
-pi/2
pi/2
1
Orders =
1
1
3
Use three output vectors to find the poles of this expression and their orders and
residues:
syms x a
[Poles, Orders, Residues] = poles(a/x^2/(x - 1), x)
Poles =
1
0
Orders =
1
2
Residues =
a
-a
4-858
poles
More About
Tips
If poles cannot find all nonremovable singularities and cannot prove that they do not
exist, it issues a warning and returns an empty symbolic object.
If poles can prove that f has no poles (either in the specified interval (a,b) or in the
complex plane), it returns an empty symbolic object without issuing a warning.
a and b must be real numbers or infinities. If you provide complex numbers, poles
uses an empty interval and returns an empty symbolic object.
See Also
limit | solve | symvar | vpasolve
4-859
poly2sym
Polynomial coefficient vector to symbolic polynomial
Syntax
r = poly2sym(c)
r = poly2sym(c,v)
Description
r = poly2sym(c) returns a symbolic representation of the polynomial whose
coefficients form the numeric vector c. The default symbolic variable is x. The variable
v can be specified as a second input argument. If c = [c1 c2 ... cn], r =
poly2sym(c) has the form
c1 xn -1 + c2 xn -2 + ... + cn
poly2sym uses sym's default (rational) conversion mode to convert the numeric
coefficients to symbolic constants. This mode expresses the symbolic coefficient
approximately as a ratio of integers, if sym can find a simple ratio that approximates the
numeric value, otherwise as an integer multiplied by a power of 2.
r = poly2sym(c,v) is a polynomial in the symbolic variable v with coefficients from
the vector c. If v has a numeric value and sym expresses the elements of c exactly,
eval(poly2sym(c)) returns the same value as polyval(c, v).
Examples
The command
poly2sym([1 3 2])
returns
ans =
4-860
poly2sym
x^2 + 3*x + 2
The command
poly2sym([.694228, .333, 6.2832])
returns
ans =
(6253049924220329*x^2)/9007199254740992 +...
(333*x)/1000 + 3927/625
The command
poly2sym([1 0 1 -1 2], y)
returns
ans =
y^4 + y^2 - y + 2
See Also
sym | sym2poly | polyval
4-861
polylog
Polylogarithm
Syntax
polylog(n,x)
Description
polylog(n,x) returns the polylogarithm of the order n and the argument x.
Examples
Polylogarithm for Numeric and Symbolic Arguments
Depending on its arguments, polylog returns floating-point or exact symbolic results.
Compute polylogarithms for these numbers. Because these numbers are not symbolic
A = [polylog(3,-1/2), polylog(4,1/3), polylog(5,3/4)]
A =
-0.4726
0.3408
0.7697
Compute polylogarithms for the same numbers converted to symbolic objects. For most
symbolic (exact) numbers, polylog returns unresolved symbolic calls.
symA = [polylog(3,sym(-1/2)), polylog(sym(4),1/3), polylog(5,sym(3/4))]
symA =
[ polylog(3, -1/2), polylog(4, 1/3), polylog(5, 3/4)]
Use vpa to approximate symbolic results with the required number of digits.
vpa(symA)
4-862
polylog
ans =
[ -0.47259784465889687461862319312655,...
0.3407911308562507524776409440122,...
0.76973541059975738097269173152535]
Explicit Expressions for Polylogarithms

If the order of the polylogarithm is 0, 1, or a negative integer, then polylog returns an
explicit expression.
The polylogarithm of n = 1 is a logarithm function.
syms x
polylog(1,x)
ans =
-log(1 - x)
The polylogarithms of n < 1 are rational expressions.

polylog(0,x)
ans =
-x/(x - 1)
polylog(-1,x)
ans =
x/(x - 1)^2
polylog(-2,x)
ans =
-(x^2 + x)/(x - 1)^3
polylog(-3,x)
ans =
(x^3 + 4*x^2 + x)/(x - 1)^4
polylog(-10,x)
ans =
-(x^10 + 1013*x^9 + 47840*x^8 + 455192*x^7 + ...
1310354*x^6 + 1310354*x^5 + 455192*x^4 +...
4-863
47840*x^3 + 1013*x^2 + x)/(x - 1)^11
More Special Values

The polylog function has special values for some parameters.
If the second argument is 0, then the polylogarithm equals 0 for any integer value of the
first argument. If the second argument is 1, then the polylogarithm is the Riemann zeta
function of the first argument.
syms n
[polylog(n,0), polylog(n,1)]
ans =
[ 0, zeta(n)]
If the second argument is -1, then the polylogarithm has a special value for any integer
value of the first argument except 1.
assume(n ~= 1)
polylog(n,-1)
ans =
zeta(n)*(2^(1 - n) - 1)
For further computations, clear the assumption.

syms n clear
Other special values of the polylogarithm include the following.

[polylog(4,sym(1)), polylog(sym(5),-1), polylog(2,sym(i))]
ans =
[ pi^4/90, -(15*zeta(5))/16, catalan*i - pi^2/48]
Plot the Polylogarithm

Plot the polylogarithms of the orders from -3 to 1.
syms x
for n = -3:1
ezplot(polylog(n,x),[-5 1])
4-864
polylog
hold on
end
title('Polylogarithm')
hold off
Handle Expressions Containing Polylogarithms

Many functions, such as diff and int, can handle expressions containing polylog.
Differentiate these expressions containing polylogarithms.
syms n x
diff(polylog(n, x), x)
diff(x*polylog(n, x), x)
4-865
ans =
polylog(n - 1, x)/x
ans =
polylog(n, x) + polylog(n - 1, x)
Compute integrals of these expressions containing polylogarithms.

int(polylog(n, x)/x, x)
int(polylog(n, x) + polylog(n - 1, x), x)
ans =
polylog(n + 1, x)
ans =
x*polylog(n, x)
Input Arguments
n Index of polylogarithm
integer
Index of the polylogarithm, specified as an integer.
x Argument of polylogarithm
number | symbolic variable | symbolic expression | symbolic function | vector | matrix
Argument of the polylogarithm, specified as a number, symbolic variable, expression,
function, vector, or matrix.
More About
Polylogarithm
For a complex number z of modulus |z| < 1, the polylogarithm of order n is defined as
follows.
Li n ( z ) =
4-866
zk
k= 1 k
polylog
This function is extended to the whole complex plane by analytic continuation, with a
branch cut along the real interval [1, ) for n1.
Tips
polylog(2,x) is equivalent to dilog(1 - x).
The logarithmic integral function (the integral logarithm) uses the same notation,
Li(x), but without an index. The toolbox provides the logint function for the
integral logarithm.
See Also
dilog | log | log10 | log2 | logint | zeta
4-867
potential
Potential of vector field
Syntax
potential(V,X)
potential(V,X,Y)
Description
potential(V,X) computes the potential of the vector field V with respect to the vector
X in Cartesian coordinates. The vector field V must be a gradient field.
potential(V,X,Y) computes the potential of vector field V with respect to X using Y as
base point for the integration.
Input Arguments
V
X
Vector of symbolic variables with respect to which you compute the potential.
Y
Vector of symbolic variables, expressions, or numbers that you want to use as a base
point for the integration. If you use this argument, potential returns P(X) such that
P(Y) = 0. Otherwise, the potential is only defined up to some additive constant.
Examples
Compute the potential of this vector field with respect to the vector [x, y, z]:
4-868
potential
syms x y z
P = potential([x, y, z*exp(z)], [x y z])
P =
x^2/2 + y^2/2 + exp(z)*(z - 1)
Use the gradient function to verify the result:

simplify(gradient(P, [x y z]))
ans =
x
y
z*exp(z)
Compute the potential of this vector field specifying the integration base point as [0 0
0]:
syms x y z
P = potential([x, y, z*exp(z)], [x y z], [0 0 0])
P =
x^2/2 + y^2/2 + exp(z)*(z - 1) + 1
Verify that P([0 0 0]) = 0:

subs(P, [x y z], [0 0 0])
ans =
0
If a vector field is not gradient, potential returns NaN:

potential([x*y, y], [x y])
ans =
NaN
More About
Scalar Potential of a Gradient Vector Field
The potential of a gradient vector field V(X)=[v1(x1,x2,...),v2(x1,x2,...),...] is the scalar P(X)
such that V ( X ) = P ( X ) .
4-869
The vector field is gradient if and only if the corresponding Jacobian is symmetrical:
vi
x j
v j
=
xi
The potential function represents the potential in its integral form:

1
P( X ) =
( X- Y ) V(Y + l ( X- Y )) dl
Tips
If potential cannot verify that V is a gradient field, it returns NaN.
Returning NaN does not prove that V is not a gradient field. For performance
reasons, potential sometimes does not sufficiently simplify partial derivatives, and
therefore, it cannot verify that the field is gradient.
If Y is a scalar, then potential expands it into a vector of the same length as X with
all elements equal to Y.
See Also
curl | diff | divergence | gradient | hessian | jacobian | laplacian |

vectorPotential
4-870
pretty
pretty
Prettyprint symbolic expressions
Syntax
pretty(X)
Description
pretty(X) prints symbolic output of X in a format that resembles typeset mathematics.
Examples
The following statements:
A = sym(pascal(2))
B = eig(A)
pretty(B)
return:
A =
[ 1, 1]
[ 1, 2]
B =
3/2 - 5^(1/2)/2
5^(1/2)/2 + 3/2
/
|
|
|
|
|
\
3
sqrt(5) \
- - ------- |
2
2
|
|
sqrt(5)
3 |
------- + - |
2
2 /
4-871
Solve this equation, and then use pretty to represent the solutions in the format similar
to typeset mathematics:
syms x
s = solve(x^4 + 2*x + 1, x);
pretty(s)
For better readability, pretty uses abbreviations when representing long expressions:
/
-1
|
|
2
|
#2 - ---- +
|
9 #2
|
|
1
#2
| ---- - #1 - -| 9 #2
2
|
|
1
#2
| #1 + ---- - -\
9 #2
2
1
3
1
+ 3
1
+ 3
\
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
/
where
/
2
\
sqrt(3) | ---- + #2 | i
\ 9 #2
/
#1 == ----------------------2
/ sqrt(11) sqrt(27)
17 \1/3
#2 == | ----------------- - -- |
\
27
27 /
4-872
psi
psi
Digamma function
Syntax
psi(x)
psi(k,x)
Description
psi(x) computes the digamma function of x.
psi(k,x) computes the polygamma function of x, which is the kth derivative of the
digamma function at x.
Input Arguments
x
Symbolic number, variable, expression, or a vector, matrix, or multidimensional array of
these.
k
Nonnegative integer or vector, matrix or multidimensional array of nonnegative
integers. If x is nonscalar and k is scalar, then k is expanded into a nonscalar of the same
dimensions as x with each element being equal to k. If both x and k are nonscalars, they
must have the same dimensions.
Examples
Compute the digamma and polygamma functions for these numbers. Because these
numbers are not symbolic objects, you get the floating-point results.
[psi(1/2) psi(2, 1/2) psi(1.34) psi(1, sin(pi/3))]
4-873
ans =
-1.9635
-16.8288
-0.1248
2.0372
Compute the digamma and polygamma functions for the numbers converted to symbolic
objects.
[psi(sym(1/2)), psi(1, sym(1/2)), psi(sym(1/4))]
ans =
[ - eulergamma - 2*log(2), pi^2/2, - eulergamma - pi/2 - 3*log(2)]
For some symbolic (exact) numbers, psi returns unresolved symbolic calls.
psi(sym(sqrt(2)))
ans =
psi(2^(1/2))
Compute the derivatives of these expressions containing the digamma and polygamma
functions.
syms x
diff(psi(1, x^3 + 1), x)
diff(psi(sin(x)), x)
ans =
3*x^2*psi(2, x^3 + 1)
ans =
cos(x)*psi(1, sin(x))
Expand the expressions containing the digamma functions.

syms x
expand(psi(2*x + 3))
expand(psi(x + 2)*psi(x))
ans =
psi(x + 1/2)/2 + log(2) + psi(x)/2 +...
1/(2*x + 1) + 1/(2*x + 2) + 1/(2*x)
ans =
psi(x)/x + psi(x)^2 + psi(x)/(x + 1)
Compute the limits for expressions containing the digamma and polygamma functions.
syms x
4-874
psi
limit(x*psi(x), x, 0)
limit(psi(3, x), x, inf)
ans =
-1
ans =
0
Compute the digamma function for elements of matrix M and vector V.

M = sym([0 inf; 1/3 1/2]);
V = sym([1, inf]);
psi(M)
psi(V)
ans =
[
Inf,
Inf]
[ - eulergamma - (3*log(3))/2 - (pi*3^(1/2))/6, - eulergamma - 2*log(2)]
ans =
[ -eulergamma, Inf]
Compute the polygamma function for elements of matrix M and vector V. The psi
function acts elementwise on nonscalar inputs.
M = sym([0 inf; 1/3 1/2]);
polyGammaM = [1 3; 2 2];
V = sym([1, inf]);
polyGammaV = [6 6];
psi(polyGammaM,M)
psi(polyGammaV,V)
ans =
[
Inf,
0]
[ - 26*zeta(3) - (4*3^(1/2)*pi^3)/9, -14*zeta(3)]
ans =
[ -720*zeta(7), 0]
Because all elements of polyGammaV have the same value, you can replace polyGammaV
by a scalar of that value. psi expands the scalar into a nonscalar of the same size as V
and computes the result.
V = sym([1, inf]);
psi(6,V)
ans =
[ -720*zeta(7), 0]
4-875
More About
Digamma Function
The digamma function is the first derivative of the logarithm of the gamma function:
y (x) =
d
G ( x)
ln G ( x ) =
dx
G (x)
Polygamma Function
The polygamma function of the order k is the (k+1)th derivative of the logarithm of the
gamma function:
y (k ) ( x ) =
dk+1
dx
k +1
ln G ( x ) =
dk
dxk
y ( x)
Tips
Calling psi for a number that is not a symbolic object invokes the MATLAB psi
function. This function accepts real nonnegative arguments x. If you want to compute
the polygamma function for a complex number, use sym to convert that number to a
symbolic object, and then call psi for that symbolic object.
psi(0, x) is equivalent to psi(x).
See Also
beta | gamma | nchoosek | factorial
4-876
qr
qr
QR factorization
Syntax
R = qr(A)
[Q,R] = qr(A)
[Q,R,P] = qr(A)
[C,R] = qr(A,B)
[C,R,P] = qr(A,B)
[Q,R,p] = qr(A,'vector')
[C,R,p] = qr(A,B,'vector')
___ = qr( ___ ,'econ')
___ = qr( ___ ,'real')
Description
R = qr(A) returns the R part of the QR decomposition A = Q*R. Here, A is an m-by-n
matrix, R is an m-by-n upper triangular matrix, and Q is an m-by-m unitary matrix.
[Q,R] = qr(A) returns an upper triangular matrix R and a unitary matrix Q, such that
A = Q*R.
[Q,R,P] = qr(A) returns an upper triangular matrix R, a unitary matrix Q, and a
permutation matrix P, such that A*P = Q*R. If all elements of A can be approximated by
the floating-point numbers, then this syntax chooses the column permutation P so that
abs(diag(R)) is decreasing. Otherwise, it returns P = eye(n).
[C,R] = qr(A,B) returns an upper triangular matrix R and a matrix C, such that C =
Q'*B and A = Q*R. Here, A and B must have the same number of rows.
C and R represent the solution of the matrix equation A*X = B as X = R\C.
[C,R,P] = qr(A,B) returns an upper triangular matrix R, a matrix C, such that C
= Q'*B, and a permutation matrix P, such that A*P = Q*R. If all elements of A can be
4-877
approximated by the floating-point numbers, then this syntax chooses the permutation
matrix P so that abs(diag(R)) is decreasing. Otherwise, it returns P = eye(n). Here,
A and B must have the same number of rows.
C, R, and P represent the solution of the matrix equation A*X = B as X = P*(R\C).
[Q,R,p] = qr(A,'vector') returns the permutation information as a vector p, such
that A(:,p) = Q*R.
[C,R,p] = qr(A,B,'vector') returns the permutation information as a vector p.
C, R, and p represent the solution of the matrix equation A*X = B as X(p,:) = R\C.
___ = qr( ___ ,'econ') returns the "economy size" decomposition. If A is an m-by-n
matrix with m > n, then qr computes only the first n columns of Q and the first n rows of
R. For m <= n, the syntaxes with 'econ' are equivalent to the corresponding syntaxes
without 'econ'.
When you use 'econ', qr always returns the permutation information as a vector p.
You can use 0 instead of 'econ'. For example, [Q,R] = qr(A,0) is equivalent to
[Q,R] = qr(A,'econ').
___ = qr( ___ ,'real') assumes that input arguments and intermediate results
are real, and therefore, suppresses calls to abs and conj. When you use this flag, qr
assumes that all symbolic variables represent real numbers. When using this flag, ensure
that all numeric arguments are real numbers.
Use 'real' to avoid complex conjugates in the result.
Examples
R part of the QR Factorization
Compute the R part of the QR decomposition of the 4-by-4 Wilkinson's eigenvalue test
matrix.
Create the 4-by-4 Wilkinson's eigenvalue test matrix:
A = sym(wilkinson(4))
4-878
qr
A =
[ 3/2,
1,
0,
0]
[
1, 1/2,
1,
0]
[
0,
1, 1/2,
1]
[
0,
0,
1, 3/2]
Use the syntax with one output argument to return the R part of the QR decomposition
without returning the Q part:
R = qr(A)
R =
[ 13^(1/2)/2,
(4*13^(1/2))/13,
(2*13^(1/2))/13,
0]
[
0, (13^(1/2)*53^(1/2))/26, (10*13^(1/2)*53^(1/2))/689,
(2*13^(1/2)*53^(1/2))/53]
[
0,
0,
(53^(1/2)*381^(1/2))/106, (172*53^(1/2)*381^(1/2))/20193]
[
0,
0,
0,
(35*381^(1/2))/762]
QR Factorization of the Pascal Matrix

Compute the QR decomposition of the 3-by-3 Pascal matrix.
Create the 3-by-3 Pascal matrix:
A = sym(pascal(3))
A
[
[
[
=
1, 1, 1]
1, 2, 3]
1, 3, 6]
Find the Q and R matrices representing the QR decomposition of A:

[Q,R] = qr(A)
Q
[
[
[
=
3^(1/2)/3, -2^(1/2)/2, 6^(1/2)/6]
3^(1/2)/3,
0, -6^(1/2)/3]
3^(1/2)/3, 2^(1/2)/2, 6^(1/2)/6]
R =
[ 3^(1/2), 2*3^(1/2), (10*3^(1/2))/3]
[
0,
2^(1/2), (5*2^(1/2))/2]
[
0,
0,
6^(1/2)/6]
Verify that A = Q*R:

A == Q*R
4-879
ans =
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Permutation Information
Using permutations helps increase numerical stability of the QR factorization for
floating-point matrices. The qr function returns permutation information either as a
matrix or as a vector.
Set the number of significant decimal digits, used for variable-precision arithmetic, to 10.
Approximate the 3-by-3 symbolic Hilbert matrix by floating-point numbers:
previoussetting = digits(10);
A = vpa(hilb(3))
A =
[
1.0,
0.5, 0.3333333333]
[
0.5, 0.3333333333,
0.25]
[ 0.3333333333,
0.25,
0.2]
First, compute the QR decomposition of A without permutations:

[Q,R] = qr(A)
Q
[
[
[
=
0.8571428571, -0.5016049166, 0.1170411472]
0.4285714286, 0.5684855721, -0.7022468832]
0.2857142857, 0.6520863915, 0.7022468832]
R =
[ 1.166666667, 0.6428571429,
0.45]
[
0, 0.1017143303,
0.1053370325]
[
0,
0, 0.003901371573]
Compute the difference between A and Q*R. The computed Q and R matrices do not
strictly satisfy the equality A*P = Q*R because of the round-off errors.
A - Q*R
ans =
[ -1.387778781e-16, -3.989863995e-16, -2.064320936e-16]
[ -3.469446952e-18, -8.847089727e-17, -1.084202172e-16]
[ -2.602085214e-18, -6.591949209e-17, -6.678685383e-17]
4-880
qr
To increase numerical stability of the QR decomposition, use permutations by specifying

the syntax with three output arguments. For matrices that do not contain symbolic
variables, expressions, or functions, this syntax triggers pivoting, so that abs(diag(R))
in the returned matrix R is decreasing.
[Q,R,P] = qr(A)
Q
[
[
[
=
0.8571428571, -0.4969293466, -0.1355261854]
0.4285714286, 0.5421047417, 0.7228063223]
0.2857142857, 0.6776309272, -0.6776309272]
R =
[ 1.166666667,
0.45,
0.6428571429]
[
0, 0.1054092553,
0.1016446391]
[
0,
0, 0.003764616262]
P
[
[
[
=
1, 0, 0]
0, 0, 1]
0, 1, 0]
Check the equality A*P = Q*R again. QR factorization with permutations results in
smaller round-off errors.
A*P - Q*R
ans =
[ -3.469446952e-18, -4.33680869e-18, -6.938893904e-18]
[
0, -8.67361738e-19, -1.734723476e-18]
[
0, -4.33680869e-19, -1.734723476e-18]
Now, return the permutation information as a vector by using the 'vector' argument:
[Q,R,p] = qr(A,'vector')
Q
[
[
[
=
0.8571428571, -0.4969293466, -0.1355261854]
0.4285714286, 0.5421047417, 0.7228063223]
0.2857142857, 0.6776309272, -0.6776309272]
R =
[ 1.166666667,
0.45,
[
0, 0.1054092553,
0.6428571429]
0.1016446391]
4-881
0,
0, 0.003764616262]
p =
[ 1, 3, 2]
Verify that A(:,p) = Q*R:

A(:,p) - Q*R
ans =
[ -3.469446952e-18, -4.33680869e-18, -6.938893904e-18]
[
0, -8.67361738e-19, -1.734723476e-18]
[
0, -4.33680869e-19, -1.734723476e-18]
Exact symbolic computations let you avoid roundoff errors:

A = sym(hilb(3));
[Q,R] = qr(A);
A - Q*R
ans =
[ 0, 0, 0]
[ 0, 0, 0]
[ 0, 0, 0]
Restore the number of significant decimal digits to its default setting:

digits(previoussetting)
Use QR Decomposition to Solve a Matrix Equation

You can use qr to solve systems of equations in a matrix form.
Suppose you need to solve the system of equations A*X = b, where A and b are the
following matrix and vector:
A = sym(invhilb(5))
b = sym([1:5]')
A =
[
25,
-300,
1050,
-1400,
630]
[ -300,
4800, -18900,
26880, -12600]
[ 1050, -18900,
79380, -117600, 56700]
[ -1400, 26880, -117600, 179200, -88200]
4-882
qr
630, -12600,
56700,
-88200,
44100]
b =
1
2
3
4
5
Use qr to find matrices C and R, such that C = Q'*B and A = Q*R:

[C,R] = qr(A,b);
Compute the solution X:

X = R\C
X =
5
71/20
197/70
657/280
1271/630
Verify that X is the solution of the system A*X = b:

A*X == b
ans =
1
1
1
1
1
Use QR Decomposition with Permutation Information to Solve a Matrix

Equation
When solving systems of equations that contain floating-point numbers, the QR
decomposition with the permutation matrix or vector.
Suppose you need to solve the system of equations A*X = b, where A and b are the
following matrix and vector:
4-883
previoussetting = digits(10);
A = vpa([2 -3 -1; 1 1 -1; 0 1 -1]);
b = vpa([2; 0; -1]);
Use qr to find matrices C and R, such that C = Q'*B and A = Q*R:

[C,R,P] = qr(A,b)
C =
-2.110579412
-0.2132007164
0.7071067812
R =
[ 3.31662479, 0.3015113446, -1.507556723]
[
0, 1.705605731, -1.492405014]
[
0,
0, 0.7071067812]
P
[
[
[
=
0, 0, 1]
1, 0, 0]
0, 1, 0]
Compute the solution X:

X = P*(R\C)
X =
1.0
-0.25
0.75
Alternatively, return the permutation information as a vector:

[C,R,p] = qr(A,b,'vector')
C =
-2.110579412
-0.2132007164
0.7071067812
R =
[ 3.31662479, 0.3015113446, -1.507556723]
[
0, 1.705605731, -1.492405014]
[
0,
0, 0.7071067812]
4-884
qr
p =
[ 2, 3, 1]
In this case, compute the solution X as follows:

X(p,:) = R\C
X =
1.0
-0.25
0.75
Restore the number of significant decimal digits to its default setting:

digits(previoussetting)
"Economy Size" Decomposition

Use 'econ' to compute the economy size QR decomposition.
Create a matrix that consists of the first two columns of the 4-by-4 Pascal matrix:
A = sym(pascal(4));
A = A(:,1:2)
A
[
[
[
[
=
1,
1,
1,
1,
1]
2]
3]
4]
Compute the QR decomposition for this matrix:

[Q,R] = qr(A)
Q
[
[
[
[
=
1/2, -(3*5^(1/2))/10,
(3^(1/2)*10^(1/2))/10,
0]
1/2,
-5^(1/2)/10, -(2*3^(1/2)*10^(1/2))/15, 6^(1/2)/6]
1/2,
5^(1/2)/10,
-(3^(1/2)*10^(1/2))/30, -6^(1/2)/3]
1/2, (3*5^(1/2))/10,
(3^(1/2)*10^(1/2))/15, 6^(1/2)/6]
R
[
[
[
=
2,
5]
0, 5^(1/2)]
0,
0]
4-885
[ 0,
0]
Now, compute the economy size QR decomposition for this matrix. Because the number
of rows exceeds the number of columns, qr computes only the first 2 columns of Q and the
first 2 rows of R.
[Q,R] = qr(A,'econ')
Q
[
[
[
[
=
1/2, -(3*5^(1/2))/10]
1/2,
-5^(1/2)/10]
1/2,
5^(1/2)/10]
1/2, (3*5^(1/2))/10]
R =
[ 2,
5]
[ 0, 5^(1/2)]
Avoid Complex Conjugates

Use the 'real' flag to avoid complex conjugates in the result.
Create a matrix, one of the elements of which is a variable:
syms x
A = [1 2; 3 x]
A =
[ 1, 2]
[ 3, x]
Compute the QR factorization of this matrix. By default, qr assumes that x represents a

complex number, and therefore, the result contains expressions with the abs function.
[Q,R] = qr(A)
Q =
[
10^(1/2)/10, -((3*x)/10 - 9/5)/(abs(x/10 - 3/5)^2...

+ abs((3*x)/10 - 9/5)^2)^(1/2)]
[ (3*10^(1/2))/10,
(x/10 - 3/5)/(abs(x/10 - 3/5)^2...
+ abs((3*x)/10 - 9/5)^2)^(1/2)]
R =
[ 10^(1/2),
4-886
(10^(1/2)*(3*x + 2))/10]
qr
0, (abs(x/10 - 3/5)^2 + abs((3*x)/10 - 9/5)^2)^(1/2)]
When you use 'real', qr assumes that all symbolic variables represent real numbers,
and can return shorter results:
[Q,R] = qr(A,'real')
Q =
[
10^(1/2)/10, -((3*x)/10 - 9/5)/(x^2/10 - (6*x)/5...

+ 18/5)^(1/2)]
[ (3*10^(1/2))/10,
(x/10 - 3/5)/(x^2/10 - (6*x)/5...
+ 18/5)^(1/2)]
R =
[ 10^(1/2),
(10^(1/2)*(3*x + 2))/10]
[
0, (x^2/10 - (6*x)/5 + 18/5)^(1/2)]
Input Arguments
A Input matrix
m-by-n symbolic matrix
Input matrix, specified as an m-by-n symbolic matrix.
B Input
Input, specified as a symbolic vector or matrix. The number of rows in B must be the
same as the number of rows in A.
Output Arguments
R R part of the QR decomposition
m-by-n upper triangular symbolic matrix
R part of the QR decomposition, returned as an m-by-n upper triangular symbolic matrix.
Q Q part of the QR decomposition
m-by-m unitary symbolic matrix
Q part of the QR decomposition, returned as an m-by-m unitary symbolic matrix.
4-887
P Permutation information
symbolic matrix
Permutation information, returned as a symbolic matrix, such that A*P = Q*R.
p Permutation information
symbolic vector
Permutation information, returned as a symbolic vector, such that A(:,p) = Q*R.
C Matrix representing solution of matrix equation A*X = B
symbolic matrix
Matrix representing solution of matrix equation A*X = B, returned as a symbolic matrix,
such that C = Q'*B.
More About
QR Factorization of a Matrix
The QR factorization expresses an m-by-n matrix A as A = Q*R. Here, Q is an m-by-m
unitary matrix, and R is an m-by-n upper triangular matrix. If the components of A are
real numbers, then Q is an orthogonal matrix.
Tips
The upper triangular matrix A satisfies the following condition: R = chol(A'*A).
The arguments 'econ' and 0 only affect the shape of the returned matrices.
Calling qr for numeric matrices that are not symbolic objects (not created by sym,
syms, or vpa) invokes the MATLAB qr function.
If you use 'matrix' instead of 'vector', then qr returns permutation matrices, as
it does by default. If you use 'matrix' and 'econ', then qr throws an error.
See Also
chol | eig | lu | svd
4-888
quorem
quorem
Quotient and remainder
Syntax
[Q,R] = quorem(A,B,var)
[Q,R] = quorem(A,B)
Description
[Q,R] = quorem(A,B,var) divides A by B and returns the quotient Q and remainder
R of the division, such that A = Q*B + R. This syntax regards A and B as polynomials
in the variable var.
If A and B are matrices, quorem performs elements-wise division, using var are a
variable. It returns the quotient Q and remainder R of the division, such that A = Q.*B
+ R.
[Q,R] = quorem(A,B) uses the variable determined by symvar(A,1). If
symvar(A,1) returns an empty symbolic object sym([]), then quorem uses the variable
determined by symvar(B,1).
If both symvar(A,1) and symvar(B,1) are empty, then A and B must both be integers
or matrices with integer elements. In this case, quorem(A,B) returns symbolic integers
Q and R, such that A = Q*B + R. If A and B are matrices, then Q and R are symbolic
matrices with integer elements, such that A = Q.*B + R, and each element of R is
smaller in absolute value than the corresponding element of B.
Examples
Divide Multivariate Polynomials
Compute the quotient and remainder of the division of these multivariate polynomials
with respect to the variable y:
4-889
syms x y
p1 = x^3*y^4 - 2*x*y + 5*x + 1;
p2 = x*y;
[q, r] = quorem(p1, p2, y)
q =
x^2*y^3 - 2
r =
5*x + 1
Divide Univariate Polynomials

Compute the quotient and remainder of the division of these univariate polynomials:
syms x
p = x^3 - 2*x + 5;
[q, r] = quorem(x^5, p)
q =
x^2 + 2
r =
- 5*x^2 + 4*x - 10
Divide Integers
Compute the quotient and remainder of the division of these integers:
[q, r] = quorem(10^5, sym(985))
q =
101
r =
515
Input Arguments
A Dividend (numerator)
symbolic integer | polynomial | symbolic vector | symbolic matrix
4-890
quorem
Dividend (numerator), specified as a symbolic integer, polynomial, or a vector or matrix

of symbolic integers or polynomials.
B Divisor (denominator)
symbolic integer | polynomial | symbolic vector | symbolic matrix
Divisor (denominator), specified as a symbolic integer, polynomial, or a vector or matrix
of symbolic integers or polynomials.
var Polynomial variable
symbolic variable
Output Arguments
Q Quotient of the division
symbolic integer | symbolic expression | symbolic vector | symbolic matrix
Quotient of the division, returned as a symbolic integer, expression, or a vector or matrix
of symbolic integers or expressions.
R Remainder of the division
symbolic integer | symbolic expression | symbolic vector | symbolic matrix
Remainder of the division, returned as a symbolic integer, expression, or a vector or
matrix of symbolic integers or expressions.
See Also
deconv | mod
4-891
rank
Compute rank of symbolic matrix
Syntax
rank(A)
Description
rank(A) computes the rank of the symbolic matrix A.
Examples
Compute the rank of the following numeric matrix:
B = magic(4);
rank(B)
ans =
3
Compute the rank of the following symbolic matrix:

syms a b c d
A = [a b;c d];
rank(A)
ans =
2
See Also
eig | null | rref | size
4-892
read
read
Read MuPAD program file into symbolic engine
Syntax
read(symengine,filename)
Description
read(symengine,filename) reads the MuPAD program file filename into the
symbolic engine. Reading a program file means finding and executing it.
Input Arguments
filename
The name of a MuPAD program file that you want to read. This file must have the
extension .mu or .gz.
Examples
Suppose you wrote the MuPAD procedure myProc and saved it in the file
myProcedure.mu.
4-893
Before you can call this procedure at the MATLAB Command Window, you must read the
file myProcedure.mu into the symbolic engine. To read a program file into the symbolic
engine, use read:
read(symengine, 'myProcedure.mu')
If the file is not on the MATLAB path, specify the full path to this file. For example, if
myProcedure.mu is in the MuPAD folder on disk C, enter:
read(symengine, 'C:/MuPAD/myProcedure.mu')
Now you can access the procedure myProc using evalin or feval. For example,
compute the factorial of 10:
feval(symengine, 'myProc', 10)
ans =
3628800
4-894
read
Alternatives
You also can use feval to call the MuPAD read function. The read function available
from the MATLAB Command Window is equivalent to calling the MuPAD read function
with the Plain option. It ignores any MuPAD aliases defined in the program file:
feval(symengine, 'read',' "myProcedure.mu" ', 'Plain')
If your program file contains aliases or uses the aliases predefined by MATLAB, do not
use Plain:
feval(symengine, 'read',' "myProcedure.mu" ')
More About
Tips
If you do not specify the file extension, read searches for the file filename.mu.
If filename is a GNU zip file with the extension .gz, read uncompresses it upon
reading.
filename can include full or relative path information. If filename does not have a
path component, read uses the MATLAB function which to search for the file on the
MATLAB path.
read ignores any MuPAD aliases defined in the program file. If your program file
contains aliases or uses the aliases predefined by MATLAB, see Alternatives on
page 4-895.
Use Your Own MuPAD Procedures on page 3-38
Conflicts Caused by Syntax Conversions on page 3-29
See Also
evalin | feval | symengine
4-895
real
Real part of complex number
Syntax
real(z)
real(A)
Description
real(z) returns the real part of z.
real(A) returns the real part of each element of A.
Input Arguments
z
A
Examples
Find the real parts of these numbers. Because these numbers are not symbolic objects,
you get floating-point results.
[real(2 + 3/2*i), real(sin(5*i)), real(2*exp(1 + i))]
ans =
2.0000
2.9374
Compute the real parts of the numbers converted to symbolic objects:

4-896
real
[real(sym(2) + 3/2*i), real(4/(sym(1) + 3*i)),
real(sin(sym(5)*i))]
ans =
[ 2, 2/5, 0]
Compute the real part of this symbolic expression:

real(sym('2*exp(1 + i)'))
ans =
2*cos(1)*exp(1)
In general, real cannot extract the entire real parts from symbolic expressions
containing variables. However, real can rewrite and sometimes simplify the input
expression:
syms a x y
real(a + 2)
real(x + y*i)
ans =
real(a) + 2
ans =
real(x) - imag(y)
If you assign numeric values to these variables or specify that these variables are real,
real can extract the real part of the expression:
syms a
a = 5 + 3*i;
real(a + 2)
ans =
7
syms x y real
real(x + y*i)
ans =
x
Clear the assumption that x and y are real:

syms x y clear
4-897
Find the real parts of the elements of matrix A:

A = sym('[-1 + i, sinh(x); exp(10 + 7*i), exp(pi*i)]');
real(A)
ans =
[
-1, real(sinh(x))]
[ cos(7)*exp(10),
-1]
Alternatives
You can compute the real part of z via the conjugate: real(z)= (z + conj(z))/2.
More About
Tips
Calling real for a number that is not a symbolic object invokes the MATLAB real
function.
See Also
conj | imag | in | sign | signIm
4-898
rectangularPulse
rectangularPulse
Rectangular pulse function
Syntax
rectangularPulse(a,b,x)
rectangularPulse(x)
Description
rectangularPulse(a,b,x) returns the rectangular pulse function.
rectangularPulse(x) is a shortcut for rectangularPulse(-1/2,1/2,x).
Input Arguments
a
Number (including infinities and symbolic numbers), symbolic variable, or symbolic
expression. This argument specifies the rising edge of the rectangular pulse function.
Default: -1/2
b
expression. This argument specifies the falling edge of the rectangular pulse function.
Default: 1/2
x
expression.
4-899
Examples
Compute the rectangular pulse function for these numbers. Because these numbers are
not symbolic objects, you get floating-point results:
[rectangularPulse(-1, 1, -2)
rectangularPulse(-1, 1, -1)
rectangularPulse(-1, 1, 0)
rectangularPulse(-1, 1, 1)
rectangularPulse(-1, 1, 2)]
ans =
0
0.5000
1.0000
0.5000
0
Compute the rectangular pulse function for the numbers converted to symbolic objects:
[rectangularPulse(sym(-1), 1, -2)
rectangularPulse(-1, sym(1), -1)
rectangularPulse(-1, 1, sym(0))
rectangularPulse(sym(-1), 1, 1)
rectangularPulse(sym(-1), 1, 2)]
ans =
0
1/2
1
1/2
0
If a < b, the rectangular pulse function for x = a and x = b equals 1/2:

syms a b x
assume(a < b)
rectangularPulse(a, b, a)
rectangularPulse(a, b, b)
ans =
1/2
ans =
4-900
rectangularPulse
1/2

syms a b clear
For a = b, the rectangular pulse function returns 0:

syms a x
rectangularPulse(a, a, x)
ans =
0
Use rectangularPulse with one input argument as a shortcut for computing

rectangularPulse(-1/2, 1/2, x):
syms x
rectangularPulse(x)
ans =
rectangularPulse(-1/2, 1/2, x)
[rectangularPulse(sym(-1))
rectangularPulse(sym(-1/2))
rectangularPulse(sym(0))
rectangularPulse(sym(1/2))
rectangularPulse(sym(1))]
ans =
0
1/2
1
1/2
0
Plot the rectangular pulse function:

syms x
ezplot(rectangularPulse(x), [-1, 1])
4-901
Call rectangularPulse with infinities as its rising and falling edges:

syms x
rectangularPulse(-inf, 0, x)
rectangularPulse(0, inf, x)
rectangularPulse(-inf, inf, x)
ans =
heaviside(-x)
ans =
heaviside(x)
ans =
1
4-902
rectangularPulse
More About
Rectangular Pulse Function
The rectangular pulse function is defined as follows:
If a < x < b, then the rectangular pulse function equals 1. If x = a or x = b and a <>
b, then the rectangular pulse function equals 1/2. Otherwise, it equals 0.
The rectangular pulse function is also called the rectangle function, box function, function, or gate function.
Tips
If a and b are variables or expressions with variables, rectangularPulse assumes
that a < b. If a and b are numerical values, such that a > b, rectangularPulse
throws an error.
If a = b, rectangularPulse returns 0.
See Also
dirac | heaviside | triangularPulse
4-903
reduceDAEIndex
Convert system of first-order differential algebraic equations to equivalent system of
differential index 1
Syntax
[newEqs,newVars] = reduceDAEIndex(eqs,vars)
[newEqs,newVars,R] = reduceDAEIndex(eqs,vars)
[newEqs,newVars,R,oldIndex] = reduceDAEIndex(eqs,vars)
Description
[newEqs,newVars] = reduceDAEIndex(eqs,vars) converts a high-index system
of first-order differential algebraic equations eqs to an equivalent system newEqs of
differential index 1.
reduceDAEIndex keeps the original equations and variables and introduces new
variables and equations. After conversion, reduceDAEIndex checks the differential
index of the new system by calling isLowIndexDAE. If the index of newEqs is 2 or
higher, then reduceDAEIndex issues a warning.
[newEqs,newVars,R] = reduceDAEIndex(eqs,vars) returns matrix R that
expresses the new variables in newVars as derivatives of the original variables vars.
[newEqs,newVars,R,oldIndex] = reduceDAEIndex(eqs,vars) returns the
differential index, oldIndex, of the original system of DAEs, eqs.
Examples
Reduce Differential Index of a DAE System
Check if the following DAE system has a low (0 or 1) or high (>1) differential index. If the
index is higher than 1, then use reduceDAEIndex to reduce it.
Create the following system of two differential algebraic equations. Here, the symbolic
functions x(t), y(t), and z(t) represent the state variables of the system. Specify
4-904
reduceDAEIndex
the equations and variables as two symbolic vectors: equations as a vector of symbolic
equations, and variables as a vector of symbolic function calls.
syms x(t) y(t) z(t) f(t)
eqs = [diff(x) == x + z, diff(y) == f(t), x == y];
vars = [x(t), y(t), z(t)];
Use isLowIndexDAE to check the differential index of the system. For this system,
is 2 or higher.
ans =
0
Use reduceDAEIndex to rewrite the system so that the differential index is 1. The new
system has one additional state variable, Dyt(t).
[newEqs, newVars] = reduceDAEIndex(eqs, vars)
newEqs =
diff(x(t), t) - z(t)
Dyt(t)
x(t)
diff(x(t), t) -
- x(t)
- f(t)
- y(t)
Dyt(t)
newVars =
x(t)
y(t)
z(t)
Dyt(t)
Check if the differential order of the new system is lower than 2.

isLowIndexDAE(newEqs, newVars)
ans =
1
Reduce the Index and Return More Details

Reduce the differential index of a system that contains two second-order differential
algebraic equation. Because the equations are second-order equations, first use
reduceDifferentialOrder to rewrite the system to a system of first-order DAEs.
4-905
Create the following system of two second-order DAEs. Here, x(t), y(t), and F(t) are
the state variables of the system. Specify the equations and variables as two symbolic
function calls.
syms t x(t) y(t) F(t) r g
eqs = [diff(x(t), t, t) == -F(t)*x(t),...
diff(y(t), t, t) == -F(t)*y(t) - g,...
x(t)^2 + y(t)^2 == r^2 ];
vars = [x(t), y(t), F(t)];
Rewrite this system so that all equations become first-order differential equations. The
reduceDifferentialOrder function replaces the second-order DAE by two first-order
expressions by introducing the new variables Dxt(t) and Dyt(t). It also replaces the
first-order equations by symbolic expressions.
eqs =
diff(Dxt(t), t) + F(t)*x(t)
diff(Dyt(t), t) + g + F(t)*y(t)
x(t)^2 + y(t)^2 - r^2
vars =
x(t)
y(t)
F(t)
Dxt(t)
Dyt(t)
Use reduceDAEIndex to rewrite the system so that the differential index is 1.

[eqs, vars, R, originalIndex] = reduceDAEIndex(eqs, vars)
eqs =
Dxtt(t) + F(t)*x(t)
g + Dytt(t) + F(t)*y(t)
x(t)^2 + y(t)^2 - r^2
Dxt(t) - Dxt1(t)
Dyt(t) - Dyt1(t)
2*Dxt1(t)*x(t) + 2*Dyt1(t)*y(t)
2*Dxt1t(t)*x(t) + 2*Dxt1(t)^2 + 2*Dyt1(t)^2 + 2*y(t)*diff(Dyt1(t), t)
Dxtt(t) - Dxt1t(t)
4-906
reduceDAEIndex
Dytt(t) - diff(Dyt1(t), t)
Dyt1(t) - diff(y(t), t)
vars =
x(t)
y(t)
F(t)
Dxt(t)
Dyt(t)
Dytt(t)
Dxtt(t)
Dxt1(t)
Dyt1(t)
Dxt1t(t)
R =
[ Dytt(t), diff(Dyt(t),
[ Dxtt(t), diff(Dxt(t),
[ Dxt1(t),
diff(x(t),
[ Dyt1(t),
diff(y(t),
[ Dxt1t(t), diff(x(t), t,
t)]
t)]
t)]
t)]
t)]
originalIndex =
3
Use reduceRedundancies to shorten the system.

[eqs, vars] = reduceRedundancies(eqs, vars)
eqs =
Dxtt(t) + F(t)*x(t)
g + Dytt(t) + F(t)*y(t)
x(t)^2 + y(t)^2 - r^2
vars =
x(t)
y(t)
F(t)
Dxt(t)
Dyt(t)
Dytt(t)
4-907
Dxtt(t)
Input Arguments
Output Arguments
newEqs System of first-order DAEs of differential index 1
column vector of symbolic expressions
System of first-order DAEs of differential index 1, returned as a column vector of
symbolic expressions.
newVars Extended set of variables
column vector of symbolic function calls
Extended set of variables, returned as a column vector of symbolic function calls. This
vector includes the original state variables vars followed by the generated variables that
replace the second- and higher-order derivatives in eqs.
R Relations between new and original variables
symbolic matrix
Relations between new and original variables, returned as a symbolic matrix with two
columns. The first column contains the new variables. The second column contains their
definitions as derivatives of the original variables vars.
oldIndex Differential index of original DAE system
integer
4-908
reduceDAEIndex
Differential index of original DAE system, returned as an integer or NaN.
More About
Algorithms
The implementation of reduceDAEIndex uses the Pantelides algorithm. This algorithm
reduces higher-index systems to lower-index systems by selectively adding differentiated
forms of the original equations. The Pantelides algorithm can underestimate the
differential index of a new system, and therefore, can fail to reduce the differential index
to 1. In this case, reduceDAEIndex issues a warning and, for the syntax with four
output arguments, returns the value of oldIndex as NaN. The reduceDAEToODE function
uses more reliable, but slower Gaussian elimination. Note that reduceDAEToODE
requires the DAE system to be semilinear.
See Also

| isLowIndexDAE | massMatrixForm | reduceDAEToODE |
4-909
reduceDAEToODE
Convert system of first-order semilinear differential algebraic equations to equivalent
system of differential index 0
Syntax
newEqs = reduceDAEToODE(eqs,vars)
[newEqs,constraintEqs] = reduceDAEToODE(eqs,vars)
[newEqs,constraintEqs,oldIndex] = reduceDAEToODE(eqs,vars)
Description
newEqs = reduceDAEToODE(eqs,vars) converts a high-index system of first-order
semilinear algebraic equations eqs to an equivalent system of ordinary differential
equations, newEqs. The differential index of the new system is 0, that is, the Jacobian of
newEqs with respect to the derivatives of the variables in vars is invertible.
[newEqs,constraintEqs] = reduceDAEToODE(eqs,vars) returns a vector of
constraint equations.
[newEqs,constraintEqs,oldIndex] = reduceDAEToODE(eqs,vars) returns the
differential index oldIndex of the original system of semilinear DAEs, eqs.
Examples
Convert DAE System to Implicit ODE System
Convert a system of differential algebraic equations (DAEs) to a system of implicit
ordinary differential equations (ODEs).
Create the following system of two differential algebraic equations. Here, the symbolic
functions x(t), y(t), and z(t) represent the state variables of the system. Specify
the equations and variables as two symbolic vectors: equations as a vector of symbolic
syms x(t) y(t) z(t)
4-910
reduceDAEToODE
eqs = [diff(x,t)+x*diff(y,t) == y,...

x*diff(x, t)+x^2*diff(y) == sin(x),...
x^2 + y^2 == t*z];
vars = [x(t), y(t), z(t)];
Use reduceDAEToODE to rewrite the system so that the differential index is 0.

newEqs = reduceDAEToODE(eqs, vars)
newEqs =
x(t)*diff(y(t), t) - y(t) + diff(x(t), t)
diff(x(t), t)*(cos(x(t)) - y(t)) - x(t)*diff(y(t), t)
z(t) - 2*x(t)*diff(x(t), t) - 2*y(t)*diff(y(t), t) + t*diff(z(t), t)
Reduce the System and Return More Details

Check if the following DAE system has a low (0 or 1) or high (>1) differential index. If the
index is higher than 1, first try to reduce the index by using reduceDAEIndex and then
by using reduceDAEToODE.
Create the system of differential algebraic equations. Here, the functions x1(t), x2(t),
and x3(t) represent the state variables of the system. The system also contains the
functions q1(t), q2(t), and q3(t). These functions do not represent state variables.
Specify the equations and variables as two symbolic vectors: equations as a vector of
symbolic equations, and variables as a vector of symbolic function calls.
syms x1(t) x2(t) x3(t) q1(t) q2(t) q3(t)
eqs = [diff(x2) == q1 - x1,
diff(x3) == q2 - 2*x2 - t*(q1-x1),
q3 - t*x2 - x3];
vars = [x1(t), x2(t), x3(t)];
Use isLowIndexDAE to check the differential index of the system. For this system,
is 2 or higher.
ans =
0
Use reduceDAEIndex as your first attempt to rewrite the system so that the differential
index is 1. For this system, reduceDAEIndex issues a warning because it cannot reduce
the differential index of the system to 0 or 1.
4-911
[newEqs, newVars] = reduceDAEIndex(eqs, vars)

Warning: The index of the reduced DAEs is larger...
than 1. [daetools::reduceDAEIndex]
newEqs =
x1(t) - q1(t) + diff(x2(t), t)
Dx3t(t) - q2(t) + 2*x2(t) + t*(q1(t) - x1(t))
q3(t) - x3(t) - t*x2(t)
diff(q3(t), t) - x2(t) - t*diff(x2(t), t) - Dx3t(t)
newVars =
x1(t)
x2(t)
x3(t)
Dx3t(t)
If reduceDAEIndex cannot reduce the semilinear system so that the index is 0 or

1, try using reduceDAEToODE. This function can be much slower, therefore it is not
recommended as a first choice. Use the syntax with two output arguments to also return
the constraint equations.
[newEqs, constraintEqs] = reduceDAEToODE(eqs, vars)
newEqs =
x1(t) - q1(t) + diff(x2(t), t)
2*x2(t) - q2(t) + t*q1(t) - t*x1(t) + diff(x3(t), t)
diff(x1(t), t) - diff(q1(t), t) + diff(q2(t), t, t) - diff(q3(t), t, t, t)
constraintEqs =
D(q2)(t) - D(D(q3))(t) - q1(t) + x1(t)
x3(t) - q3(t) + t*x2(t)
D(q3)(t) - q2(t) + x2(t)
Use the syntax with three output arguments to return the new equations, constraint
equations, and the differential index of the original system, eqs.
[newEqs, constraintEqs, oldIndex] = reduceDAEToODE(eqs, vars)
newEqs =
x1(t) - q1(t) + diff(x2(t), t)
2*x2(t) - q2(t) + t*q1(t) - t*x1(t) + diff(x3(t), t)
diff(x1(t), t) - diff(q1(t), t) + diff(q2(t), t, t) - diff(q3(t), t, t, t)
constraintEqs =
4-912
reduceDAEToODE
D(q2)(t) - D(D(q3))(t) - q1(t) + x1(t)

x3(t) - q3(t) + t*x2(t)
D(q3)(t) - q2(t) + x2(t)
oldIndex =
3
Input Arguments
eqs System of first-order semilinear DAEs
System of first-order semilinear DAEs, specified as a vector of symbolic equations or
expressions.
Output Arguments
newEqs System of implicit ordinary differential equations
System of implicit ordinary differential equations, returned as a column vector of
symbolic expressions. The differential index of this system is 0.
constraintEqs Constraint equations encountered during system reduction
Constraint equations encountered during system reduction, returned as a column vector
of symbolic expressions. These expressions depend on the variables vars, but not on
their derivatives. The constraints are conserved quantities of the differential equations
in newEqs, meaning that the time derivative of each constraint vanishes modulo the
equations in newEqs.
You can use these equations to determine consistent initial conditions for the DAE
system.
4-913
oldIndex Differential index of original DAE system eqs

integer
Differential index of original DAE system eqs, returned as an integer.
More About
Algorithms
The implementation of reduceDAEToODE is based on Gaussian elimination. This
algorithm is more reliable than the Pantelides algorithm used by reduceDAEIndex, but
it can be much slower.
See Also

| isLowIndexDAE | massMatrixForm | reduceDAEIndex |
4-914
reduceDifferentialOrder
Reduce system of higher-order differential equations to equivalent system of first-order
differential equations
Syntax
[newEqs,newVars] = reduceDifferentialOrder(eqs,vars)
[newEqs,newVars,R] = reduceDifferentialOrder(eqs,vars)
Description
[newEqs,newVars] = reduceDifferentialOrder(eqs,vars) rewrites a system of
higher-order differential equations eqs as a system of first-order differential equations
newEqs by substituting derivatives in eqs with new variables. Here, newVars consists of
the original variables vars augmented with these new variables.
[newEqs,newVars,R] = reduceDifferentialOrder(eqs,vars) returns the
matrix R that expresses the new variables in newVars as derivatives of the original
variables vars.
Examples
Reduce Differential Order of a DAE System
Reduce a system containing higher-order DAEs to a system containing only first-order
DAEs.
Create the system of differential equations, which includes a second-order expression.
Here, x(t) and y(t) are the state variables of the system, and c1 and c2 are
parameters. Specify the equations and variables as two symbolic vectors: equations as a
vector of symbolic equations, and variables as a vector of symbolic function calls.
syms x(t) y(t) c1 c2
eqs = [diff(x(t), t, t) + sin(x(t)) + y(t) == c1*cos(t),...
4-915
diff(y(t), t) == c2*x(t)];
[newEqs, newVars] = reduceDifferentialOrder(eqs, vars)
Rewrite this system so that all equations become first-order differential equations. The
reduceDifferentialOrder function replaces the higher-order DAE by first-order
expressions by introducing the new variable Dxt(t). It also represents all equations as
symbolic expressions.
[newEqs, newVars] = reduceDifferentialOrder(eqs, vars)
newEqs =
sin(x(t)) + y(t) + diff(Dxt(t), t) - c1*cos(t)
diff(y(t), t) - c2*x(t)
newVars =
x(t)
y(t)
Dxt(t)
Show Relations Between Generated and Original Variables

Reduce a system containing a second- and a third-order expression to a system
containing only first-order DAEs. In addition, return a matrix that expresses the
variables generated by reduceDifferentialOrder via the original variables of this
system.
Create a system of differential equations, which includes a second- and a third-order
expression. Here, x(t) and y(t) are the state variables of the system. Specify the
equations and variables as two symbolic vectors: equations as a vector of symbolic
syms x(t) y(t) f(t)
eqs = [diff(x(t),t,t) == diff(f(t),t,t,t), diff(y(t),t,t,t) == diff(f(t),t,t)];
Call reduceDifferentialOrder with three output arguments. This syntax returns

matrix R with two columns: the first column contains the new variables, and the second
column expresses the new variables as derivatives of the original variables, x(t) and
y(t).
4-916
[newEqs, newVars, R] = reduceDifferentialOrder(eqs, vars)

newEqs =
diff(Dxt(t), t) - diff(f(t), t, t,
diff(Dytt(t), t) - diff(f(t), t,
Dxt(t) - diff(x(t),
Dyt(t) - diff(y(t),
Dytt(t) - diff(Dyt(t),
t)
t)
t)
t)
t)
newVars =
x(t)
y(t)
Dxt(t)
Dyt(t)
Dytt(t)
R =
[ Dxt(t),
diff(x(t), t)]
[ Dyt(t),
diff(y(t), t)]
[ Dytt(t), diff(y(t), t, t)]
Input Arguments
eqs System containing higher-order differential equations
System containing higher-order differential equations, specified as a vector of symbolic
equations or expressions.
vars Variables of original differential equations
Variables of original differential equations, specified as a vector of symbolic functions, or
function calls, such as x(t).
Output Arguments
newEqs System of first-order differential equations
4-917
System of first-order differential equations, returned as a column vector of symbolic

expressions.
newVars Extended set of variables
Extended set of variables, returned as a column vector of symbolic function calls. This
vector includes the original state variables vars followed by the generated variables that
replace the higher-order derivatives in eqs.
R Relations between new and original variables
symbolic matrix
Relations between new and original variables, returned as a symbolic matrix with two
columns. The first column contains the new variables newVars. The second column
contains their definition as derivatives of the original variables vars.
See Also

reduceRedundancies
4-918
reduceRedundancies
reduceRedundancies
Simplify system of first-order differential algebraic equations by eliminating redundant
equations and variables
Syntax
[newEqs,newVars] = reduceRedundancies(eqs,vars)
[newEqs,newVars,R] = reduceRedundancies(eqs,vars)
Description
[newEqs,newVars] = reduceRedundancies(eqs,vars) eliminates simple
equations from the system of first-order differential algebraic equations eqs. It returns
a column vector newEqs of symbolic expressions and a column vector newVars of those
variables that remain in the new DAE system newEqs. The expressions in newEqs
represent equations with a zero right side.
[newEqs,newVars,R] = reduceRedundancies(eqs,vars) returns a structure
array R containing information on the eliminated equations and variables.
Examples
Shorten DAE System by Removing Redundant Equations
Use reduceRedundancies to simplify a system of five differential algebraic equations
in four variables to a system of two equations in two variables.
Create the following system of five differential algebraic equations in four state variables
x1(t), x2(t), x3(t), and x4(t). The system also contains symbolic parameters a1, a2,
a3, a4, b, c, and the function f(t) that is not a state variable.
syms x1(t) x2(t) x3(t) x4(t) a1 a2 a3 a4 b c f(t)
eqs = [a1*diff(x1(t),t)+a2*diff(x2(t),t) == b*x4(t),...
a3*diff(x2(t),t)+a4*diff(x3(t),t) == c*x4(t),...
x1(t) == 2*x2(t),...
4-919
x4(t) == f(t), ...

f(t) == sin(t)];
vars = [x1(t), x2(t), x3(t), x4(t)];
Use reduceRedundancies to eliminate redundant equations and corresponding state

variables.
[newEqs, newVars] = reduceRedundancies(eqs, vars)
newEqs =
a1*diff(x1(t), t) + (a2*diff(x1(t), t))/2 - b*f(t)
(a3*diff(x1(t), t))/2 + a4*diff(x3(t), t) - c*f(t)
newVars =
x1(t)
x3(t)
Obtain Information About Eliminated Equations

Call reduceRedundancies with three output arguments to simplify a system and
return information about eliminated equations.
Create the following system of five differential algebraic equations in four state variables
x1(t), x2(t), x3(t), and x4(t). The system also contains symbolic parameters a1, a2,
a3, a4, b, c, and the function f(t) that is not a state variable.
syms x1(t) x2(t) x3(t) x4(t) a1 a2 a3 a4 b c f(t)
eqs = [a1*diff(x1(t),t)+a2*diff(x2(t),t) == b*x4(t),...
a3*diff(x2(t),t)+a4*diff(x3(t),t) == c*x4(t),...
x1(t) == 2*x2(t),...
x4(t) == f(t), ...
f(t) == sin(t)];
vars = [x1(t), x2(t), x3(t), x4(t)];
Call reduceRedundancies with three output variables.

[newEqs, newVars, R] = reduceRedundancies(eqs, vars)
newEqs =
a1*diff(x1(t), t) + (a2*diff(x1(t), t))/2 - b*f(t)
(a3*diff(x1(t), t))/2 + a4*diff(x3(t), t) - c*f(t)
newVars =
x1(t)
4-920
reduceRedundancies
x3(t)
R =
solvedEquations:
constantVariables:
replacedVariables:
otherEquations:
[2x1
[1x2
[1x2
[1x1
sym]
sym]
sym]
sym]
Here, R is a structure array with four fields. The solvedEquations field contains
equations that reduceRedundancies used to replace those state variables from vars
that do not appear in newEqs.
R.solvedEquations
ans =
x1(t) - 2*x2(t)
x4(t) - f(t)
The constantVariables field contains a matrix with the following two columns. The
first column contains those state variables from vars that reduceRedundancies
replaced by constant values. The second column contains the corresponding constant
values.
R.constantVariables
ans =
[ x4(t), f(t)]
The replacedVariables field contains a matrix with the following two columns. The
first column contains those state variables from vars that reduceRedundancies
replaced by expressions in terms of other variables. The second column contains the
corresponding values of the eliminated variables.
R.replacedVariables
ans =
[ x2(t), x1(t)/2]
The otherEquations field contains those equations from eqs that do not contain any of
the state variables vars.
R.otherEquations
ans =
4-921
f(t) - sin(t)
Input Arguments
Output Arguments
newEqs System of first-order DAEs
System of first-order DAEs, returned as a column vector of symbolic expressions
newVars Reduced set of variables
Reduced set of variables, returned as a column vector of symbolic function calls.
R Information about eliminated variables
structure array
Information about eliminated variables, returned as a structure array. To access this
information, use:
R.solvedEquations to return a symbolic column vector of all equations that
reduceRedundancies used to replace those state variables that do not appear in
newEqs.
R.constantVariables to return a matrix with the following two columns. The first
column contains those original state variables of the vector vars that were eliminated
4-922
reduceRedundancies
and replaced by constant values. The second column contains the corresponding
constant values.
R.replacedVariables to return a matrix with the following two columns. The
first column contains those original state variables of the vector vars that were
eliminated and replaced in terms of other variables. The second column contains the
corresponding values of the eliminated variables.
R.otherEquations to return a column vector containing all original equations eqs
that do not contain any of the input variables vars.
See Also

4-923
rem
Remainder after division
Syntax
rem(a,b)
Description
rem(a,b) finds the remainder after division. If b <> 0, then rem(a,b) = a fix(a/b)*b. If b = 0 or b = Inf or b = -Inf, then rem returns NaN.
The rem function does not support complex numbers: all values must be real numbers.
To find the remainder after division of polynomials, use quorem.
Examples
Divide Integers by Integers
Find the remainder after division in case both the dividend and divisor are integers.
[rem(sym(27), 4), rem(sym(27), -4), rem(sym(-27), 4), rem(sym(-27), -4)]
ans =
[ 3, 3, -3, -3]
Divide Rationals by Integers

Find the remainder after division in case the dividend is a rational number, and the
divisor is an integer.
Find the remainder after division for these numbers.
4-924
rem
[rem(sym(22/3), 5), rem(sym(1/2), -7), rem(sym(27/6), -11)]

ans =
[ 7/3, 1/2, 9/2]
Divide Elements of Matrices

For vectors and matrices, rem finds the remainder after division element-wise. Nonscalar
Find the remainder after division for the elements of these two matrices.
A = sym([27, 28; 29, 30]);
B = sym([2, 3; 4, 5]);
rem(A,B)
ans =
[ 1, 1]
[ 1, 0]
Find the remainder after division for the elements of matrix A and the value 9. Here, rem
expands 9 into the 2-by-2 matrix with all elements equal to 9.
rem(A,9)
ans =
[ 0, 1]
[ 2, 3]
Input Arguments
a Dividend (numerator)
Dividend (numerator), specified as a number, symbolic number, or a vector or matrix of
b Divisor (denominator)
Divisor (denominator), specified as a number, symbolic number, or a vector or matrix of
4-925
More About
Tips
Calling rem for numbers that are not symbolic objects invokes the MATLAB rem
function.
All nonscalar arguments must be the same size. If one input arguments is nonscalar,
then mod expands the scalar into a vector or matrix of the same size as the nonscalar
See Also
mod | quorem
4-926
reset
reset
Close MuPAD engine
Syntax
reset(symengine)
Description
reset(symengine) closes the MuPAD engine associated with the MATLAB
workspace, and resets all its assumptions. Immediately before or after executing
reset(symengine) you should clear all symbolic objects in the MATLAB workspace.
See Also
symengine
4-927
reshape
Reshape symbolic array
Syntax
reshape(A,n1,n2)
reshape(A,n1,...,nM)
reshape(A,...,[],...)
reshape(A,sz)
Description
reshape(A,n1,n2) returns the n1-by-n2 matrix, which has the same elements as
A. The elements are taken column-wise from A to fill in the elements of the n1-by-n2
matrix.
reshape(A,n1,...,nM) returns the n1-by-...-by-nM array, which has the same
elements as A. The elements are taken column-wise from A to fill in the elements of the
n1-by-...-by-nM array.
reshape(A,...,[],...) lets you represent a size value with the placeholder [] while
calculating the magnitude of that size value automatically. For example, if A has size 2by-6, then reshape(A,4,[]) returns a 4-by-3 array.
reshape(A,sz) reshapes A into an array with size specified by sz, where sz is a vector.
Examples
Reshape the Symbolic Row Vector into a Column Vector
Reshape V, which is a 1-by-4 row vector, into the 4-by-1 column vector Y . Here, V and Y
must have the same number of elements.
Create the vector V.
4-928
reshape
syms f(x) y
V = [3 f(x) -4 y]
V =
[ 3, f(x), -4, y]
Reshape V into Y.
Y = reshape(V,4,1)
Y =
3
f(x)
-4
y
Alternatively, use Y = V.' where .' is the nonconjugate transpose.
Reshape the Symbolic Matrix

Reshape the 2-by-6 symbolic matrix M into a 4-by-3 matrix.
M = sym([1 9 4 3 0 1; 3 9 5 1 9 2])
N = reshape(M,4,3)
M =
[ 1, 9, 4, 3, 0, 1]
[ 3, 9, 5, 1, 9, 2]
N
[
[
[
[
=
1,
3,
9,
9,
4,
5,
3,
1,
0]
9]
1]
2]
M and N must have the same number of elements. reshape reads M column-wise to fill in
the elements of N column-wise.
Alternatively, use a size vector to specify the dimensions of the reshaped matrix.
sz = [4 3];
N = reshape(M,sz)
N =
4-929
[
[
[
[
1,
3,
9,
9,
4,
5,
3,
1,
0]
9]
1]
2]
Automatically Set the Dimension of the Reshaped Matrix

When you replace a dimension with the placeholder [], reshape calculates the required
magnitude of that dimension to reshape the matrix.
Create the matrix M.
M = sym([1 9 4 3 0 1; 3 9 5 1 9 2])
M =
[ 1, 9, 4, 3, 0, 1]
[ 3, 9, 5, 1, 9, 2]
Reshape M into a matrix with three columns.

reshape(M,[],3)
ans =
[ 1, 4,
[ 3, 5,
[ 9, 3,
[ 9, 1,
0]
9]
1]
2]
reshape calculates that a reshaped matrix of three columns needs four rows.
Reshape a Matrix Row-wise

Reshape a matrix row-wise by transposing the result.
Create matrix M.
syms x
M = sym([1 9 0 sin(x) 2 2; NaN x 5 1 4 7])
M =
[
1, 9, 0, sin(x), 2, 2]
[ NaN, x, 5,
1, 4, 7]
4-930
reshape
Reshape M row-wise by transposing the result.

reshape(M,4,3).'
ans =
[ 1, NaN,
9, x]
[ 0,
5, sin(x), 1]
[ 2,
4,
2, 7]
Note that .' returns the non-conjugate transpose while ' returns the conjugate
transpose.
Reshape the 3-D Array into a 2-D Matrix

Reshape the 3-by-3-by-2 array M into a 9-by-2 matrix.
M has 18 elements. Because a 9-by-2 matrix also has 18 elements, M can be reshaped into
it. Construct M.
syms x
M = [sin(x) x 4; 3 2 9; 8 x x];
M(:,:,2) = M'
M(:,:,1) =
[ sin(x), x, 4]
[
3, 2, 9]
[
8, x, x]
M(:,:,2) =
[ sin(conj(x)), 3,
8]
[
conj(x), 2, conj(x)]
[
4, 9, conj(x)]
Reshape M into a 9-by-2 matrix.

N = reshape(M,9,2)
N =
[ sin(x), sin(conj(x))]
[
3,
conj(x)]
[
8,
4]
[
x,
3]
[
2,
2]
[
x,
9]
[
4,
8]
[
9,
conj(x)]
4-931
x,
conj(x)]
Use Reshape to Break Up Arrays

Use reshape instead of loops to break up arrays for further computation. Use reshape
to break up the vector V to find the product of every three elements.
Create vector V.
syms x
V = [exp(x) 1 3 9 x 2 7 7 1 8 x^2 3 4 sin(x) x]
V =
[ exp(x), 1, 3, 9, x, 2, 7, 7, 1, 8, x^2, 3, 4, sin(x), x]
Specify 3 for the number of rows. Use the placeholder [] for the number of columns. This
lets reshape automatically calculate the number of columns required for three rows.
M = prod( reshape(V,3,[]) )
M =
[ 3*exp(x), 18*x, 49, 24*x^2, 4*x*sin(x)]
reshape calculates that five columns are required for a matrix of three rows. prod then
multiples the elements of each column to return the result.
Input Arguments
A Input array
n1,n2 Dimensions of reshaped matrix
comma-separated scalars
Dimensions of reshaped matrix, specified as comma-separated scalars. For example,
reshape(A,3,2) returns a 3-by-2 matrix. The number of elements in the output array
specified by n1,n2 must be equal to numel(A).
n1,...,nM Dimensions of reshaped array
comma-separated scalars
4-932
reshape
Dimensions of reshaped array, specified as comma-separated scalars. For example,

reshape(A,3,2,2) returns a 3-by-2-by-2 matrix. The number of elements in the output
array specified by n1,...,nM must be equal to numel(A).
sz Size of reshaped array
numeric vector
Size of reshaped array, specified as a numeric vector. For example, reshape(A,[3 2])
returns a 3-by-2 matrix. The number of elements in the output array specified by sz must
be equal to numel(A).
See Also
colon | numel | transpose
4-933
rewrite
Rewrite expression in new terms
Syntax
rewrite(expr,target)
rewrite(A,target)
Description
rewrite(expr,target) rewrites the symbolic expression expr in terms of target. The
returned expression is mathematically equivalent to the original expression.
rewrite(A,target) rewrites each element of A in terms of target.
Input Arguments
expr
Symbolic expression.
A
Vector or matrix of symbolic expressions.
target
One of these strings: exp, log, sincos, sin, cos, tan, sqrt, or heaviside.
Examples
Rewrite these trigonometric functions in terms of the exponential function:
syms x
rewrite(sin(x), 'exp')
rewrite(cos(x), 'exp')
4-934
rewrite
rewrite(tan(x), 'exp')
ans =
(exp(-x*i)*i)/2 - (exp(x*i)*i)/2
ans =
exp(-x*i)/2 + exp(x*i)/2
ans =
-(exp(x*2*i)*i - i)/(exp(x*2*i) + 1)
Rewrite the tangent function in terms of the sine function:

syms x
rewrite(tan(x), 'sin')
ans =
-sin(x)/(2*sin(x/2)^2 - 1)
Rewrite the hyperbolic tangent function in terms of the sine function:

syms x
rewrite(tanh(x), 'sin')
ans =
(sin(x*i)*i)/(2*sin((x*i)/2)^2 - 1)
Rewrite these inverse trigonometric functions in terms of the natural logarithm:

syms x
rewrite(acos(x), 'log')
rewrite(acot(x), 'log')
ans =
-log(x + (1 - x^2)^(1/2)*i)*i
ans =
(log(1 - i/x)*i)/2 - (log(i/x + 1)*i)/2
Rewrite the rectangular pulse function in terms of the Heaviside step function:
syms a b x
rewrite(rectangularPulse(a, b, x), 'heaviside')
ans =
heaviside(x - a) - heaviside(x - b)
4-935
Rewrite the triangular pulse function in terms of the Heaviside step function:
syms a b c x
rewrite(triangularPulse(a, b, c, x), 'heaviside')
ans =
(heaviside(x - a)*(a - x))/(a - b) - (heaviside(x - b)*(a - x))/(a - b)...
- (heaviside(x - b)*(c - x))/(b - c) + (heaviside(x - c)*(c - x))/(b - c)
Call rewrite to rewrite each element of this matrix of symbolic expressions in terms of
the exponential function:
syms x
A = [sin(x) cos(x); sinh(x) cosh(x)];
rewrite(A, 'exp')
ans =
[ (exp(-x*i)*i)/2 - (exp(x*i)*i)/2, exp(-x*i)/2 + exp(x*i)/2]
[
exp(x)/2 - exp(-x)/2,
exp(-x)/2 + exp(x)/2]
Rewrite the cosine function in terms of sine function. Here rewrite replaces the cosine
function using the identity cos(2*x) = 1 2*sin(x)^2 which is valid for any x:
syms x
rewrite(cos(x),'sin')
ans =
1 - 2*sin(x/2)^2
rewrite does not replace the sine function with either - 1 - cos 2 ( x) or 1 - cos2 ( x)
because these expressions are only valid for x within particular intervals:
syms x
rewrite(sin(x),'cos')
ans =
sin(x)
More About
Tips
rewrite replaces symbolic function calls in expr with the target function only if such
replacement is mathematically valid. Otherwise, it keeps the original function calls.
4-936
rewrite
See Also
collect | combine | expand | factor | horner | numden | simplify |

simplifyFraction
4-937
round
Symbolic matrix element-wise round
Syntax
Y = round(X)
Description
Y = round(X) rounds the elements of X to the nearest integers. Values halfway
between two integers are rounded away from zero.
Examples
x = sym(-5/2);
ans =
[ -2, -3, -3, -2, -1/2]
See Also
floor | ceil | fix | frac
4-938
rref
rref
Compute reduced row echelon form of matrix
Syntax
rref(A)
Description
rref(A) computes the reduced row echelon form of the symbolic matrix A. If the
elements of a matrix contain free symbolic variables, rref regards the matrix as
nonzero.
To solve a system of linear equations, use linsolve.
Examples
Compute the reduced row echelon form of the magic square matrix:
rref(sym(magic(4)))
ans =
[ 1, 0,
[ 0, 1,
[ 0, 0,
[ 0, 0,
0, 1]
0, 3]
1, -3]
0, 0]
Compute the reduced row echelon form of the following symbolic matrix:
syms a b c
A = [a b c; b c a; a + b, b + c, c + a];
rref(A)
ans =
[ 1, 0, -(- c^2 + a*b)/(- b^2 + a*c)]
[ 0, 1, -(- a^2 + b*c)/(- b^2 + a*c)]
[ 0, 0,
0]
4-939
See Also
eig | jordan | rank | size | linsolve
4-940
rsums
rsums
Interactive evaluation of Riemann sums
Syntax
rsums(f)
rsums(f,a,b)
rsums(f,[a,b])
Description
rsums(f) interactively approximates the integral of f(x) by Middle Riemann sums for
x from 0 to 1. rsums(f) displays a graph of f(x) using 10 terms (rectangles). You can
adjust the number of terms taken in the Middle Riemann sum by using the slider below
the graph. The number of terms available ranges from 2 to 128. f can be a string or
a symbolic expression. The height of each rectangle is determined by the value of the
function in the middle of each interval.
rsums(f,a,b) and rsums(f,[a,b]) approximates the integral for x from a to b.
Examples
Visualize Riemann Sums
Use rsums('exp(-5*x^2)') or rsums exp(-5*x^2) to create the following plot.
rsums exp(-5*x^2)
4-941
4-942
sec
sec
Symbolic secant function
Syntax
sec(X)
Description
sec(X) returns the secant function of X.
Examples
Secant Function for Numeric and Symbolic Arguments
Depending on its arguments, sec returns floating-point or exact symbolic results.
Compute the secant function for these numbers. Because these numbers are not symbolic
objects, sec returns floating-point results.
A = sec([-2, -pi, pi/6, 5*pi/7, 11])
A =
-2.4030
-1.0000
1.1547
-1.6039
225.9531
Compute the secant function for the numbers converted to symbolic objects. For many
symbolic (exact) numbers, sec returns unresolved symbolic calls.
symA = sec(sym([-2, -pi, pi/6, 5*pi/7, 11]))
symA =
[ 1/cos(2), -1, (2*3^(1/2))/3, -1/cos((2*pi)/7), 1/cos(11)]

4-943
vpa(symA)
ans =
[ -2.4029979617223809897546004014201,...
-1.0,...
1.1547005383792515290182975610039,...
-1.6038754716096765049444092780298,...
225.95305931402493269037542703557]
Plot the Secant Function

Plot the secant function on the interval from
syms x
ezplot(sec(x), [-4*pi, 4*pi])
grid on
4-944
to
sec
Handle Expressions Containing the Secant Function

containing sec.
Find the first and second derivatives of the secant function:
syms x
diff(sec(x), x)
diff(sec(x), x, x)
ans =
sin(x)/cos(x)^2
4-945
ans =
1/cos(x) + (2*sin(x)^2)/cos(x)^3
Find the indefinite integral of the secant function:

int(sec(x), x)
ans =
log(1/cos(x)) + log(sin(x) + 1)
Find the Taylor series expansion of sec(x):

taylor(sec(x), x)
ans =
(5*x^4)/24 + x^2/2 + 1
Rewrite the secant function in terms of the exponential function:

rewrite(sec(x), 'exp')
ans =
1/(exp(-x*i)/2 + exp(x*i)/2)
Input Arguments
X Input
More About
Secant Function
The secant of an angle, , defined with reference to a right angled triangle is
sec(a ) =
4-946
1
hypotenuse
h
=
= .
(
)
cos a
adjacent side b
sec
The secant of a complex angle, , is
secant(a ) =
e
ia
+ e-ia
See Also
acos | acot | acsc | asec | asin | atan | cos | cot | csc | sin | tan
4-947
sech
Symbolic hyperbolic secant function
Syntax
sech(X)
Description
sech(X) returns the hyperbolic secant function of X.
Examples
Hyperbolic Secant Function for Numeric and Symbolic Arguments
Depending on its arguments, sech returns floating-point or exact symbolic results.
Compute the hyperbolic secant function for these numbers. Because these numbers are
not symbolic objects, sech returns floating-point results.
A = sech([-2, -pi*i, pi*i/6, 0, pi*i/3, 5*pi*i/7, 1])
A =
0.2658
-1.0000
1.1547
1.0000
2.0000
-1.6039
0.6481
Compute the hyperbolic secant function for the numbers converted to symbolic objects.
For many symbolic (exact) numbers, sech returns unresolved symbolic calls.
symA = sech(sym([-2, -pi*i, pi*i/6, 0, pi*i/3, 5*pi*i/7, 1]))
symA =
[ 1/cosh(2), -1, (2*3^(1/2))/3, 1, 2, -1/cosh((pi*2*i)/7), 1/cosh(1)]

4-948
sech
vpa(symA)
ans =
[ 0.26580222883407969212086273981989,...
-1.0,...
1.1547005383792515290182975610039,...
1.0,...
2.0,...
-1.6038754716096765049444092780298,...
0.64805427366388539957497735322615]
Plot the Hyperbolic Secant Function

Plot the hyperbolic secant function on the interval from -10 to 10.
syms x
ezplot(sech(x), [-10, 10])
grid on
4-949
Handle Expressions Containing the Hyperbolic Secant Function

containing sech.
Find the first and second derivatives of the hyperbolic secant function:
syms x
diff(sech(x), x)
diff(sech(x), x, x)
ans =
-sinh(x)/cosh(x)^2
4-950
sech
ans =
(2*sinh(x)^2)/cosh(x)^3 - 1/cosh(x)
Find the indefinite integral of the hyperbolic secant function:

int(sech(x), x)
ans =
2*atan(exp(x))
Find the Taylor series expansion of sech(x):

taylor(sech(x), x)
ans =
(5*x^4)/24 - x^2/2 + 1
Rewrite the hyperbolic secant function in terms of the exponential function:

rewrite(sech(x), 'exp')
ans =
1/(exp(-x)/2 + exp(x)/2)
Input Arguments
X Input
See Also
acosh | acoth | acsch | asech | asinh | atanh | cosh | coth | csch | sinh |
tanh
4-951
setVar
Assign variable in MuPAD notebook
Compatibility
setvar(nb,MATLABvar) will be removed in a future release. Use the three argument
version setvar(nb,'MuPADvar',MATLABexpr) instead.
Syntax
setVar(nb,MATLABvar)
setVar(nb,'MuPADvar',MATLABexpr)
Description
setVar(nb,MATLABvar) copies the symbolic variable MATLABvar and its value in the
MATLAB workspace to the variable MATLABvar in the MuPAD notebook nb.
setVar(nb,'MuPADvar',MATLABexpr) assigns the symbolic expression MATLABexpr
in the MATLAB workspace to the variable MuPADvar in the MuPAD notebook nb.
Examples
Copy a Variable and Its Value from MATLAB to MuPAD
Copy a variable y with a value exp(-x) assigned to it from the MATLAB workspace to a
MuPAD notebook. Do all three steps in the MATLAB Command Window.
Create the symbolic variable x and assign the expression exp(-x) to y:
syms x
y = exp(-x);
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setVar
mpnb = mupad;
Copy the variable y and its value exp(-x) to the MuPAD notebook mpnb:
setVar(mpnb,'y',y)
After executing this statement, the MuPAD engine associated with the mpnb notebook
contains the variable y, with its value exp(-x).
Assign a MATLAB Symbolic Expression to a Variable in MuPAD
Working in the MATLAB Command Window, assign an expression t^2 + 1 to a variable
g in a MuPAD notebook. Do all three steps in the MATLAB Command Window.
Create the symbolic variable t:
syms t
mpnb = mupad;
Assign the value t^2 + 1 to the variable g in the MuPAD notebook mpnb:
setVar(mpnb,'g',t^2 + 1)
After executing this statement, the MuPAD engine associated with the mpnb notebook
contains the variable g, with its value t^2 + 1.
Input Arguments
Pointer to a MuPAD notebook, specified as a MuPAD notebook handle or a vector of
openmn function.
MuPADvar Variable in MuPAD notebook
variable
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Variable in a MuPAD notebook, specified as a variable.

MATLABvar Variable in MATLAB workspace
symbolic variable
Variable in the MATLAB workspace, specified as a symbolic variable.
MATLABexpr Expression in MATLAB workspace
symbolic expression
Expression in the MATLAB workspace, specified as a symbolic expression.
See Also
getVar | mupad | openmu
4-954
sign
sign
Sign of real or complex value
Syntax
sign(z)
Description
sign(z) returns the sign of real or complex value z. The sign of a complex number z
is defined as z/abs(z). If z is a vector or a matrix, sign(z) returns the sign of each
element of z.
Examples
Signs of Real Numbers
Find the signs of these symbolic real numbers:
[sign(sym(1/2)), sign(sym(0)), sign(sym(pi) - 4)]
ans =
[ 1, 0, -1]
Signs of Matrix Elements

Find the signs of the real and complex elements of matrix A:
A = sym([(1/2 + i), -25; i*(i + 1), pi/6 - i*pi/2]);
sign(A)
ans =
[ 5^(1/2)*(1/5 + (2*i)/5),
-1]
[
2^(1/2)*(- 1/2 + i/2), 5^(1/2)*18^(1/2)*(1/30 - i/10)]
4-955
Sign of Symbolic Expression

Find the sign of this expression assuming that the value x is negative:
syms x
assume(x < 0)
sign(5*x^3)
ans =
-1

syms x clear
Input Arguments
z Input
More About
Sign Function
The sign function of any number z is defined via the absolute value of z:
sign ( z ) =
z
z
Thus, the sign function of a real number z can be defined as follows:
-1 if x < 0
sign ( z ) = 0 if x = 0
1 if x > 0
4-956
sign
Tips
Calling sign for a number that is not a symbolic object invokes the MATLAB sign
function.
See Also
abs | angle | imag | real | signIm
4-957
signIm
Sign of the imaginary part of complex number
Syntax
signIm(z)
Description
signIm(z) returns the sign of the imaginary part of a complex number z. For all
complex numbers with a nonzero imaginary part, singIm(z) = sign(imag(z)). For
real numbers, signIm(z) = -sign(z).
1 if Im ( z ) > 0 or Im ( z ) = 0 and z < 0
signIm ( z) = 0
if z = 0
-1
otherwise
Examples
Symbolic Results Including signIm
Results of symbolic computations, especially symbolic integration, can include the
signIm function.
Integrate this expression. For complex values a and x, this integral includes signIm.
syms a x
f = 1/(a^2 + x^2);
F = int(f, x, -Inf, Inf)
F =
4-958
signIm
(pi*signIm(i/a))/a
Signs of Imaginary Parts of Numbers

Find the signs of imaginary parts of complex numbers with nonzero imaginary parts and
of real numbers.
Use signIm to find the signs of imaginary parts of these numbers. For complex numbers
with nonzero imaginary parts, signIm returns the sign of the imaginary part of the
number.
[signIm(-18 + 3*i), signIm(-18 - 3*i),...
signIm(10 + 3*i), signIm(10 - 3*i),...
signIm(Inf*i), signIm(-Inf*i)]
ans =
1
-1
-1
-1
For real positive numbers, signIm returns -1.

[signIm(2/3), signIm(1), signIm(100), signIm(Inf)]
ans =
-1
-1
-1
-1
For real negative numbers, signIm returns 1.

[signIm(-2/3), signIm(-1), signIm(-100), signIm(-Inf)]
ans =
1
signIm(0) is 0.
[signIm(0), signIm(0 + 0*i), signIm(0 - 0*i)]
ans =
0
Signs of Imaginary Parts of Symbolic Expressions

Find the signs of imaginary parts of symbolic expressions that represent complex
numbers.
4-959
Call signIm for these symbolic expressions without additional assumptions. Because
signIm cannot determine if the imaginary part of a symbolic expression is positive,
negative, or zero, it returns unresolved symbolic calls.
syms x y z
[signIm(z), signIm(x + y*i), signIm(x - 3*i)]
ans =
[ signIm(z), signIm(x + y*i), signIm(x - 3*i)]
Assume that x, y, and z are positive values. Find the signs of imaginary parts of the
same symbolic expressions.
syms x y z positive
[signIm(z), signIm(x + y*i), signIm(x - 3*i)]
ans =
[ -1, 1, -1]
For further computations, clear the assumptions.

syms x y z clear
Find the first derivative of the signIm function. signIm is a constant function, except
for the jump discontinuities along the real axis. The diff function ignores these
discontinuities.
syms z
diff(signIm(z), z)
ans =
0
Signs of Imaginary Parts of Matrix Elements

singIm accepts vectors and matrices as its input argument. This lets you find the signs
of imaginary parts of several numbers in one function call.
Find the signs of imaginary parts of the real and complex elements of matrix A.
A = sym([(1/2 + i), -25; i*(i + 1), pi/6 - i*pi/2]);
signIm(A)
ans =
4-960
signIm
[ 1, 1]
[ 1, -1]
Input Arguments
z Input representing complex number
number | symbolic number | symbolic variable | symbolic expression | vector | matrix
Input representing complex number, specified as a number, symbolic number, symbolic
variable, expression, vector, or matrix.
More About
Tips
signIm(NaN) returns NaN.
See Also
conj | imag | real | sign
4-961
simple
Search for simplest form of symbolic expression
Note: simple will be removed in a future release. Use simplify(S) instead of

simple(S). There is no replacement for [r, how] = simple(S).
Syntax
simple(S)
simple(S,Name,Value)
r = simple(S)
r = simple(S,Name,Value)
[r,how] = simple(S)
[r,how] = simple(S,Name,Value)
Description
simple(S) applies different algebraic simplification functions and displays all resulting
forms of S, and then returns the shortest form.
simple(S,Name,Value) uses additional options specified by one or more Name,Value
pair arguments.
r = simple(S) tries different algebraic simplification functions without displaying the
results, and then returns the shortest form of S.
r = simple(S,Name,Value) uses additional options specified by one or more
[r,how] = simple(S) tries different algebraic simplification functions without
displaying the results, and then returns the shortest form of S and a string describing the
corresponding simplification method.
4-962
simple
[r,how] = simple(S,Name,Value) uses additional options specified by one or more

Input Arguments
S
Symbolic expression or symbolic matrix.
Default: false

If the value is true, apply purely algebraic simplifications to an expression.
With IgnoreAnalyticConstraints, simple can return simpler results for
expressions for which it would return more complicated results otherwise. Using
IgnoreAnalyticConstraints also can lead to results that are not equivalent to the
initial expression.
Default: false
Output Arguments
r
A symbolic object representing the shortest form of S
how
A string describing the simplification method that gives the shortest form of S
4-963
More About
Tips
Simplification of mathematical expression is not a clearly defined subject. There
is no universal idea as to which form of an expression is simplest. The form of a
mathematical expression that is simplest for one problem might turn out to be
complicated or even unsuitable for another problem.
If S is a matrix, the result represents the shortest representation of the entire matrix,
which is not necessarily the shortest representation of each individual element.
Algorithms
When you use IgnoreAnalyticConstraints, simple applies these rules:
(ab)c=acbc.
(ab)c=abc.
log(ex)=x
See Also
collect | expand | factor | horner | numden | rewrite | simplify
4-964
simplify
simplify
Algebraic simplification
Syntax
simplify(S)
simplify(S,Name,Value)
Description
simplify(S) performs algebraic simplification of S. If S is a symbolic vector or matrix,
this function simplifies each element of S.
simplify(S,Name,Value) performs algebraic simplification of S using additional
options specified by one or more Name,Value pair arguments.
Examples
Simplify Expressions
Simplify these symbolic expressions:
syms x a b c
simplify(sin(x)^2 + cos(x)^2)
simplify(exp(c*log(sqrt(a+b))))
ans =
1
ans =
(a + b)^(c/2)
Simplify Elements of a Symbolic Matrix

Call simplify for this symbolic matrix. When the input argument is a vector or matrix,
simplify tries to find a simpler form of each element of the vector or matrix.
4-965
syms x
simplify([(x^2 + 5*x + 6)/(x + 2),...
sin(x)*sin(2*x) + cos(x)*cos(2*x);
(exp(-x*i)*i)/2 - (exp(x*i)*i)/2, sqrt(16)])
ans =
[ x + 3, cos(x)]
[ sin(x),
4]
Get Simpler Results Using IgnoreAnalyticConstraints

Try to simplify this expression. By default, simplify does not combine powers and
logarithms because combining them is not valid for generic complex values.
syms x
s = (log(x^2 + 2*x + 1) - log(x + 1))*sqrt(x^2);
simplify(s)
ans =
-(log(x + 1) - log((x + 1)^2))*(x^2)^(1/2)
To apply the simplification rules that let the simplify function combine powers and
logarithms, set IgnoreAnalyticConstraints to true:
simplify(s, 'IgnoreAnalyticConstraints', true)
ans =
x*log(x + 1)
Get Simpler Results Using Steps

Simplify this expression:
syms x
f = ((exp(-x*i)*i)/2 - (exp(x*i)*i)/2)/(exp(-x*i)/2 + ...
exp(x*i)/2);
simplify(f)
ans =
-(exp(x*2*i)*i - i)/(exp(x*2*i) + 1)
By default, simplify uses one internal simplification step. You can get different, often
shorter, simplification results by increasing the number of simplification steps:
simplify(f, 'Steps', 10)
4-966
simplify

ans =
(2*i)/(exp(x*2*i) + 1) - i
ans =
((cos(x) - sin(x)*i)*i)/cos(x) - i
ans =
tan(x)
Simplify Favoring Real Numbers

To force simplify favor real values over complex values, set the value of Criterion to
preferReal:
syms x
f = (exp(x + exp(-x*i)/2 - exp(x*i)/2)*i)/2 -...
(exp(- x - exp(-x*i)/2 + exp(x*i)/2)*i)/2;
simplify(f, 'Criterion','preferReal', 'Steps', 100)
ans =
cos(sin(x))*sinh(x)*i + sin(sin(x))*cosh(x)
If x is a real value, then this form of expression explicitly shows the real and imaginary
parts.
Although the result returned by simplify with the default setting for Criterion is
shorter, here the complex value is a parameter of the sine function:
ans =
sin(x*i + sin(x))
When you set Criterion to preferReal, the simplifier disfavors expression forms
where complex values appear inside subexpressions. In case of nested subexpressions,
the deeper the complex value appears inside an expression, the least preference this form
of an expression gets.
Simplify Expressions with Complex Arguments in Exponents

Setting Criterion to preferReal helps you avoid complex arguments in exponents.
Simplify these symbolic expressions:
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simplify(sym(i)î, 'Steps', 100)

simplify(sym(i)^(i+1), 'Steps', 100)
ans =
exp(-pi/2)
ans =
(-1)^(1/2 + i/2)
Now, simplify the second expression with the Criterion set to preferReal:
simplify(sym(i)^(i+1), 'Criterion', 'preferReal', 'Steps', 100)
ans =
exp(-pi/2)*i
Input Arguments
S Input expression
Input expression, specified as a symbolic expression, function, vector, or matrix.

Example: 'Seconds',60 limits the simplification process to 60 seconds.
'Criterion' Simplification criterion
'default' (default) | 'preferReal'
Simplification criterion, specified as the comma-separated pair consisting of
'Criterion' and one of these strings.
4-968
'default'
Use the default (internal) simplification criteria.
'preferReal'
Favor the forms of S containing real values over the forms

containing complex values. If any form of S contains complex
simplify
values, the simplifier disfavors the forms where complex values

appear inside subexpressions. In case of nested subexpressions,
the deeper the complex value appears inside an expression, the
least preference this form of an expression gets.
'IgnoreAnalyticConstraints' Simplification rules
Simplification rules, specified as the comma-separated pair consisting of
'IgnoreAnalyticConstraints' and one of these values.
false
Use strict simplification rules. simplify always returns results

equivalent to the initial expression.
true
Apply purely algebraic simplifications to an expression.

simplify can return simpler results for expressions for which
it would return more complicated results otherwise. Setting
IgnoreAnalyticConstraints to true can lead to results that
are not equivalent to the initial expression.
'Seconds' Time limit for the simplification process

Inf (default) | positive number
Time limit for the simplification process, specified as the comma-separated pair
consisting of 'Seconds' and a positive value that denotes the maximal time in seconds.
'Steps' Number of simplification steps
1 (default) | positive number
Number of simplification steps, specified as the comma-separated pair consisting
of 'Steps' and a positive value that denotes the maximal number of internal
simplification steps. Note that increasing the number of simplification steps can slow
down your computations.
simplify(S,'Steps',n) is equivalent to simplify(S,n), where n is the number of
simplification steps.
Alternative Functionality
Besides the general simplification function (simplify), the toolbox provides a set of
functions for transforming mathematical expressions to particular forms. For example,
4-969
you can use particular functions to expand or factor expressions, collect terms with
the same powers, find a nested (Horner) representation of an expression, or quickly
simplify fractions. If the problem that you want to solve requires a particular form of an
expression, the best approach is to choose the appropriate simplification function. These
simplification functions are often faster than simplify.
More About
Tips
Simplification of mathematical expression is not a clearly defined subject. There
is no universal idea as to which form of an expression is simplest. The form of a
mathematical expression that is simplest for one problem might be complicated or
even unsuitable for another problem.
Algorithms
When you use IgnoreAnalyticConstraints, simplify follows these rules:
(ab)c=acbc.
(ab)c=abc.
numbers, f(g(x))=x is assumed to be valid for all complex values of x. In particular:
log(ex)=x
See Also
collect | combine | expand | factor | horner | numden | rewrite |

simplifyFraction
4-970
simplify
Related Examples
4-971
simplifyFraction
Symbolic simplification of fractions
Syntax
simplifyFraction(expr)
simplifyFraction(expr,Name,Value)
Description
simplifyFraction(expr) represents the expression expr as a fraction where both the
numerator and denominator are polynomials whose greatest common divisor is 1.
simplifyFraction(expr,Name,Value) uses additional options specified by one or
more Name,Value pair arguments.
Input Arguments
expr
Symbolic expression or matrix (or vector) of symbolic expressions.

'Expand'
Expand the numerator and denominator of the resulting fraction
Default: false
4-972
simplifyFraction
Examples
Simplify these fractions:
syms x y
simplifyFraction((x^2 - 1)/(x + 1))
simplifyFraction(((y + 1)^3*x)/((x^3 - x*(x + 1)*(x - 1))*y))
ans =
x - 1
ans =
(y + 1)^3/y
Use Expand to expand the numerator and denominator in the resulting fraction:
syms x y
simplifyFraction(((y + 1)^3*x)/((x^3 - x*(x + 1)*(x - 1))*y),...
'Expand', true)
ans =
(y^3 + 3*y^2 + 3*y + 1)/y
Use simplifyFraction to simplify rational subexpressions of irrational expressions:

syms x
simplifyFraction(((x^2 + 2*x + 1)/(x + 1))^(1/2))
ans =
(x + 1)^(1/2)
Also, use simplifyFraction to simplify rational expressions containing irrational

subexpressions:
simplifyFraction((1 - sin(x)^2)/(1 - sin(x)))
ans =
sin(x) + 1
When you call simplifyFraction for an expression that contains irrational

subexpressions, the function ignores algebraic dependencies of irrational subexpressions:
simplifyFraction((1 - cos(x)^2)/sin(x))
ans =
4-973
-(cos(x)^2 - 1)/sin(x)
Alternatives
You also can simplify fractions using the general simplification function simplify. Note
that in terms of performance, simplifyFraction is significantly more efficient for
simplifying fractions than simplify.
More About
Tips
expr can contain irrational subexpressions, such as sin(x), x^(-1/3), and so on.
As a first step, simplifyFraction replaces these subexpressions with auxiliary
variables. Before returning results, simplifyFraction replaces these variables with
the original subexpressions.
simplifyFraction ignores algebraic dependencies of irrational subexpressions.
Simplifications
See Also
collect | combine | expand | factor | horner | numden | rewrite | simplify
4-974
simscapeEquation
simscapeEquation
Convert symbolic expressions to Simscape language equations
Syntax
simscapeEquation(f)
simscapeEquation(LHS,RHS)
Description
simscapeEquation(f) converts the symbolic expression f to a Simscape language
equation. This function call converts any derivative with respect to the variable t to
the Simscape notation X.der. Here X is the time-dependent variable. In the resulting
Simscape equation, the variable time replaces all instances of the variable t except for
derivatives with respect to t.
simscapeEquation converts expressions with the second and higher-order derivatives
to a system of first-order equations, introducing new variables, such as x1, x2, and so on.
simscapeEquation(LHS,RHS) returns a Simscape equation LHS == RHS.
Examples
Convert the following expressions to Simscape language equations.
syms t x(t) y(t)
phi = diff(x)+5*y + sin(t);
simscapeEquation(phi)
simscapeEquation(diff(y),phi)
ans =
phi == x.der+sin(time)+y*5.0;
ans =
y.der == x.der+sin(time)+y*5.0;
Convert this expression containing the second derivative.

4-975
syms x(t)
eqn1 = diff(x,2) - diff(x) + sin(t);
simscapeEquation(eqn1)
ans =
x.der == x1;
eqn1 == -x1+x1.der+sin(time);
Convert this expression containing the fourth and second derivatives.

eqn2 = diff(x,4) + diff(x,2) - diff(x) + sin(t);
simscapeEquation(eqn2)
ans =
x.der == x1;
x1.der == x2;
x2.der == x3;
eqn2 == -x1+x2+sin(time)+x3.der;
More About
Tips
The equation section of a Simscape component file supports a limited number of
functions. For details and the list of supported functions, see Simscape equations. If a
symbolic equation contains the functions that are not available in the equation section of
a Simscape component file, simscapeEquation cannot correctly convert these equations
to Simscape equations. Such expressions do not trigger an error message. The following
types of expressions are prone to invalid conversion:
Expressions with infinities
Expressions returned by evalin and feval.
If you perform symbolic computations in the MuPAD Notebook app and want to convert
the results to Simscape equations, use the generate::Simscape function in MuPAD.
Generate Simscape Equations on page 2-227
See Also
matlabFunctionBlock | matlabFunction | ccode | fortran
4-976
sin
sin
Symbolic sine function
Syntax
sin(X)
Description
sin(X) returns the sine function of X.
Examples
Sine Function for Numeric and Symbolic Arguments
Depending on its arguments, sin returns floating-point or exact symbolic results.
Compute the sine function for these numbers. Because these numbers are not symbolic
objects, sin returns floating-point results.
A = sin([-2, -pi, pi/6, 5*pi/7, 11])
A =
-0.9093
-0.0000
0.5000
0.7818
-1.0000
Compute the sine function for the numbers converted to symbolic objects. For many
symbolic (exact) numbers, sin returns unresolved symbolic calls.
symA = sin(sym([-2, -pi, pi/6, 5*pi/7, 11]))
symA =
[ -sin(2), 0, 1/2, sin((2*pi)/7), sin(11)]

4-977
vpa(symA)
ans =
[ -0.90929742682568169539601986591174,...
0,...
0.5,...
0.78183148246802980870844452667406,...
-0.99999020655070345705156489902552]
Plot the Sine Function

Plot the sine function on the interval from
syms x
ezplot(sin(x), [-4*pi, 4*pi])
grid on
4-978
to
sin
Handle Expressions Containing the Sine Function

containing sin.
Find the first and second derivatives of the sine function:
syms x
diff(sin(x), x)
diff(sin(x), x, x)
ans =
cos(x)
4-979
ans =
-sin(x)
Find the indefinite integral of the sine function:

int(sin(x), x)
ans =
-cos(x)
Find the Taylor series expansion of sin(x):

taylor(sin(x), x)
ans =
x^5/120 - x^3/6 + x
Rewrite the sine function in terms of the exponential function:

rewrite(sin(x), 'exp')
ans =
(exp(-x*i)*i)/2 - (exp(x*i)*i)/2
Input Arguments
X Input
More About
Sine Function
The sine of an angle, , defined with reference to a right angled triangle is
sin ( a ) =
4-980
opposite side a
= .
hypotenuse
h
sin
The sine of a complex angle, , is

sine (a ) =
eia - e- ia
.
2i
See Also
acos | acot | acsc | asec | asin | atan | cos | cot | csc | sec | tan
4-981
single
Convert symbolic matrix to single precision
Syntax
single(S)
Description
single(S) converts the symbolic matrix S to a matrix of single-precision floating-point
numbers. S must not contain any symbolic variables, except 'eps'.
See Also
sym | vpa | double
4-982
sinh
sinh
Symbolic hyperbolic sine function
Syntax
sinh(X)
Description
sinh(X) returns the hyperbolic sine function of X.
Examples
Hyperbolic Sine Function for Numeric and Symbolic Arguments
Depending on its arguments, sinh returns floating-point or exact symbolic results.
Compute the hyperbolic sine function for these numbers. Because these numbers are not
symbolic objects, sinh returns floating-point results.
A = sinh([-2, -pi*i, pi*i/6, 5*pi*i/7, 3*pi*i/2])
A =
-3.6269 + 0.0000i
0.0000 + 0.7818i
0.0000 - 0.0000i
0.0000 - 1.0000i
0.0000 + 0.5000i...
Compute the hyperbolic sine function for the numbers converted to symbolic objects. For
many symbolic (exact) numbers, sinh returns unresolved symbolic calls.
symA = sinh(sym([-2, -pi*i, pi*i/6, 5*pi*i/7, 3*pi*i/2]))
symA =
[ -sinh(2), 0, i/2, sinh((pi*2*i)/7), -i]

4-983
vpa(symA)
ans =
[ -3.6268604078470187676682139828013,...
0,...
0.5*i,...
0.78183148246802980870844452667406*i,...
-1.0*i]
Plot the Hyperbolic Sine Function

Plot the hyperbolic sine function on the interval from
syms x
ezplot(sinh(x), [-pi, pi])
grid on
4-984
to .
sinh
Handle Expressions Containing the Hyperbolic Sine Function

containing sinh.
Find the first and second derivatives of the hyperbolic sine function:
syms x
diff(sinh(x), x)
diff(sinh(x), x, x)
ans =
cosh(x)
4-985
ans =
sinh(x)
Find the indefinite integral of the hyperbolic sine function:

int(sinh(x), x)
ans =
cosh(x)
Find the Taylor series expansion of sinh(x):

taylor(sinh(x), x)
ans =
x^5/120 + x^3/6 + x
Rewrite the hyperbolic sine function in terms of the exponential function:

rewrite(sinh(x), 'exp')
ans =
exp(x)/2 - exp(-x)/2
Input Arguments
X Input
See Also
acosh | acoth | acsch | asech | asinh | atanh | cosh | coth | csch | sech |
tanh
4-986
sinhint
sinhint
Hyperbolic sine integral function
Syntax
sinhint(X)
Description
sinhint(X) returns the hyperbolic sine integral function of X.
Examples
Hyperbolic Sine Integral Function for Numeric and Symbolic Arguments
Depending on its arguments, sinhint returns floating-point or exact symbolic results.
Compute the hyperbolic sine integral function for these numbers. Because these numbers
are not symbolic objects, sinhint returns floating-point results.
A = sinhint([-pi, -1, 0, pi/2, 2*pi])
A =
-5.4696
-1.0573
1.8027
53.7368
Compute the hyperbolic sine integral function for the numbers converted to symbolic
objects. For many symbolic (exact) numbers, sinhint returns unresolved symbolic calls.
symA = sinhint(sym([-pi, -1, 0, pi/2, 2*pi]))
symA =
[ -sinhint(pi), -sinhint(1), 0, sinhint(pi/2), sinhint(2*pi)]

4-987
vpa(symA)
ans =
[ -5.4696403451153421506369580091277,...
-1.0572508753757285145718423548959,...
0,...
1.802743198288293882089794577617,...
53.736750620859153990408011863262]
Plot the Hyperbolic Sine Integral Function

Plot the hyperbolic sine integral function on the interval from -2*pi to 2*pi .
syms x
ezplot(sinhint(x), [-2*pi, 2*pi])
grid on
4-988
sinhint
Handle Expressions Containing the Hyperbolic Sine Integral Function

Many functions, such as diff, int, and taylor, can handle expressions containing
sinhint.
Find the first and second derivatives of the hyperbolic sine integral function:
syms x
diff(sinhint(x), x)
diff(sinhint(x), x, x)
ans =
sinh(x)/x
4-989
ans =
cosh(x)/x - sinh(x)/x^2
Find the indefinite integral of the hyperbolic sine integral function:

int(sinhint(x), x)
ans =
x*sinhint(x) - cosh(x)
Find the Taylor series expansion of sinhint(x):

taylor(sinhint(x), x)
ans =
x^5/600 + x^3/18 + x
Input Arguments
X Input
More About
Hyperbolic Sine Integral Function
The hyperbolic sine integral function is defined as follows:
x
Shi ( x ) =
sinh ( t )
dt
t
References
[1] Gautschi, W. and W. F. Cahill. Exponential Integral and Related Functions.
4-990
sinhint
See Also
coshint | cosint | eulergamma | int | sin | sinint | ssinint
4-991
sinint
Sine integral function
Syntax
sinint(X)
Description
sinint(X) returns the sine integral function of X.
Examples
Sine Integral Function for Numeric and Symbolic Arguments
Depending on its arguments, sinint returns floating-point or exact symbolic results.
Compute the sine integral function for these numbers. Because these numbers are not
symbolic objects, sinint returns floating-point results.
A = sinint([- pi, 0, pi/2, pi, 1])
A =
-1.8519
1.3708
1.8519
0.9461
Compute the sine integral function for the numbers converted to symbolic objects. For
many symbolic (exact) numbers, sinint returns unresolved symbolic calls.
symA = sinint(sym([- pi, 0, pi/2, pi, 1]))
symA =
[ -sinint(pi), 0, sinint(pi/2), sinint(pi), sinint(1)]

4-992
sinint
vpa(symA)
ans =
[ -1.851937051982466170361053370158,...
0,...
1.3707621681544884800696782883816,...
1.851937051982466170361053370158,...
0.94608307036718301494135331382318]
Plot the Sine Integral Function

Plot the sine integral function on the interval from -4*pi to 4*pi .
syms x
ezplot(sinint(x), [-4*pi, 4*pi])
grid on
4-993
Handle Expressions Containing the Sine Integral Function

sinint.
Find the first and second derivatives of the sine integral function:
syms x
diff(sinint(x), x)
diff(sinint(x), x, x)
ans =
sin(x)/x
4-994
sinint
ans =
cos(x)/x - sin(x)/x^2
Find the indefinite integral of the sine integral function:

int(sinint(x), x)
ans =
cos(x) + x*sinint(x)
Find the Taylor series expansion of sinint(x):

taylor(sinint(x), x)
ans =
x^5/600 - x^3/18 + x
Input Arguments
X Input
More About
Sine Integral Function
The sine integral function is defined as follows:
x
Si ( x ) =
sin ( t )
dt
t
References
4-995
See Also
coshint | cosint | eulergamma | int | sin | sinhint | ssinint
4-996
size
size
Symbolic matrix dimensions
Syntax
d = size(A)
[m, n] = size(A)
d = size(A, n)
Description
Suppose A is an m-by-n symbolic or numeric matrix. The statement d = size(A) returns
a numeric vector with two integer components, d = [m,n].
The multiple assignment statement [m, n] = size(A) returns the two integers in two
separate variables.
The statement d = size(A, n) returns the length of the dimension specified by the
scalar n. For example, size(A,1) is the number of rows of A and size(A,2) is the
number of columns of A.
Examples
The statements
syms a b c d
A = [a b c ; a b d; d c b; c b a];
d = size(A)
r = size(A, 2)
return
d =
4
r =
4-997
See Also
length | ndims
4-998
solve
solve
Equations and systems solver
Compatibility
solve does not accept string inputs containing multiple input arguments. In future
releases, string inputs will be deprecated. In place of string inputs, first declare the
variables using syms and pass them as a comma-separated list or vector.
Syntax
S = solve(eqn,var)
S = solve(eqn,var,Name,Value)
Y = solve(eqns,vars)
Y = solve(eqns,vars,Name,Value)
[y1,...,yN] = solve(eqns,vars)
[y1,...,yN] = solve(eqns,vars,Name,Value)
[y1,...,yN,parameters,conditions] = solve(eqns,vars,'
ReturnConditions',true)
Description
S = solve(eqn,var) solves the equation eqn for the variable var. If you do not specify
var, the variable to solve for is determined by symvar. For example, solve(x + 1 ==
2, x) solves the equation x+1=2 for x.
S = solve(eqn,var,Name,Value) uses additional options specified by one or more
Y = solve(eqns,vars) solves the system of equations eqns for the variables vars and
returns a structure that contains the solutions. If you do not specify vars, solve uses
symvar to find the variables to solve for. In this case, the number of variables symvar
finds is equal to the number of equations eqns.
4-999
Y = solve(eqns,vars,Name,Value) uses additional options specified by one or more

[y1,...,yN] = solve(eqns,vars) solves the system of equations eqns for the
variables vars. The solutions are assigned to the variables y1,...,yN. If you do not specify
the variables, solve uses symvar to find the variables to solve for. In this case, the
number of variables symvar finds is equal to the number of output arguments N.
[y1,...,yN] = solve(eqns,vars,Name,Value) uses additional options specified by
one or more Name,Value pair arguments.
[y1,...,yN,parameters,conditions] = solve(eqns,vars,'
ReturnConditions',true) returns the additional arguments parameters and
conditions that specify the parameters in the solution and the conditions on the solution.
Examples
Solve Univariate Equations
Use the == operator to specify the equation sin(x) == 1 and solve it.
syms x
eqn = sin(x) == 1;
solve(eqn, x)
ans =
pi/2
Find the complete solution of the same equation by specifying the ReturnConditions
option as true. Specify output variables for the solution, the parameters in the solution,
and the conditions on the solution.
[solx, params, conds] = solve(eqn, x, 'ReturnConditions', true)
solx =
pi/2 + 2*pi*k
params =
k
conds =
in(k, 'integer')
The solution pi/2 + 2*pi*k contains the parameter k which is valid under the
condition in(k, 'integer'). This means the parameter k must be an integer.
4-1000
solve
If solve returns an empty object, then no solutions exist. If solve returns an empty
object with a warning, this means solutions might exist but solve did not find any
solutions.
solve(3*x+2, 3*x+1, x)
ans =
Empty sym: 0-by-1
Solve Multivariate Equations

To avoid ambiguities when solving equations with symbolic parameters, specify the
variable for which you want to solve an equation. If you do not specify the variable for
which you want to solve the equation, solve chooses a variable using symvar. Here,
solve chooses the variable x.
syms a b c x
sola = solve(a*x^2 + b*x + c == 0, a)
sol = solve(a*x^2 + b*x + c == 0)
sola =
-(c + b*x)/x^2
sol =
-(b + (b^2 - 4*a*c)^(1/2))/(2*a)
-(b - (b^2 - 4*a*c)^(1/2))/(2*a)
When solving for more than one variable, the order in which you specify the variables
defines the order in which the solver returns the solutions. Solve this system of equations
and assign the solutions to variables b and a by specifying the variables explicitly.
syms a b
[b, a] = solve(a + b == 1, 2*a - b == 4, b, a)
b =
-2/3
a =
5/3
Work with Parameters and Conditions Returned by solve

To return the complete solution of an equation with parameters and conditions of the
solution, specify ReturnConditions as true.
4-1001
Solve the equation sin(x) = 0. The solve function returns a structure with three fields.
The S.x field contains the solution, S.parameters contains the parameters in the
solution, and S.conditions contains the conditions on the solution.
syms x
S = solve(sin(x) == 0, x, 'ReturnConditions', true);
S.x
S.parameters
S.conditions
ans =
pi*k
ans =
k
ans =
in(k, 'integer')
The solution pi*k contains the parameter k and is valid under the condition in(k,
'integer'). This means the parameter k must be an integer.
To find a numeric solution for x, substitute for k with a value using subs. Check if the
value satisfies the condition on k using isAlways.
Check if k = 4 satisfies in(k, 'integer').
isAlways(subs(S.conditions, S.parameters, 4))
ans =
1
isAlways returns logical 1 (true) meaning 4 is a valid value for k. Substitute 4 for k to
obtain a solution for x. Use vpa to obtain a numeric approximation.
solx = subs(S.x, S.parameters, 4)
vpa(solx)
solx =
4*pi
ans =
12.566370614359172953850573533118
To find a valid value of k for 0<x<2*pi, assume the condition S.conditions and use
solve to solve these conditions for k. Substitute the value of k into the solution for x.
assume(S.conditions)
4-1002
solve
solk = solve(S.x>0, S.x<2*pi, S.parameters)

solx = subs(S.x, S.parameters, solk)
solk =
1
solx =
pi
A valid value of k for 0<x<2*pi is 1. This produces the solution x = pi.
Solve a System of Equations Assigning Solutions to Variables

When solving a system of equations, use multiple output arguments to assign the
solutions directly to output variables. The solver returns a symbolic array of solutions for
each independent variable.
syms a u v
[sola, solu, solv] = solve(a*u^2 + v^2 == 0, u - v == 1, a^2 + 6 == 5*a, a, u, v)
sola =
2
2
3
3
solu =
1/3 - (2^(1/2)*i)/3
(2^(1/2)*i)/3 + 1/3
1/4 - (3^(1/2)*i)/4
(3^(1/2)*i)/4 + 1/4
solv =
- (2^(1/2)*i)/3 - 2/3
(2^(1/2)*i)/3 - 2/3
- (3^(1/2)*i)/4 - 3/4
(3^(1/2)*i)/4 - 3/4
Entries with the same index form the solutions of a system.

solutions = [sola, solu, solv]
solutions =
[ 2, 1/3 - (2^(1/2)*i)/3, - (2^(1/2)*i)/3 - 2/3]
[ 2, (2^(1/2)*i)/3 + 1/3,
(2^(1/2)*i)/3 - 2/3]
[ 3, 1/4 - (3^(1/2)*i)/4, - (3^(1/2)*i)/4 - 3/4]
[ 3, (3^(1/2)*i)/4 + 1/4,
(3^(1/2)*i)/4 - 3/4]
4-1003
A solution of the system is a = 2, u = 1/3 - (2^(1/2)*i)/3, and v = (2^(1/2)*i)/3 - 2/3.
Return Complete Solution of System of Equations with Parameters and

Conditions
To return the complete solution of a system of equations with parameters and conditions
of the solution, specify ReturnConditions as true. Provide two additional output
variables for output arguments parameters and conditions.
syms x y
[solx, soly, params, conditions] = solve(sin(x) == cos(2*y), x^2 == y,...
[x, y], 'ReturnConditions', true)
solx =
1/4 - (16*pi*k - 4*pi + 1)^(1/2)/4
(16*pi*k - 4*pi + 1)^(1/2)/4 + 1/4
(4*pi + 16*pi*k + 1)^(1/2)/4 - 1/4
- (4*pi + 16*pi*k + 1)^(1/2)/4 - 1/4
soly =
((16*pi*k - 4*pi + 1)^(1/2)/4 - 1/4)^2
((16*pi*k - 4*pi + 1)^(1/2)/4 + 1/4)^2
((4*pi + 16*pi*k + 1)^(1/2)/4 - 1/4)^2
((4*pi + 16*pi*k + 1)^(1/2)/4 + 1/4)^2
params =
k
conditions =
in(k, 'integer')
in(k, 'integer')
in(k, 'integer')
in(k, 'integer')
A solution is formed by the elements of the same index in solx, soly, and conditions.
Any element of params can appear in any solution. For example, a solution is x
= (4*pi + 16*pi*k + 1)^(1/2)/4 - 1/4, and y = ((4*pi + 16*pi*k +
1)^(1/2)/4 - 1/4)^2, with the parameter k under the condition in(k, 'integer').
This condition means k must be an integer for the solution to be valid.
Return Numeric Solutions

Try solving the following equation. The symbolic solver cannot find an exact symbolic
solution for this equation, and therefore issues a warning before calling the numeric
4-1004
solve
solver. Because the equation is not polynomial, an attempt to find all possible solutions
can take a long time. The numeric solver does not try to find all numeric solutions for
this equation. Instead, it returns only the first solution it finds.
syms x
solve(sin(x) == x^2 - 1, x)
Warning: Cannot solve symbolically. Returning a numeric
approximation instead.
> In solve at 301
ans =
-0.63673265080528201088799090383828
Plotting the left and the right sides of the equation in one graph shows that the equation
also has a positive solution.
ezplot(sin(x), -2, 2)
hold on
ezplot(x^2 - 1, -2, 2)
hold off
4-1005
You can find this solution by calling the numeric solver vpasolve directly and specifying
the interval where this solution can be found.
vpasolve(sin(x) == x^2 - 1, x, [0 2])
ans =
1.4096240040025962492355939705895
Solve Inequalities
solve can solve inequalities to find a solution that satisfies the conditions. Solve the
following conditions. Set ReturnConditions to true to return any parameters in the
solution and conditions on the solution.
4-1006
solve
x >0
y>0
x2 + y2 + xy < 1
syms x y
S = solve(x^2+y^2+x*y<1, x>0, y>0, [x, y], 'ReturnConditions', true);
solx = S.x
soly = S.y
params = S.parameters
conditions = S.conditions
solx =
(- 3*v^2 + u)^(1/2)/2 - v/2
soly =
v
params =
[ u, v]
conditions =
4*v^2 < u & u < 4 & 0 < v
Check if the values u = 7/2 and v = 1/2 satisfy the condition using subs and
isAlways.
isAlways(subs(S.conditions, S.parameters, [7/2,1/2]))
ans =
1
isAlways returns logical 1 (true) indicating that these values satisfy the condition.
Substitute these parameter values into S.x and S.y to find a solution for x and y.
solx = subs(S.x, S.parameters, [7/2,1/2])
soly = subs(S.y, S.parameters, [7/2,1/2])
solx =
11^(1/2)/4 - 1/4
soly =
1/2
To convert the solution into numeric form, use vpa.

vpa(solx)
vpa(soly)
4-1007
ans =
0.57915619758884996227873318416767
ans =
0.5
Return Real Solutions

Solve this equation. It has five solutions.
syms x
solve(x^5 == 3125, x)
ans =
- (2^(1/2)*(5 (2^(1/2)*(5 (5*5^(1/2))/4
(5*5^(1/2))/4
5^(1/2))^(1/2)*5*i)/4
5^(1/2))^(1/2)*5*i)/4
- (2^(1/2)*(5^(1/2) +
+ (2^(1/2)*(5^(1/2) +
- (5*5^(1/2))/4
- (5*5^(1/2))/4
5)^(1/2)*5*i)/4
5)^(1/2)*5*i)/4
5
5/4
5/4
5/4
5/4
If you need a solution in real numbers, set argument Real to true. The only real
solution of this equation is 5.
solve(x^5 == 3125, x, 'Real', true)
ans =
5
Return One Solution

Solve this equation. Instead of returning an infinite set of periodic solutions, the solver
picks these three solutions that it considers to be most practical.
syms x
solve(sin(x) + cos(2*x) == 1, x)
ans =
0
pi/6
(5*pi)/6
To pick only one solution, use PrincipalValue.

solve(sin(x) + cos(2*x) == 1, x, 'PrincipalValue', true)
ans =
0
4-1008
solve
Apply Simplification Rules That Shorten the Result

By default, solve does not apply simplifications that are not always mathematically
correct. As a result, solve cannot solve this equation symbolically.
syms x
solve(exp(log(x)*log(3*x))==4, x)
Warning: Cannot solve symbolically. Returning a numeric
approximation instead.
> In solve at 301
ans =
- 14.009379055223370038369334703094 - 2.9255310052111119036668717988769*i
Set IgnoreAnalyticConstraints to true to apply simplifications that might allow solve

to find a result. For details, see Algorithms on page 4-1017.
S = solve(exp(log(x)*log(3*x))==4, x, 'IgnoreAnalyticConstraints', true)
S =
(3^(1/2)*exp(-(log(256) + log(3)^2)^(1/2)/2))/3
(3^(1/2)*exp((log(256) + log(3)^2)^(1/2)/2))/3
solve applies simplifications that allow it to find a solution. The simplifications applied
do not always hold. Thus, the solutions in this mode might not be correct or complete,
and should be verified.
Ignore Assumptions on Variables

The sym and syms functions let you set assumptions for symbolic variables. For example,
declare that the variable x can have only positive values.
syms x positive
When you solve an equation or a system of equations with respect to such a variable, the
solver only returns solutions consistent with the assumptions.
solve(x^2 + 5*x - 6 == 0, x)
ans =
1
To allow solutions that do not satisfy the assumptions, set IgnoreProperties to true.
4-1009
solve(x^2 + 5*x - 6 == 0, x, 'IgnoreProperties', true)

ans =
-6
1
For further computations, clear the assumption that you set on the variable x.
syms x clear
Numerically Approximating Symbolic Solutions That Contain RootOf

When solving polynomials, solve might return solutions containing RootOf. To
numerically approximate these solutions, use vpa. Consider the following equation and
solution.
syms x
s = solve(x^4 + x^3 + 1 == 0, x)
s =
RootOf(z^4
RootOf(z^4
RootOf(z^4
RootOf(z^4
+
+
+
+
z^3
z^3
z^3
z^3
+
+
+
+
1,
1,
1,
1,
z)[1]
z)[2]
z)[3]
z)[4]
Because there are no parameters in this solution, you can use vpa to approximate it
numerically.
vpa(s)
ans =
- 1.0189127943851558447865795886366 +
- 1.0189127943851558447865795886366 0.5189127943851558447865795886366
0.5189127943851558447865795886366
0.60256541999859902604398442197193*i
0.60256541999859902604398442197193*i
+ 0.666609844932018579153758800733*i
- 0.666609844932018579153758800733*i
Solve Polynomial Equations of High Degree

When you solve a higher-order polynomial equation, the solver might use RootOf to
return the results.
syms x a
solve(x^4 + x^3 + a == 0, x)
4-1010
solve
ans =
RootOf(z^4
RootOf(z^4
RootOf(z^4
RootOf(z^4
+
+
+
+
z^3
z^3
z^3
z^3
+
+
+
+
a,
a,
a,
a,
z)[1]
z)[2]
z)[3]
z)[4]
To get an explicit solution for such equations, try calling the solver with MaxDegree.
The option specifies the maximum degree of polynomials for which the solver tries to
return explicit solutions. The default value is 3. Increasing this value, you can get explicit
solutions for higher-order polynomials. For example, increase the value of MaxDegree to
4 and get explicit solutions instead of RootOf for the fourth-order polynomial.
s = solve(x^4 + x^3 + a == 0, x, 'MaxDegree', 4);
pretty(s)
/
1
| - #3 - #2 - |
4
|
|
1
| #2 - #3 - |
4
|
|
1
| #3 - #1 - |
4
|
|
1
| #3 + #1 - \
4
\
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
/
where
/
1/3
\
| #7
#6 9
9 #6
2/3
/
3 \
|
sqrt| ---------- - ---- - #7
#6 9 - | a - --- | #6 12 - #5 |
\
2
64
\
256 /
/
#1 == --------------------------------------------------------------#4
/
1/3
\
| #7
#6 9
9 #6
2/3
/
3 \
|
sqrt| ---------- - ---- - #7
#6 9 - | a - --- | #6 12 + #5 |
\
2
64
\
256 /
/
#2 == --------------------------------------------------------------#4
#6
#3 == ------1/6
6 #7
/
1/3
1/6 |
9 #7
2/3
#4 == 6 #7
| 12 a + ------- + 9 #7
\
4
\1/4
|
|
/
4-1011
sqrt(3) sqrt(6) sqrt(9 a + #8) 3

#5 == -------------------------------8
/
1/3
|
9 #7
2/3
#6 == sqrt| 12 a + ------- + 9 #7
\
4
\
|
|
/
a
#8
#7 == - + -2
18
/ 135 a
/
3 \2
/
3 \3
189 \
#8 == sqrt(3) sqrt| ----- + 18 | a - --- | - 256 | a - --- | - ----- |
\ 256
\
256 /
\
256 /
65536 /
Input Arguments
eqn Equation to solve
symbolic expression | symbolic equation
Equation to solve, specified as a symbolic expression or symbolic equation. Symbolic
equations are defined by the relation operator ==. If eqn is a symbolic expression
(without the right side), the solver assumes that the right side is 0, and solves the
equation eqn == 0.
var Variable for which you solve equation
symbolic variable
Variable for which you solve an equation, specified as a symbolic variable. By default,
solve uses the variable determined by symvar.
eqns System of equations
symbolic expressions | symbolic equations
System of equations, specified as symbolic expressions or symbolic equations. If any
elements of eqns are symbolic expressions (without the right side), solve equates the
element to 0.
vars Variables for which you solve an equation or system of equations
symbolic variables
Variables for which you solve an equation or system of equations, specified as symbolic
variables. By default, solve uses the variables determined by symvar.
4-1012
solve
The order in which you specify these variables defines the order in which the solver
returns the solutions.

Example: 'Real',true specifies that the solver returns real solutions.
'ReturnConditions' Flag for returning parameters in solution and conditions on
solution
Flag for returning parameters in solution and conditions under which the solution is
true, specified as the comma-separated pair consisting of 'ReturnConditions' and one
of these values.
false
Do not return parameterized solutions. Do not return the

conditions under which the solution holds. The solve function
replaces parameters with appropriate values.
true
Return the parameters in the solution and the conditions under

which the solution holds. For a call with a single output variable,
solve returns a structure with the fields parameters and
conditions. For multiple output variables, solve assigns
the parameters and conditions to the last two output variables.
This means the number of output variables must be equal to the
number of variables to solve for plus two.
Example: [v1, v2, params, conditions] = solve(sin(x) +y == 0,y^2 ==

3,'ReturnConditions',true) returns the parameters in params and conditions in
conditions.
'IgnoreAnalyticConstraints' Simplification rules applied to expressions and
equations
Simplification rules applied to expressions and equations, specified as the commaseparated pair consisting of 'IgnoreAnalyticConstraints' and one of these values.
false
Use strict simplification rules.

4-1013
true
Apply purely algebraic simplifications to expressions and

equations. Setting IgnoreAnalyticConstraints to true
can give you simple solutions for the equations for which
the direct use of the solver returns complicated results. In
some cases, it also enables solve to solve equations and
systems that cannot be solved otherwise. Note that setting
IgnoreAnalyticConstraints to true can lead to wrong or
incomplete results.
'IgnoreProperties' Flag for returning solutions inconsistent with properties of

variables
Flag for returning solutions inconsistent with properties of variables, specified as the
comma-separated pair consisting of 'IgnoreProperties' and one of these values.
false
Do not exclude solutions inconsistent with the properties of

variables.
true
Exclude solutions inconsistent with the properties of variables.
'MaxDegree' Maximum degree of polynomial equations for which solver uses explicit
formulas
3 (default) | positive integer smaller than 5
Maximum degree of polynomial equations for which solver uses explicit formulas,
specified as a positive integer smaller than 5. The solver does not use explicit formulas
that involve radicals when solving polynomial equations of a degree larger than the
specified value.
'PrincipalValue' Flag for returning one solution
Flag for returning one solution, specified as the comma-separated pair consisting of
'PrincipalValue' and one of these values.
4-1014
false
Return all solutions.
true
Return only one solution. If an equation or a system of equations

does not have a solution, the solver returns an empty symbolic
object.
solve
'Real' Flag for returning only real solutions

Flag for returning only real solutions, specified as the comma-separated pair consisting of
'Real' and one of these values.
false
Return all solutions.
true
Return only those solutions for which every subexpression of the

original equation represents a real number. Also, assume that all
symbolic parameters of an equation represent real numbers.
Output Arguments
S Solutions of equation
symbolic array
Solutions of equation, returned as a symbolic array. The size of a symbolic array
corresponds to the number of the solutions.
Y Solutions of system of equations
structure
Solutions of system of equations, returned as a structure. The number of fields in
the structure correspond to the number of independent variables in a system. If
ReturnConditions is set to true, the solve function returns two additional fields that
contain the parameters in the solution, and the conditions under which the solution is
true.
y1,...,yN Solutions of system of equations
symbolic variables
Solutions of system of equations, returned as symbolic variables. The number of output
variables or symbolic arrays must be equal to the number of independent variables
in a system. If you explicitly specify independent variables vars, then the solver uses
the same order to return the solutions. If you do not specify vars, the toolbox sorts
independent variables alphabetically, and then assigns the solutions for these variables
to the output variables.
parameters Parameters in solution
vector of symbolic variables
4-1015
Parameters in solution, returned as a vector of symbolic variables. This output argument

is only returned if ReturnConditions is true. If a single output argument is provided,
parameters is returned as a field of a structure. If multiple output arguments are
provided, parameters is returned as the second-to-last output argument.
Example: [solx, params, conditions] = solve(sin(x) == 0,
'ReturnConditions', true) returns the parameter k in the argument params.
conditions Conditions under which solutions are valid
vector of symbolic expressions
Conditions under which solutions are valid, returned as a vector of symbolic expressions.
This output argument is only returned if ReturnConditions is true. If a single output
argument is provided, conditions is returned as a field of a structure. If multiple output
arguments are provided, conditions is returned as the last output argument.
Example: [solx, params, conditions] = solve(sin(x) == 0,
'ReturnConditions', true) returns the condition in(k, 'integer') in
conditions. The solution in solx is valid only under this condition.
More About
Tips
If solve cannot find a solution and ReturnConditions is false, the solve function
internally calls the numeric solver vpasolve that tries to find a numeric solution.
If solve cannot find a solution and ReturnConditions is true, solve returns
an empty solution with a warning. If no solutions exist, solve returns an empty
solution without a warning. For polynomial equations and systems without symbolic
parameters, the numeric solver returns all solutions. For nonpolynomial equations
and systems without symbolic parameters, the numeric solver returns only one
solution (if a solution exists).
If the solution contains parameters and ReturnConditions is true, solve returns
the parameters in the solution and the conditions under which the solutions are
true. If ReturnConditions is false, the solve function either chooses values of the
parameters and returns the corresponding results, or returns parameterized solutions
without choosing particular values. In the latter case, solve also issues a warning
indicating the values of parameters in the returned solutions.
If a parameter does not appear in any condition, it means the parameter can take any
complex value.
4-1016
solve
The output of solve can contain parameters from the input equations in addition to
parameters introduced by solve.
The variable names parameters and conditions are not allowed as inputs to
solve.
The syntax S = solve(eqn,var,'ReturnConditions',true) returns S as a
structure instead of a symbolic array.
To solve differential equations, use the dsolve function.
When solving a system of equations, always assign the result to output arguments.
Output arguments let you access the values of the solutions of a system.
MaxDegree only accepts positive integers smaller than 5 because, in general, there
are no explicit expressions for the roots of polynomials of degrees higher than 4.
The output variables y1,...,yN do not specify the variables for which solve solves
equations or systems. If y1,...,yN are the variables that appear in eqns, that does not
guarantee that solve(eqns) will assign the solutions to y1,...,yN using the correct
order. Thus, when you run [b,a] = solve(eqns), you might get the solutions for a
assigned to b and vice versa.
To ensure the order of the returned solutions, specify the variables vars. For example,
the call [b,a] = solve(eqns,b,a) assigns the solutions for a to a and the
solutions for b to b.
Algorithms
When you use IgnoreAnalyticConstraints, the solver applies these rules to the
expressions on both sides of an equation.
(ab)c=acbc.
(ab)c=abc.
numbers, f(g(x))=x is assumed to be valid for all complex values x. In particular:
log(ex)=x
4-1017

The solver can multiply both sides of an equation by any expression except 0.
The solutions of polynomial equations must be complete.
See Also
dsolve | linsolve | subs | symvar | vpasolve
4-1018
sort
sort
Sort elements of symbolic vectors or matrices
Syntax
Y = sort(X)
[Y,I] = sort( ___ )
___ = sort(X,dim)
___ = sort( ___ ,'descend')
Description
Y = sort(X) sorts the elements of a symbolic vector or matrix in ascending order. If
X is a vector, sort(X) sorts the elements of X in lexicographic order. If X is a matrix,
sort(X) sorts each column of X.
[Y,I] = sort( ___ ) shows the indices that each element of Y had in the original
vector or matrix X.
If X is an m-by-n matrix and you sort elements of each column (dim = 2), then each
column of I is a permutation vector of the corresponding column of X, such that
for j = 1:n
Y(:,j) = X(I(:,j),j);
end
If X is a two-dimensional matrix, and you sort the elements of each column, the array I
shows the row indices that the elements of Y had in the original matrix X. If you sort the
elements of each row, I shows the original column indices.
___ = sort(X,dim) sorts the elements of X along the dimension dim. Thus, if X is
a two-dimensional matrix, then sort(X,1) sorts elements of each column of X, and
sort(X,2) sorts elements of each row.
___ = sort( ___ ,'descend') sorts X in descending order. By default, sort uses
ascending order.
4-1019
Examples
Sort the Elements of a Vector
By default, sort sorts the element of a vector or a matrix in ascending order.
Sort the elements of the following symbolic vector:
syms a b c d e
sort([7 e 1 c 5 d a b])
ans =
[ 1, 5, 7, a, b, c, d, e]
Find Indices That the Elements of a Sorted Matrix Had in the Original
Matrix
To find the indices that each element of a new vector or matrix Y had in the original
vector or matrix X, call sort with two output arguments.
Sort the matrix X returning the matrix of indices that each element of the sorted matrix
had in X:
X = sym(magic(3));
[Y, I] = sort(X)
Y
[
[
[
=
3, 1, 2]
4, 5, 6]
8, 9, 7]
I =
2
3
1
1
2
3
3
1
2
Sort a Matrix Along Its Columns and Rows

When sorting elements of a matrix, sort can work along the columns or rows of that
matrix.
4-1020
sort
Sort the elements of the following symbolic matrix:

X = sym(magic(3))
X
[
[
[
=
8, 1, 6]
3, 5, 7]
4, 9, 2]
By default, the sort command sorts elements of each column:

sort(X)
ans =
[ 3, 1, 2]
[ 4, 5, 6]
[ 8, 9, 7]
To sort the elements of each row, use set the value of the dim option to 2:
sort(X,2)
ans =
[ 1, 6, 8]
[ 3, 5, 7]
[ 2, 4, 9]
Sort in Descending Order

sort can sort the elements of a vector or a matrix in descending order.
Sort the elements of this vector in descending order:
syms a b c d e
sort([7 e 1 c 5 d a b], 'descend')
ans =
[ e, d, c, b, a, 7, 5, 1]
Sort the elements of each column of this matrix X in descending order:

X = sym(magic(3))
sort(X,'descend')
X =
4-1021
[ 8, 1, 6]
[ 3, 5, 7]
[ 4, 9, 2]
ans =
[ 8, 9, 7]
[ 4, 5, 6]
[ 3, 1, 2]
Now, sort the elements of each row of X in descending order:

sort(X, 2, 'descend')
ans =
[ 8, 6, 1]
[ 7, 5, 3]
[ 9, 4, 2]
Input Arguments
X Input that needs to be sorted
Input that needs to be sorted, specified as a symbolic vector or matrix.
positive integer
exceeds the number of dimensions of X, then sort(X,dim) returns X, and [Y,I] =
sort(X,dim) returns Y = X and I = ones(size(X)).
Output Arguments
Y Sorted output
Sorted output, returned as a symbolic vector or matrix.
I Indices that elements of Y had in X
4-1022
sort
Indices that elements of Y had in X, returned as a symbolic vector or matrix. [Y,I] =

sort(X,dim) also returns matrix I = ones(size(X)) if the value dim exceeds the
number of dimensions of X.
More About
Tips
Calling sort for vectors or matrices of numbers that are not symbolic objects invokes
the MATLAB sort function.
For complex input X, sort compares elements by their magnitudes (complex moduli),
computed with abs(X). If complex numbers have the same complex modulus, sort
compares their phase angles, angle(X).
If you use 'ascend' instead of 'descend', then sort returns elements in ascending
order, as it does by default.
sort uses the following rules:
It sorts symbolic numbers and floating-point numbers numerically.
It sorts symbolic variables alphabetically.
In all other cases, including symbolic expressions and functions, sort relies on the
internal order that MuPAD uses to store these objects.
See Also
max | min
4-1023
sqrtm
Matrix square root
Syntax
X = sqrtm(A)
[X,resnorm] = sqrtm(A)
Description
X = sqrtm(A) returns a matrix X, such that X2 = A and the eigenvalues of X are the
square roots of the eigenvalues of A.
[X,resnorm] = sqrtm(A) returns a matrix X and the residual norm(A-X^2,'fro')/
norm(A,'fro').
Input Arguments
A
Symbolic matrix.
Output Arguments
X
Matrix, such that X2 = A.
resnorm
Residual computed as norm(A-X^2,'fro')/norm(A,'fro').
4-1024
sqrtm
Examples
Compute the square root of this matrix. Because these numbers are not symbolic objects,
you get floating-point results.
A = [2 -2 0; -1 3 0; -1/3 5/3 2];
X = sqrtm(A)
X =
1.3333
-0.3333
-0.0572
-0.6667
1.6667
0.5286
0.0000
-0.0000
1.4142
Now, convert this matrix to a symbolic object, and compute its square root again:
A = sym([2 -2 0; -1 3 0; -1/3 5/3 2]);
X = sqrtm(A)
X =
[
4/3,
-2/3,
0]
[
-1/3,
5/3,
0]
[ (2*2^(1/2))/3 - 1, 1 - 2^(1/2)/3, 2^(1/2)]
Check the correctness of the result:

isAlways(X^2 == A)
ans =
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Use the syntax with two output arguments to return the square root of a matrix and the
residual:
A = vpa(sym([0 0; 0 5/3]), 100);
[X,resnorm] = sqrtm(A)
X =
[ 0,
0]
[ 0, 1.2909944487358056283930884665941]
resnorm =
2.9387358770557187699218413430556e-40
4-1025
More About
Square Root of a Matrix
The square root of a matrix A is a matrix X, such that X2 = A and the eigenvalues of X are
the square roots of the eigenvalues of A.
Tips
Calling sqrtm for a matrix that is not a symbolic object invokes the MATLAB sqrtm
function.
If A has an eigenvalue 0 of algebraic multiplicity larger than its geometric
multiplicity, the square root of A does not exist.
See Also
cond | eig | expm | funm | jordan | logm | norm
4-1026
ssinint
ssinint
Shifted sine integral function
Syntax
ssinint(X)
Description
ssinint(X) returns the shifted sine integral function ssinint(X) = sinint(X)
pi/2.
Examples
Shifted Sine Integral Function for Numeric and Symbolic Arguments
Depending on its arguments, ssinint returns floating-point or exact symbolic results.
Compute the shifted sine integral function for these numbers. Because these numbers
are not symbolic objects, ssinint returns floating-point results.
A = ssinint([- pi, 0, pi/2, pi, 1])
A =
-3.4227
-1.5708
-0.2000
0.2811
-0.6247
Compute the shifted sine integral function for the numbers converted to symbolic objects.
For many symbolic (exact) numbers, ssinint returns unresolved symbolic calls.
symA = ssinint(sym([- pi, 0, pi/2, pi, 1]))
symA =
[ - pi - ssinint(pi), -pi/2, ssinint(pi/2), ssinint(pi), ssinint(1)]

4-1027
vpa(symA)
ans =
[ -3.4227333787773627895923750617977,...
-1.5707963267948966192313216916398,...
-0.20003415864040813916164340325818,...
0.28114072518756955112973167851824,...
-0.62471325642771360428996837781657]
Plot the Shifted Sine Integral Function

Plot the shifted sine integral function on the interval from -4*pi to 4*pi .
syms x
ezplot(ssinint(x), [-4*pi, 4*pi])
grid on
4-1028
ssinint
Handle Expressions Containing the Shifted Sine Integral Function

ssinint.
Find the first and second derivatives of the shifted sine integral function:
syms x
diff(ssinint(x), x)
diff(ssinint(x), x, x)
ans =
sin(x)/x
4-1029
ans =
cos(x)/x - sin(x)/x^2
Find the indefinite integral of the shifted sine integral function:

int(ssinint(x), x)
ans =
cos(x) + x*ssinint(x)
Find the Taylor series expansion of ssinint(x):

taylor(ssinint(x), x)
ans =
x^5/600 - x^3/18 + x - pi/2
Input Arguments
X Input
More About
Sine Integral Function
The sine integral function is defined as follows:
x
Si ( x ) =
sin ( t )
dt
t
Shifted Sine Integral Function

The sine integral function is defined as Ssi(x) = Si(x) - /2.
4-1030
ssinint
References
[1] Gautschi, W. and W. F. Cahill. Exponential Integral and Related Functions.
See Also
coshint | cosint | eulergamma | int | sin | sinhint | sinhint | sinint
4-1031
subexpr
Rewrite symbolic expression in terms of common subexpressions
Syntax
[r,sigma] = subexpr(expr)
[r,var] = subexpr(expr,var)
[r,var] = subexpr(expr,'var')
Description
[r,sigma] = subexpr(expr) rewrites the symbolic expression expr in terms of a
common subexpression, substituting this common subexpression with the symbolic
variable sigma.
[r,var] = subexpr(expr,var) substitutes the common subexpression by the
symbolic variable var.
[r,var] = subexpr(expr,'var') is equivalent to [r,var] =
subexpr(expr,var).
Examples
Rewrite an Expression Using Abbreviations
subexpr(expr) finds a common subexpression in the expression expr, and replaces it
with the symbolic variable sigma.
Solve this equation. The solutions are very long expressions. To see them, remove the
semicolon at the end of the solve command.
syms a b c d x
solutions = solve(a*x^3 + b*x^2 + c*x + d == 0, x);
These long expressions have common subexpressions. Abbreviating these common

subexpressions shortens the expressions. To abbreviate subexpressions, use subexpr. If
4-1032
subexpr
you do not specify the variable to use for abbreviations as the second input argument of
subexpr, then subexpr uses the variable sigma.
[r, sigma] = subexpr(solutions)
r =
sigma^(1/3)...
- b/(3*a) - (- b^2/(9*a^2) + c/(3*a))/sigma^(1/3)
(- b^2/(9*a^2) + c/(3*a))/(2*sigma^(1/3)) - sigma^(1/3)/2 - (3^(1/2)*(sigma^(1/3)...
+ (- b^2/(9*a^2) + c/(3*a))/sigma^(1/3))*i)/2 - b/(3*a)
(- b^2/(9*a^2) + c/(3*a))/(2*sigma^(1/3)) - sigma^(1/3)/2 + (3^(1/2)*(sigma^(1/3)...
+ (- b^2/(9*a^2) + c/(3*a))/sigma^(1/3))*i)/2 - b/(3*a)
sigma =
((d/(2*a) + b^3/(27*a^3) - (b*c)/(6*a^2))^2 + (- b^2/(9*a^2) + c/(3*a))^3)^(1/2)...
- b^3/(27*a^3) - d/(2*a) + (b*c)/(6*a^2)
Customize Abbreviation Variables

subexpr(expr,var) lets you specify the variable name to use for abbreviations.
Solve this equation. The solutions are very long expressions. To see them, remove the
semicolon at the end of the solve command.
syms a b c d x
solutions = solve(a*x^3 + b*x^2 + c*x + d == 0, x);
Use syms to create the symbolic variable s, and then replace common subexpressions in
the result with this variable.
syms s
[abbrSolutions, s] = subexpr(solutions, s)
abbrSolutions =
s^(1/3)...
- b/(3*a) - (- b^2/(9*a^2) + c/(3*a))/s^(1/3)
(- b^2/(9*a^2) + c/(3*a))/(2*s^(1/3)) - s^(1/3)/2 - (3^(1/2)*(s^(1/3)...
+ (- b^2/(9*a^2) + c/(3*a))/s^(1/3))*i)/2 - b/(3*a)
(- b^2/(9*a^2) + c/(3*a))/(2*s^(1/3)) - s^(1/3)/2 + (3^(1/2)*(s^(1/3)...
+ (- b^2/(9*a^2) + c/(3*a))/s^(1/3))*i)/2 - b/(3*a)
s =
((d/(2*a) + b^3/(27*a^3) - (b*c)/(6*a^2))^2 + (- b^2/(9*a^2) +...
c/(3*a))^3)^(1/2) - b^3/(27*a^3) - d/(2*a) + (b*c)/(6*a^2)
Alternatively, use the string s to specify the abbreviation variable.

[abbrSolutions, s] = subexpr(solutions, 's')
abbrSolutions =
s^(1/3)...
- b/(3*a) - (- b^2/(9*a^2) + c/(3*a))/s^(1/3)
(- b^2/(9*a^2) + c/(3*a))/(2*s^(1/3)) - s^(1/3)/2 - (3^(1/2)*(s^(1/3)...
+ (- b^2/(9*a^2) + c/(3*a))/s^(1/3))*i)/2 - b/(3*a)
4-1033
(- b^2/(9*a^2) + c/(3*a))/(2*s^(1/3)) - s^(1/3)/2 + (3^(1/2)*(s^(1/3)...

+ (- b^2/(9*a^2) + c/(3*a))/s^(1/3))*i)/2 - b/(3*a)
s =
((d/(2*a) + b^3/(27*a^3) - (b*c)/(6*a^2))^2 + (- b^2/(9*a^2) + c/(3*a))^3)^(1/2)...
- b^3/(27*a^3) - d/(2*a) + (b*c)/(6*a^2)
Input Arguments
expr Long expression containing common subexpressions
Long expression containing common subexpressions, specified as a symbolic expression
or function.
var Variable to use for substituting common subexpressions
string | symbolic variable
Variable to use for substituting common subexpressions, specified as a string or symbolic
variable.
Output Arguments
r Expression with common subexpressions replaced by abbreviations
Expression with common subexpressions replaced by abbreviations, returned as a
symbolic expression or function.
var Variable used for abbreviations
symbolic variable
Variable used for abbreviations, returned as a symbolic variable.
See Also
pretty | subs
Related Examples
4-1034
Substitute with subexpr on page 2-46
subs
subs
Symbolic substitution
Syntax
subs(s,old,new)
subs(s,new)
subs(s)
Description
subs(s,old,new) returns a copy of s replacing all occurrences of old with new, and
then evaluating s.
subs(s,new) returns a copy of s replacing all occurrences of the default variable in s
with new, and then evaluating s. The default variable is defined by symvar.
subs(s) returns a copy of s replacing symbolic variables in s with their values obtained
from the calling function and the MATLAB workspace, and then evaluating s. Variables
with no assigned values remain as variables.
Examples
Single Substitution
Replace a with 4 in this expression.
syms a b
subs(a + b, a, 4)
ans =
b + 4
Replace a*b with 5 in this expression.

subs(a*b^2, a*b, 5)
4-1035
ans =
5*b
Value That Gets Substituted by Default

Substitute the default value in this expression with a. If you do not specify which
variable or expression that you want to replace, subs uses symvar to find the default
variable. For x + y, the default variable is x.
syms x y a
symvar(x + y, 1)
ans =
x
Therefore, subs replaces x with a.

subs(x + y, a)
ans =
a + y
Single Input
Solve this ordinary differential equation.
syms a y(t)
y = dsolve(diff(y) == -a*y)
y =
C2*exp(-a*t)
Now, specify the values of the symbolic parameters a and C2.

a = 980;
C2 = 3;
Although the values a and C2 are now in the MATLAB workspace, y is not evaluated
with the account of these values.
y
y =
C2*exp(-a*t)
4-1036
subs
To evaluate y taking into account the new values of a and C2, use subs.
subs(y)
ans =
3*exp(-980*t)
Multiple Substitutions
Make multiple substitutions by specifying the old and new values as vectors.
syms a b
subs(cos(a) + sin(b), [a, b], [sym('alpha'), 2])
ans =
sin(2) + cos(alpha)
You also can use cell arrays for that purpose.

subs(cos(a) + sin(b), {a, b}, {sym('alpha'), 2})
ans =
sin(2) + cos(alpha)
Scalar and Matrix Expansion

Replace variable a in this expression with the 3-by-3 magic square matrix. Note that the
constant 1 expands to the 3-by-3 matrix with all its elements equal to 1.
syms a t
subs(exp(a*t) + 1, a, -magic(3))
ans =
[ exp(-8*t) + 1,
exp(-t) + 1, exp(-6*t) + 1]
[ exp(-3*t) + 1, exp(-5*t) + 1, exp(-7*t) + 1]
[ exp(-4*t) + 1, exp(-9*t) + 1, exp(-2*t) + 1]
You can also replace an element of a vector, matrix, or array with a nonscalar value. For
example, create these 2-by-2 matrices.
A = sym('A', [2,2])
B = sym('B', [2,2])
A =
4-1037
[ A1_1, A1_2]
[ A2_1, A2_2]
B =
[ B1_1, B1_2]
[ B2_1, B2_2]
Replace the first element of the matrix A with the matrix B. While making this
substitution, subs expands the 2-by-2 matrix A into this 4-by-4 matrix.
A44 = subs(A, A(1,1), B)
A44 =
[ B1_1,
[ B2_1,
[ A2_1,
[ A2_1,
B1_2,
B2_2,
A2_1,
A2_1,
A1_2,
A1_2,
A2_2,
A2_2,
A1_2]
A1_2]
A2_2]
A2_2]
subs does not let you replace a nonscalar with a scalar.
Multiple Scalar Expansion

Replace variables x and y with these 2-by-2 matrices. When you make multiple
substitutions involving vectors or matrices, use cell arrays to specify the old and new
values.
syms x y
subs(x*y, {x, y}, {[0 1; -1 0], [1 -1; -2 1]})
ans =
[ 0, -1]
[ 2, 0]
Note that these substitutions are elementwise.

[0 1; -1 0].*[1 -1; -2 1]
ans =
0
2
-1
0
Substitutions in Equations
Replace sin(x + 1) with a in this equation.
4-1038
subs
syms x a
subs(sin(x + 1) + 1 == x, sin(x + 1), a)
ans =
a + 1 == x
Substitutions in Functions
Replace x with a in this symbolic function.
syms x y a
syms f(x, y)
f(x, y) = x + y;
f = subs(f, x, a)
f(x, y) =
a + y
subs replaces the values in the symbolic function formula, but does not replace input
arguments of the function.
formula(f)
argnames(f)
ans =
a + y
ans =
[ x, y]
You can replace the arguments of a symbolic function explicitly.

syms x y
f(x, y) = x + y;
f(a, y) = subs(f, x, a);
f
f(a, y) =
a + y
Original Expression
Assign the expression x + y to s.
4-1039
syms x y
s = x + y;
Replace y in this expression with the value 1. Here, s itself does not change.
subs(s, y, 1);
s
s =
x + y
To replace the value of s with the new expression, assign the result returned by subs to
s.
s = subs(s, y, 1);
s
s =
x + 1
Structure Array
Suppose you want to verify the solutions of this system of equations.
syms x y
eqs = [x^2 + y^2 == 1, x == y];
S = solve(eqs, x, y);
S.x
S.y
ans =
-2^(1/2)/2
2^(1/2)/2
ans =
-2^(1/2)/2
2^(1/2)/2
To verify the correctness of the returned solutions, substitute the solutions into the
original system.
logical(subs(eqs, S))
ans =
1
1
4-1040
1
1
subs
Input Arguments
s Input
symbolic variable | symbolic expression | symbolic equation | symbolic function |
Input specified as a symbolic variable, expression, equation, function, array, vector, or
matrix.
old Existing element that needs to be replaced
symbolic variable | symbolic expression | string representing variable or expression |
symbolic array | symbolic vector | symbolic matrix | array of strings | vector of strings
| matrix of strings
Existing element that needs to be replaced specified as a symbolic variable, expression,
string, array, vector, or matrix.
new New element
number | symbolic variable | symbolic expression | string representing variable or
expression | symbolic array | symbolic vector | symbolic matrix | array of strings |
vector of strings | matrix of strings | structure array
New element specified as a number, variable, expression, string, array, vector, matrix, or
structure array.
More About
Tips
subs(s,old,new) does not modify s. To modify s, use s = subs(s,old,new).
If old and new are both vectors or cell arrays of the same size, subs replaces each
element of old by the corresponding element of new.
If old is a scalar, and new is a vector or matrix, then subs(s,old,new) replaces all
instances of old in s with new, performing all operations elementwise. All constant
terms in s are replaced with the constant times a vector or matrix of all 1s.
If s is a univariate polynomial and new is a numeric matrix, use
polyvalm(sym2poly(s), new) to evaluate s in the matrix sense. All constant
terms are replaced with the constant times an identity matrix.
4-1041
See Also
double | eval | evalAt | simplify | subexpr | subs | subset | subsex | subsop

| vpa
Related Examples
4-1042
Substitutions in Symbolic Expressions on page 1-16
Substitute with subs on page 2-48
Combine subs and double for Numeric Evaluations on page 2-52
svd
svd
Singular value decomposition of symbolic matrix
Syntax
sigma =
[U,S,V]
[U,S,V]
[U,S,V]
svd(X)
= svd(X)
= svd(X,0)
= svd(X,'econ')
Description
sigma = svd(X) returns a vector sigma containing the singular values of a symbolic
matrix A.
[U,S,V] = svd(X) returns numeric unitary matrices U and V with the columns
containing the singular vectors, and a diagonal matrix S containing the singular values.
The matrices satisfy the condition A = U*S*V', where V' is the Hermitian transpose
(the complex conjugate of the transpose) of V. The singular vector computation uses
variable-precision arithmetic. svd does not compute symbolic singular vectors. Therefore,
the input matrix X must be convertible to floating-point numbers. For example, it can be
a matrix of symbolic numbers.
[U,S,V] = svd(X,0) produces the "economy size" decomposition. If X is an m-by-n
matrix with m > n, then svd computes only the first n columns of U. In this case, S is an
n-by-n matrix. For m <= n, this syntax is equivalent to svd(X).
[U,S,V] = svd(X,'econ') also produces the "economy size" decomposition. If X is an
m-by-n matrix with m >= n, then this syntax is equivalent to svd(X,0). For m < n, svd
computes only the first m columns of V. In this case, S is an m-by-m matrix.
Examples
Symbolic Singular Values
Compute the singular values of the symbolic 4-by-4 magic square:
4-1043
A = sym(magic(4));
sigma = svd(A)
sigma =
34
8*5^(1/2)
2*5^(1/2)
0
Now, compute singular values of the matrix whose elements are symbolic expressions:
syms t real
A = [0 1; -1 0];
E = expm(t*A)
sigma = svd(E)
E =
[ cos(t), sin(t)]
[ -sin(t), cos(t)]
sigma =
(cos(t)^2 + sin(t)^2)^(1/2)
(cos(t)^2 + sin(t)^2)^(1/2)
Simplify the result:

sigma = simplify(sigma)
sigma =
1
1

syms t clear
Floating-Point Singular Values

Convert the elements of the symbolic 4-by-4 magic square to floating-point numbers, and
compute the singular values of the matrix:
A = sym(magic(4));
sigma = svd(vpa(A))
sigma =
34.0
4-1044
svd
17.88854381999831757127338934985
4.4721359549995793928183473374626
0.0000000000000000000042127245515076439434819165724023*i
Singular Values and Singular Vectors

Compute the singular values and singular vectors of the 4-by-4 magic square:
old = digits(10);
A = sym(magic(4))
[U, S, V] = svd(A)
digits(old)
A =
[ 16, 2, 3, 13]
[ 5, 11, 10, 8]
[ 9, 7, 6, 12]
[ 4, 14, 15, 1]
U
[
[
[
[
=
0.5, 0.6708203932, 0.5, -0.2236067977]
0.5, -0.2236067977, -0.5, -0.6708203932]
0.5, 0.2236067977, -0.5, 0.6708203932]
0.5, -0.6708203932, 0.5, 0.2236067977]
S =
[ 34.0,
0,
0,
0]
[
0, 17.88854382,
0,
0]
[
0,
0, 4.472135955,
0]
[
0,
0,
0, 1.108401846e-15]
V
[
[
[
[
=
0.5, 0.5, 0.6708203932, 0.2236067977]
0.5, -0.5, -0.2236067977, 0.6708203932]
0.5, -0.5, 0.2236067977, -0.6708203932]
0.5, 0.5, -0.6708203932, -0.2236067977]
Compute the product of U, S, and the Hermitian transpose of V with the 10-digit
accuracy. The result is the original matrix A with all its elements converted to floatingpoint numbers:
vpa(U*S*V',10)
ans =
4-1045
[ 16.0, 2.0, 3.0, 13.0]

[ 5.0, 11.0, 10.0, 8.0]
[ 9.0, 7.0, 6.0, 12.0]
[ 4.0, 14.0, 15.0, 1.0]
"Economy Size" Decomposition

Use the second input argument 0 to compute the "economy size" decomposition of this 2by-3 matrix:
old = digits(10);
A = sym([1 1;2 2; 2 2]);
[U, S, V] = svd(A, 0)
U
[
[
[
=
0.3333333333, -0.6666666667]
0.6666666667, 0.6666666667]
0.6666666667, -0.3333333333]
S =
[ 4.242640687, 0]
[
0, 0]
V =
[ 0.7071067812, 0.7071067812]
[ 0.7071067812, -0.7071067812]
Now, use the second input argument 'econ' to compute the "economy size"
decomposition of matrix B. Here, the 3-by-2 matrix B is the transpose of A.
B = A';
[U, S, V] = svd(B, 'econ')
digits(old)
U =
[ 0.7071067812, -0.7071067812]
[ 0.7071067812, 0.7071067812]
S =
[ 4.242640687, 0]
[
0, 0]
V =
[ 0.3333333333,
4-1046
0.6666666667]
svd
[ 0.6666666667, -0.6666666667]
[ 0.6666666667, 0.3333333333]
Input Arguments
X Input matrix
symbolic matrix
Input matrix specified as a symbolic matrix. For syntaxes with one output argument, the
elements of X can be symbolic numbers, variables, expressions, or functions. For syntaxes
with three output arguments, the elements of X must be convertible to floating-point
numbers.
Output Arguments
sigma Singular values
symbolic vector | vector of symbolic numbers
Singular values of a matrix, returned as a vector. If sigma is a vector of numbers, then
its elements are sorted in descending order.
U Singular vectors
matrix of symbolic numbers
Singular vectors, returned as a unitary matrix. Each column of this matrix is a singular
vector.
S Singular values
Singular values, returned as a diagonal matrix. Diagonal elements of this matrix appear
in descending order.
V Singular vectors
Singular vectors, returned as a unitary matrix. Each column of this matrix is a singular
vector.
4-1047
More About
Tips
The second arguments 0 and 'econ' only affect the shape of the returned matrices.
These arguments do not affect the performance of the computations.
Calling svd for numeric matrices that are not symbolic objects invokes the MATLAB
svd function.
See Also
chol | digits | eig | inv | lu | numeric::singularvalues |

numeric::singularvectors | numeric::svd | qr | svd | vpa
Related Examples
4-1048
Singular Value Decomposition on page 2-78
sym
sym
Create symbolic objects
Syntax
var = sym('var')
var = sym('var',set)
sym('var','clear')
Num = sym(Num)
Num = sym(Num,flag)
A = sym('A',dim)
A = sym(A,set)
sym(A,'clear')
f(arg1,...,argN) = sym('f(arg1,...,argN)')
fsym = sym(fh)
Description
var = sym('var') creates the symbolic variable var.
var = sym('var',set) creates the symbolic variable var and states that var belongs
to set.
sym('var','clear') clears assumptions previously set on the symbolic variable var.
Num = sym(Num) converts a number or a numeric matrix Num to symbolic form.
Num = sym(Num,flag) converts a number or a numeric matrix Num to symbolic form.
The second argument specifies the technique for converting floating-point numbers.
A = sym('A',dim) creates a vector or a matrix of symbolic variables.
A = sym(A,set), where A is an existing symbolic vector or matrix, sets an assumption
that each element of A belongs to set. To check assumptions set on A, use the
assumptions function. This syntax does not create A. To create a symbolic vector or a
symbolic matrix A, use A = sym('A',[m n]) or A = sym('A',n).
4-1049
sym(A,'clear'), where A is an existing symbolic vector or matrix, clears assumptions

previously set on elements of A. This syntax does not create A. To create a symbolic
vector or a symbolic matrix A, use A = sym('A',[m n]) or A = sym('A',n).
f(arg1,...,argN) = sym('f(arg1,...,argN)') creates the symbolic function f
and specifies that arg1,...,argN are the input arguments of f. This syntax does not create
symbolic variables arg1,...,argN. The arguments arg1,...,argN must be existing symbolic
variables.
fsym = sym(fh) uses the symbolic form of the body of the function handle fh to create
the symbolic expression, vector, or matrix fsym.
Input Arguments
var
String that represents the variable name. It must begin with a letter and can contain
only alphanumeric characters.
set
Either real or positive.
Num
Number, vector, or matrix of numbers.
flag
One of these strings: r, d, e, or f.
r stands for rational. Floating-point numbers obtained by evaluating expressions
of the form p/q, p*pi/q, sqrt(p), 2^q, and 10^q for modest sized integers p and
q are converted to the corresponding symbolic form. This effectively compensates
for the round-off error involved in the original evaluation, but might not represent
the floating-point value precisely. If no simple rational approximation can be
found, an expression of the form p*2^q with large integers p and q reproduces
the floating-point value exactly. For example, sym(4/3,'r') is '4/3', but
sym(1+sqrt(5),'r') is 7286977268806824*2^(-51).
d stands for decimal. The number of digits is taken from the current setting
of digits used by vpa. Fewer than 16 digits loses some accuracy, while
4-1050
sym
more than 16 digits might not be warranted. For example, with digits(10),
sym(4/3,'d') is 1.333333333, while with digits digits(20), sym(4/3,'d') is
1.3333333333333332593, which does not end in a string of 3s, but is an accurate
decimal representation of the floating-point number nearest to 4/3.
e stands for estimate error. The 'r' form is supplemented by a term involving
the variable 'eps', which estimates the difference between the theoretical rational
expression and its actual floating-point value. For example, sym(3*pi/4,'e') is
3*pi/4*(1+3143276*eps/65).
f stands for floating-point. All values are represented in the form N*2ê or N*2ê, where N and e are integers, N >= 0. For example, sym(1/10,'f') is
3602879701896397/36028797018963968 .
Default: r
A
String that represents the base for generated names of vector or matrix elements. It
must be a valid variable name. (To verify if the name is a valid variable name, use
isvarname.)
Default: The generated names of elements of a vector use the form Ak, and the
generated names of elements of a matrix use the form Ai_j. The values of k, i, and
j range from 1 to m or 1 to n. To specify another form for generated names of matrix
elements, use '%d' in the first input. For example, A = sym('A%d%d', [3 3])
generates the 3-by-3 symbolic matrix A with the elements A11, A12, ..., A33.
dim
Integer or vector of two integers specifying dimensions of A. For example, if dim is
a vector [m n], then the syntax A = sym('A',[m n]) creates an m-by-n matrix of
symbolic variables. If dim is an integer n, then the syntax A = sym('A',n) creates a
square n-by-n matrix of symbolic variables.
f
Name of a symbolic function. It must begin with a letter and contain only alphanumeric
characters.
arg1,...,argN
Arguments of a symbolic function. Each argument must be an existing symbolic variable.
4-1051
fh
Function handle.
Output Arguments
var
Symbolic variable.
Num
Symbolic number or vector or matrix of symbolic numbers.
A
Vector or matrix of automatically generated symbolic variables.
f
Symbolic function.
fsym
Symbolic number, variable, expression; vector or matrix of symbolic numbers, variables,
expressions.
Examples
Create the symbolic variables x and y:
x = sym('x');
y = sym('y');
Create the symbolic variables x and y assuming that x is real and y is positive:
x = sym('x','real');
y = sym('y','positive');
Check the assumptions on x and y using assumptions:

4-1052
sym
assumptions
ans =
[ in(x, 'real'), 0 < y]

sym('x','clear');
sym('y','clear');
assumptions
ans =
Empty sym: 1-by-0
The sym function lets you choose the conversion technique by specifying the optional
second argument, which can be 'r', 'f', 'd', or 'e'. The default is 'r'. For example,
convert the number 1/3 to a symbolic object:
r
f
d
e
=
=
=
=
sym(1/3)
sym(1/3, 'f')
sym(1/3, 'd')
sym(1/3, 'e')
r =
1/3
f =
6004799503160661/18014398509481984
d =
0.3333333333333333148296162562473909929395
e =
1/3 - eps/12
Create the 3-by-4 symbolic matrix A with the auto-generated elements A1_1, ...,
A3_4 :
A = sym('A', [3 4])
A
[
[
[
=
A1_1, A1_2, A1_3, A1_4]
A2_1, A2_2, A2_3, A2_4]
A3_1, A3_2, A3_3, A3_4]
Now create the 4-by-4 matrix B with the elements x_1_1, ..., x_4_4:
4-1053
B = sym('x_%d_%d', [4 4])
B
[
[
[
[
=
x_1_1,
x_2_1,
x_3_1,
x_4_1,
x_1_2,
x_2_2,
x_3_2,
x_4_2,
x_1_3,
x_2_3,
x_3_3,
x_4_3,
x_1_4]
x_2_4]
x_3_4]
x_4_4]
This syntax does not define elements of a symbolic matrix as separate symbolic objects.
To access an element of a matrix, use parentheses:
A(2, 3)
B (4, 2)
ans =
A2_3
ans =
x_4_2
You can use symbolic matrices and vectors generated by the sym function to define other
matrices:
A = diag(sym('A',[1 4]))
A =
[ A1, 0, 0, 0]
[ 0, A2, 0, 0]
[ 0, 0, A3, 0]
[ 0, 0, 0, A4]
Perform operations on symbolic matrices by using the operators that you use for numeric
matrices. For example, find the determinant and the trace of the matrix A:
det(A)
ans =
A1*A2*A3*A4
trace(A)
ans =
A1 + A2 + A3 + A4
Use the sym function to set assumptions on each element of a symbolic matrix. You
cannot create a symbolic matrix and set an assumption on all its elements in one sym
4-1054
sym
function call. Use two separate sym function calls. The first call creates a matrix, and the
second call specifies an assumption:
A = sym('A%d%d', [2 2]);
A = sym(A, 'positive')
A =
[ A11, A12]
[ A21, A22]
Now, MATLAB assumes that all elements of A are positive:

solve(A(1, 1)^2 - 1, A(1, 1))
ans =
1
To check the assumptions set on the elements of A, use assumptions:

assumptions(A)
ans =
[ 0 < A21, 0 < A11, 0 < A22, 0 < A12]
To clear all previously set assumptions on elements of a symbolic matrix, also use the
sym function:
A = sym(A, 'clear');
assumptions(A)
ans =
Empty sym: 1-by-0
Create the symbolic function f whose input arguments are symbolic variables x and y:
x = sym('x');
y = sym('y');
f(x, y) = sym('f(x, y)')
f(x, y) =
f(x, y)
Alternatively, you can use the assignment operation to create the symbolic function f:
f(x, y) = x + y
4-1055
f(x, y) =
x + y
Alternatives
To create several symbolic variables in one function call, use syms. When using syms,
do not enclose variables in quotes and do not use commas between variable names:
syms var1 var2 var3
syms also lets you create real variables or positive variables. It also lets you clear
assumptions set on a variable.
assume and assumeAlso provide more flexibility for setting assumptions on variable.
When creating a symbolic function, use sym to create arg1,...,argN as symbolic
variables. Then use the assignment operation to create the symbolic function f, for
example:
x = sym('x');
y = sym('y');
f(x, y) = x + y
syms f(x, y) is equivalent to these commands:

x = sym('x');
y = sym('y');
f(x, y) = sym('f(x, y)')
More About
Tips
For compatibility with previous versions, sym('var','unreal') is equivalent to
sym('var','clear').
Statements like pi = sym('pi') and delta = sym('1/10') create symbolic
numbers that avoid the floating-point approximations inherent in the values of pi
and 1/10. The pi created in this way temporarily replaces the built-in numeric
function with the same name.
clear x does not clear the symbolic object of its assumptions, such as real, positive,
or any assumptions set by assume. To remove assumptions, use one of these options:
4-1056
sym
sym('x','clear') removes assumptions from x without affecting any other

symbolic variables.
reset(symengine) resets the symbolic engine and therefore removes
assumptions on all variables. The variables themselves remain in the MATLAB
workspace.
clear all clears all objects in the MATLAB workspace and resets the symbolic
engine.
See Also
assume | assumeAlso | assumptions | clear | clear all | digits | double |

eps | reset | symfun | syms | symvar
Related Examples
Estimate Precision of Numeric to Symbolic Conversions on page 1-19
4-1057
sym2poly
Symbolic-to-numeric polynomial conversion
Syntax
c = sym2poly(s)
Description
c = sym2poly(s) returns a row vector containing the numeric coefficients of a symbolic
polynomial. The coefficients are ordered in descending powers of the polynomial's
independent variable. In other words, the vector's first entry contains the coefficient of
the polynomial's highest term; the second entry, the coefficient of the second highest
term; and so on.
Examples
The command
syms x u v
sym2poly(x^3 - 2*x - 5)
returns
ans =
1
-2
-5
The command
sym2poly(u^4 - 3 + 5*u^2)
returns
ans =
1
and the command

4-1058
-3
sym2poly
sym2poly(sin(pi/6)*v + exp(1)*v^2)
returns
ans =
2.7183
0.5000
See Also
poly2sym | subs | sym | polyval
4-1059
symengine
Return symbolic engine
Syntax
s = symengine
Description
s = symengine returns the currently active symbolic engine.
Examples
To see which symbolic computation engine is currently active, enter:
s = symengine
s =
MuPAD symbolic engine
Now you can use the variable s in function calls that require symbolic engine:
syms a b c x
p = a*x^2 + b*x + c;
feval(s,'polylib::discrim', p, x)
ans =
b^2 - 4*a*c
See Also
evalin | feval | read
4-1060
symfun
symfun
Create symbolic functions
Syntax
f = symfun(formula,inputs)
Description
f = symfun(formula,inputs) creates the symbolic function f and symbolic variables
inputs representing its input arguments. The symbolic expression formula defines the
body of the function f.
Input Arguments
formula
Symbolic expression or vector or matrix of symbolic expressions. This argument
represents the body of f. If it contains other symbolic variables besides inputs, those
variables must already exist in the MATLAB workspace.
inputs
Array that contains input arguments of f. For each argument, symfun creates a symbolic
variable. Argument names must begin with a letter and can contain only alphanumeric
characters.
Output Arguments
f
Symbolic function. The name of a symbolic function must begin with a letter and contain
only alphanumeric characters.
4-1061
Examples
Create the symbolic variables x and y. Then use symfun to create the symbolic function
f(x, y) = x + y:
syms x y
f = symfun(x + y, [x y])
f(x, y) =
x + y
Create the symbolic variables x and y. Then use symfun to create an arbitrary symbolic
function f(x, y). An arbitrary symbolic function does not have a mathematical
expression assigned to it.
syms x y
f = symfun(sym('f(x, y)'), [x y])
f(x, y) =
f(x, y)
Alternatives
Use the assignment operation to simultaneously create a symbolic function and define its
body. The arguments x and y must be symbolic variables in the MATLAB workspace.
syms x y
f(x, y) = x + y
Use syms to create an arbitrary symbolic function f(x, y). The following command
creates the symbolic function f and the symbolic variables x and y.
syms f(x, y)
Use sym to create an arbitrary symbolic function f(x, y). The arguments x and y must
be symbolic variables in the MATLAB workspace.
syms x y
f(x, y) = sym('f(x, y)')
More About
4-1062
symfun
See Also
argnames | dsolve | formula | matlabFunction | odeToVectorField | sym |

syms | symvar
4-1063
symprod
Product of series
Syntax
symprod(expr,var)
symprod(expr,var,a,b)
Description
symprod(expr,var) evaluates the product of a series, where expression expr defines
the terms of a series, with respect to the symbolic variable var. The value of the variable
var changes from 1 to var. If you do not specify the variable, symprod uses the default
variable determined by symvar. If expr is a constant, then the default variable is x.
symprod(expr,var,a,b) evaluates the product of a series, where expression expr
defines the terms of a series, with respect to the symbolic variable var. The value of the
variable var changes from a to b. If you do not specify the variable, symprod uses the
default variable determined by symvar. If expr is a constant, then the default variable is
x.
symprod(expr,var,[a,b]), symprod(expr,var,[a b]), and symprod(expr,var,
[a;b]) are equivalent to symprod(expr,var,a,b).
Examples
Evaluate the Product of a Series
Evaluate the product of a series for the symbolic expressions k and k^2:
syms k
symprod(k)
symprod((2*k - 1)/k^2)
ans =
factorial(k)
4-1064
symprod
ans =
(1/2^(2*k)*2^(k + 1)*factorial(2*k))/(2*factorial(k)^3)
Evaluate the Product of a Series Specifying Bounds

Evaluate the product of a series for these expressions specifying the bounds:
syms k
symprod(1 - 1/k^2, k, 2, Inf)
symprod(k^2/(k^2 - 1), k, 2, Inf)
ans =
1/2
ans =
2
You also can specify bounds as a row or column vector:

syms k
symprod(1 - 1/k^2, k, [2, Inf])
symprod(k^2/(k^2 - 1), k, [2; Inf])
ans =
1/2
ans =
2
Evaluate the Product of a Series Specifying the Product Index and Bounds
Evaluate the product of a series for this multivariable expression with respect to k:
syms k x
symprod(exp(k*x)/x, k, 1, 10000)
ans =
exp(50005000*x)/x^10000
Input Arguments
expr Expression defining terms of series
number
4-1065
Expression defining terms of series, specified as a symbolic expression or function, a

constant, or a vector or matrix of symbolic expressions, functions, or constants.
var Product index
symbolic variable
Product index, specified as a symbolic variable. If you do not specify this variable,
symprod uses the default variable determined by symvar(expr,1). If expr is a
constant, then the default variable is x.
a Lower bound of product index
function
Lower bound of product index, specified as a number, symbolic number, variable,
expression or function (including expressions and functions with infinities).
b Upper bound of product index
function
Upper bound of product index, specified as a number, symbolic number, variable,
More About
Definite Product
The definite product of a series is defined as
b
xi = xa xa +1 xb
i= a
Indefinite Product
f ( i) =
xi
i
4-1066
symprod
is called the indefinite product of xi over i, if the following identity holds for all values of
i:
f ( i + 1)
= xi
f ( i)
Note: symprod does not compute indefinite products.
See Also
cumprod | cumsum | int | syms | symsum | symvar
4-1067
syms
Shortcut for creating symbolic variables and functions
Syntax
syms
syms
syms
syms
var1 ... varN

var1 ... varN set
var1 ... varN clear
f(arg1,...,argN)
Description
syms var1 ... varN creates symbolic variables var1 ... varN.
syms var1 ... varN set creates symbolic variables var1 ... varN and states that
these variables belong to set.
syms var1 ... varN clear removes assumptions previously set on symbolic
variables var1 ... varN.
syms f(arg1,...,argN) creates the symbolic function f and symbolic variables
arg1,...,argN representing the input arguments of f.
Input Arguments
var1 ... varN
Names of symbolic variables. Each name must begin with a letter and contain only
alphanumeric characters.
set
Either real or positive.
f
Name of a symbolic function. It must begin with a letter and contain only alphanumeric
characters.
4-1068
syms
arg1,...,argN
Arguments of a symbolic function. For each argument, syms creates a symbolic variable.
Argument names must begin with a letter and contain only alphanumeric characters.
Examples
Create symbolic variables x and y using syms:
syms x y
Create symbolic variables x and y, and assume that they are real:
syms x y real
To see assumptions set on x and y, use assumptions:

assumptions(x)
assumptions(y)
ans =
in(x, 'real')
ans =
in(y, 'real')
Clear the assumptions that x and y are real:

syms x y clear
assumptions
ans =
Empty sym: 1-by-0
Create a symbolic function f that accepts two arguments, x and y:

syms f(x, y)
Specify the formula for this function:

f(x, y) = x + 2*y
f(x, y) =
x + 2*y
4-1069
Compute the function value at the point x = 1 and y = 2:

f(1, 2)
ans =
5
Create symbolic function f and specify its formula by this symbolic matrix:
syms x
f(x) = [x x^2; x^3 x^4];
Compute the function value at the point x = 2:

f(2)
ans =
[ 2, 4]
[ 8, 16]
Now compute the value of this function for x = [1 2; 3 4]. The result is a cell array of
symbolic matrices:
y = f([1 2; 3 4])
y =
[2x2 sym]
[2x2 sym]
[2x2 sym]
[2x2 sym]
To access the contents of each cell in a cell array, use braces:

y{1}
ans =
[ 1, 2]
[ 3, 4]
y{2}
ans =
[ 1, 8]
[ 27, 64]
y{3}
ans =
4-1070
syms
[ 1, 4]
[ 9, 16]
y{4}
ans =
[ 1, 16]
[ 81, 256]
Alternatives
syms is a shortcut for sym. This shortcut lets you create several symbolic variables in
one function call. Alternatively, you can use sym and create each variable separately:
var1 = sym('var1');
...
varN = sym('varN');
sym also lets you create real variables or positive variables. It also lets you clear
assumptions set on a variable.
assume and assumeAlso provide more flexibility for setting assumptions on variable.
When creating a symbolic function, use syms to create arg1,...,argN as symbolic
variables. Then use the assignment operation to create the symbolic function f, for
example:
syms x y
f(x, y) = x + y
More About
Tips
For compatibility with previous versions, syms var1 ... varN unreal is
equivalent to syms var1 ... varN clear.
In functions and scripts, do not use syms to create symbolic variables with the same
names as MATLAB functions. For these names MATLAB does not create symbolic
variables, but keeps the names assigned to the functions. If you want to create a
symbolic variable with the same name as some MATLAB function inside a function or
a script, use sym. For example:
4-1071
alpha = sym('alpha')
clear x does not clear the symbolic object of its assumptions, such as real, positive,
or any assumptions set by assume. To remove assumptions, use one of these options:
syms x clear removes assumptions from x without affecting any other symbolic
variables.
reset(symengine) resets the symbolic engine and therefore removes
assumptions on all variables. The variables themselves remain in the MATLAB
workspace.
clear all removes all objects in the MATLAB workspace and resets the symbolic
engine.
See Also
assume | assumeAlso | assumptions | clear all | reset | sym | symfun |

symvar
4-1072
symsum
symsum
Sum of series
Syntax
symsum(expr,var)
symsum(expr,var,a,b)
Description
symsum(expr,var) finds the indefinite sum of a series, where expression expr defines
the terms of a series, with respect to the symbolic variable var. This is an expression s,
such that expr(var) = s(var + 1) - s(var). If you do not specify the variable,
symsum uses the default variable determined by symvar. If expr is a constant, then the
default variable is x.
symsum(expr,var,a,b) evaluates the sum of a series, where expression expr defines
the terms of a series, with respect to the symbolic variable var. The value of the variable
var changes from a to b. If you do not specify the variable, symsum uses the default
variable determined by symvar. If expr is a constant, then the default variable is x.
symsum(expr,var,[a,b]), symsum(expr,var,[a b]), and symsum(expr,var,
[a;b]) are equivalent to symsum(expr,var,a,b).
Examples
Evaluate the Sum of a Series
Evaluate the sum of a series for the symbolic expressions k and k^2:
syms k
symsum(k)
symsum(1/k^2)
ans =
k^2/2 - k/2
4-1073
ans =
-psi(1, k)
Evaluate the Sum of a Series Specifying Bounds

Evaluate the sum of a series for these expressions specifying the bounds:
syms k
symsum(k^2, 0, 10)
symsum(1/k^2,1,Inf)
ans =
385
ans =
pi^2/6
You also can specify bounds as a row or column vector:

syms k
symsum(k^2, [0, 10])
symsum(1/k^2, [1; Inf])
ans =
385
ans =
pi^2/6
Evaluate the Sum of a Series Specifying the Summation Index and Bounds
Evaluate the sum of a series for this multivariable expression with respect to k:
syms k x
symsum(x^k/sym('k!'), k, 0, Inf)
ans =
exp(x)
Input Arguments
expr Expression defining terms of series
number
4-1074
symsum
Expression defining terms of series, specified as a symbolic expression or function, a

constant, or a vector or matrix of symbolic expressions, functions, or constants.
var Summation index
symbolic variable
Summation index, specified as a symbolic variable. If you do not specify this variable,
symsum uses the default variable determined by symvar(expr,1). If expr is a constant,
then the default variable is x.
a Lower bound of summation index
function
Lower bound of summation index, specified as a number, symbolic number, variable,
b Upper bound of summation index
function
Upper bound of summation index, specified as a number, symbolic number, variable,
More About
Definite Sum
The definite sum of series is defined as
b
xi = xa + xa+1 + + xb
i= a
Indefinite Sum
f ( i) =
xi
i
is called the indefinite sum of xi over i, if the following identity is true for all values of i.
4-1075
f ( i + 1 ) - f ( i ) = xi
See Also
cumprod | cumsum | int | symprod | syms | symvar
Related Examples
4-1076
Symbolic Summation on page 2-19
symvar
symvar
Find symbolic variables in symbolic expression, matrix, or function
Syntax
symvar(s)
symvar(s,n)
Description
symvar(s) returns a vector containing all the symbolic variables in s in alphabetical
order with uppercase letters preceding lowercase letters.
symvar(s,n) returns a vector containing n symbolic variables in s alphabetically closest
to x. If s is a symbolic function, symvar(s,n) returns the input arguments of s in front
of other free variables in s.
Input Arguments
s
Symbolic expression, matrix, or function.
n
Integer.
Examples
Find all symbolic variables in the sum:
syms wa wb wx yx ya yb
symvar(wa + wb + wx + ya + yb + yx)
4-1077
ans =
[ wa, wb, wx, ya, yb, yx]
Find all symbolic variables in this function:

syms x y a b
f(a, b) = a*x^2/(sin(3*y - b));
symvar(f)
ans =
[ a, b, x, y]
Now find the first three symbolic variables in f. For a symbolic function, symvar with
two arguments returns the function inputs in front of other variables:
symvar(f, 3)
ans =
[ a, b, x]
For a symbolic expression or matrix, symvar with two arguments returns variables
sorted by their proximity to x:
symvar(a*x^2/(sin(3*y - b)), 3)
ans =
[ x, y, b]
Find the default symbolic variable of these expressions:

syms v z
g = v + z;
symvar(g, 1)
ans =
z
syms aaa aab
g = aaa + aab;
symvar(g, 1)
ans =
aaa
syms X1 x2 xa xb
g = X1 + x2 + xa + xb;
4-1078
symvar
symvar(g, 1)
ans =
x2
More About
Tips
symvar(s) can return variables in a different order than symvar(s,n).
symvar does treat the constants pi, i, and j as variables.
If there are no symbolic variables in s, symvar returns the empty vector.
When performing differentiation, integration, substitution or solving equations,
MATLAB uses the variable returned by symvar(s,1) as a default variable. For a
symbolic expression or matrix, symvar(s,1) returns the variable closest to x. For a
function, symvar(s,1) returns the first input argument of s.
Algorithms
When sorting the symbolic variables by their proximity to x, symvar uses this algorithm:
1
The variables are sorted by the first letter in their names. The ordering is x y w
z v u ... a X Y W Z V U ... A. The name of a symbolic variable cannot begin with a
number.
For all subsequent letters, the ordering is alphabetical, with all uppercase letters
having precedence over lowercase: 0 1 ... 9 A B ... Z a b ... z.
Find a Default Symbolic Variable on page 1-14
See Also
sym | symfun | syms
4-1079
tan
Symbolic tangent function
Syntax
tan(X)
Description
tan(X) returns the tangent function of X.
Examples
Tangent Function for Numeric and Symbolic Arguments
Depending on its arguments, tan returns floating-point or exact symbolic results.
Compute the tangent function for these numbers. Because these numbers are not
symbolic objects, tan returns floating-point results.
A = tan([-2, -pi, pi/6, 5*pi/7, 11])
A =
2.1850
0.0000
0.5774
-1.2540 -225.9508
Compute the tangent function for the numbers converted to symbolic objects. For many
symbolic (exact) numbers, tan returns unresolved symbolic calls.
symA = tan(sym([-2, -pi, pi/6, 5*pi/7, 11]))
symA =
[ -tan(2), 0, 3^(1/2)/3, -tan((2*pi)/7), tan(11)]

4-1080
tan
vpa(symA)
ans =
[ 2.1850398632615189916433061023137,...
0,...
0.57735026918962576450914878050196,...
-1.2539603376627038375709109783365,...
-225.95084645419514202579548320345]
Plot the Tangent Function

Plot the tangent function on the interval from
to .
syms x
ezplot(tan(x), [-pi, pi])
grid on
4-1081
Handle Expressions Containing the Tangent Function

containing tan.
Find the first and second derivatives of the tangent function:
syms x
diff(tan(x), x)
diff(tan(x), x, x)
ans =
tan(x)^2 + 1
4-1082
tan
ans =
2*tan(x)*(tan(x)^2 + 1)
Find the indefinite integral of the tangent function:

int(tan(x), x)
ans =
-log(cos(x))
Find the Taylor series expansion of tan(x):

taylor(tan(x), x)
ans =
(2*x^5)/15 + x^3/3 + x
Rewrite the tangent function in terms of the sine and cosine functions:
rewrite(tan(x), 'sincos')
ans =
sin(x)/cos(x)
Rewrite the tangent function in terms of the exponential function:

rewrite(tan(x), 'exp')
ans =
-(exp(x*2*i)*i - i)/(exp(x*2*i) + 1)
Input Arguments
X Input
More About
Tangent Function
The tangent of an angle, , defined with reference to a right angled triangle is
4-1083
tan(a ) =
opposite side a
= .
adjacent side b
The tangent of a complex angle, , is
tangent (a ) =
.
4-1084
eia - e-ia
i ( eia + e-ia )
tan
See Also
acos | acot | acsc | asec | asin | atan | cos | cot | csc | sec | sin
4-1085
tanh
Symbolic hyperbolic tangent function
Syntax
tanh(X)
Description
tanh(X) returns the hyperbolic tangent function of X.
Examples
Hyperbolic Tangent Function for Numeric and Symbolic Arguments
Depending on its arguments, tanh returns floating-point or exact symbolic results.
Compute the hyperbolic tangent function for these numbers. Because these numbers are
not symbolic objects, tanh returns floating-point results.
A = tanh([-2, -pi*i, pi*i/6, pi*i/3, 5*pi*i/7])
A =
-0.9640 + 0.0000i
0.0000 + 1.7321i
0.0000 + 0.0000i
0.0000 - 1.2540i
0.0000 + 0.5774i...
Compute the hyperbolic tangent function for the numbers converted to symbolic objects.
For many symbolic (exact) numbers, tanh returns unresolved symbolic calls.
symA = tanh(sym([-2, -pi*i, pi*i/6, pi*i/3, 5*pi*i/7]))
symA =
[ -tanh(2), 0, (3^(1/2)*i)/3, 3^(1/2)*i, -tanh((pi*2*i)/7)]

4-1086
tanh
vpa(symA)
ans =
[ -0.96402758007581688394641372410092,...
0,...
0.57735026918962576450914878050196*i,...
1.7320508075688772935274463415059*i,...
-1.2539603376627038375709109783365*i]
Plot the Hyperbolic Tangent Function

Plot the hyperbolic tangent function on the interval from
to .
syms x
ezplot(tanh(x), [-pi, pi])
grid on
4-1087
Handle Expressions Containing the Hyperbolic Tangent Function

containing tanh.
Find the first and second derivatives of the hyperbolic tangent function:
syms x
diff(tanh(x), x)
diff(tanh(x), x, x)
ans =
1 - tanh(x)^2
4-1088
tanh
ans =
2*tanh(x)*(tanh(x)^2 - 1)
Find the indefinite integral of the hyperbolic tangent function:

int(tanh(x), x)
ans =
log(cosh(x))
Find the Taylor series expansion of tanh(x):

taylor(tanh(x), x)
ans =
(2*x^5)/15 - x^3/3 + x
Rewrite the hyperbolic tangent function in terms of the exponential function:

rewrite(tanh(x), 'exp')
ans =
(exp(2*x) - 1)/(exp(2*x) + 1)
Input Arguments
X Input
See Also
acosh | acoth | acsch | asech | asinh | atanh | cosh | coth | csch | sech |
sinh
4-1089
taylor
Taylor series expansion
Syntax
taylor(f)
taylor(f,Name,Value)
taylor(f,v)
taylor(f,v,Name,Value)
taylor(f,v,a)
taylor(f,v,a,Name,Value)
Description
taylor(f) computes the Taylor series expansion of f up to the fifth order. The
expansion point is 0.
taylor(f,Name,Value) uses additional options specified by one or more Name,Value
pair arguments.
taylor(f,v) computes the Taylor series expansion of f with respect to v.
taylor(f,v,Name,Value) uses additional options specified by one or more
taylor(f,v,a) computes the Taylor series expansion of f with respect to v around the
expansion point a.
taylor(f,v,a,Name,Value) uses additional options specified by one or more
Input Arguments
f
Symbolic expression.
4-1090
taylor
v
Symbolic variable or vector of symbolic variables with respect to which you want to
compute the Taylor series expansion.
Default: Symbolic variable or vector of symbolic variables of f determined by symvar.
a
Real number (including infinities and symbolic numbers) specifying the expansion point.
For multivariate Taylor series expansions, use a vector of numbers.
Default: 0

'ExpansionPoint'
Specify the expansion point a. The value a is a scalar or a vector.
Default: If you specify the expansion point as a third argument a of taylor, then the
value of that argument. Otherwise, 0.
'Order'
Specify the truncation order n, where n is a positive integer. taylor computes the Taylor
polynomial approximation with the order n-1. The truncation order n is the exponent in
the O-term: O(vn).
Default: 6
'OrderMode'
Specify whether you want to use absolute or relative order when computing the Taylor
polynomial approximation. The value must be one of these strings: Absolute or
Relative. Absolute order is the truncation order of the computed series. Relative order
4-1091
n means that the exponents of v in the computed series range from the leading order
m to the highest exponent m + n - 1. Here m + n is the exponent of v in the O-term:
O(vm+n).
Default: Absolute
Examples
Compute the Maclaurin series expansions of these functions:
syms x
taylor(exp(x))
taylor(sin(x))
taylor(cos(x))
ans =
x^5/120 + x^4/24 + x^3/6 + x^2/2 + x + 1
ans =
x^5/120 - x^3/6 + x
ans =
x^4/24 - x^2/2 + 1
Compute the Taylor series expansions around x=1 for these functions. The default
expansion point is 0. To specify a different expansion point, use ExpansionPoint:
syms x
taylor(log(x), x, 'ExpansionPoint', 1)
ans =
x - (x - 1)^2/2 + (x - 1)^3/3 - (x - 1)^4/4 + (x - 1)^5/5 - 1
Alternatively, specify the expansion point as the third argument of taylor:

taylor(acot(x), x, 1)
ans =
pi/4 - x/2 + (x - 1)^2/4 - (x - 1)^3/12 + (x - 1)^5/40 + 1/2
Compute the Maclaurin series expansion for this function. The default truncation order
is 6. Taylor series approximation of this function does not have a fifth-degree term, so
taylor approximates this function with the fourth-degree polynomial:
4-1092
taylor
syms x
f = sin(x)/x;
t6 = taylor(f)
t6 =
x^4/120 - x^2/6 + 1
Use Order to control the truncation order. For example, approximate the function up to
the orders 8 and 10:
t8 = taylor(f, 'Order', 8)
t10 = taylor(f, 'Order', 10)
t8 =
- x^6/5040 + x^4/120 - x^2/6 + 1
t10 =
x^8/362880 - x^6/5040 + x^4/120 - x^2/6 + 1
Plot the original function f and its approximations t6, t8, and t10. Note how the
accuracy of the approximation depends on the truncation order.
ezplot(t6, [-4, 4])
hold on
ezplot(t8, [-4, 4])
ezplot(t10, [-4, 4])
ezplot(f, [-4, 4])
legend('approximation of sin(x)/x up to O(x^6)',...
'approximation of sin(x)/x up to O(x^8)',...
'approximation of sin(x)/x up to O(x^1^0)',...
'sin(x)/x',...
'Location', 'South')
title('Taylor Series Expansion')
hold off
4-1093
Compute the Taylor series expansion of this expression. By default, taylor uses an
absolute order, which is the truncation order of the computed series.
taylor(1/(exp(x)) - exp(x) + 2*x, x, 'Order', 5)
ans =
-x^3/3
To compute the Taylor series expansion with a relative truncation order, use
OrderMode. For some expressions, a relative truncation order provides more accurate
approximations.
taylor(1/(exp(x)) - exp(x) + 2*x, x, 'Order', 5, 'OrderMode', 'Relative')
ans =
4-1094
taylor
- x^7/2520 - x^5/60 - x^3/3
Compute the Maclaurin series expansion of this multivariate function. If you do not
specify the vector of variables, taylor treats f as a function of one independent variable.
syms x y z
f = sin(x) + cos(y) + exp(z);
taylor(f)
ans =
x^5/120 - x^3/6 + x + cos(y) + exp(z)
Compute the multivariate Maclaurin expansion by specifying the vector of variables:

syms x y z
f = sin(x) + cos(y) + exp(z);
taylor(f, [x, y, z])
ans =
x^5/120 - x^3/6 + x + y^4/24 - y^2/2 + z^5/120 + z^4/24 + z^3/6 + z^2/2 + z + 2
Compute the multivariate Taylor expansion by specifying both the vector of variables and
the vector of values defining the expansion point:
syms x y
f = y*exp(x - 1) - x*log(y);
taylor(f, [x, y], [1, 1], 'Order', 3)
ans =
x + (x - 1)^2/2 + (y - 1)^2/2
If you specify the expansion point as a scalar a, taylor transforms that scalar into a
vector of the same length as the vector of variables. All elements of the expansion vector
equal a:
taylor(f, [x, y], 1, 'Order', 3)
ans =
x + (x - 1)^2/2 + (y - 1)^2/2
More About
Taylor Series Expansion
Taylor series expansion represents an analytic function f(x) as an infinite sum of terms
around the expansion point x=a:
4-1095
f ( x) = f ( a) +
f ( a) (
f ( a) (
f ( m) ( a) (
2
m
x - a) +
x - a) + =
x - a)
1!
2!
m
!
m =0
Taylor series expansion requires a function to have derivatives up to an infinite order

around the expansion point.
Maclaurin Series Expansion
Taylor series expansion around x=0 is called Maclaurin series expansion:
f ( x) = f ( 0 ) +
f (0)
f ( 0 ) 2
f (m ) (0) m
x+
x + =
x
1!
2!
m!
m =0
Tips
If you use both the third argument a and ExpansionPoint to specify the expansion
point, the value specified via ExpansionPoint prevails.
If v is a vector, then the expansion point a must be a scalar or a vector of the same
length as v. If v is a vector and a is a scalar, then a is expanded into a vector of the
same length as v with all elements equal to a.
See Also
pade | symvar | taylortool
4-1096
taylortool
taylortool
Taylor series calculator
Syntax
taylortool
taylortool('f')
Description
taylortool initiates a GUI that graphs a function against the Nth partial sum of its
Taylor series about a base point x = a. The default function, value of N, base point,
and interval of computation for taylortool are f = x*cos(x), N = 7, a = 0, and
[-2*pi,2*pi], respectively.
taylortool('f') initiates the GUI for the given expression f.
Examples
Open the Taylor Series Calculator For a Particular Expression
Open the Taylor series calculator for sin(tan(x)) - tan(sin(x)):
taylortool('sin(tan(x)) - tan(sin(x))')
4-1097
More About
See Also
funtool | rsums
4-1098
texlabel
texlabel
TeX representation of symbolic expression
Syntax
texlabel(expr)
texlabel(expr,'literal')
Description
texlabel(expr) converts the symbolic expression expr into the TeX equivalent for
use in text strings. texlabel converts Greek variable names, such as delta, into Greek
letters. Annotation functions, such as title, xlabel, and text can use the TeX string
as input. To obtain the LaTeX representation, use latex.
texlabel(expr,'literal') interprets Greek variable names literally.
Examples
Generate TeX String
Use texlabel to generate TeX strings for these symbolic expressions.
syms x y lambda12 delta
texlabel(sin(x) + x^3)
texlabel(3*(1-x)^2*exp(-(x^2) - (y+1)^2))
texlabel(lambda12^(3/2)/pi - pi*delta^(2/3))
ans =
{sin}({x}) + {x}^{3}
ans =
{3} {exp}(- ({y} + {1})^{2} - {x}^{2}) ({x} - {1})^{2}
ans =
{\lambda_{12}}^{{3}/{2}}/{\pi} - {\pi} {\delta}^{{2}/{3}}
To make texlabel interpret Greek variable names literally, include the argument
'literal'.
4-1099
texlabel(lambda12,'literal')
ans =
{lambda12}
Insert TeX String in a Figure

Use texlabel to generate a TeX string that text inserts into a figure.
Plot y = x^2.
syms alpha
expr = alpha^2;
ezplot(expr)
4-1100
texlabel
Display the plotted expression on the plot.

expr = texlabel(expr);
text(2,30,['y = ' expr]);
Input Arguments
expr Expression to be converted
symbolic expression
Expression to be converted, specified as a symbolic expression.
4-1101
See Also
latex | text | title | xlabel | ylabel | zlabel
4-1102
toeplitz
toeplitz
Symbolic Toeplitz matrix
Syntax
toeplitz(c,r)
toeplitz(r)
Description
toeplitz(c,r) generates a nonsymmetric Toeplitz matrix having c as its first column
and r as its first row. If the first elements of c and r are different, toeplitz issues a
warning and uses the first element of the column.
toeplitz(r) generates a symmetric Toeplitz matrix if r is real. If r is complex, but its
first element is real, then this syntax generates the Hermitian Toeplitz matrix formed
from r. If the first element of r is not real, then the resulting matrix is Hermitian off the
main diagonal, meaning that Tij=conjugate(Tji) for ij.
Input Arguments
c
Vector specifying the first column of a Toeplitz matrix.
r
Vector specifying the first row of a Toeplitz matrix.
Examples
Generate the Toeplitz matrix from these vectors. Because these vectors are not symbolic
4-1103
c = [1 2 3 4 5 6];
r = [1 3/2 3 7/2 5];
toeplitz(c,r)
ans =
1.0000
2.0000
3.0000
4.0000
5.0000
6.0000
1.5000
1.0000
2.0000
3.0000
4.0000
5.0000
3.0000
1.5000
1.0000
2.0000
3.0000
4.0000
3.5000
3.0000
1.5000
1.0000
2.0000
3.0000
5.0000
3.5000
3.0000
1.5000
1.0000
2.0000
Now, convert these vectors to a symbolic object, and generate the Toeplitz matrix:
c = sym([1 2 3 4 5 6]);
r = sym([1 3/2 3 7/2 5]);
toeplitz(c,r)
ans =
[ 1, 3/2,
3, 7/2,
5]
[ 2,
1, 3/2,
3, 7/2]
[ 3,
2,
1, 3/2,
3]
[ 4,
3,
2,
1, 3/2]
[ 5,
4,
3,
2,
1]
[ 6,
5,
4,
3,
2]
Generate the Toeplitz matrix from this vector:

syms a b c d
T = toeplitz([a b c d])
T
[
[
[
[
=
a,
b,
c,
conj(b),
a,
b,
conj(c), conj(b),
a,
conj(d), conj(c), conj(b),
d]
c]
b]
a]
If you specify that all elements are real, then the resulting Toeplitz matrix is symmetric:
syms a b c d real
T = toeplitz([a b c d])
T
[
[
[
4-1104
=
a, b, c, d]
b, a, b, c]
c, b, a, b]
toeplitz
[ d, c, b, a]

syms a b c d clear
Generate the Toeplitz matrix from a vector containing complex numbers:

T = toeplitz(sym([1, 2, i]))
T =
[ 1, 2, i]
[ 2, 1, 2]
[ -i, 2, 1]
If the first element of the vector is real, then the resulting Toeplitz matrix is Hermitian:
logical(T == T')
ans =
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
If the first element is not real, then the resulting Toeplitz matrix is Hermitian off the
main diagonal:
T = toeplitz(sym([i, 2, 1]))
T
[
[
[
=
i, 2, 1]
2, i, 2]
1, 2, i]
logical(T == T')
ans =
0
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
0
Generate a Toeplitz matrix using these vectors to specify the first column and the first
row. Because the first elements of these vectors are different, toeplitz issues a warning
and uses the first element of the column:
syms a b c
4-1105
toeplitz([a b c], [1 b/2 a/2])

Warning: First element of input column does not match first element of input row.
Column wins diagonal conflict. [linalg::toeplitz]
ans =
[ a, b/2, a/2]
[ b,
a, b/2]
[ c,
b,
a]
More About
Toeplitz Matrix
A Toeplitz matrix is a matrix that has constant values along each descending diagonal
from left to right. For example, matrix T is a symmetric Toeplitz matrix:
t0
t-1
t-2
T =
t
-k
t1
t0
t-1
M
t2
t1 L
t0
O
t0
L t-1
t-2
M
t1
t0
t-1
tk
t2
t1
t0
Tips
Calling toeplitz for numeric arguments that are not symbolic objects invokes the
MATLAB toeplitz function.
See Also
linalg::toeplitz | toeplitz
4-1106
triangularPulse
triangularPulse
Triangular pulse function
Syntax
triangularPulse(a,b,c,x)
triangularPulse(a,c,x)
triangularPulse(x)
Description
triangularPulse(a,b,c,x) returns the triangular pulse function.
triangularPulse(a,c,x) is a shortcut for triangularPulse(a, (a + c)/2, c,
x).
triangularPulse(x) is a shortcut for triangularPulse(-1, 0, 1, x).
Input Arguments
a
expression. This argument specifies the rising edge of the triangular pulse function.
Default: -1
b
expression. This argument specifies the peak of the triangular pulse function.
Default: If you specify a and c, then (a + c)/2. Otherwise, 0.
c
expression. This argument specifies the falling edge of the triangular pulse function.
4-1107
Default: 1
x
expression.
Examples
Compute the triangular pulse function for these numbers. Because these numbers are
not symbolic objects, you get floating-point results:
[triangularPulse(-2, 0, 2, -3)
triangularPulse(-2, 0, 2, -1/2)
triangularPulse(-2, 0, 2, 0)
triangularPulse(-2, 0, 2, 3/2)
triangularPulse(-2, 0, 2, 3)]
ans =
0
0.7500
1.0000
0.2500
0
Compute the triangular pulse function for the numbers converted to symbolic objects:
[triangularPulse(sym(-2), 0, 2, -3)
triangularPulse(-2, 0, 2, sym(-1/2))
triangularPulse(-2, sym(0), 2, 0)
triangularPulse(-2, 0, 2, sym(3/2))
triangularPulse(-2, 0, sym(2), 3)]
ans =
0
3/4
1
1/4
0
Compute the triangular pulse function for a < x < b:

syms a b c x
4-1108
triangularPulse
assume(a < x < b)

triangularPulse(a, b, c, x)
ans =
(a - x)/(a - b)

syms a b x clear
Compute the triangular pulse function for b < x < c:

assume(b < x < c)
triangularPulse(a, b, c, x)
ans =
-(c - x)/(b - c)

syms b c x clear
Compute the triangular pulse function for a = b:

syms a b c x
assume(b < c)
triangularPulse(b, b, c, x)
ans =
-((c - x)*rectangularPulse(b, c, x))/(b - c)
Compute the triangular pulse function for c = b:

assume(a < b)
triangularPulse(a, b, b, x)
ans =
((a - x)*rectangularPulse(a, b, x))/(a - b)
For further computations, remove all assumptions on a, b, and c:

syms a b c clear
Use triangularPulse with one input argument as a shortcut for computing

triangularPulse(-1, 0, 1, x):
4-1109
syms x
triangularPulse(x)
ans =
triangularPulse(-1, 0, 1, x)
[triangularPulse(sym(-10))
triangularPulse(sym(-3/4))
triangularPulse(sym(0))
triangularPulse(sym(2/3))
triangularPulse(sym(1))]
ans =
0
1/4
1
1/3
0
Use triangularPulse with three input arguments as a shortcut for computing

triangularPulse(a, (a + c)/2, c, x):
syms a c x
triangularPulse(a, c, x)
ans =
triangularPulse(a, a/2 + c/2, c, x)
[triangularPulse(sym(-10), 10, 3)
triangularPulse(sym(-1/2), -1/4, -2/3)
triangularPulse(sym(2), 4, 3)
triangularPulse(sym(2), 4, 6)
triangularPulse(sym(-1), 4, 0)]
ans =
7/10
0
1
0
2/5
Plot the triangular pulse function:

syms x
ezplot(triangularPulse(x), [-2, 2])
4-1110
triangularPulse
Call triangularPulse with infinities as its rising and falling edges:

syms x
triangularPulse(-1, 0, inf, x)
triangularPulse(-inf, 0, 1, x)
triangularPulse(-inf, 0, inf, x)
ans =
heaviside(x) + (x + 1)*rectangularPulse(-1, 0, x)
ans =
heaviside(-x) - (x - 1)*rectangularPulse(0, 1, x)
ans =
1
4-1111
More About
Triangular Pulse Function
If a < x < b, then the triangular pulse function equals (x - a)/(b - a).
If b < x < c, then the triangular pulse function equals (c - x)/(c - b).
If x <= a or x >= c, then the triangular pulse function equals 0.
The triangular pulse function is also called the triangle function, hat function, tent
function, or sawtooth function.
Tips
If a, b, and c are variables or expressions with variables, triangularPulse assumes
that a <= b <= c. If a, b, and c are numerical values that do not satisfy this
condition, triangularPulse throws an error.
If a = b = c, triangularPulse returns 0.
If a = b or b = c, the triangular function can be expressed in terms of the
rectangular function.
See Also
dirac | heaviside | rectangularPulse
4-1112
tril
tril
Return lower triangular part of symbolic matrix
Syntax
tril(A)
tril(A,k)
Description
tril(A) returns a triangular matrix that retains the lower part of the matrix A. The
upper triangle of the resulting matrix is padded with zeros.
tril(A,k) returns a matrix that retains the elements of A on and below the k-th
diagonal. The elements above the k-th diagonal equal to zero. The values k = 0, k > 0,
and k < 0 correspond to the main, superdiagonals, and subdiagonals, respectively.
Examples
Display the matrix retaining only the lower triangle of the original symbolic matrix:
syms a b c
A = [a b c; 1 2 3; a + 1 b + 2 c + 3];
tril(A)
ans =
[
a,
0,
0]
[
1,
2,
0]
[ a + 1, b + 2, c + 3]
Display the matrix that retains the elements of the original symbolic matrix on and
below the first superdiagonal:
syms a b c
A = [a b c; 1 2 3; a + 1 b + 2 c + 3];
tril(A, 1)
4-1113
ans =
[
a,
b,
0]
[
1,
2,
3]
[ a + 1, b + 2, c + 3]
below the first subdiagonal:
syms a b c
A = [a b c; 1 2 3; a + 1 b + 2 c + 3];
tril(A, -1)
ans =
[
0,
0, 0]
[
1,
0, 0]
[ a + 1, b + 2, 0]
See Also
diag | triu
4-1114
triu
triu
Return upper triangular part of symbolic matrix
Syntax
triu(A)
triu(A,k)
Description
triu(A) returns a triangular matrix that retains the upper part of the matrix A. The
lower triangle of the resulting matrix is padded with zeros.
triu(A,k) returns a matrix that retains the elements of A on and above the k-th
diagonal. The elements below the k-th diagonal equal to zero. The values k = 0, k > 0,
and k < 0 correspond to the main, superdiagonals, and subdiagonals, respectively.
Examples
Display the matrix retaining only the upper triangle of the original symbolic matrix:
syms a b c
A = [a b c; 1 2 3; a + 1 b + 2 c + 3];
triu(A)
ans =
[ a, b,
c]
[ 0, 2,
3]
[ 0, 0, c + 3]
above the first superdiagonal:
syms a b c
A = [a b c; 1 2 3; a + 1 b + 2 c + 3];
triu(A, 1)
4-1115
ans =
[ 0, b, c]
[ 0, 0, 3]
[ 0, 0, 0]
above the first subdiagonal:
syms a b c
A = [a b c; 1 2 3; a + 1 b + 2 c + 3];
triu(A, -1)
ans =
[ a,
b,
c]
[ 1,
2,
3]
[ 0, b + 2, c + 3]
See Also
diag | tril
4-1116
uint8uint16uint32uint64
uint8uint16uint32uint64
Convert symbolic matrix to unsigned integers
Syntax
uint8(S)
uint16(S)
uint32(S)
uint64(S)
Description
uint8(S) converts a symbolic matrix S to a matrix of unsigned 8-bit integers.
uint16(S) converts S to a matrix of unsigned 16-bit integers.
Note The output of uint8, uint16, uint32, and uint64 does not have type symbolic.
The following table summarizes the output of these four functions.
Function
Output Range
Output Type
Bytes per
Element
Output Class
uint8
0 to 255
Unsigned 8-bit
integer
uint8
uint16
0 to 65,535
Unsigned 16-bit
integer
uint16
uint32
0 to 4,294,967,295
Unsigned 32-bit
integer
uint32
uint64
0 to 18,446,744,073,709,
551,615
Unsigned 64-bit
integer
uint64
4-1117
See Also
sym | vpa | single | int8 | int16 | int32 | int64 | double
4-1118
vectorPotential
vectorPotential
Vector potential of vector field
Syntax
vectorPotential(V,X)
vectorPotential(V)
Description
vectorPotential(V,X) computes the vector potential of the vector field V with respect
to the vector X in Cartesian coordinates. The vector field V and the vector X are both
three-dimensional.
vectorPotential(V) returns the vector potential V with respect to a vector
constructed from the first three symbolic variables found in V by symvar.
Input Arguments
V
Three-dimensional vector of symbolic expressions or functions.
X
Three-dimensional vector with respect to which you compute the vector potential.
Examples
Compute the vector potential of this row vector field with respect to the vector [x, y,
z]:
syms x y z
vectorPotential([x^2*y, -1/2*y^2*x, -x*y*z], [x y z])
4-1119
ans =
-(x*y^2*z)/2
-x^2*y*z
0
Compute the vector potential of this column vector field with respect to the vector [x,
y, z]:
syms x y z
f(x,y,z) = 2*y^3 - 4*x*y;
g(x,y,z) = 2*y^2 - 16*z^2+18;
h(x,y,z) = -32*x^2 - 16*x*y^2;
A = vectorPotential([f; g; h], [x y z])
A(x, y, z) =
z*(2*y^2 + 18) - (16*z^3)/3 + (16*x*y*(y^2 + 6*x))/3
2*y*z*(- y^2 + 2*x)
0
To check whether the vector potential exists for a particular vector field, compute the
divergence of that vector field:
syms x y z
V = [x^2 2*y z];
divergence(V, [x y z])
ans =
2*x + 3
If the divergence is not equal to 0, the vector potential does not exist. In this case,
vectorPotential returns the vector with all three components equal to NaN:
vectorPotential(V, [x y z])
ans =
NaN
NaN
NaN
More About
Vector Potential of a Vector Field
The vector potential of a vector field V is a vector field A, such that:
4-1120
vectorPotential
V = A = curl( A)
Tips
The vector potential exists if and only if the divergence of a vector field V with respect
to X equals 0. If vectorPotential cannot verify that V has a vector potential, it
returns the vector with all three components equal to NaN.
See Also
curl | diff | divergence | gradient | hessian | jacobian | laplacian |

potential
4-1121
vertcat
Concatenate symbolic arrays vertically
Syntax
vertcat(A1,...,AN)
[A1;...;AN]
Description
vertcat(A1,...,AN) vertically concatenates the symbolic arrays A1,...,AN. For vectors
and matrices, all inputs must have the same number of columns. For multidimensional
arrays, vertcat concatenates inputs along the first dimension. The remaining
dimensions must match.
[A1;...;AN] is a shortcut for vertcat(A1,...,AN).
Examples
Concatenate Two Symbolic Vectors Vertically
Concatenate the two symbolic vectors A and B to form a symbolic matrix.
A = sym('a%d',[1 4]);
B = sym('b%d',[1 4]);
vertcat(A,B)
ans =
[ a1, a2, a3, a4]
[ b1, b2, b3, b4]
Alternatively, you can use the shorthand [A;B] to concatenate A and B.

[A;B]
ans =
4-1122
vertcat
[ a1, a2, a3, a4]

[ b1, b2, b3, b4]
Concatenate Multiple Symbolic Arrays Vertically

Concatenate multiple symbolic arrays into one symbolic matrix.
A = sym('a%d',[1 3]);
B = sym('b%d%d',[4 3]);
C = sym('c%d%d',[2 3]);
vertcat(C,A,B)
ans =
[ c11,
[ c21,
[ a1,
[ b11,
[ b21,
[ b31,
[ b41,
c12,
c22,
a2,
b12,
b22,
b32,
b42,
c13]
c23]
a3]
b13]
b23]
b33]
b43]
Concatenate Multidimensional Arrays Vertically

Create the 3-D symbolic arrays A and B.
A = [2 4; 1 7; 3 3];
A(:,:,2) = [8 9; 4 5; 6 2];
A = sym(A)
B = [8 3; 0 2];
B(:,:,2) = [6 2; 3 3];
B = sym(B)
A(:,:,1) =
[ 2, 4]
[ 1, 7]
[ 3, 3]
A(:,:,2) =
[ 8, 9]
[ 4, 5]
[ 6, 2]
B(:,:,1) =
[ 8, 3]
4-1123
[ 0, 2]
B(:,:,2) =
[ 6, 2]
[ 3, 3]
Use vertcat to concatenate A and B.

vertcat(A,B)
ans(:,:,1) =
[ 2, 4]
[ 1, 7]
[ 3, 3]
[ 8, 3]
[ 0, 2]
ans(:,:,2) =
[ 8, 9]
[ 4, 5]
[ 6, 2]
[ 6, 2]
[ 3, 3]
Input Arguments
arrays.
See Also
cat | horzcat
4-1124
vpa
vpa
Syntax
R = vpa(A)
R = vpa(A,d)
Description
R = vpa(A) uses variable-precision arithmetic (VPA) to compute each element of A to at
least d decimal digits of accuracy, where d is the current setting of digits.
R = vpa(A,d) uses at least d significant (nonzero) digits, instead of the current setting
of digits.
Input Arguments
A
Symbolic object, string, or numeric expression.
d
Integer greater than 1 and smaller than 2 29 + 1 .
Output Arguments
R
Symbolic object representing a floating-point number
Examples
Approximate the following expressions with the 25 digits precision:
4-1125
old = digits(25);
q = vpa('1/2')
p = vpa(pi)
w = vpa('(1+sqrt(5))/2')
digits(old)
q =
0.5
p =
3.141592653589793238462643
w =
1.618033988749894848204587
Solve the following equation:

syms x
y = solve(x^2 - 2,x)
y =
2^(1/2)
-2^(1/2)
Approximate the solutions with floating-point numbers:

vpa(y(1))
vpa(y(2))
ans =
1.4142135623730950488016887242097
ans =
-1.4142135623730950488016887242097
Use the vpa function to approximate elements of the following matrices:

A = vpa(hilb(2), 25)
B = vpa(hilb(2), 5)
A =
[ 1.0,
0.5]
[ 0.5, 0.3333333333333333333333333]
B =
[ 1.0,
0.5]
[ 0.5, 0.33333]
4-1126
vpa
The vpa function lets you specify a number of significant (nonzero) digits that is different
from the current digits setting. For example, compute the ratio 1/3 and the ratio 1/3000
with 4 significant digits:
vpa(1/3, 4)
vpa(1/3000, 4)
ans =
0.3333
ans =
0.0003333
The number of digits that you specify by the vpa function or the digits function is the
minimal number of digits. Internally, the toolbox can use more digits than you specify.
These additional digits are called guard digits. For example, set the number of digits to 4,
and then display the floating-point approximation of 1/3 using 4 digits:
old = digits;
digits(4)
a = vpa(1/3, 4)
a =
0.3333
Now, display a using 20 digits. The result shows that the toolbox internally used more
than 4 digits when computing a. The last digits in the following result are incorrect
because of the round-off error:
vpa(a, 20)
digits(old)
ans =
0.33333333333303016843
Hidden round-off errors can cause unexpected results. For example, compute the number
1/10 with the default 32 digits accuracy and with the 10 digits accuracy:
a = vpa(1/10, 32)
b = vpa(1/10, 10)
a =
0.1
b =
0.1
4-1127
Now, compute the difference a - b:

a - b
ans =
0.000000000000000000086736173798840354720600815844403
The difference is not equal to zero because the toolbox approximates the number b=0.1
with 32 digits. This approximation produces round-off errors because the floating point
number 0.1 is different from the rational number 1/10. When you compute the difference
a - b, the toolbox actually computes the difference as follows:
a - vpa(b, 32)
ans =
0.000000000000000000086736173798840354720600815844403
Suppose you convert a number to a symbolic object, and then perform VPA operations
on that object. The results can depend on the conversion technique that you used to
convert a floating-point number to a symbolic object. The sym function lets you choose the
conversion technique by specifying the optional second argument, which can be 'r', 'f', 'd'
or 'e'. The default is 'r'. For example, convert the constant =3.141592653589793... to a
symbolic object:
r
f
d
e
=
=
=
=
sym(pi)
sym(pi, 'f')
sym(pi, 'd')
sym(pi, 'e')
r =
pi
f =
884279719003555/281474976710656
d =
3.1415926535897931159979634685442
e =
pi - (198*eps)/359
Compute these numbers with the 4 digits VPA precision. Three of the four numeric
approximations give the same result:
vpa(r, 4)
4-1128
vpa
vpa(f, 4)
vpa(d, 4)
vpa(e, 4)
ans =
3.142
ans =
3.142
ans =
3.142
ans =
3.142 - 0.5515*eps
Now, increase the VPA precision to 40 digits. The numeric approximation of 1/10 depends
on the technique that you used to convert 1/10 to the symbolic object:
vpa(r,
vpa(f,
vpa(d,
vpa(e,
40)
40)
40)
40)
ans =
3.141592653589793238462643383279502884197
ans =
3.141592653589793115997963468544185161591
ans =
3.1415926535897931159979634685442
ans =
3.141592653589793238462643383279502884197 -...
0.5515320334261838440111420612813370473538*eps
More About
Tips
The toolbox increases the internal precision of calculations by several digits (guard
digits).
4-1129
When you apply vpa to a numeric expression, such as 1/3, 2^(-5), or sin(pi/4),
it is evaluated to a double-precision number. Then, vpa is applied to that doubleprecision number. For more accurate results, convert numeric expressions to symbolic
expressions. For example, to approximate exp(1) use vpa(sym(exp(1)).
If the value d is not an integer, vpa rounds it to the nearest integer.
See Also
digits | double
4-1130
vpasolve
vpasolve
Numeric solver
Syntax
S = vpasolve(eqn)
S = vpasolve(eqn,var)
S = vpasolve(eqn,var,init_guess)
Y = vpasolve(eqns)
Y = vpasolve(eqns,vars)
Y = vpasolve(eqns,vars,init_guess)
[y1,...,yN] = vpasolve(eqns)
[y1,...,yN] = vpasolve(eqns,vars)
[y1,...,yN] = vpasolve(eqns,vars,init_guess)
___ = vpasolve( ___ ,Name,Value)
Description
S = vpasolve(eqn) numerically solves the equation eqn for the variable determined
by symvar.
S = vpasolve(eqn,var) numerically solves the equation eqn for the variable specified
by var.
S = vpasolve(eqn,var,init_guess) numerically solves the equation eqn for the
variable specified by var using the starting point or search range specified in init_guess.
If you do not specify var, vpasolve solves for variables determined by symvar.
Y = vpasolve(eqns) numerically solves the system of equations eqns for variables
determined by symvar. This syntax returns Y as a structure array. You can access the
solutions by indexing into the array.
Y = vpasolve(eqns,vars) numerically solves the system of equations eqns for
variables specified by vars. This syntax returns a structure array that contains the
solutions. The fields in the structure array correspond to the variables specified by vars.
4-1131
Y = vpasolve(eqns,vars,init_guess) numerically solves the system of equations

eqns for the variables vars using the starting values or the search range init_guess.
[y1,...,yN] = vpasolve(eqns) numerically solves the system of equations eqns for
variables determined by symvar. This syntax assigns the solutions to variables y1,...,yN.
[y1,...,yN] = vpasolve(eqns,vars) numerically solves the system of equations
eqns for the variables specified by vars.
[y1,...,yN] = vpasolve(eqns,vars,init_guess) numerically solves the system
of equations eqns for the variables specified by vars using the starting values or the
search range init_guess.
___ = vpasolve( ___ ,Name,Value) numerically solves the equation or system of
equations for the variable or variables using additional options specified by one or more
Examples
Solve a Polynomial Equation
For polynomial equations, vpasolve returns all solutions:
syms x
vpasolve(4*x^4 + 3*x^3 + 2*x^2 + x + 5 == 0, x)
ans =
- 0.88011377126068169817875190457835
0.50511377126068169817875190457835
0.50511377126068169817875190457835
- 0.88011377126068169817875190457835
+
+
0.76331583387715452512978468102263*i
0.81598965068946312853227067890656*i
0.81598965068946312853227067890656*i
0.76331583387715452512978468102263*i
Solve a Nonpolynomial Equation

For nonpolynomial equations, vpasolve returns the first solution that it finds:
syms x
vpasolve(sin(x^2) == 1/2, x)
ans =
-226.94447241941511682716953887638
4-1132
vpasolve
Assign Solutions to a Structure Array

When solving a system of equations, use one output argument to return the solutions in
the form of a structure array:
syms x y
S = vpasolve([x^3 + 2*x == y, y^2 == x], [x, y])
S =
x: [6x1 sym]
y: [6x1 sym]
Display solutions by accessing the elements of the structure array S:

S.x
ans =
- 0.28124065338711968666197895499453
0.16295350624845260578123537890613
0.16295350624845260578123537890613
- 0.28124065338711968666197895499453
+
+
-
0
0.2365742942773341617614871521768
1.2348724236470142074859894531946*i
1.6151544650555366917886585417926*i
1.6151544650555366917886585417926*i
1.2348724236470142074859894531946*i
S.y
ans =
0.70187356885586188630668751791218 +
- 0.94506808682313338631496614476119 - 0.94506808682313338631496614476119 +
0.70187356885586188630668751791218 -
0
0.48638903593454300001655725369801
0.87969719792982402287026727381769*i
0.85451751443904587692179191887616*i
0.85451751443904587692179191887616*i
0.87969719792982402287026727381769*i
Assign Solutions to Variables When Solving a System of Equations

When solving a system of equations, use multiple output arguments to assign the
solutions directly to output variables. To ensure the correct order of the returned
solutions, specify the variables explicitly. The order in which you specify the variables
defines the order in which the solver returns the solutions.
syms x y
[sol_x, sol_y] = vpasolve([x*sin(10*x) == y^3, y^2 == exp(-2*x/3)], [x, y])
sol_x =
88.90707209659114864849280774681
sol_y =
4-1133
0.00000000000013470479710676694388973703681918
Find Multiple Solutions by Specifying Starting Points

Plot the two sides of the equation, and then use the plot to specify initial guesses for the
solutions.
Plot the left and right sides of the equation 200*sin(x) = x^3 - 1:
syms x
ezplot(200*sin(x))
hold on
ezplot(x^3 - 1)
title('200*sin(x) = x^3 - 1')
4-1134
vpasolve
This equation has three solutions. If you do not specify the initial guess (zeroapproximation), vpasolve returns the first solution that it finds:
vpasolve(200*sin(x) == x^3 - 1, x)
ans =
-0.0050000214585835715725440675982988
Find one of the other solutions by specifying the initial point that is close to that solution:
vpasolve(200*sin(x) == x^3 - 1, x, -4)
ans =
-3.0009954677086430679926572924945
vpasolve(200*sin(x) == x^3 - 1, x, 3)
ans =
3.0098746383859522384063444361906
Specify Ranges for Solutions of an Equation

You can specify ranges for solutions of an equation. For example, if you want to restrict
your search to only real solutions, you cannot use assumptions because vpasolve
ignores assumptions. Instead, specify a search interval. For the following equation, if you
do not specify ranges, the numeric solver returns all eight solutions of the equation:
syms x
vpasolve(x^8 - x^2 == 3, x)
ans =
- 0.77061431370803029127495426747428 +
- 0.77061431370803029127495426747428 -
0.77061431370803029127495426747428 +
0.77061431370803029127495426747428 -
-1.2052497163799060695888397264341
1.2052497163799060695888397264341
0.85915207603993818859321142757164*i
0.85915207603993818859321142757164*i
1.0789046020338265308047436284205*i
-1.0789046020338265308047436284205*i
0.85915207603993818859321142757164*i
0.85915207603993818859321142757164*i
Suppose you need only real solutions of this equation. You cannot use assumptions on
variables because vpasolve ignores them.
assume(x, 'real')
vpasolve(x^8 - x^2 == 3, x)
ans =
-1.2052497163799060695888397264341
4-1135
1.2052497163799060695888397264341
- 0.77061431370803029127495426747428 + 0.85915207603993818859321142757164*i
- 0.77061431370803029127495426747428 - 0.85915207603993818859321142757164*i
1.0789046020338265308047436284205*i
-1.0789046020338265308047436284205*i
0.77061431370803029127495426747428 + 0.85915207603993818859321142757164*i
0.77061431370803029127495426747428 - 0.85915207603993818859321142757164*i
Specify the search range to restrict the returned results to particular ranges. For
example, to return only real solutions of this equation, specify the search interval as [Inf Inf]:
vpasolve(x^8 - x^2 == 3, x, [-Inf Inf])
ans =
-1.2052497163799060695888397264341
1.2052497163799060695888397264341
Return only nonnegative solutions:

vpasolve(x^8 - x^2 == 3, x, [0 Inf])
ans =
1.2052497163799060695888397264341
The search range can contain complex numbers. In this case, vpasolve uses a
rectangular search area in the complex plane:
vpasolve(x^8 - x^2 == 3, x, [-1, 1 + i])
ans =
- 0.77061431370803029127495426747428 + 0.85915207603993818859321142757164*i
0.77061431370803029127495426747428 + 0.85915207603993818859321142757164*i
Find Multiple Solutions for a Nonpolynomial Equation

By default, vpasolve returns the same solution on every call. To find more than one
solution for nonpolynomial equations, set random to true. This makes vpasolve use a
random starting value which can lead to different solutions on successive calls.
If random is not specified, vpasolve returns the same solution on every call.
syms x
f = x-tan(x);
for n = 1:3
vpasolve(f,x)
end
4-1136
vpasolve
ans =
0
ans =
0
ans =
0
When random is set to true, vpasolve returns a distinct solution on every call.
syms x
f = x-tan(x);
for n = 1:3
vpasolve(f,x,'random',true)
end
ans =
-227.76107684764829218924973598808
ans =
102.09196646490764333652956578441
ans =
61.244730260374400372753016364097
random can be used in conjunction with a search range:

vpasolve(f,x,[10 12],'random',true)
ans =
10.904121659428899827148702790189
Input Arguments
eqn Equation to solve
symbolic equation | symbolic expression
Equation to solve, specified as a symbolic equation or symbolic expression. A symbolic
equation is defined by the relation operator ==. If eqn is a symbolic expression (without
the right side), the solver assumes that the right side is 0, and solves the equation eqn
== 0.
var Variable to solve equation for
symbolic variable
Variable to solve equation for, specified as a symbolic variable. If var is not specified,
symvar determines the variables.
4-1137
eqns System of equations or expressions to solve

symbolic vector | symbolic matrix | symbolic N-D array
System of equations or expressions to be solve, specified as a symbolic vector, matrix,
or N-D array of equations or expressions. These equations or expressions can also be
separated by commas. If an equation is a symbolic expression (without the right side),
the solver assumes that the right side of that equation is 0.
vars Variables to solve system of equations for
symbolic vector
Variables to solve system of equations for, specified as a symbolic vector. These variables
are specified as a vector or comma-separated list. If vars is not specified, symvar
determines the variables.
init_guess Initial guess for solution
numeric value | vector | matrix with two columns
Initial guess for a solution, specified as a numeric value, vector, or matrix with two
columns.
If init_guess is a number or, in the case of multivariate equations, a vector of numbers,
then the numeric solver uses it as a starting point. If init_guess is specified as a scalar
while the system of equations is multivariate, then the numeric solver uses the scalar
value as a starting point for all variables.
If init_guess is a matrix with two columns, then the two entries of the rows specify the
bounds of a search range for the corresponding variables. To specify a starting point in a
matrix of search ranges, specify both columns as the starting point value.
To omit a search range for a variable, set the search range for that variable to [NaN,
NaN] in init_guess. All other uses of NaN in init_guess will error.
By default, vpasolve uses its own internal choices for starting points and search ranges.

Example: vpasolve(x^2-4==0, x, 'random', true)
'random' Use of random starting point for finding multiple solutions
4-1138
vpasolve
Use a random starting point for finding solutions, specified as a comma-separated pair
consisting of random and a value, which is either true or false. This is useful when you
solve nonpolynomial equations where there is no general method to find all the solutions.
If the value is false, vpasolve uses the same starting value on every call. Hence,
multiple calls to vpasolve with the same inputs always find the same solution, even
if several solutions exist. If the value is true, however, starting values for the internal
search are chosen randomly in the search range. Hence, multiple calls to vpasolve with
the same inputs might lead to different solutions. Note that if you specify starting points
for all variables, setting random to true has no effect.
Output Arguments
S Solutions of univariate equation
symbolic value | symbolic array
Solutions of univariate equation, returned as symbolic value or symbolic array. The size
of a symbolic array corresponds to the number of the solutions.
Y Solutions of system of equations
structure array
Solutions of system of equations, returned as a structure array. The number of fields in
the structure array corresponds to the number of variables to be solved for.
y1,...,yN Variables that are assigned solutions of system of equations
array of numeric variables | array of symbolic variables
Variables that are assigned solutions of system of equations, returned as an array of
numeric or symbolic variables. The number of output variables or symbolic arrays must
equal the number of variables to be solved for. If you explicitly specify independent
variables vars, then the solver uses the same order to return the solutions. If you do not
specify vars, the toolbox sorts independent variables alphabetically, and then assigns the
solutions for these variables to the output variables or symbolic arrays.
More About
Tips
vpasolve returns all solutions only for polynomial equations. For nonpolynomial
equations, there is no general method of finding all solutions. When you look for
4-1139
numerical solutions of a nonpolynomial equation or system that has several solutions,

then, by default, vpasolve returns only one solution, if any. To find more than just
one solution, set random to true. Now, calling vpasolve repeatedly might return
several different solutions.
When you solve a system where there are not enough equations to determine all
variables uniquely, the behavior of vpasolve behavior depends on whether the
system is polynomial or nonpolynomial. If polynomial, vpasolve returns all solutions
by introducing an arbitrary parameter. If nonpolynomial, a single numerical solution
is returned, if it exists.
When you solve a system of rational equations, the toolbox transforms it to a
polynomial system by multiplying out the denominators. vpasolve returns all
solutions of the resulting polynomial system, including those that are also roots of
these denominators.
vpasolve ignores assumptions set on variables. You can restrict the returned results
to particular ranges by specifying appropriate search ranges using the argument
init_guess.
If init_guess specifies a search range [a,b], and the values a,b are complex
numbers, then vpasolve searches for the solutions in the rectangular search area in
the complex plane. Here, a specifies the bottom-left corner of the rectangular search
area, and b specifies the top-right corner of that area.
The output variables y1,...,yN do not specify the variables for which vpasolve solves
equations or systems. If y1,...,yN are the variables that appear in eqns, that does
not guarantee that vpasolve(eqns) will assign the solutions to y1,...,yN using
the correct order. Thus, for the call [a,b] = vpasolve(eqns), you might get the
solutions for a assigned to b and vice versa.
To ensure the order of the returned solutions, specify the variables vars. For example,
the call [b,a] = vpasolve(eqns,b,a) assigns the solutions for a assigned to a
and the solutions for b assigned to b.
Place equations and expressions to the left of the argument list, and the variables
to the right. vpasolve checks for variables starting on the right, and on reaching
the first equation or expression, assumes everything to the left is an equation or
expression.
If possible, solve equations symbolically using solve, and then approximate the
obtained symbolic results numerically using vpa. Using this approach, you get
numeric approximations of all solutions found by the symbolic solver. Using the
symbolic solver and postprocessing its results requires more time than using the
numeric methods directly. This can significantly decrease performance.
4-1140
vpasolve
Algorithms
When you set random to true and specify a search range for a variable, random
starting points within the search range are chosen using the internal random number
generator. The distribution of starting points within finite search ranges is uniform.
When you set random to true and do not specify a search range for a variable,
random starting points are generated using a Cauchy distribution with a half-width of
100. This means the starting points are real valued and have a large spread of values
on repeated calls.
See Also
dsolve | equationsToMatrix | fzero | linsolve | solve | symvar | vpa
4-1141
whittakerM
Whittaker M function
Syntax
whittakerM(a,b,z)
Description
whittakerM(a,b,z) returns the value of the Whittaker M function.
Input Arguments
a
numbers, variables, expressions, or functions. If a is a vector or matrix, whittakerM
returns the beta function for each element of a.
b
numbers, variables, expressions, or functions. If b is a vector or matrix, whittakerM
returns the beta function for each element of b.
z
numbers, variables, expressions, or functions. If x is a vector or matrix, whittakerM
returns the beta function for each element of z.
Examples
Solve this second-order differential equation. The solutions are given in terms of the
Whittaker functions.
4-1142
whittakerM
syms a b w(z)
dsolve(diff(w, 2) + (-1/4 + a/z + (1/4 - b^2)/z^2)*w == 0)
ans =
C2*whittakerM(-a,-b,-z) + C3*whittakerW(-a,-b,-z)
Verify that the Whittaker M function is a valid solution of this differential equation:
syms a b z
simplify(diff(whittakerM(a,b,z), z, 2) +...
(-1/4 + a/z + (1/4 - b^2)/z^2)*whittakerM(a,b,z)) == 0
ans =
1
Verify that whittakerM(-a,-b,-z) also is a valid solution of this differential equation:

syms a b z
simplify(diff(whittakerM(-a,-b,-z), z, 2) +...
(-1/4 + a/z + (1/4 - b^2)/z^2)*whittakerM(-a,-b,-z)) == 0
ans =
1
Compute the Whittaker M function for these numbers. Because these numbers are not
[whittakerM(1, 1, 1), whittakerM(-2, 1, 3/2 + 2*i),...
whittakerM(2, 2, 2), whittakerM(3, -0.3, 1/101)]
ans =
0.7303
-9.2744 + 5.4705i
2.6328
0.3681
Compute the Whittaker M function for the numbers converted to symbolic objects. For
most symbolic (exact) numbers, whittakerM returns unresolved symbolic calls.
[whittakerM(sym(1), 1, 1), whittakerM(-2, sym(1), 3/2 + 2*i),...
whittakerM(2, 2, sym(2)), whittakerM(sym(3), -0.3, 1/101)]
ans =
[ whittakerM(1, 1, 1), whittakerM(-2, 1, 3/2 + 2*i),
whittakerM(2, 2, 2), whittakerM(3, -3/10, 1/101)]
For symbolic variables and expressions, whittakerM also returns unresolved symbolic
calls:
4-1143
syms a b x y
[whittakerM(a, b, x), whittakerM(1, x, x^2),...
whittakerM(2, x, y), whittakerM(3, x + y, x*y)]
ans =
[ whittakerM(a, b, x), whittakerM(1, x, x^2),...
whittakerM(2, x, y), whittakerM(3, x + y, x*y)]
The Whittaker M function has special values for some parameters:

whittakerM(sym(-3/2), 1, 1)
ans =
exp(1/2)
syms a b x
whittakerM(0, b, x)
ans =
4^b*x^(1/2)*gamma(b + 1)*besseli(b, x/2)
whittakerM(a + 1/2, a, x)
ans =
x^(a + 1/2)*exp(-x/2)
whittakerM(a, a - 5/2, x)
ans =
(2*x^(a - 2)*exp(-x/2)*(2*a^2 - 7*a + x^2/2 -...
x*(2*a - 3) + 6))/pochhammer(2*a - 4, 2)
Differentiate the expression involving the Whittaker M function:

syms a b z
diff(whittakerM(a,b,z), z)
ans =
(whittakerM(a + 1, b, z)*(a + b + 1/2))/z -...
(a/z - 1/2)*whittakerM(a, b, z)
Compute the Whittaker M function for the elements of matrix A:

syms x
A = [-1, x^2; 0, x];
whittakerM(-1/2, 0, A)
4-1144
whittakerM
ans =
[ exp(-1/2)*i, exp(x^2/2)*(x^2)^(1/2)]
[
0,
x^(1/2)*exp(x/2)]
More About
Whittaker M Function
The Whittaker functions Ma,b(z) and Wa,b(z) are linearly independent solutions of this
d2 w 1 a 1 4 - b 2
+ - + +
w = 0
dz2 4 z
z2
The Whittaker M function is defined via the confluent hypergeometric functions:
M a,b ( z) = e- z 2 zb+1 2 M b - a + ,1 + 2b, z

2
Tips
non-scalar, then whittakerM expands the scalars into vectors or matrices of the same
References
Slater, L. J. Cofluent Hypergeometric Functions. Handbook of Mathematical Functions
with Formulas, Graphs, and Mathematical Tables. (M. Abramowitz and I. A. Stegun,
See Also
hypergeom | kummerU | whittakerW
4-1145
whittakerW
Whittaker W function
Syntax
whittakerW(a,b,z)
Description
whittakerW(a,b,z) returns the value of the Whittaker W function.
Input Arguments
a
numbers, variables, expressions, or functions. If a is a vector or matrix, whittakerW
returns the beta function for each element of a.
b
numbers, variables, expressions, or functions. If b is a vector or matrix, whittakerW
returns the beta function for each element of b.
z
numbers, variables, expressions, or functions. If x is a vector or matrix, whittakerW
returns the beta function for each element of z.
Examples
Solve this second-order differential equation. The solutions are given in terms of the
Whittaker functions.
4-1146
whittakerW
syms a b w(z)
dsolve(diff(w, 2) + (-1/4 + a/z + (1/4 - b^2)/z^2)*w == 0)
ans =
C2*whittakerM(-a, -b, -z) + C3*whittakerW(-a, -b, -z)
Verify that the Whittaker W function is a valid solution of this differential equation:
syms a b z
simplify(diff(whittakerW(a, b, z), z, 2) +...
(-1/4 + a/z + (1/4 - b^2)/z^2)*whittakerW(a, b, z)) == 0
ans =
1
Verify that whittakerW(-a, -b, -z) also is a valid solution of this differential
equation:
syms a b z
simplify(diff(whittakerW(-a, -b, -z), z, 2) +...
(-1/4 + a/z + (1/4 - b^2)/z^2)*whittakerW(-a, -b, -z)) == 0
ans =
1
Compute the Whittaker W function for these numbers. Because these numbers are not
[whittakerW(1, 1, 1), whittakerW(-2, 1, 3/2 + 2*i),...
whittakerW(2, 2, 2), whittakerW(3, -0.3, 1/101)]
ans =
1.1953
-0.0156 - 0.0225i
4.8616
-0.1692
Compute the Whittaker W function for the numbers converted to symbolic objects. For
most symbolic (exact) numbers, whittakerW returns unresolved symbolic calls.
[whittakerW(sym(1), 1, 1), whittakerW(-2, sym(1), 3/2 + 2*i),...
whittakerW(2, 2, sym(2)), whittakerW(sym(3), -0.3, 1/101)]
ans =
[ whittakerW(1, 1, 1), whittakerW(-2, 1, 3/2 + 2*i),
whittakerW(2, 2, 2), whittakerW(3, -3/10, 1/101)]
For symbolic variables and expressions, whittakerW also returns unresolved symbolic
calls:
4-1147
syms a b x y
[whittakerW(a, b, x), whittakerW(1, x, x^2),...
whittakerW(2, x, y), whittakerW(3, x + y, x*y)]
ans =
[ whittakerW(a, b, x), whittakerW(1, x, x^2),
whittakerW(2, x, y), whittakerW(3, x + y, x*y)]
The Whittaker W function has special values for some parameters:

whittakerW(sym(-3/2), 1/2, 0)
ans =
4/(3*pi^(1/2))
syms a b x
whittakerW(0, b, x)
ans =
(x^(b + 1/2)*besselk(b, x/2))/(pi^(1/2)*x^b)
whittakerW(a, -a + 1/2, x)
ans =
x^(1 - a)*x^(2*a - 1)*exp(-x/2)
whittakerW(a - 1/2, a, x)
ans =
(x^(a + 1/2)*exp(-x/2)*exp(x)*igamma(2*a, x))/x^(2*a)
Differentiate the expression involving the Whittaker W function:

syms a b z
diff(whittakerW(a,b,z), z)
ans =
- (a/z - 1/2)*whittakerW(a, b, z) -...
whittakerW(a + 1, b, z)/z
Compute the Whittaker W function for the elements of matrix A:

syms x
A = [-1, x^2; 0, x];
whittakerW(-1/2, 0, A)
ans =
4-1148
whittakerW
[ -exp(-1/2)*(pi*i + ei(1))*i,
exp(x^2)*exp(-x^2/2)*expint(x^2)*(x^2)^(1/2)]
[ 0,
x^(1/2)*exp(-x/2)*exp(x)*expint(x)]
More About
Whittaker W Function
The Whittaker functions Ma,b(z) and Wa,b(z) are linearly independent solutions of this
d2 w 1 a 1 4 - b 2
+ - + +
w = 0
dz2 4 z
z2
The Whittaker W function is defined via the confluent hypergeometric functions:
Wa,b ( z ) = e- z 2 zb+1 2U b - a + ,1 + 2 b, z
2
Tips
non-scalar, then whittakerW expands the scalars into vectors or matrices of the same
References
Slater, L. J. Cofluent Hypergeometric Functions. Handbook of Mathematical Functions
with Formulas, Graphs, and Mathematical Tables. (M. Abramowitz and I. A. Stegun,
See Also
hypergeom | kummerU | whittakerM
4-1149
wrightOmega
Wright omega function
Syntax
wrightOmega(x)
wrightOmega(A)
Description
wrightOmega(x) computes the Wright omega function of x.
wrightOmega(A) computes the Wright omega function of each element of A.
Input Arguments
x
Number, symbolic variable, or symbolic expression.
A
Vector or matrix of numbers, symbolic variables, or symbolic expressions.
Examples
Compute the Wright omega function for these numbers. Because these numbers are not
symbolic objects, you get floating-point results:
wrightOmega(1/2)
ans =
0.7662
wrightOmega(pi)
4-1150
wrightOmega
ans =
2.3061
wrightOmega(-1+i*pi)
ans =
-1.0000 + 0.0000
Compute the Wright omega function for the numbers converted to symbolic objects. For
most symbolic (exact) numbers, wrightOmega returns unresolved symbolic calls:
wrightOmega(sym(1/2))
ans =
wrightOmega(1/2)
wrightOmega(sym(pi))
ans =
wrightOmega(pi)
For some exact numbers, wrightOmega has special values:

wrightOmega(-1+i*sym(pi))
ans =
-1
Compute the Wright omega function for x and sin(x) + x*exp(x). For symbolic
variables and expressions, wrightOmega returns unresolved symbolic calls:
syms x
wrightOmega(x)
wrightOmega(sin(x) + x*exp(x))
ans =
wrightOmega(x)
ans =
wrightOmega(sin(x) + x*exp(x))
Now compute the derivatives of these expressions:

diff(wrightOmega(x), x, 2)
diff(wrightOmega(sin(x) + x*exp(x)), x)
4-1151
ans =
wrightOmega(x)/(wrightOmega(x) + 1)^2 -...
wrightOmega(x)^2/(wrightOmega(x) + 1)^3
ans =
(wrightOmega(sin(x) + x*exp(x))*(cos(x) +...
exp(x) + x*exp(x)))/(wrightOmega(sin(x) + x*exp(x)) + 1)
Compute the Wright omega function for elements of matrix M and vector V:
M = [0 pi; 1/3 -pi];
V = sym([0; -1+i*pi]);
wrightOmega(M)
wrightOmega(V)
ans =
0.5671
0.6959
2.3061
0.0415
ans =
lambertw(0, 1)
-1
More About
Wright omega Function
The Wright omega function is defined in terms of the Lambert W function:
w ( x ) = W Im ( x ) -p ( e x )
2p
The Wright omega function (x) is a solution of the equation Y + log(Y)=X.
References
Corless, R. M. and D. J. Jeffrey. The Wright omega Function. Artificial Intelligence,
Automated Reasoning, and Symbolic Computation (J. Calmet, B. Benhamou, O. Caprotti,
L. Henocque, and V. Sorge, eds.). Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 2002, pp. 76-89.
4-1152
wrightOmega
See Also
lambertW | log
4-1153
xor
Logical XOR for symbolic expressions
Syntax
xor(A,B)
Description
xor(A,B) represents the logical exclusive disjunction. xor(A,B) is true when either A
or B are true. If both A and B are true or false, xor(A,B) is false.
Input Arguments
A
subexpressions.
B
subexpressions.
Examples
Combine two symbolic inequalities into the logical expression using xor:
syms x
range = xor(x > -10, x < 10);
Replace variable x with these numeric values. If you replace x with 11, then inequality x
> -10 is valid and x < 10 is invalid. If you replace x with 0, both inequalities are valid.
Note that subs does not evaluate these inequalities to logical 1 or 0.
4-1154
xor
x1 =
-10 < 11 xor 11 < 10
x2 =
-10 < 0 xor 0 < 10
To evaluate these inequalities to logical 1 or 0, use logical or isAlways. If only one

inequality is valid, the expression with xor evaluates to logical 1. If both inequalities are
valid, the expression with xor evaluates to logical 0.
logical(x1)
isAlways(x2)
ans =
1
ans =
0
s1 = simplify(x1)
s2 = simplify(x2)
s1 =
TRUE
s2 =
FALSE

logical(s1)
logical(s2)
ans =
1
ans =
0
4-1155
More About
Tips
logical.
assume and assumeAlso do not accept assumptions that contain xor.
See Also
all | and | any | isAlways | logical | not | or
4-1156
zeta
zeta
Riemann zeta function
Syntax
zeta(z)
zeta(n,z)
Description
zeta(z) evaluates the Riemann zeta function at the elements of z, where z is a numeric
or symbolic input.
zeta(n,z) returns the nth derivative of zeta(z).
Examples
Find the Riemann Zeta Function for Numeric and Symbolic Inputs
Find the Riemann zeta function for numeric inputs.
zeta([0.7 i 4 11/3])
ans =
-2.7784 + 0.0000i
0.0033 - 0.4182i
1.0823 + 0.0000i
1.1094 + 0.0000i
Find the Riemann zeta function symbolically by converting the inputs to symbolic objects
using sym. The zeta function returns exact results.
zeta(sym([0.7 i 4 11/3]))
ans =
[ zeta(7/10), zeta(i), pi^4/90, zeta(11/3)]
zeta returns unevaluated function calls for symbolic inputs that do not have results
implemented. The implemented results are listed in Algorithms on page 4-1160.
Find the Riemann zeta function for a matrix of symbolic expressions.
4-1157
syms x y
Z = zeta([x sin(x); 8*x/11 x + y])
Z =
[
zeta(x), zeta(sin(x))]
[ zeta((8*x)/11), zeta(x + y)]
Find the Riemann Zeta Function for Large Inputs

For values of |z|>1000, zeta(z) might return an unevaluated function call. Use
expand to force zeta to evaluate the function call.
zeta(sym(1002))
expand(zeta(sym(1002)))
ans =
zeta(1002)
ans =
(1087503...312*pi^1002)/15156647...375
Differentiate the Riemann Zeta Function

Find the third derivative of the Riemann zeta function at point x.
syms x
expr = zeta(3,x)
expr =
zeta(3, x)
Find the third derivative at x = 4 by substituting 4 for x using subs.

expr = subs(expr,x,4)
expr =
zeta(3, 4)
Evaluate expr using vpa.

expr = vpa(expr)
expr =
-0.07264084989132137196244616781177
Plot Zeros of the Riemann Zeta Function

4-1158
zeta
Zeros of the Riemann Zeta function zeta(x+i*y) are found along the line x = 1/2. Plot
the absolute value of the function along this line for 0<y<30 to view the first three zeros.
syms y;
ezplot(abs(zeta(1/2+1i*y)),[0 30]);
grid on;
Input Arguments
z Input
4-1159
Input, specified as a number, vector, matrix or multidimensional array, or a symbolic

number, variable, vector, matrix, multidimensional array, function or expression.
n Order of derivative
nonnegative integer
Order of derivative, specified as a nonnegative integer.
More About
Riemann zeta Function
The Riemann zeta function is defined by
z ( s) =
ks
k=1
The series converges only if the real part of z is greater than 1. The definition of the
function is extended to the entire complex plane, except for a simple pole z = 1, by
analytic continuation.
Tips
Floating point evaluation is slow for large values of n.
Algorithms
The following exact values are implemented.
z ( 0) = -
1
2
z ( 0,1 ) = -
ln ( p ) ln ( 2 )
2
2
z ( ) = 1
If z < 0 and z is an even integer, z ( z) = 0.

If z < 0 and z is an odd integer
4-1160
zeta
z ( z) = -
bernoulli (1 - z )
1- z
For z < -1000 , zeta(z) returns an unevaluated function call. To force evaluation,
use expand(zeta(z)).
If z > 0 and z is an even integer
z ( z) =
( 2p ) z |bernoulli ( z ) |
2 z!
For z > 1000 , zeta(z) returns an unevaluated function call. To force evaluation, use
expand(zeta(z)).
If n > 0 , z ( n, ) = 0.
If the argument does not evaluate to a listed special value, zeta returns the symbolic
function call.
See Also
bernoulli
4-1161
ztrans
Z-transform
Syntax
ztrans(f,trans_index,eval_point)
Description
ztrans(f,trans_index,eval_point) computes the Z-transform of f with respect to
the transformation index trans_index at the point eval_point.
Input Arguments
f
functions.
trans_index
Symbolic variable representing the transformation index. This variable is often called the
discrete time variable.
Default: The variable n. If f does not contain n, then the default variable is determined
by symvar.
eval_point
called the complex frequency variable.
Default: The variable z. If z is the transformation index of f, then the default evaluation
point is the variable w.
4-1162
ztrans
Examples
Compute the Z-transform of this expression with respect to the transformation index k at
the evaluation point x:
syms k x
f = sin(k);
ztrans(f, k, x)
ans =
(x*sin(1))/(x^2 - 2*cos(1)*x + 1)
Compute the Z-transform of this expression calling the ztrans function with one
argument. If you do not specify the transformation index, ztrans uses the variable n.
syms a n x
f = a^n;
ztrans(f, x)
ans =
-x/(a - x)
If you also do not specify the evaluation point, ztrans uses the variable z:
ztrans(f)
ans =
-z/(a - z)
Compute the following Z-transforms that involve the Heaviside function and the
binomial coefficient:
syms n z
ztrans(heaviside(n - 3), n, z)
ans =
(1/(z - 1) + 1/2)/z^3
ztrans(nchoosek(n, 2)*heaviside(5 - n), n, z)
ans =
z/(z - 1)^3 + 5/z^5 + (6*z - z^6/(z - 1)^3 + 3*z^2 + z^3)/z^5
If ztrans cannot find an explicit representation of the transform, it returns an

unevaluated call:
4-1163
syms f(n) z
F = ztrans(f, n, z)
F =
ztrans(f(n), n, z)
iztrans returns the original expression:

iztrans(F, z, n)
ans =
f(n)
Find the Z-transform of this matrix. Use matrices of the same size to specify the
ztrans([exp(x), 1; sin(y), i*z],[w, x; y, z],[a, b; c, d])
ans =
[
(a*exp(x))/(a - 1),
b/(b - 1)]
[ (c*sin(1))/(c^2 - 2*cos(1)*c + 1), (d*i)/(d - 1)^2]
When the input arguments are nonscalars, ztrans acts on them element-wise. If
ztrans is called with both scalar and nonscalar arguments, then ztrans expands
ztrans(x,[x, w; y, z],[a, b; c, d])
ans =
[
a/(a - 1)^2, (b*x)/(b - 1)]
[ (c*x)/(c - 1), (d*x)/(d - 1)]
f1(x) = exp(x);
f2(x) = x;
ztrans([f1, f2],x,[a, b])
ans =
4-1164
ztrans
[ a/(a - exp(1)), b/(b - 1)^2]
More About
Z-Transform
The Z-transform of the expression f=f(n) is defined as follows:
F ( z) =
n =0
f ( n)
zn
Tips
If you call ztrans with two arguments, it assumes that the second argument is the
If f is a matrix, ztrans acts element-wise on all components of the matrix.
If eval_point is a matrix, ztrans acts element-wise on all components of the matrix.
To compute the inverse Z-transform, use iztrans.
See Also
fourier | ifourier | ilaplace | iztrans | kroneckerDelta | laplace
4-1165
4-1166

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Symbolic Math Toolbox

How to Contact MathWorks

Sales and services:

The MathWorks, Inc.

Revised for Version 2

Access Symbolic Math Toolbox Functionality . . . . . . . . . . . .

Create Symbolic Variables and Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Perform Symbolic Computations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Integrate Symbolic Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Assumptions on Symbolic Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Using Symbolic Math Toolbox Software

Find Asymptotes, Critical and Inflection Points . . . . . . . . .

Substitute with subexpr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Substitute with subs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Combine subs and double for Numeric Evaluations . . . . . .

Choose the Arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Control Accuracy of Variable-Precision Computations . . .

Recognize and Avoid Round-Off Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Improve Performance of Numeric Computations . . . . . . . .

Basic Algebraic Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Linear Algebraic Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Jordan Canonical Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Singular Value Decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Solve an Algebraic Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Select a Numeric or Symbolic Solver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Solve a System of Algebraic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Resolve Complicated Solutions or Stuck Solver . . . . . . . . .

Solve a System of Linear Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Solve Equations Numerically . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Solve a Single Differential Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Solve a System of Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Differential Algebraic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Set Up Your DAE Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Step 4: MATLAB Function Handles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Reduce Differential Order of DAE Systems . . . . . . . . . . . .

Check and Reduce Differential Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Convert DAE Systems to MATLAB Function Handles . . . .

Find Consistent Initial Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Solve DAE System Using MATLAB ODE Solvers . . . . . . . .

Compute Fourier and Inverse Fourier Transforms . . . . . .

Compute Laplace and Inverse Laplace Transforms . . . . .

Compute Z-Transforms and Inverse Z-Transforms . . . . . .

Explore Function Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Generate C or Fortran Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Generate MATLAB Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Generate MATLAB Function Blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Generate Simscape Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

MuPAD in Symbolic Math Toolbox

Create MuPAD Notebooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Open MuPAD Notebooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Save MuPAD Notebooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Evaluate MuPAD Notebooks from MATLAB . . . . . . . . . . . .

Close MuPAD Notebooks from MATLAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Edit MuPAD Code in MATLAB Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Notebook Files and Program Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Source Code of the MuPAD Library Functions . . . . . . . . . .

Differences Between MATLAB and MuPAD Syntax . . . . . .

Copy Variables and Expressions Between MATLAB and

Reserved Variable and Function Names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .