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Journal of Marketing Management
Vol. 26, Nos. 1314, December 2010, 13191344
Antecedents and outcomes of consumer

environmentally friendly attitudes and behaviour
Leonidas C. Leonidou, University of Cyprus, Cyprus
Constantinos N. Leonidou, University of Leeds, UK
Olga Kvasova, Lulea University of Technology, Sweden
Abstract With the intensification of problems relating to the environment, a
growing number of consumers are becoming more ecologically conscious in
their preferences and purchases of goods. This paper presents the results of a
study conducted among 500 Cypriot consumers, focusing on the factors that
shape consumer environmental attitudes and behaviour, as well as on the
resulting outcomes. The findings confirmed that both the inward and outward
environmental attitudes of a consumer are positively influenced by his/her
degree of collectivism, long-term orientation, political involvement, deontology,
and law obedience, but have no connection with liberalism. The adoption of an
inward environmental attitude was also found to be conducive to green
purchasing behaviour that ultimately leads to high product satisfaction. On the
other hand, an outward environmental attitude facilitates the adoption of a
general environmental behaviour, which is responsible for greater satisfaction
with life. The findings of the study have important implications for shaping
effective company offerings to consumers in target markets, as well as
formulating appropriate policies at the governmental level to enhance
environmental sensitivity among citizens.
Keywords environmental marketing; consumer behaviour; buyer satisfaction
Introduction
The emergence of ecologically conscious consumers was first noted in the late
1960s and early 1970s as a response to the appearance of worrying signs (e.g. land
degradation, animal extinction, atmospheric pollution) concerning the systematic
maltreatment of the environment (Fisk, 1973; Kinnear, Taylor, & Ahmed 1974).
Throughout the late 1970s and 1980s, green issues were not at the forefront of
consumer concerns, mainly due to better economic prosperity, spiralling oil prices,
and tightening pollution control (Schlegelmilch, Bohlen, & Diamantopoulos,
1996). However, with the emergence of a new set of environmental problems in
the 1990s (e.g. global warming, ozone hole, Exxon Valdez case), consumers began
to seek environmentally friendly alternatives in their purchases. In the 2000s, the
ISSN 0267-257X print/ISSN 1472-1376 online
# 2010 Westburn Publishers Ltd.
DOI: 10.1080/0267257X.2010.523710
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Journal of Marketing Management, Volume 26
ecological sensitivity of consumers has skyrocketed, reflecting increasing public

concern to halt, and even reverse, the negative effect of the human factor on the
environment.
In recent years, consumer interest in ecological issues has risen dramatically as
demonstrated by an increasing: (a) involvement in environmental-caring activities,
such as recycling packaging, energy saving, and composting foods; (b) acceptance of
lower technical performance of the products purchased in exchange for better ecoperformance; (c) reliance of purchasing decisions on environmental-related issues,
such as biodegradable, CFC-free, and organically grown products; (d) willingness to
pay higher prices for acquiring environmentally friendly goods; and (e) tendency to
travel to non-traditional distribution outlets, such as organic food sellers, to purchase
green products (Mostafa, 2007). This change in the ecological behaviour of consumers
has been driven by various factors, including wider media coverage, more stringent
legislation, and greater involvement of environmental pressure groups (Aitken, 2006;
Melillo & Miller, 2006).
Although at times organisations have primarily been accused of being responsible for
causing environmental problems through, for example, the use of inappropriate
equipment, dangerous substances, and non-recyclable materials, consumers have also
been blamed for their uncontrollable consumption of goods and irresponsible treatment
of the environment (S.B. Banerjee, 2002; Menon & Menon, 1997). Thus, on the one
hand, understanding the motives, attitudes, behaviour, and actions of consumers with
regard to ecological issues is of paramount importance in alleviating part of the
problems associated with the environment (Roberts & Bacon, 1997). On the other
hand, a deeper understanding of the characteristics of green consumers by organisations
can lead to the design of more efficient and effective sustainability marketing programs
(Rundle-Thiele, Paladino, & Apostol, 2008). However, there is still no clear consensus
in the extant literature regarding the forces motivating environmental concern among
consumers, especially as regards cultural (e.g. McCarty & Shrum, 2001), societal
(e.g. Roberts, 1996), and ethical (e.g. R. Chan, Wong, & Leung, 2008) factors. There
is also inadequate understanding about the consumer eco-friendly attitudebehaviour
link (Diamantopoulos, Schlegelmilch, Sinkovics, & Bohlen, 2003), while the literature
has treated the measurement of environmental attitudes and behaviour in a composite
ll
manner (Fransson & Garling, 1999; W. Kilbourne & Pickett, 2008; Sarigo
u, 2009).
This article aims to fill these gaps in the green marketing literature by taking a fresh
look at the antecedents and outcomes of consumer environmentally friendly attitudes
and behaviour. Specifically, it has three major objectives: (a) to understand the role of
certain key motivations derived from cultural, political, and ethical sources in the
development of inward and outward environmentally friendly attitudes by consumers;
(b) to investigate the link between these inward and outward environmental attitudes
and consumer environmental behaviour (whether purchasing or general); and (c) to
examine the effect of purchasing and general environmental behaviour on consumers
product satisfaction and life satisfaction respectively.
The remainder of the article is organised into seven parts. In the following section,
we review the pertinent literature and assess its major streams. We then present the
conceptual framework of the study and formulate the research hypotheses. In the
subsequent section, the investigation method adopted is explained. This is followed by
an analysis of the results and the testing of the hypotheses. In the final sections,
conclusions and implications are derived from the study findings, and suggestions
for future research are provided.
Leonidou et al. Consumer environmentally friendly attitude behaviour
Previous research
Research on environmentally conscious consumers has grown exponentially over the
last four decades, with dozens of studies conducted on the subject until now. This
research followed four major streams, which are explained below.
The first research stream deals with macro-marketing issues relating to green
consumer attitudes and behaviour. By particularly focusing on aspects such as the
dominant social paradigm of Western industrial societies (Kilbourne, Beckmann, &
Thelen, 2002), individuals materialistic and ecological values (Kilbourne & Pickett,
2008), and consumerism (Barksdale & Darden, 1972), the emphasis is on the role of
macro environment (e.g. technological, political, economic) in influencing societys
values and beliefs (Stern, Dietz, & Guagnano, 1995). These in turn are considered
important in shaping environmental attitudes, forming behavioural intentions, and
affecting consumer actions (Kilbourne & Beckmann, 1998). Ultimately, adopting a
sustainable consumption perspective cannot only minimise environmental effects for
current and future generations, but can also produce a better quality of life (Kilbourne,
McDonagh, & Prothero, 1997). The thrust of this research is on both the quality and
quantity of consumption in Western industrial societies, which are considered to be one
of the causes of environmental problems. As such, their examination is critical for
understanding the changes in environmental stability and sustainability (Jones, 1987;
Porritt, 1984). While previously the role of consumption was investigated in relation to
the environment per se, research in this area attempts to uncover the macro-caveats
leading to ecologically-friendly consumption lifestyles. Several studies (e.g. Mostafa,
2007; Roberts & Bacon, 1997) used the Natural Environmental Paradigm (NEP) scale,
originally developed by Dunlap and Van Liere (1978), to investigate whether a more
general position about society and the environment could have an impact on
environmentally conscious consumer behaviour.
The second stream of studies focuses on micro-marketing issues relating to
consumer interest, literacy, and awareness of ecological problems. Scholars in this
area sought to define and describe the nature of green consumers, while at the same
time investigating the nature of green consumer segments using different variables and
classifications (Kilbourne & Beckmann, 1998). Specifically, the emphasis was on
operationalising, conceptualising, and measuring consumers environmental
attitudes and behaviour (Bohlen, Schlegelmilch, & Diamantopoulos, 1993; Roberts,
1996). It also focused on assessing the role of demographic, social, and other factors in
segmenting the market and sketching the profile of green consumers (see,
e.g., Anderson, Henion, & Cox, 1974; Diamantopoulos et al., 2003; Pickett,
Kangun, & Grove, 1993). The use of traditional sociodemographic factors, even
though important, was characterised as inappropriate for identifying green
consumers because of contradicting and inconclusive findings (Diamantopoulos
et al., 2003; Kinnear et al., 1974; Peattie, 2001). For instance, while Levin (1990)
found that consumers with better education and higher income are more
environmentally sensitive, the opposite was revealed in Robertss (1996) study.
Moreover, while Van Liere and Dunlap (1980) and Laroche, Bergeron, & BarbaroForleo (2001) identified a positive association between gender type and ecological
concern, Arcury, Scollay, and Johnson (1987) reported a negative one. Furthermore, in
a study conducted by Diamantopoulos et al. (2003), no link was established between
the sociodemographic consumer characteristics (e.g. gender, age, income) and proenvironmental actions.
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The third research stream concentrates on psychological, cultural, societal, and

other parameters acting as predictors of consumer ecological concern. Some of the
measures employed were: personal values, such as security, fun/enjoyment, and selfgratification (e.g. Jansson, Marell, & Nordlund, 2010; McCarty & Shrum, 1994);
ethical ideologies, such as deontologism and teleologism (e.g. Chan et al., 2008;
Spash, 1997); societal factors, such as liberalism and social altruism (e.g. Paladino,
2005; Straughan & Roberts, 1999); cultural orientations, such as collectivism and
individualism (e.g. Laroche et al., 2001; McCarty & Shrum, 2001); and personal
environmental beliefs, such as faith in others, perceived consumer effectiveness, and
susceptibility to normative influence (e.g. Ellen, Wiener, & Cobb-Walgren, 1991;
Minton & Rose, 1997; Smith & Paladino, 2010). Although these parameters
provided very useful insights in explaining ecologically friendly behaviour, they were
often criticised as being difficult to measure and implement (Balderjahn, 1988;
Brooker, 1976; Chan, 1999; Kilbourne & Pickett, 2008).
The final stream of studies deals with the relationship between environmentally
friendly consumer attitudes and environmentally friendly behaviour. Specifically,
researchers in the area examined attitudes and behavioural intentions towards
energy conservation (Heslop, Moran, & Cousineau, 1981; Paladino & Baggiere,
2008), recycling (McCarty & Shrum, 2001), environmental activism (Kilbourne &
Pickett, 2008), eco-conscious product purchasing (Schlegelmilch et al., 1996), and
willingness to pay higher prices for environmentally friendly products (Laroche et al.,
2001). Some scholars also studied the effect of ecological attitudes and intentions on
actual behaviour, finding that there is a positive association between these two sets of
constructs (Chan, 2001; Mostafa, 2007). Finally, a few studies focused on consumer
attitudes and responses towards environmental advertising (Schuhwerk & LefkoffHagius, 1995) and dealt with the implications of greenwashing on consumer
perceptions and actions (Newell, Goldsmith, & Banzhaf, 1998).
Conceptual model and hypotheses

Our conceptual framework consists of four major parts: antecedent forces, attitudinal
factors, behavioural factors, and outcomes (see Figure 1).1 Antecedent forces comprise
three sets of background consumer parameters, namely cultural (collectivism
and long-term orientation), political (political action and liberalism), and ethical
(deontology and law obedience). Attitudinal factors refer to the pro-environmental
attitudes of the consumer, and these are divided into inward, that is, attitudes
referring to the abuse of the environment by individual consumers, and outward,
that is, attitudes about the perceived need for social, political, and legal changes to
protect the environment (Fransson & Garling, 1999; Kilbourne & Pickett, 2008;
ll
Sarigo
u, 2009). Behavioural factors include the environmentally friendly behaviour
of the consumer, which can be green purchasing, that is, activities that lie in the
personal domain and have a direct effect on the natural environment, or general
1
An antecedent refers to a factor that precedes a specific attitude or behaviour, while an outcome is the
result of this attitude or behaviour. Although these terms may have a temporal connotation (in the sense that
first antecedents take place, then attitude or behaviour is formulated, and outcome is the finality) many
cross-sectional studies (e.g. Alden, Steenkamp, & Batra, 2006; Atuahene-Gima & Murray, 2004; Cleveland,
ge & Halstead, 1991; Menon, Bharadwaj, Adidam, & Edison, 1999;
Laroche, & Papadopoulos, 2009; Dro
Myers, Daugherty, & Autry, 2000; Walsh, Mitchell, Jackson, & Beatty, 2009) have extensively used this
terminology to express the causal relationships among constructs.
Figure 1 The conceptual model.

Cultural Factors
Collectivism
Long-Term
Orientation
H7
H1a
H1b
Green Purchasing
Behaviour
H9
Product
Satisfaction
H2a
H2b
Political Factors
Inward
Environmental
Attitude
H3a
Political Action
Liberalism
Ethical Factors
Deontology
H3b
H4a
H4b
H5a
Outward
Environmental
Attitude
H5b
H 6a
Law Obedience
H 6b
H8
General Environmental Behaviour
H10
Life
Satisfaction
environmental, that is, activities that fall under the public domain and have an indirect
effect on the natural environment by influencing public policy initiatives (Dietz, Stern,
& Guagnano, 1998). Outcomes refer to both satisfaction with the product and
satisfaction with life. Sixteen hypothesised associations between the constructs of
the model were identified and are presented in the following.
i.
Antecedents of environmental attitudes
Collectivism is the conviction that an individual has regarding his/her interaction with
others and denotes interdependence, group-oriented goals, social hierarchies, ingroup harmony, and low level of competition (Hofstede, 1980; Triandis, 1995). The
behaviour of the people who are collectivistic is usually driven by social norms and by
willingness to share scarce resources with others (Sinha & Verma, 1987). Collectivistic
persons are more likely to develop environmentally friendly attitudes because they
tend to demonstrate cooperative behaviour, offer their help promptly to others, and
give priority to the goals of the group rather than their personal goals (Kim & Choi,
2005). In addition, they care about their relationships with others, show concern for
the welfare of society, and emphasise the importance of duties and obligations
(Hofstede, 1980; Laroche et al., 2001). In many cases, being collectivistic indicates
that one may forgo personal motivations (e.g. inconvenience caused by recycling) for
those that are good for the group (e.g. keeping the environment clean). Thus a person
who thinks collectively is expected to protect the environment so that the whole
society, including himself/herself, can enjoy prosperity (McCarty & Shrum, 1994).
The positive association between collectivism and environmentally friendly attitudes
(both inward and outward) was repeatedly confirmed in previous empirical studies
(e.g. R.Y.K. Chan, 2001; Ling-yee, 1997; McCarty & Shrum, 2001). Based on the
above argumentation, we may predict that:
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H1a: The more collectivistic the consumer is, the more positive his/her inward
environmental attitude.
H1b: The more collectivistic the consumer is, the more positive his/her outward
Long-term orientation refers to the prospects perceived by an individual that a

society will be in a position to overcome its problems over time (Hofstede, 1980). It is
the extent to which an individual has a pragmatic future-oriented perspective
(fostering virtues like perseverance and thrift), rather than a conventional historic or
short-term point of view (Furrer, Liu, & Sudharshan, 2000; Hofstede, 1991). A longterm oriented person preserves social traditions, adheres to family values, and
considers reliability, responsiveness, and empathy to be extremely important (Furrer
et al., 2000). Since s/he preserves traditions and history, s/he is also likely to respect
and preserve the environment, in order to reap benefits for his/her family and friends
at a later stage and maintain sustainable conditions for future generations to prosper.
In fact, recent research has shown that long-term-oriented people tend to develop
attitudes pertaining to the protection of the natural environment (Joreiman, Van
ll
Lange, & Van Vugt, 2004; Sarigo
u, 2009). Such attitudes may concern eco-friendly
actions taking place within the household (e.g. decrease in home consumption) and/or
the society at large (e.g. favouring anti-pollution legislation). The following
hypotheses can, therefore, be made:
H2a: The more long-term-oriented the consumer is, the more positive his/her inward
H2b: The more long-term-oriented the consumer is, the more positive his/her outward
An individuals political action denotes a desire to be involved in various sociopolitical issues, ranging from low-risk, passive, and institutionalised acts to high-risk,
active, and unconventional behaviour (Corning & Myers, 2002). Such political
involvement may include, for example, lobbying political representatives,
boycotting companies, and participating in pressure groups, political parties, or
other organisations (Braithwaite, 1997). According to Corning and Myers (2002),
there are several external and internal factors that may influence political action, such
as: (a) intergenerational effects, for example, people with politically active parents are
more likely to be active themselves; (b) new social environments, for example, persons
entering a university may encounter activists who may recruit them; (c) goal
fulfilment, for example, failure to achieve personal objectives can lead individuals to
the reduction of political action in favour of other activities; and (d) changes in life
circumstances, for example, raising children may reduce the time available for
engagement in political activities. Given that the access to and use of environmental
resources have to do with issues relating to values, power, and cooperation,
environmental protection is inherently political (Hampel, Holdsworth, & Boldero,
1996). Since the protection of the environment is an issue of major public concern in
modern societies, politically active people are very likely to pay attention to and
develop attitudes towards its preservation (Bohlen et al., 1993; Owen & Videras,
2006). Thus, political action may affect the formation of environmentally friendly
attitudes taking place at the individual level (e.g. recycling products at home), as well
as the society in general (e.g. keeping the environment clean). We may, therefore,
hypothesise that:
H3a: The more politically active the consumer is, the more positive his/her inward
H3b: The more politically active the consume is, the more positive his/her outward
Liberalism refers to the political ideology that falls on the left dimensions of the
broad leftright cleavage (Roberts, 1996). People with liberalistic views believe that
companies should be controlled in terms of their actions and outcomes, especially
when these are harmful to society (Hine & Gifford, 1991; Straughan & Roberts,
1999). In this respect, a politically liberal person is more likely to have an
environmentally friendly spirit, since organisations usually resist the environmental
regulations imposed by governments. This is because environmental reforms affect
business operations in three major ways: (a) they incur high costs in technological
equipment and operating activities; (b) they introduce additional regulations and
increase government intervention in business affairs; and (c) they require innovation
in production methods and selling activities (Dunlap, 1975). Empirical evidence
shows that politically liberal individuals are more likely to engage in both
sustainable consumption habits and actions towards protecting the environment
(Dunlap, 1975; Hine & Gifford, 1991; Olli, Grendstad, & Wollebark, 2001;
Straughan & Roberts, 1999; Van Liere & Dunlap, 1981). The following hypothesis
can therefore be made:
H4a: The more liberal the consumer is, the more positive his/her inward environmental
attitude.
H4b: The more liberal the consumer is, the more positive his/her outward environmental
attitude.
Deontology is an ethical approach that focuses on whether the intention and/or

consequences of a certain act is right or wrong (R. Chan et al., 2008). A deontological
individual abides by ethical values, adheres to specific principles, and protects his/her
own rights and duties, which others are required to respect. S/he is also more ready to
learn the rules that govern the situations encountered, as well as become more sensitive
to any violation of them (Sparks & Merenski, 2000). This makes a person more mature
and responsible towards the environment that s/he wants to preserve because it is the
right thing to do, while at the same time condemning any harmful actions. A person
adopting a deontological approach claims an absolute right to life for humans,
animals, plants, or ecosystems (ONeill & Spash, 2000; Spash, 1997). Such a
deontological approach to the environment is based on the premise that there are
distinct moral rules or duties, violation of which is intrinsically wrong and observance
is intrinsically right (Brennan, 2002). In this respect, the environment has a moral right
to be properly treated, while, at the same time, people have a moral duty to protect it.
Respecting rights and fulfilling duties pertaining to the environment forms an ecofriendly consumer attitude (Garca-Rosell & Moisander, 2008). Thus, on the basis of
the above, we may posit that:
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H5a: The more deontological the consumer is, the more positive his/her inward
H5b: The more deontological the consumer is, the more positive his/her outward
The final antecedent factor is law obedience, which is defined as the extent to which
an individual respects the laws of his/her country (Gaski, 1999). Human actions are
expected to conform to national laws; otherwise, punishments can be imposed by
courts or other authorities. Environmentally related legislation has grown enormously
in recent decades, regulating the behaviour and actions not only of organisations
(e.g. laws controlling the amount of CO2 emissions), but also those of consumers
(e.g. laws prohibiting the littering of the environment). A law-obedient person is
expected to respect environmental laws, is willing to make personal sacrifices to
preserve the environment, and positively influences his/her relatives and friends to
become environmentally friendly (Gaski, 1999). S/he is also likely to avoid mixing
with other people who do not show respect to environmental laws, as well as condemn
organisations that do not conform to environmental standards set by legislation in
terms of their production process, business policies, and end products. Hence, the
following hypothesis can be formulated:
H6a: The more law obedient the consumer is, the more positive his/her inward
H6b: The more law obedient the consumer is, the more positive his/her outward
ii.
Environmental attitudes and behaviour2
Consumers who adopt an eco-friendly attitude believe that the ecological situation on
the planet is deteriorating and, therefore, it is necessary to take drastic measures towards
protecting the environment (Banerjee & McKeage, 1994; Schlegelmilch et al., 1996).
Although such a pro-environmental attitude incurs inconveniences (e.g. extra effort to
recycle goods), additional costs (e.g. more expensive green products), and lower levels
of product performance (e.g. cars with lower horsepower), consumers having this
attitude are more likely to engage in an ecologically friendly purchasing behaviour,
such as avoiding non-disposable merchandise, looking for recyclable products, and
buying biodegradable goods (Kalafatis, Pollard, East, & Tsogas, 1999; Laroche et al.,
2001; Shabecoff, 1993). This is in harmony with the cognitive consistency theory
(Festinger, 1957), which argues that an individual who is concerned about ecological
problems is very likely to be motivated to take actions that will minimise them. In fact,
many studies (e.g. Kilbourne & Pickett, 2008; Mostafa, 2007; Roberts & Bacon, 1997;
Schlegelmilch et al., 1996) have empirically shown that consumers who are
environmentally sensitive are very likely to change their behaviour and purchase
products that are friendly to the environment, as well as influence other people
2
Consumer attitudes and behaviour are two entirely different concepts: while an attitude is a lasting, general
evaluation of people (including oneself), objects, or issues, behaviour is a consumers actions with regard to
an attitude object (Solomon, Bamossy, Askegaard, & Hogg, 2010). However, consumer attitudes do not
always result in actual behaviour, because certain internal (e.g. financial limitations) or external (e.g. sociopolitical changes) factors may inhibit the materialisation of the expected behaviour.
towards adopting an ecological approach to their consumption. Based on the above, we

may posit that:
H7: The more positive the inward environmental attitude of the consumer is, the more
intense his/her green purchasing behaviour.
As opposed to an inward environmental attitude, which affects more private

actions, an outward environmental attitude refers to a more public involvement of
an individual with the society and its problems, particularly those related to the
protection of the environment (Stern, 2000). A person with such attitude shows
great interest in social, political, legal, and other issues pertaining to the protection
of the natural environment, and for each of these issues s/he has his/her own views and
suggestions of how it should be approached (Fransson & Garling, 1999; Kilbourne &
Pickett, 2008). Individuals having an outward environmental attitude can demonstrate
various types of behaviour, which can have a direct effect on public policymaking
(e.g. putting pressure on political parties, increasing bargaining power of
environmental lobbies, becoming a member of an environmental group), but an
indirect effect on the natural environment (e.g. new policy on environmental
preservation, new rules for animal hunting, harmonisation with international
environmental standards) (Dietz et al., 1998; Stern, 2000). A number of empirical
studies found that consumer attitudes about the state of the natural environment are
positively associated with such behaviour (Kilbourne & Pickett, 2008; Steg,
Dreijerink, & Abrahamse, 2005; Stern et al., 1999). Hence, the following
hypothesis can be made:
H8: The more positive the outward environmental attitude of the consumer is, the more
intense his/her environmental behaviour.
iii.
Consumer behaviour and satisfaction
Green purchasingbehaviour refers to the preference and use of products that are friendly
to the environment and/or have been produced using ecological processes and
materials (Kilbourne & Pickett, 2008). A number of benefits are derived from the
adoption of eco-friendly purchasing behaviour, such as health, safety, symbolism, and
status (Ottman, Stafford, & Hartman, 2006). Consumers performing environmentally
friendly actions tend to think highly of themselves as the kind of persons who care for
the environment( Thgersen & Crompton, 2009). In fact, a recent study has shown
that many consumers increasingly opt for a less wasteful life (e.g. switching off lights,
recycling more, buying less) and show a strong interest in green consumption because
they derive personal satisfaction from it (Flatters & Willmott, 2009). This satisfaction
is attributed not only to the good performance of green products, but also to a feeling
that the individual does not harm the environment (Bodet, 2008; Chen, 2010). Based
on the above, we may posit that:
H9: The greener the purchasing behaviour of the consumer is, the greater his/her
satisfaction with the product.
Environmental behaviour includes all those elements in the psychology of an

individual that reflect his/her sensitivity to environmental issues, such as saving
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energy, keeping places clean, and avoiding waste (Kilbourne & Pickett, 2008). Such
behaviour is expected to make the consumer generally satisfied with his/her life
because of a belief that s/he has contributed, at both an individual and group level,
to protecting the environment (Light, Hertsgaard, & Martin, 1985). Mayer and Frantz
(2004) argue that people derive a sense of well-being from feeling connected to nature,
and those who are more connected to it experience a higher level of life satisfaction.
The latter is considered the ultimate goal in life and is defined as the degree to which a
person judges the overall quality of his/her life favourably (Paim, 1995; Selim, 2008;
Sirgy, 1998). Individuals are satisfied with their lives when they rationally harmonise
their outer and inner world so as to live in a self-sufficient way, and the adoption of
environmentally friendly behaviour helps towards achieving this harmonisation
(Dierksmeier & Pirson, 2009). In fact, several empirical studies (Eigner, 2001;
Nisbet, Zelenski, & Murphy, 2010; Sohr, 2001) have shown that life satisfaction
can be enhanced by caring about nature and protecting ones valued environment.
Hence, we may posit the following:
H10: The more intense the general environmental behaviour of the consumer is, the
greater the satisfaction with his/her life
Investigation method
The study took place in Cyprus, which provides fertile ground for environmental
marketing research for five major reasons: (a) it has recently joined the European
Union, thus requiring the application of strict rules and regulations to protect the
environment; (b) it is currently implementing a series of environmental protection
programs at the national level (e.g. recycling packaging); (c) it is characterised by welleducated and demanding consumers, who are increasingly concerned about
environmental matters; (d) it has a strong ecological movement, as well as various
other pressure groups caring about the protection of the environment; and (e) it is
relatively small in size, both in geographic and demographic terms, thus allowing for
more efficient face-to-face research among consumers.
A nationwide sample of 500 consumers aged 15 and above was selected using
stratified random sampling procedures. The sample was representative of the
countrys population in terms of gender (male: 49.2%; female: 50.8%), age (1524
years: 18.9%; 2534 years: 19.3%; 3544 years: 17.4%; 4554 years: 16.6%; 5564
years: 12.9%; 65 years or more: 14.9%), population density (urban: 69.7%; rural:
30.3%), and geographic region (Nicosia: 39.5%; Limassol: 28.7%; Larnaca: 16.7%;
Pafos: 9.6%; Famagusta: 5.5%).
Data were gathered through personal interviews conducted at central locations of the
country over a six-week period. Interviews were based on a structured questionnaire,
which consisted of five major parts, namely antecedent factors, environmental attitudes,
consumer behaviour, consumer satisfaction, and demographic characteristics. The
questions in the questionnaire contained lists of pre-coded items relating to scales
derived from the pertinent literature, which were measured on a seven-point Likerttype scale. The questionnaire was written in English, translated into Greek, and then
back-translated into English to achieve linguistic consistency. Prior to launching the fullscale study, the questionnaire was pilot-tested with 10 individuals to ensure its
workability. Due to the rigorous interview procedure undertaken, all questionnaires
were fully completed and contained no missing values. Each questionnaire was carefully
edited before data were entered for computer analysis.
Due to the multifaceted nature of the conceptual model, the scales of the constructs
employed were derived from multiple sources. The scale of collectivism consisted of
five items and was derived from McCarty and Shrum (2001), while long-term
orientation was a four-item scale developed by Hofstede (1980). Political action
comprised four items adapted from Bohlen et al. (1993), and the four-item scale of
Roberts (1996) was used to operationalise liberalism. Deontology and law
obedience had four items each, and these were extracted from R. Chan et al. (2008)
and Gaski (1999) respectively. The scale for environmental attitudes was derived
from Kilbourne and Pickett (2008), but this was split into inward and outward, each
incorporating four items. The same source also provided the scale for purchasing
behaviour (five items) and environmental behaviour (four items). Finally, the
product satisfaction scale was taken from Bodet (2008) and included five items,
while a four-item scale for life satisfaction was adapted from Light et al. (1985).
To test the proposed conceptual model and the hypothesised associations among
the constructs, structural equation modelling (SEM) was employed for three major
reasons: (a) it allows assessment of relationships between the constructs of the model
in a comprehensive, systematic, and holistic way; (b) it takes a confirmatory rather
than an exploratory approach to the data analysis; and (c) it takes into account explicit
estimates of measurement error, whereby the fit of the conceptual model is considered
(Byrne, 2006; Hair, Black, Babin, Anderson, & Tatham, 2006). The analysis was
performed using the EQS statistical program, which, compared to other available
programs, places less stringent assumptions on the multivariate normality of the data
(Bentler, 2006).
Research findings
The descriptive statistics (mean scores and standard deviations) of the constructs and
items used for the purposes of this study are presented in Table 1. To assess the validity
and reliability of these constructs and scales used, two measurement models were
estimated. The first included all the antecedent forces (i.e. cultural, political, and
ethical), and the second contained attitudinal factors (i.e. inward and outward
environmental attitude), behavioural factors (i.e. green purchasing behaviour,
environmental behaviour), and outcome constructs (i.e. product satisfaction, life
satisfaction).
The chi-square statistic for both models was found to be significant (w2(524)
935.92, p < .001 for Model A and w2(284) 944.52, p < .001 for Model B; see
Table 2). However, given the known weaknesses of this fit statistic (Bagozzi & Yi,
1988; Kline, 2005), the alternative fit indices were employed to assess the goodnessof-fit for both models, revealing values within the commonly accepted critical levels
(Hair et al., 2006). Specifically, the root mean square error of approximation
(RMSEA) was .06 for Model A and .07 for Model B respectively (.08); the normed
fit index (NFI) was .96 for Model A and .97 for Model B respectively (.95); the nonnormed fit index (NNFI) was .97 for Model A and .98 for Model B respectively
(.95); and the comparative fit index (CFI) was .98 for both models (.95).
Overall, the results of both models provided a good fit to the data observed (Byrne,
2006; Hair et al., 2006).
1329
Construct and items

Collectivism (COL) (a .91, r .86) Adopted from McCarty and Shrum (2001)
COL1 I work hard for the goals of a group, even if it does not result in personal recognition
COL2 I am a cooperative participant in group activities
COL3 I readily help others in need of help
COL4 I do what is good for most of the people in the group, even if it means that I will
receive less
COL5 I often share items and moments with others
Long-Term Orientation (LTO) (a .78, r .72) Adopted from Hofstede (1980)
LTO1 I always respect others and treat them as they would like to be treated
LTO2 I have a duty to uphold the values and reputation of my family
LTO3 I show respect for traditions
Political Action (PAC) (a .87, r .80) Adopted from Bohlen et al. (1993)
PAC1 Often I intervene with the media about societal issues
PAC2 I support political pressure groups/parties in their societal efforts
PAC3 I lobby my political representatives about societal issues
PAC4 I boycott companies that are irresponsible to the society
Liberalism (LIB) (a .86, r .79) Adopted from Roberts (1996)
LIB1 The profits of the big companies should be controlled by the government
LIB2 I support a national health insurance program covering men and women of all ages
LIB3 If unemployment is high, the government should spend to create jobs
LIB4 I am for revising the tax structure so that the burden falls more heavily on people with
large income
Deontology (DEO) (a .91, r .87) Adopted from Chan et al. (2008)
DEO1 I am interested in conserving the natural resources
DEO2 I reduce unnecessary waste
Table 1 Descriptive statistics of constructs and items.
4.73 (1.55)
4.84 (1.51)
5.51 (1.48)
5.94 (1.42)
5.83 (1.32)
5.70 (1.54)
3.42 (1.61)
3.63 (1.63)
3.27 (1.61)
3.95 (1.73)
5.50 (1.35)
5.65 (1.32)
5.43 (1.33)
5.67 (1.40)
5.36 (1.42)
5.67 (1.31)
5.78 (1.26)
5.36 (1.39)
Item mean* (SD)
4.85 (1.31)
5.75 (1.20)
3.57 (1.39)
5.53 (1.11)
Construct mean* (SD)

5.57 (1.16)
1330
DEO3 I try to create and provide living environment for future generations
DEO4 I am concerned about the environment for my future personal convenience
Law Obedience (LOB) (a .87, r .81) Adopted from Gaski (1999)
LOB1 I try to avoid committing briberies in my transactions
LOB2 I show respect to the laws of my country and especially those for the environment
LOB3 I abide the safety law for the environment of my country
LOB4 I try to avoid companies that use misleading environmental practices
Inward Environmental Attitude (IEA) (a .85, r .79) Adopted from Kilbourne and Pickett
(2007)
IEA1 I am very concerned about the environment
IEA2 I would be willing to reduce my consumption to help protect the environment
IEA3 I would give part of my own money to help protect wild animals
IEA4 I have asked my family to recycle some of the things we use
Outward Environmental Attitude (OEA) (a .89, r .83) Adopted from Kilbourne and Pickett
(2007)
OEA1 Major political change is necessary to protect the natural environment
OEA2 Anti-pollution laws should be enforced more strongly
OEA3 Major social changes are necessary to protect the natural environment
OEA4 Humans are severely abusing the environment
Green Purchasing Behaviour (PUB) (a .91, r .85) Adopted from Kilbourne and Pickett
(2007)
PUB1 I buy environmentally friendly products whenever possible
PUB2 I buy organic food whenever possible
PUB3 I use products made from recycled materials whenever possible
PUB4 I reduce household waste, whenever possible
PUB5 I recycle household waste, whenever possible
4.88 (1.56)
3.98 (1.62)
4.57 (1.61)
4.69 (1.61)
4.84 (1.71)
4.87 (1.49)
5.17 (1.49)
4.93 (1.56)
5.47 (1.48)
4.98 (1.45)
4.89 (1.50)
4.15 (1.56)
4.85 (1.65)
5.24 (1.48)
5.19 (1.41)
5.09 (1.45)
4.75 (1.56)
4.91 (1.46)
4.94 (1.40)
(Continued )
4.59 (1.39)
5.11 (1.31)
4.72 (1.28)
5.07 (1.26)

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Reverse scored item.

*Based on a seven-point scale, ranging from 1 strongly disagree to 7 strongly agree.
Construct and items

General Environmental Behaviour (ENB) (a .84, r .78) Adopted from Kilbourne and
Pickett (2007)
ENB1 I am a member of an environmental organisation
ENB2 I contribute money, whenever possible, to environmental organisations
ENB3 I buy/read magazines and listen/watch news items that have environmental issues
ENB4 I contact my political representative about any environmental issues
Product Satisfaction (PRS) (a .92, r .87) Adopted from Bodet (2008)
PRS1 I think I did the right thing by deciding to buy ecological products
PRS2 I am satisfied with my decision to buy environmentally friendly products
PRS3 There is a big possibility to start buying organic food
PRS4 Environmentally friendly products match my expectations regarding the ideal
product
PRS5 My general experience with eco-friendly products is high
Life satisfaction (LIS) (a .85, r .79) Adopted from Light et al. (1985)
LIS1 I expect some pleasant things to happen to me in the future, because of my
environmental actions
LIS2 The results of my actions regarding the environment seem better than I thought they
would be
LIS3 As I look back in life, I am fairly satisfied about my environmental behaviour
LIS4 My life could be happier than it is now, if I took more actions in preserving the
environment
Table 1 (Continued).
4.40 (1.55)
4.96 (1.58)
4.18 (1.45)
4.30 (1.60)
4.50 (1.70)
4.88 (1.58)
4.90 (1.61)
4.24 (1.52)
4.39 (1.55)
2.84 (2.01)
3.63 (1.67)
4.24 (1.89)
3.52 (1.79)
Item mean* (SD)
4.46 (1.28)
4.58 (1.39)
Construct mean* (SD)

3.56 (1.51)
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Table 2 Results of the measurement models.

Model A
Factor
Standardised loadingsa
Collectivism (COL)
COL1
.81b
COL2
.83 (19.00)
COL3
.87 (20.24)
COL4
.84 (19.13)
COL5
.76 (16.67)
Long-Term Orientation (LTO)
LTO1
.75b
LTO2
.78 (14.41)
LTO3
.68 (12.70)
Political Action (PAC)
PAC1
.77b
PAC2
.85 (16.78)
PAC3
.83 (16.53)
PAC4
.72 (14.11)
Liberalism (LIB)
LIB1
.64b
LIB2
.82 (13.16)
LIB3
.87 (13.63)
LIB4
.76 (12.48)
Deontology (DEO)
DEO1
.78b
DEO2
.85 (18.30)
DEO3
.88 (19.15)
DEO4
.87 (18.96)
Law Obedience (LOB)
LOB1
.75b
LOB2
.89 (18.19)
LOB3
.88 (17.99)
LOB4
.66 (13.12)
Goodness-of-fit statistics:
w2(237) 650.92, p < .001
NFI .96; NNFI .97;
CFI .98; RMSEA .06
a
Model B
Factor
Standardised loadingsa
Inward Environmental Attitude (IEA)
IEA1
.82b
IEA2
.77 (17.11)
IEA3
.70 (14.90)
IEA4
.77 (17.14)
Outward Environmental Attitude (OEA)
OEA1
.84b
OEA2
.92 (23.03)
OEA3
.87 (21.44)
OEA4
.68 (14.67)
Green Purchasing Behaviour (PUB)
PUB1
.83b
PUB2
.78 (18.02)
PUB3
.83 (19.71)
PUB4
.82 (19.36)
PUB5
.81 (18.98)
General Environmental Behaviour (ENB)
ENB1
.63b
ENB2
.82 (12.85)
ENB3
.83 (12.91)
ENB4
.74 (11.96)
Product Satisfaction (PRS)
PRS1
.85 b
PRS2
.88 (22.64)
PRS3
.81 (19.62)
PRS4
.83 (20.65)
PRS5
.82 (19.89)
Life Satisfaction (LIS)
LIS1
.80b
LIS2
.76 (15.57)
LIS3
.77 (15.82)
LIS4
.74 (15.17)
Goodness-of-fit statistics:
w2 (284) 944.52, p < .001
NFI .97; NNFI .98; CFI .98; RMSEA .07
t-values from the unstandardised solution are in parentheses; bitem fixed to set the scale.
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1334
Convergent validity was satisfactory, since all items loaded highly on their designated
constructs. Specifically, the factor loadings for all items comprising each construct
were above .60, while the t-value for each item was significant and greater than 12.0,
and all standard errors of the estimated coefficients were very low. Discriminant
validity was also evident, as indicated by the results of the two alternative methods
recommended by Anderson and Gerbing (1988): in the first approach, it was observed
that the confidence interval around the correlation estimate ( two standard errors)
for each pair of constructs examined never included 1.0; in the second approach, it
was found that for each pair of constructs examined the chi-square difference between
the unconstrained and constrained model was always statistically significant (w2(1) >
3.84; p < .05), while the fit was significantly worse. Construct reliability was also high
and well above the recommended cut-off point of .70 (Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994),
and the individual Cronbachs alpha scores for every construct ranged from .78 to .92
and composite reliability coefficients ranged from .72 to .87. It can, therefore, be
concluded that the measurement procedure employed was highly accurate, precise,
and valid, while, at the same time, reliably identifying the theoretical constructs as
elements of the structural model (Bagozzi & Yi, 1988). The intercorrelations among
the constructs employed are presented in Table 3.
The hypothesised links between the constructs were tested by estimating the
structural model using the elliptical re-weighted least squares (ERLS) technique.
Although the chi-square for the model was found to be significant (w2 4965.76,
Table 3 Correlation matrix.

Variable
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10 11 12
1. Collectivism
1
2. Long-Term
.63 1
Orientation
3. Political Action
.31 .17 1
4. Liberalism
.55 .56 .16 1
5. Deontology
.53 .54 .42 .37 1
6. Law Obedience
.55 .59 .34 .45 .73 1
7. Inward
.55 .46 .45 .35 .81 .70 1
Environmental
Attitude
.53 .60 .20 .39 .66 .69 .65 1
8. Outward
Environmental
Attitude
9. Green Purchasing
.50 .38 .50 .31 .79 .60 .79 .55 1
Behaviour
.33 .17 .67 .18 .53 .40 .60 .30 .66 1
10. General
Environmental
Behaviour
11. Product Satisfaction .48 .41 .53 .32 .73 .61 .72 .60 .80 .69 1
12. Life Satisfaction
.44 .37 .45 .32 .67 .58 .69 .52 .68 .59 .73 1
Correlations greater than 0.11 are significant at the .01 level. Correlations greater than | 0.09| are
significant at the .05 level.
p < .001), this was expected due to the known limitations of this statistic (Kline,
2005). Subsequently, we used the alternative fit indices, which revealed an acceptable
structural model fit (NFI .95; NNFI .96; CFI .96; RMSEA .08). The
standardised path coefficients, together with the corresponding t-values of the
structural model, are presented in Table 4. With the exception of H4a and H4b, all
theoretical links examined were found to be statistically significant.
With regard to cultural factors, collectivism was found to be conducive to the
formation of both inward (H1a: b .21, t 6.70, p .00) and outward
environmental attitudes (H1b: b .17, t 4.01, p .00). These results support our
initial hypotheses and are in agreement with prior research (e.g. Ling-yee, 1997;
McCarty & Shrum, 1994, 2001) showing that a person who is driven by
collectivistic values is very likely to favour ecologically friendly consumption and
care about the preservation of ecological well-being. Nonetheless, these results also
contrast the findings of other researchers (e.g. Kim & Choi, 2005; Laroche et al.,
2001), who found no association between collectivism and environmental concerns of
consumers. Although long-term orientation was found to be positively related to
outward environmental attitude (H2b: b .11, t 2.58, p .01), the link with
inward environmental attitude, although significant, was found to have an opposite
Table 4 Results of the structural model.
H
Hypothesised association
H1a Collectivism ! Inward Environmental Attitude
H1b Collectivism ! Outward Environmental Attitude
H2a Long-Term Orientation ! Inward Environmental
Attitude
H2b Long-Term Orientation ! Outward
Environmental Attitude
H3a Political Action ! Inward Environmental Attitude
H3b Political Action ! Outward Environmental
Attitude
H4a Liberalism ! Inward Environmental Attitude
H4b Liberalism ! Outward Environmental Attitude
H5a Deontology ! Inward Environmental Attitude
H5b Deontology ! Outward Environmental Attitude
H6a Law Obedience ! Inward Environmental Attitude
H6b Law Obedience ! Outward Environmental
Attitude
H7 Inward Environmental Attitude ! Green
Purchasing Behaviour
H8 Outward Environmental Attitude ! General
Environmental Behaviour
H9 Green Purchasing Behaviour ! Product
Satisfaction
H10 General Environmental Behaviour ! Life
Satisfaction
Standardised
estimate
.21
.17
.17
t-value p-value
6.70
.00
4.01
.00
5.33
.00
.11
2.58
.01
.18
.09
5.83
2.08
.00
.04
.03
.03
.88
.46
.18
.53
1.01
.65
16.22
9.47
5.90
10.05
.31
.52
.00
.00
.00
.00
.90
15.83
.00
.39
6.44
.00
.86
16.17
.00
.73
10.21
.00
Goodness-of-fit statistics: w2 4965.76, p .000; df 1159; normed fit index (NFI) .95; non-normed fit index
(NNFI) .96; comparative fit index (CFI) .96; root mean squared error of approximation (RMSEA) .08.
1335
1336
sign to that hypothesised (H2a: b .17, t 5.33, p .00). This is a surprising

finding, which partially supports the results of past research (e.g. Joreiman et al.,
ll
2004; Sarigo
u, 2009) investigating the link between these two constructs
With reference to political factors, political action was found to be positively linked
with both inward (H3a: b .18, t 5.83, p .00) and outward (H3b: b .009,
t 2.08, p .04) environmental attitudes. This confirms the findings of previous
studies that an individuals political involvement exposes him/her to ecological issues
and helps to cultivate an interest in preserving the environment (Bohlen et al., 1993;
Owen & Videras, 2006). However, no relationship was observed between liberalism
and inward (H4a: b .03, t 1.01, p .31) or outward (H4b: b .03, t .65,
p .52) environmental attitudes. This is another unexpected finding that contradicts
the results of past empirical research in the field (e.g. Olli et al., 2001; Straughan &
Roberts, 1999). Perhaps, this could be explained by the growing public concern about
the protection of the environment (Laroche et al., 2001), which has transcended
political affiliations and ideologies (Roberts, 1996). Hence, pro-environmental
attitudes are by no means restricted to people belonging to the liberal segments of
the society.
Ethical factors proved to be strong drivers behind the development of eco-friendly
attitudes. Specifically, positive relationships were established between deontology and
an environmental attitude of an inward (H5a: b .88, t 16.22, p .00) or outward
(H5b: b .46, t 9.47, p .00) nature. This confirms the findings of previous studies
on the subject (e.g. Chan et al., 2008; ONeill & Spash, 2000; Spash, 1997), whereby
people with strong deontological views believe that they have a moral duty towards
humanity to protect the environment. Law obedience was also positively associated
with inward (H6a: b .18, t 5.90, p .00) and outward (H6b: b .53, t 10.05, p
.00) environmental attitudes. This is actually the first empirical validation of this
association, which gives credibility to the notion that, in light of the increasing
environmental legislation in many countries, a law-obedient person is willing to
make personal sacrifices to protect the environment and take actions against those
violating such legislation (Gaski, 1999).
In accord with our hypotheses, an inward environmental attitude was found to be a
significant predictor of green purchasing behaviour (H7: b .90, t 15.83, p .00),
while an outward environmental attitude positively affected environmentally friendly
behaviour (H8: b .39, t 6.44, p .00). This is in accord with growing empirical
evidence that stress the instrumental role of environmental attitudes in shaping
environmentally friendly behavioural intentions and actions (Kalafatis et al., 1999;
Mostafa, 2007; Nigbur, Lyons, & Uzzell, 2010). It is also in harmony with the results
of Kilbourne and Picketts (2008) study, where it was shown that, as opposed to
inward environmental attitudes, which stress private sphere pro-environmental
behaviour (e.g. consuming green products, recycling packaging, purchasing organic
goods), outward environmental attitudes promote public pro-environmental
behaviour (e.g. joining environmental groups, contributing to environmental funds,
signing petitions).
Finally, the study confirmed that eco-friendly purchasing behaviour is conducive to
product satisfaction (H9: b .86, t 16.17, p .00), while individuals demonstrating
general environmental behaviour increase their life satisfaction (H10: b .73,
t 10.21, p .00). This supports the prevailing notion among scholars in the field
that direct (e.g. through eco-product purchases) or indirect (e.g. through a proecological public stance) support of the environment, increases product satisfaction
(Flatters & Willmott, 2009) and enhances quality of life (Thgersen & Compton,
2009) respectively. This is also in accord with prior empirical research in sociology and
psychology about the crucial effects of eco-friendly attitudes on personal happiness,
satisfaction, and well-being (Mayer, & Frantz, 2004; Nisbet et al., 2010; Sohr, 2001).
Finally, both findings point to a mutually beneficial relation between sustainability,
consumption, and life, where personal and planetary well-being can co-exist in a
harmonious manner.
Summary and conclusions

Our study contributes to the marketing literature in multiple ways. First, it is one of the
very few studies that puts together in a single model various motives, attitudes,
behaviour, and satisfaction of consumers with regard to ecological issues. Second, it
concurrently examines the role of various factors pertaining to cultural, societal, and
ethical issues in forming environmental attitudes by consumers. Third, it draws a clear
distinction between environmental attitudes and behaviour, as opposed to the bulk of
previous research, which treated them interchangeably. Fourth, it distinguishes
between inward and outward environmental attitudes, each having their own impact
on specific aspects of consumer behaviour. Finally, it combines for the first time both
micro and macro eco-marketing issues, often examined separately by previous
research.
The results of the preceding analysis have clearly shown that certain cultural,
political, and ethical factors are responsible for the adoption of an environmental
attitude by consumers, whether when specifically making personal purchasing
decisions (inward) or when broadly considering issues relating to society (outward).
In brief, a pro-environmental attitude is more likely to occur when the consumer is
collectivistic, long-term oriented, politically active, deontological, and law obedient.
The direction of this attitude, whether inward or outward, will subsequently have its
effect on different aspects of consumer behaviour and its outcomes: while an inward
environmental attitude will stimulate green purchasing behaviour and higher product
satisfaction, an outward environmental attitude will cause general pro-environmental
actions, which will subsequently lead to greater life satisfaction.
This study also revealed that an individual can simultaneously exhibit both inward
and outward environmental attitudes, with each of them influencing a different aspect
of behaviour. While inward environmental attitude is more associated with green
purchasing behaviour, outward environmental attitude mainly refers to general
green behaviour. This finding can help to resolve a curious paradox often cited in
the literature, whereby ecologically concerned consumers were not consistently found
to prefer environmentally friendly products in their purchases (Kilbourne & Pickett,
2008). In other words, a person with an outward environmental attitude can act in a
friendly way to the general environment, but is not necessarily involved in a green
purchasing behaviour, which is the result of the development of an inward green
attitude.
The fact that different types of satisfaction are affected by different levels of
environmentally friendly behaviour is also an important finding, since it combines
both macro and micro perspectives of green consumer behaviour. While at the macro
level, an individual who exhibits a general ecological behaviour will enjoy more
satisfaction with his/her life, at the micro level, consumers whose purchasing
behaviour is eco-friendly will feel more satisfied with their green buying options.
1337
1338
These two levels of satisfaction can co-exist and complement each other in such a way
that the individuals overall well-being is enhanced.
Implications
These findings have various implications for both corporate and public policymakers.
Managers should appreciate the fact that consumers derive high levels of product and
life satisfaction from ecological behaviour. Hence, they should become more
ecologically oriented in their production methods, marketing approaches, and
products offered to the market (Peattie, 1999). They should also investigate in more
detail the cultural, political, and ethical characteristics of their target markets and try to
adjust their company offerings according to whether or not their consumers are
characterised by an environmentally friendly attitude. Different segments of green
consumers could also be identified, according to their eco-friendly attitudes, and
attractive company offerings should be designed for each segment (Diamantopoulos
et al., 2003). For example, communication efforts can emphasise collectivistic
arguments (e.g. importance of eco-behaviour for society as a whole), traditionoriented messages (e.g. need for next generations to have a place in which to live and
prosper), politically-related points (e.g. vote for the environment), deontologicallyrelated claims (e.g. it is your moral duty to respect the environment), and legallyrelated statements (e.g. it is against the law to litter the streets). Ecologically sensitive
organisations should also systematically assess the pro-environmental behaviour of their
current and potential customers in order to adjust their marketing programs accordingly.
It is also important to measure customer satisfaction (both at the product and life level)
at regular intervals, so as to retain and expand the firms customer base.
On the other hand, public policymakers should try, through proper educational,
regulatory, communication, and other policies, to cultivate a spirit among their
citizens that is characterised by collectivism, long-term orientation, political action,
deontology, and law obedience. In addition, although many governments and local
authorities are becoming increasingly more sensitive to environmental issues, it is
important to allocate more resources to provide the necessary means (e.g. offering
recycling facilities) for individuals to engage easily in pro-environmental behaviour.
This is because the time, effort, and inconvenience associated with pursuing ecofriendly behaviour were often named reasons for postponing its adoption and limiting
its development (Cornelissen, Pandelaere, Warlop, & Dewitte, 2008; Follows & Jobber,
2000). The fact that an outward pro-environmental attitude is conducive towards
ecological behaviour, which subsequently leads to a feeling of well-being, implies that
public policymakers should take measures centring on the benefits of environmentalism
for the individual (e.g. higher quality of life) and the society at large (e.g. increased
standards of living). This can be achieved, for example, through special education
programs (e.g. environmental sustainability courses), information dissemination
(e.g. door-to-door brochures for recycling waste), and even monetary incentives
(e.g. prizes awarded to citizens demonstrating exceptional ecological behaviour).
Future directions
The importance of our findings at both business and government levels necessitates the
replication of the study in other countries, with different economic, sociocultural, and
political-legal settings. For instance, it would be interesting to investigate

environmental consumer behaviour in China, where lack of environmental concern
is more evident (Chan & Lau, 2000). It would also be insightful to draw comparisons
on consumer eco-friendly attitudes and behaviour between developed and developing
countries, as well as between mature and emerging markets.
It is also important to examine the effect of consumer demographics, such as age,
gender, education, family cycle, and income group, on the link between antecedent
factors and pro-environmental attitudes. The use of sociodemographic parameters as
moderators, rather than determinants, of consumer ecological attitudes could perhaps
yield more solid insights. The incorporation of psychographic factors, such as those
pertaining to the lifestyle characteristics of the individual, could also have a strong
moderating effect.
Although the list of antecedent factors used in this study is quite extensive and
diverse, it would be useful if additional cultural (e.g. uncertainty avoidance), political
(e.g. autocracy), and ethical (e.g. idealism) parameters were examined. Moreover,
other unexplored factors pertaining to consumer behaviour, such as personality
traits, emotional intelligence, and preference for consistency, should be considered
as potential drivers of an environmentally friendly attitude.
Finally, it is crucial to monitor consumer environmental attitude and behaviour
over time as a result of variations in antecedent factors caused by changes in their
private and/or public environment. In this respect, it is important to embark on a
longitudinal study among a panel of consumers whose motivations, attitudes,
behaviour, and outcomes relating to ecological issues will be monitored at regular
intervals. This will help to determine potential internal and external triggering cues of
consumer eco-friendly approaches, as well as identify any distinct evolutionary phases
in the adoption of pro-environmental attitudes and behaviour.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the Special Issue editor and the anonymous reviewers of the
journal for their valuable insights and constructive comments on previous versions of the article.
They also acknowledge Pantelis Gregori and Christina Pelidou for their assistance in collecting
the data for the purposes of this study.
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About the authors

Leonidas C. Leonidou is a professor of marketing at the School of Economics and Management
of the University of Cyprus. He has an MSc and PhD from the University of Bath. His current
research interests are in the areas of international marketing/purchasing, relationship marketing,
strategic marketing, and marketing in emerging economies. He has published extensively in
these fields and his articles have appeared in various journals, such as the European Journal of
Marketing, Industrial Marketing Management, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science,
Journal of Business Research, Journal of International Business Studies, Journal of International
Marketing, and Journal of World Business.
T
E
357 22 893614
leonidas@ucy.ac.cy
Constantinos N. Leonidou is a lecturer in marketing at Leeds University Business School, UK. He

holds an MBA from Cardiff University and has a PhD from the University of Leeds. His main
research interests focus on sustainability, international marketing, consumer behaviour, and
advertising. His research has appeared in various journals, such as the European Journal of
Marketing, Industrial Marketing Management, Journal of International Marketing, and Journal of
Marketing Management.
Corresponding author: Dr. Constantinos N. Leonidou, Lecturer in Marketing, Leeds
University Business School, University of Leeds, Maurice Keyworth Building, Leeds, LS2
9JT, UK.
T
E
44 (0) 113 343 6855

C.Leonidou@leeds.ac.uk
Olga Kvasova is a PhD candidate in marketing at Lulea University of Technology, Sweden. Her
research interests are marketing and sales management, international marketing, trust, and
competitive strategy. Her work has appeared in Management International Review.
E
olgakvasova@list.ru
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Journal of Marketing Management

Vol. 26, Nos. 1314, December 2010, 13191344

Antecedents and outcomes of consumer

Journal of Marketing Management, Volume 26

ecological sensitivity of consumers has skyrocketed, reflecting increasing public

Leonidou et al. Consumer environmentally friendly attitude behaviour

Journal of Marketing Management, Volume 26

The third research stream concentrates on psychological, cultural, societal, and

Conceptual model and hypotheses

Leonidou et al. Consumer environmentally friendly attitude behaviour

Figure 1 The conceptual model.

General Environmental Behaviour

Antecedents of environmental attitudes

Journal of Marketing Management, Volume 26

Long-term orientation refers to the prospects perceived by an individual that a

Leonidou et al. Consumer environmentally friendly attitude behaviour

Deontology is an ethical approach that focuses on whether the intention and/or

Journal of Marketing Management, Volume 26

Environmental attitudes and behaviour2

Leonidou et al. Consumer environmentally friendly attitude behaviour

towards adopting an ecological approach to their consumption. Based on the above, we

As opposed to an inward environmental attitude, which affects more private

Consumer behaviour and satisfaction

Environmental behaviour includes all those elements in the psychology of an

Journal of Marketing Management, Volume 26

Leonidou et al. Consumer environmentally friendly attitude behaviour

Construct and items

Table 1 Descriptive statistics of constructs and items.

Item mean* (SD)

Construct mean* (SD)

Leonidou et al. Consumer environmentally friendly attitude behaviour

Reverse scored item.

Construct and items

Item mean* (SD)

Construct mean* (SD)

Leonidou et al. Consumer environmentally friendly attitude behaviour

Table 2 Results of the measurement models.

Journal of Marketing Management, Volume 26

Table 3 Correlation matrix.

Leonidou et al. Consumer environmentally friendly attitude behaviour

Table 4 Results of the structural model.

Journal of Marketing Management, Volume 26

sign to that hypothesised (H2a: b .17, t 5.33, p .00). This is a surprising

Leonidou et al. Consumer environmentally friendly attitude behaviour

Summary and conclusions

Journal of Marketing Management, Volume 26

Leonidou et al. Consumer environmentally friendly attitude behaviour

political-legal settings. For instance, it would be interesting to investigate

Journal of Marketing Management, Volume 26

Leonidou et al. Consumer environmentally friendly attitude behaviour

Journal of Marketing Management, Volume 26

Leonidou et al. Consumer environmentally friendly attitude behaviour

Journal of Marketing Management, Volume 26

About the authors

Constantinos N. Leonidou is a lecturer in marketing at Leeds University Business School, UK. He

44 (0) 113 343 6855

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sign to that hypothesised (H2a: b .17, t 5.33, p .00). This is a surprising