L'Internationale Situationniste, Socialisme Ou Barbarie, and The Crisis of The Marxist Imaginary

L'Internationale Situationniste, Socialisme ou Barbarie, and the
Crisis of the Marxist Imaginary

Hastings-King, Stephen.
SubStance, Issue 90 (Volume 28, Number 3), 1999, pp. 26-54 (Article)
Published by University of Wisconsin Press

DOI: 10.1353/sub.2006.0007
For additional information about this article

http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/sub/summary/v028/28.3hastings-king.html
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26
Stephen Hastings-King
LInternationale Situationniste,
Socialisme ou Barbarie, and the Crisis
of the Marxist Imaginary
The Situationniste Internationale was a small transnational group of

artist-revolutionaries that came out of the neo-Dadaist Lettriste movement.1
In Paris, Guy Debord and a small, changing cast of friends and supporting
characters2 tracked through the Parisian cultural and political underground
along the path laid earlier by the Surrealists.3 Skilled as provocateurs, anxious
to abandon the constraints of artistic production and to acquire legitimacy
as revolutionaries, Debord and his friends almost immediately began to look
to the journal Socialisme ou Barbarie, edited by the group of the same name
led by Cornelius Castoriadis.4
SB is a crucial, though little discussed, referent in the evolution of Guy
Debord. The relationship was central for Debord, and worked on several
levels. After months of discussion with SB militants, Debord joined the group
for a few months during 1960-1961. The merger was inconclusive and
strained. However, in the pages of the journal LInternationale Situationniste,
SB played an important role as the symbol of the new revolutionary
movement with which Debord increasingly identified. Initially, SB was
simply part of the political landscape. However, once Debord became more
involved, SB became much more central, and the Situ journal much more
deferential toward the older group. Debord was a sympathetic observer of
SB, and his accounts form one of the few views of the group from an outside
perspective. SB functions as an Archimedean point around which the Situs
tried to pivot from art and cultural dissent into revolutionary politics. When
SB exploded in 1963 and Castoriadis began to publish his long text Marxisme
et la thorie rvolutionnairein which he argues that it has come to the
point where one can either be Marxist or a revolutionary Debord began
a sustained attempt to exclude SB from the revolutionary movement and to
usurp its role in a new revolutionary vanguard. Elements of SBs
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Substance # 90, 1999
27
revolutionary project were central components in Debords collage approach

to Marxism and cultural critique as deployed in the 1967 Society of the Spectacle
and as dismantled in the 1975 film of the same name. Debords use of SB is
curious for its external viewpoint. He maps SBs notions of the history of the
workers movement, bureaucratic capitalism and socialism as direct
democracy onto a Marxist framework closer to Lukacs and Althusser in its
abstract relation to the working class and revolution. In this paper, I argue
that Debords reversion to dialectical Marxism is a response to the implosion
of SB. Debords collage approach to revolutionary politics makes him
interesting as an actor within and symptom of the crisis of the Marxist
Imaginary.
SB and the Marxist Imaginary
When the Situationiste Internationale began to publish its journal in
1958 and to position itself on the fringes of the Parisian cultural and political
underground, Socialisme ou Barbarie was regarded as the most proletarian
and sophisticated of revolutionary Marxist organizations. The group was
founded by Castoriadis, Claude Lefort and a circle of less well-known
militants as an oppositional tendency within the Trotskyist Parti Communiste
Internationaliste (PCI) in1946. The Chaulieu-Montal Tendency, as it was
known, broke with the PCI in 1948 over the problem of interpreting the
Soviet Union. Between 1948 and 1956, SB developed a variant of Marxist
revolutionary theory notable for its sweep and attention to the situation of
the working class, then undergoing radical change through the
implementation of Fordism and the crisis of Stalinism. By 1958, SBs
revolutionary project had become a primary reference-point for new radical
organizations that were emerging in the space created by the intensification
of the Algerian War and the retreat into self-isolation of the Parti Communiste
Franais. SBs project was built around extended interpretations of workingclass actions since 1953 and seemed confirmed by the Hungarian Revolution
of October-November, 1956. SB defined the terms in which these new
organizations understood their situation. The following is a cursory overview
of the notion of the Marxist Imaginary, the social-imaginary formation that
shaped how SB articulated itself and its object, its entry into a protracted
crisis and the role played in this by the Hungarian Revolution.
The central elements of revolutionary theory, or of any vision of society
(and in this, revolutionary theory is no more or less a fantasy than any other),
are what Cornelius Castoriadis has called social-imaginary significations.
These are the product of intellectual labor expended upon social spaces,
28
shaping definitions of the world, its history, the possibilities of change and
modes available for political entities to shape or participate in that change.
Social-imaginary significations structure representational, intentional and
affective relations to the social-historical.5
The post-war French Left was dominated by the Parti Communiste
Franais and its trade-union ally, the Confdration Gnrale du Travail. It
and was, in turn, shaped by it. The PCF-CGT system agitated with primary
reference to a working-class constituency: it also exerted an enormous pull
over the para-academic urban culture within which circulated most dissident
Parisian students and intellectual workers (Badie, 1977). The system was
opposed to its Left by a series of small militant organizations that operated
in a nebulous cultural environment that Pierre Bourdieu has called the
delimited field of ideological production.6 These organizations were
comprised of specialists in ideological production who, lacking the material
resources of the PCF-CGT system, worked to fashion positions with specific
reference to the textual tradition at the core of the Marxist Imaginary.
All heretical projects had to work through Marxist significations as
shaped by the dominant PCF-CGT position. They also had to position
themselves horizontallywith respect to each otherand verticallywith
respect to an imagined version of the revolutionary working class. In postwar
Marxism, the paradigm for such heresy was Trotsky, who argued that Stalin
represented the bureaucratization of the Russian Revolution and was
therefore not Lenins legitimate heir. For Trotsky, the ultimate demonstration
of his claims would come with a second proletarian revolution. Led by the
real revolutionary vanguard and mobilizing the real proletariat, the
second revolution would sweep away Stalinism and institute in its place a
more radical socialism. Most revolutionary groups appropriated versions
of this narrative to emplot themselves and their vision of the Imaginary.
Central to all versions was a relation to the working class. The construction
of a representation of the real proletariat was a fundamental element in
collective self-fashioning for revolutionary organizations: this representation
gave coherence to intentional relations-to-the-world, which in turn enabled
individual militants and workers to map affect onto a vision of revolutionary
social change.7
PCF-CGT dominance over the delimited field and its imagined working
class made itself evident in the fashioning of histories of the workers
movement in general. The PCF-CGT system legitimated itself and its political
actions in the present with reference to a narrative of the past. Therefore,
any counter-claim necessarily involved the production of a counter-history.
These counter-histories were often fashioned through the lens of dogmatic
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Marxism, which caused them to reproduce the same self-referential, selflegitimating character as could be seen in the PCF-CGT. The effect was to
render transcendent Marxs historical-materialist categories, which in turn
led to conceptual and political closure and stasis. By the mid-1950s, this
conceptual stasis was generalized among the fragments of the revolutionary
opposition.
Socialisme ou Barbarie was an exception. Turning the same heretical
pattern on the heretics themselves, SB announced itself in 1948 with the
slogan: Without development of revolutionary theory, [there can be] no
development of revolutionary action. The group bet that iconoclasm with
respect to instituted Marxism could be justified by their analysis of
contemporary capitalism. From 1948 to 1957, this gamble paid off in isolation.
SBs situation changed quickly and dramatically as a result of the Hungarian
Revolution. In a media context dominated by paralysis, SB published Claude
Leforts pamphlet Linsurrection hongroise within weeks of the events.
Written quickly and published along with a highly polemical attack on the
PCF, it was the first coherent reading to appear on the Parisian scene.8
The pamphlets general line is that Hungary experienced a real social
revolution. This revolution already required a total social crisis. Such a crisis
was simpler to think about in the Eastern context than it was in the West,
because the states in each were quite different. Lefort argued the central and
most revolutionary feature of the revolt was the role of the factory workers,
who began almost immediately to set up direct-democratic councils to
administer everyday life. Hungary became a direct-democratic society for a
couple of weeks: this was, for SB, proof that its vision of socialism was viable
and an occasion to extend and refine thinking about that vision.
Leforts analysis drew upon SBs broader analytic framework. The group
developed its revolutionary theory along negative/ critical and positive/
revolutionary axes. The former was built around a sweeping critique of
contemporary social, economic and political organizations and ideologies.
Modern capitalism, SB argued, should be seen as a new type of socioeconomic formation, the defining features of which could be seen in industry
in the separation of ownership from management and the rise of mass
production. This new form was bureaucratic capitalism, which was instituted
in centralized and fragmented forms in the East and the West
respectively. Following the string of bureaucracy, SB extended their critique
to encompass most aspects of Fordist culture.9
SB saw the Hungarian Revolution as the culmination of a mounting
wave of autonomous worker actions that had begun soon after Stalins death
30
in 1953. In the months following Hungary, building off of Leforts reading

of the revolt, Castoriadis tried to formalize the implications of this revolution
by an extended consideration of direct-democratic society (Sur le contenu
du socialisme II) and its links to everyday conflict in the factories (Sur le
contenu du socialisme III).
This optimistic narrative was central to the pamphlet and to the
theorizing about revolution in the pages of SB during 1957-1958. It was not,
however, the only way that the journal narrated events in Hungary. Daniel
Moths autobiographical accounts told a rather different story of the crisis
as it played out at Renaults Billancourt factory. Rather than a period of
increased revolutionary possibilities, Moth described a collapse of Marxism
as social-imaginary signification that had enabled individual workers to
articulate themselves, but as part of a class with a revolutionary telos, and to
act upon that identification.10
The double narrative mirrored both the political situation and the nature
of the SB readership. SB constructed itself and its journal around an ongoing
(though largely imaginary /problematic) dialogue with the worker avantgarde. The journal is a kind of textual collage. At its center were texts like
those by Moth, written by workers about their own experience. Around
this image was constructed another, of the worker avant-garde in action
through strike reports and analyses. Situating these was a broad critical
theory predicated on a close engagement with Marxism and with the
conditions particular to bureaucratic capitalism. These rings of text were
supplemented with more self-critical writings about the nature of
revolutionary organization and theory. Very little information appeared about
the actual life of SB as a group. Readers were invited to engage with the
elements of this collage, which resolved through the process of reading into
a complex image of the revolutionary working class.
The relation of the signifiers that made up this collage to their empirical
referent was problematic. SB collectively misrecognized the specificity and
complexity of the narrative viewpoint around which they hoped would be
elaborated accounts of worker experience. 11 SB readership was, more
logically, a reflection of the group itself: educated, urban and Marxist, whose
relation to the working class was a combination of fascination (following
from the axioms of Marxist revolutionary theory) and distance (as a function
of the nature of French social geography). SBs working class was therefore
a text-generated signified and the central social-imaginary signification
around which SB and its journal were ordered. Definitions of political action
and roles were predicated on a relation to this signified and its practical
31
activity. Broader oppositional attitudes were structured and legitimated with

reference to it. The image of proletariat was the central material upon which
the revolutionary movement expended intellectual labor. If Moththe
Worker in SBs internal worlddescribed a situation not particular to
Billancourt, but one that could be generalized to the working class as a whole,
then the crisis of the Marxist Imaginary had already entered its first phase.
In the period after 1956, the pages of SB were dominated by the
optimistic reading of Hungary and the possibilities for revolution it
presented. This reading was important for the newly constituted
revolutionary Left because it enabled them to extract the central Marxist
categories out from under Stalinism, and use them to construct a general
orientation for their anti-war activities. The political situation grew more
ambiguous after May 1958. Charles de Gaulle effectively staged a coup dtat
in May 1958 to end a near-civil war in France that was driven by a cadre of
ultra-right-wing paratroopers in Algeria. According to the Trotskyist theory
of how revolutions happen, social crisis resulted in dual power that became
civil war and then revolution (if political conditions were ripe, of course.)
The events of May should have been the signal for working-class action.
But the workers did not act: they even supported the Fifth Republic
Constitution when it was placed before the electorate in September. At this
point, various people in the Left Opposition began to ask whether there had
been some kind of basic change in the situation of the working class, and if
this change required a reconsideration of traditional Marxist categories and
politics. In the past, this kind of issue had often led militants to think their
way out of politics which left the general situation unchanged. This time,
however, the question would not go away and the debate around it is the
first round in a long series that mark the history of the collapse of the Marxist
Imaginary at the level of political organization.
This crisis of the Marxist Imaginary should not be understood in overly
teleological terms. Because of the intensity and complexity of affective
investments, it was confronted only gradually. When the crisis was engaged
directly, the result was usually traumatic. SB was among the few groups to
try to confront it directly, but not until 1963. During 1957 and 1958, the group
had feverishly tried to publish the journal on a regular basis in order to take
advantage of their newfound visibility. These efforts exacerbated longrunning financial and organizational problems. By the summer of 1958, SB
collapsed into itself, as a dispute over how to reorganize the group in order
to rationalize the production of the journal became a fight over the role of
bureaucracy in the revolutionary movement. This dispute prompted the
32
departure of the more anarchist members of SB, including Claude Lefort

and Henri Simon. It was clear to all, however, that this dispute coincided
with the emergence of questions about the political role of the working class.
As a result, everybody involved understood themselves in symptomatic
terms as indicative of the need for a new type of revolutionary politics and
a new type of revolutionary organization.
Publication Wars: IS and SB
During the fall of 1959, Debord and his comrades were filming the
psychogeographical experiments in Les Halles that became the basis for
Sur le passage de quelques personnes travers une assez courte unit de
temps (Debord 1978). The third issue of LInternationale Situationniste had
just appeared; a copy of it reached Daniel Blanchard, a university student
and member of SB since 1957:
There are moments in ones existence that stand out, as if of a more solid
texture, drawn in stronger lines [that] contrast with the fuzziness and [...]
ambiguity of the rest of life. And they really are charged with objective
meaning, imparted by a movement of a sort of historic overdetermination.
Often, that special quality only reveals itself retrospectively, but sometimes,
too, it is perceived immediately. That is what I experienced on the day, in
the autumn 1959, when I first glanced through an issuenumber 3, I
thinkof the IS. At the time, I participated in the Socialisme ou Barbarie
group [...] That day, as a few of us were going through the weekly mail,
my eye was attracted by that sleek, elegant publication, with its scintillating
cover and incredible title. I took hold of it and immediately began to explore
what I gradually came to see as a newfound land of modernity, bizarre
but fascinating.12
Blanchards relationship with Debord holds a particular place in the

formers affective world, as a kind of sustained brush with stardom. Moments
in the relationship seem etched on his mind: the packaging of the IS, for
example, and the impression it made on him. Everything about the journal
marked it as different from most revolutionary publications. The cover, title,
typeset and paper were all unusual. The layout was broken up by untitled
photographs of people, clipped advertisements for automobiles or fall-out
shelters, examples of dtournement done on Terry and the Pirates and other
comics. The journal presented itself as a kind of politicized Pop Art artifact.
Socialisme ou Barbarie opted for a very traditional printed self-presentation.
Tracts and Pouvoir Ouvrier were designed to reach a working-class audience,
and retained the traditional look of militant publications: cheap paper,
typescript text reproduced on mimeograph or roneotype, primitive or handSubstance # 90, 1999
33
drawn graphics, when any were used. The main journal, SB, was also austere,
with its red, white and black covers, simple typesets, moderate-grade paper,
and lack of illustrations. Two different notions of how to present the avantgarde: one as proletarian, authentic, tied to worker traditions; the other
self-consciously breaking with these same audiences and traditions.
While IS looked like nothing else, most of the articles were attempts to
work through ways of framing problems of culture, art and revolution
inherited from Surrealism. Situationist politics were, and remained,
predicated on subjective experience elevated to a trans-subjective level
through variations on the traditional notion of the Artist. This was
complicated by Debords suspicion of representation and its function in the
context of the spectacle, which prompted him to fashion for himself an
inversion of this artist role. Subjectivism was consistent with Debords use
of everyday experience as a point of departure for thinking about alienation.
This approach both opened up and limited his access to the terrain of
revolutionary politics. In 1959, however, the journals packaging and concerns
suggested that the IS was new and radical, and convinced Daniel
Blanchard that it was developing in parallel to SB.
In principle, SB and Debord/IS were kindred groups, and the timing of
their encounter fortuitous. However, the timing was off. As the IS was
working to articulate a position for itself at the edge of a new cultural and
political avant-garde, SB was grappling with a major internal challenge to
the premises upon which its revolutionary project had been constructed.
Castoriadiss text Modern Capitalism and Revolution13 argued that the
Gaullist transformation of France into a Fordist state had eliminated most
non-manageable structural contradictions. The changes in the organization
of the State and its relation to European financial structures built on the
effects for the working class of the Fordist assimilation of the trade-unions
into the industrial status quo, the weight of Stalinism on Marxist discourse,
and the importation of mass-consumer culture. Implying that there had been
a sudden extension of assembly-line production techniques into semi-skilled
industrial sectors (which is not empirically the case) Castoriadis characterized
the outcome of this combination of factors as a political destructuration of
the proletariat. In Marxist terminology, the working class had regressed from
being a class for itself to a class in itself. As such, it was not capable of
producing the patterns of socialization upon which rested SBs notions of
revolution and socialism, and their self-conception as a revolutionary
organization.
34
Castoriadis argued that the crisis of the proletariat did not mean that
all possibilities had been eliminated for revolutionary action. Fordist attempts
to disempower politics in general and manage the population through
consumption norms, paradoxically generalized the struggle between
dirigeants and excutants, which had been most evident at the point of
production. The result was a multiplication of sources for potentially
significant conflict. This combination of arguments enabled SB to continue
to use schemata developed through the analysis of the working class to
comprehend these conflicts. However, the challenge to this most basic of
signifiers made the groups relationship to it more rigid.
Destructuration posed more problems for SB. They had to be able to
theorize social conflicts originating from any number of potential sources,
and devise ways for the revolutionary movement to assume a role in the
production of significations (types of hierarchy, modes of self-organization,
ways of thinking about these patterns in a self-conscious manner)a role
SB had assigned to the worker avant-garde. It was not clear exactly what
this would entail. At the level of theory, however, this position should have
opened the way for social critique. Revolutionary theory could no longer
simply dismiss the dominant culture as radically false; instead, it had to
work out links to social, political and artistic movements and actions that
originated from within, and in opposition to, the dominant culture.14 This
was already the Situationist bailiwick. In practice, however, most SB militants
continued to act as before. Most still considered revolutionary politics to
center on interaction with the working class.15
SB-IS Liaison: Preliminaries to Define the Unity of the
Revolutionary Agenda
In principle, therefore, the interaction of SB and the Situationists could
have been useful for both groups. Blanchard had long talks with Debord in
bistros, and during endless roaming through the city. The main result was
Blanchards participation in the filming of On the Passage of a Few People
through a Rather Brief Unit of Time, and a jointly-written tract entitled
Prliminaire pour une dfinition de lunit du programme rvolutionnaire.16 This document is interesting in the development of the notion
of the spectacle as the translation into cultural terms of the division of
intellectual labor characteristic of bureaucratic capitalism (between dirigeants
and excutants). The dominant culture is also racked by the central
contradiction of that system:
35
The mechanism of cultural constitution thus relies upon a

reification of human activities, which assures the fixing of the living and
its transmission along the model of the transmission of merchandise, and
which enforces the domination of the past over the future.
Such a cultural functioning enters into contradiction with the
constant imperative of capitalism, which is to obtain the adherence of
people and to constantly solicit their creative activity within the narrow
confines in which they are imprisoned. In sum, the capitalist order only
lives on the condition that it ceaselessly projects before itself a new past.
(Prliminaires 2).17
The first paragraph outlines a definition of the spectacle as a system of

social organization rooted in a generalized commodity fetishism. The second
connects this to a generalization of the dirigeant/executant distinction. The
effect is a disempowerment of desire, crucial to the maintenance and
reinforcement of the spectacle: Capitalist consumption imposes a movement
of the reduction of desires by the regularity with which artificial needs are
satisfied, which remain needs without ever having been desires; authentic
desires are constrained to remain at the level of non-realization (or
compensated in the form of spectacles). (Prliminaires 6)
Prliminaires... is in two parts. The first, Le capitalisme: socit sans
culture appears to have been written by Debord; the second, La politique
rvolutionnaire et la culture, by Blanchard. In such a document produced
through dialogue, one would expect some migration of rhetoric. Debords
section reveals a tentative assimilation of key SB concepts, particularly in
the reworking of the notion of the spectacle. That of Blanchard, on the other
hand, is more closed-off, and is a resum of SBs pre-1959 position.18 The
juxtaposition indicates the complementarity of the projects, and the
incommensurability of their respective theoretical languages and
assumptions.
Debord assumed control over the tracts layout and the expense of its
publication. After it appeared on July 20, 1960, it circulated around SB without
arousing much interest. By this point, Blanchard had left to do volunteer
service as a teacher in Guinea.19 The task of liaison with Debord fell to Pierre
Guillaume, a 19-year-old protg of Jean-Franois Lyotard at the Sorbonne
and in SB. In 1995, he published a problematic account of his relationship
with Debord. The text tries to establish a parallel between the revolutionary
Debord of the 1960s and the revisionist Guillaume of the 1990s. This general
project is recapitulated in his account of Debords relationship with SB: just
as Debord became an object of scandal and rumor upon leaving SB simply
by telling the truth and being polite, so Guillaume-the-revisionist imagines
36
himself to be victimized. Extended into 25 pages, the text is an exercise in

literary abjection.20
Debord in SB
Debord joined SB sometime in the fall of 1960. He attended regular
meetings as well as those of the journals editorial committee and that of
Pouvoir Ouvrier. He traveled to Belgium in February, 1961 as part of an SB
team that went to survey the situation that had resulted from the recent
(DecemberJanuary) general strike.21 While in Belgium, the team met
Robert Dehoux, who became the coreor the only memberof Pouvoir
Ouvrier Belge, which put out Alternatif, a journal that had an SB/PO line
and a Situ graphics sensibility. An assemblage of political traces make the
trip sound quite important: Guillaume describes it as having been quite
loony and disappointing.22
Debord made one attempt to influence SBs general framework. Using
a review of Godards A bout de souffle written by SB member Sebastien de
Diesbach (Chatel) and published in SB no. 31, Debord tried to outline a
revolutionary judgment of art. The limitations of SBs engagement with
the dominant or popular cultures were evident from the start. Reviews of
books and films were usually written by the students who joined SB starting
in 1957 (Blanchard, Chatel). The film pieces in particular relied on a reductive
version of the theory of art articulated in Hamlet. Film was treated as a
mirror. Films that might serve the purposes of revolutionary theory provide
an image of life in comparison to which that of the spectator might seem
impoverished (Come Back Africa), or reveal the impoverished nature of the
everyday by performing it (A bout de souffle).
Debord attacked this relation to film at several levels. It accepted as
natural the division between spectator and work by using a traditional form
of critique, which Debord defined as:
An interpretation among others of a work over which one has no hold.

One claims that one knows better than the author what he is trying to say.
This apparent pride is in fact a radical humility, because one completely
accepts the separateness of the specialist in question, one despairs of ever
acting upon him or with him (modalities that would obviously require
that one concern oneself with what he was explicitly trying to do.) (Pour
un jugement 4)
37
The role of the critic therefore places art outside his or her purview,
beyond his reach and in so doing produces a critique that is little more than
a second-order spectacle.
Critique is that which writes into spectacle its state of spectatorship. [The]
specialized spectator, and therefore the ideal spectator, elaborates his ideas
before a work in which he has no real participation. He rehearses, re-situates
(remet en scne) his own non-intervention in the spectacle. The weakness
of fragmentary judgments, haphazard and largely arbitrary, on spectacles
that do not concern us is our fate in many banal discussions in private life.
But the critique of art makes a show of such weakness, made exemplary.
(Pour un jugement 5)
The role of the critic in this case is like that of a design engineer who
works at patterns of cultural passivity and transmits them to the generalist
spectator. The critic is unlike a Fordist dirigeant in that this role is rehearsed
in a more or less unconscious manner. The critic has no position outside the
spectacle, but possesses specialized instruments (training, ability to
manipulate words) that enable him to articulate his own passivity. One is
invited to participate in the spectacleto watch and be inspired by a film,
saybut such engagement must come with a manual. This notion of
spectatorship is built around alienation in everyday experience. The
exemplary instance for thinking the phenomenon of alienation is
consumption. This scenario determines the possibilities for thinking about
how to overcome it, and the cultural division of labor upon which it is built.
For Debord, what is required is a new revolutionary art. The elucidation
of this idea is a central task for theory: we need a revolutionary critique of
all art, not a critique of revolutionary art:
The revolutionary modification of forms presented by culture can be
nothing other than the overcoming/transcendence (dpassement) of all
aspects of aesthetic and technical instrumentalities that together constitute
the spectacle as separated from life. It is not in the surface significations
that one must seek the relation of the spectacle to the problems of society,
but at a deeper level, at the level of its function as spectacle. (Pour un
jugement .., 4)
Revolutionary art would be produced through the deployment of free

creative activity in a context where the separation of performer/artist and
spectator had been broken down. While Debord offers no idea of what this
might entail, he is clear about its goal, which is: not to show people how to
live, but to make them live. What is curious about this formulation is how
it backs away from the more imbricated position occupied by the critic, who
38
is socialized into patterns of interaction with culture in ways that only permit
their recapitulation. Here, Debord makes a clear distinction between spectacle
and life, but the latter category seems empty, like a purely formal negation
of the former.
This proposal would expand the purview of the revolutionary
movement, particularly with respect to the dominant culture and to the
definition of who were militants and what militants did. A new kind of
political organization would seek something positive in modern culture,
which appears in its self-liquidation, its movement of disappearance, its
testimony against itself (Pour un jugement ... 2). Militants in existing
revolutionary organizations would have to overcome the tendency
to oppose all intervention in cultural questions for fear of not appearing
to be serious. On the contrary, the revolutionary movement should accord
a central place to the critiques of culture and everyday life. But it is first
necessary that all vision of these facts be disabused and not respectful of
given modes of communication. The very bases of existing cultural relations
must be challenged by the critique that the revolutionary movement must
bring to bear on all aspects of human life and relations. (Pour un jugement
... 8)
Debords piece failed as an attempt to shape basic aspects of SBs

revolutionary program. Three reasons might explain this: the
incommensurability of theories; Debords underestimation of what was
implied in a switching of the premises of social critique; the extent to which
SB was articulated as a group through fairly rigid internal hierarchies
developed around Marxist analytic categories.
The most visible incommensurability is that Debord and SB did not
elaborate the problem of alienation in the same way. From this divergence,
however, emerged fundamentally different notions of social change,
revolution and socialism. For Debord, the paradigm situation through which
one imagined the problem was the relation of spectator to spectacle. Radical
change entails a change in the relation of spectator to event, which in turn
requires a redefinition of art and how it is created and consumed. An artevent, and any politics rooted in such, would necessarily be performative.
Debords relative optimism offorded him a broader canvas for thinking
about the performative dimension at the core of revolutionary art through
experiments in drift and/or unitary urbanism. Following Lefebvre,
Debord used the city as a way to generalize the subversion of situation
relations that Dada had explored in more restricted and traditional art
contexts. Psychogeography was an Art-event within which he tried to blur
39
the line between organizers and participants, artists and spectators, simply
by calling all actors situationists. The appropriation of urban space that
Debord considered central to unitary urbanismthe paradigmatic
contructed situationwas subjectively ordered. Subjectivity was the refusal
of representation, a space of freedom for Debord, as it was for Virginia Woolf
in Three Guineas and would be later for Roland Barthes in Camera Lucida.
Where for Woolf and Barthes, this position could be outlined or hinted
at, for Debord the problem was making this subjectivity public and thereby
politically useful. Resolution of this problem ran in two directions: making
and refusing to show films like Sur le passage.. and the transfer into
revolutionary politics. Film was an unsatisfactory option: even in heavily
mediated, self-conscious and montage-filled form, it still presented the
viewer a reassuring (and therefore false) image. Translating performative
strategies onto revolutionary politics resulted in a position that placed
extraordinary emphasis on affect, and that used the traditional notions of
art and artists to give significance to isolated acts of unauthorized activity. It
also underestimated the regionality of culture: once a situationist-based
performative politics gets confined to a particular subculture, it can offer
some people limitless potential for performancedoubtless full of irony
and skillwhile relations in the larger society continue unchanged.
Situationist critical theory was based on a desire for revolution, but
was boxed in by its strengths. Because it took cultural consumption as
paradigmaticespecially the division of spectator/spectacleit
foregrounded subjective experience as shaped by the social and cognitive
parameters of the dominant order. The furthest this type of critique could
go is the inversion of the dominant order. Debord mapped negation onto
the surrealist notion of shock, to argue that the experience of demystification
was fundamental for any revolt against the dominant culture. At its most
consistent, this could be linked by analogy to a broader notion of social
revolution. When Debord tried to assume for himself the whole of the
revolutionary project, these same assumptions about the centrality of shock
as negation placed the origin of revolution outside existing social relations.
This in turn set up Debords reversion to Lukacsian transcendental Marxism
in The Society of the Spectacle. Situ revolution would be cataclysmic, its model
the return of the messiah. This with predictable results on Debords notion
of the Vanguard Party.
Despite the outcome of this broader juxtaposition, affinities nevertheless
existed between the projects. Debords theorizing of cultural revolution
supplemented SBs productivism. If one were to assign a theoretical
40
explanation to SBs awkwardness with respect to matters cultural, it would

be the lingering effect of the Marxist base-superstructure distinction.
Debords main virtue would be in breaking it down and in forcing to the
fore considerations about cultural comportment left implicit in SB thinking
about social crisis and its relation to revolution and socialism.
The question of fit between these theoretical approaches was not raised
as a function of more mundane problems. An indication of these can be
found in transcripts of SB meetings. Debord was generally quiet at these
sessions.23 The one exception was the morning session of SBs International
Meeting of May 22, 1961.24 During the morning session, which was devoted
to yet another installment of SBs interminable internal discussion about the
worker base, Debord began to talk as if he had been watching the same
television tuned to a different channel:
Moth: In the present situation and in that which will present itself in the
future, worker struggles will advance demands that the unions will not
be able to defend because they go against their existence as unionsantihierarchical [demands] and conflict against the organization of production.
Guy: We are unrealistic because, not being part of the working class, we
come up with solutions for working with the workers as if the problem
was resolved. The revue (SB) is good, but the organization should exist in
accord with the principles that it expresses, which is not the case.
Moth: How to recruit the workers? Practically continue as in the past
while simply modifying certain elements of our work (...)25
Guillaume [after outlining the political situation at the Gare St. Lazaire,
where he had taken a job as a mail-handler], Proposition: during vacation,
the students can work for a month as mail-handlers at the PTT.
Guy: The ideas of SB are misunderstood. I have had more than 200 students
with whom I have directed discussions. They want to break everything
and succeed at nothing. We do not carry the workers movement. Pouvoir
Ouvrier is inaccessible and indirect. Concrete actions are what are needed.
In conclusion: crisis.
[The cell from] Lyon is for implanting the organization in the workingclass milieu. (...)25
Debord was rehearsing the grounds for his resignation speech by

inserting fragments of a critiques of SBs basic modus operandi between
statements made by some of the groups central actors 26 He broke into
interventions by people who represented the two main axes of the groups
history: their relation to the working class and to the traditions of
41
revolutionary Marxism. The lack of response indicates the older groups

internal hierarchy.
More broadly, SB operated with general agreement as to the legitimacy
of their analytic premises and definitions of politics.27 This crossing of
structure and affect was held together by the central signifiers that SB retained
from its journey through the instituted Marxist Imaginary and indicates the
groups vulnerability should any real question arise about this underpinning.
Debords position represented a basic challenge to these hierarchies and to
the notions of politics around which they were built. The result was that,
when the category of the everyday came up in debate, it was understood
that the everyday experience that mattered was that of the working class.
Debord was expected to submit.
Debords interruptions leveled some basic charges at the group. He
argued that the organizations actual life, with its fixed internal hierarchies,
did not correspond to SBs ideas in general or to the image elaborated in the
texts that had appeared on revolutionary organization in the journal. This
was linked to another problem of self-conception: SB did not have a clear
idea of how their publications circulated. SB journal was fine, Debord argued,
but it did not address its purported (working-class) audience. Rather than
reaching workers, SB presented an image of the group that framed and
mediated an interior image of the workers to an audience of students,
whose relationship to these images, and to the ideas that expressed them,
was informed by their desire to break everything. They did not really
understand SB. The group had a blind spot: it dealt with the problem of
self-reflexivity only in the abstract. The other tack developed in Debords
remarks criticized SBs intellectualized notion of revolutionary politics: the
group offered no feedback for anyone beyond its limits, no affect or sense of
identification or involvement. This combined with what Debord described
as the wholesale misapprehension of SBs ideas, to raise the possibility that
the group was talking to itself. However, he only proposed direct actions
that were themselves abstract, and their timing bizarre.
Debord resigned from SB that night. According to Pierre Guillaume:
Then, in the end, he announced calmly and firmly to Castoriadis, then to
Lyotard, and then to all, his intention to resign. All attempts by Castoriadis
to make him reconsider his decision, that evening and the next day,
remained in vain. Castoriadis displayed all the treasures of seduction he
could: he outlined great perspectives: if only the groups bureaucratic
and retrograde defects were transformed etc. etc. Debord was listening
without a word. When Castoriadis had finished, he only said Yes...but...I
dont feel up to the task, and also It must be very exhausting [to build a
42
revolutionary organization]. And Debord came to the next meeting at le

Tambour caf, gave his official resignation, paid his dues for the earlier
month and the current, and said in a few words that he appreciated that
the group existed, but that, for himself, he had no will to be involved in it.
He thanked us for all he had learned. And disappeared. (Guillaume 3)
The scene is central for the author: Debord was polite and did nothing
provocative, which itself caused a scandal because it violated the smallgroup ethos of departure as divorce. (Guillaume 3). Given the overall
objective of this text, it is difficult to know if this description reflects anything
accurately apart from Pierre Guillaumes sense of his own martyrdom. In
other accounts, Debord is supposed to have tried to start a revolt within SB
and/or to have led away some of the younger students, only to abandon
them later.28 Blanchard mentions this as a rumor heard from Guinea, the
final odd note of Debords relationship with SB, which he had found odd
from the outset: [H]is membership, I felt, exceeded the closeness we had
actually achieved: above all it seemed useless, and in fact, in our discussions
Debord expressed the opinion that each group should continue, in practice,
to follow its own path (Blanchard 2).
Retracing the Trajectory: From Art to Politics
If SB was silent about the IS, things were quite otherwise in Debords
journal LInternationale Situationniste. Here, SB signified the new revolutionary
movement, and was the pivot around which Debord tried to effect his
transition from artist to revolutionary, and that of the Situationists from postSurrealist art-gang to conspiracy on the leading edge of a vast negation of
the dominant order. The writers of IS were consistent and sympathetic
observers of SB until 1963-1964, when the latter began to stray beyond the
confines of Marxism. The relationship between the two groups had three
phases. The first three issues of IS mention SB in the context of the journals
attempt to define its own contexts. The second phase occurred between 1960
and 1963. In IS numbers 4 through 8, SB was the embodiment of the new
revolutionary movement to which the Situationists linked and subordinated
themselves. In the first phase, the situationist critique of everyday life was
more or less freestanding: in the second phase, Debord repeatedly argued
that the critique of the everyday was legitimated and made coherent because
it was elaborated with reference to the more revolutionary frame of reference.
There was also a migration of rhetoric from SB into IS positions, particularly
in the writings of Debord and Vaneigem. If the relation to SB can be
43
understood as abject, then the third period is its inverse. Once SB began to
break out of its Marxist frame of reference, Debord considered them excluded
from the Left and began to both heap ridicule on SB (Castoriadis in particular)
and to take over large parts of SBs earlier theoretical framework. Debord
tried to transform himself into the inheritor of the good SB. He wanted to
be Castoriadis.
The first three issues of IS can be understood as the organizations
attempt to fashion its own contexts and anticipate/shape its reception. This
strategic operation was carried out on two fronts: relative to the art contexts
from which the Situationists emerged, and relative to the social space from
which they hoped to speak or act. Linking the two was the repertoire of
properly situationist concepts and tactics.
The art referents were Dada and Surrealism. Debord and the other
writers who contributed to these early issues were informed by these earlier
avant-garde movements, even as they tried to distinguish themselves from
them on generational and tactical grounds. In the generational conflict,
Debords Les souvenirs au-dessous de tout, a short polemic against
Benjamin Pret, played an important role.29
Of the Surrealists who made the slide from art to politics, Pret alone
remained committed to a revolutionary position. He had been among the
founders of the surrealist movement who early on had run afoul of Breton.
Like many of the Catalans who emigrated to Paris after the massacres at
Barcelona in 1937, Pret was a fierce opponent of Stalinism. Until his death
in 1959, Pret was active in (or at least in close contact with) Trotskyist political
organizations, along with his close friend Grandizo Munis, and was
inevitably introduced on radio or in the newspapers as the authentic
revolutionary among the Surrealists.30 This gave him the chance to operate
in two public registersartist and militantthat would often converge in
pieces like his 1945 book Le Dshonneur des potes. In it, Pret mapped Vico
onto Marx to argue (a) that creative activity was by its nature revolutionary,
and (b) that poetry was creation in an ontological sense.
From this position, Pret proceeded to attack those Surrealist poets who
joined the PCF, remained in it and used poetry to further the ends of the
Party: Louis Aragon, Elsa Triolet, Paul Eluard, Tristan Tzara. The structure
of the argument is essentially Trotskyist. The Stalinist Party represented in
itself the corruption of the revolution and the creative energy released through
it. Real creation (real poetry) is still possible, but only if it first takes aim at
those who evoke its language and practices in a false context. Prets
argument against the Situationists was essentially the same. Ironically, Pret
44
was also associated with SB through his friendship with Vga (Alberto Maso)
and Munis. The intent and strategies used in this piece were the same as
those Debord would later use to exclude SB from the Left.31
At the level of symbolic conflict, some account had to be settled with
Pret. Little separates Prets notions of praxis and poetry from the
generalized notions of free creative activity that were to be released through
the construction of situations. Debord therefore attacked Pret on
generational grounds: Pret was old, the Surrealism to which he was
committed was largely a clich. The Situationists were unknown; their
worldview not yet hardened into formalized terms. They also claimed to go
beyond Surrealism, though their efforts to do solike Pretswere and
remained deeply marked by their origin in artistic practice. Situationist
positions went beyond Surrealism on two counts, and used the same strategy
in each. Surrealist painting was theorized as subversive in the sense that it
disrupted the authority of the rational subject by presenting it with
unconscious material. The viewer would recognize this material indirectly.
To thematize this moment of recognition, Surrealists substituted a notion of
shock for the Freudian unheimlich. Situationists generalized this notion of
shock. This generalization presupposed a similar expansion of the Dadaist
critique of traditional, essentialist definitions of art developed primarily by
Duchamp and made explicit through his exhibition of ready-mades. If
meanings were context-dependent in the specific case of an artwork, then
meanings in general could be so viewed.
Early situationist practices were aimed at shifting these tactics out into
the domain of the city as a space within which coexisted the pre-arranged
spectacle and spaces of play. They conceived of themselves as artrevolutionaries who drifted about cities engaging in experimental
reappropriation of urban space and operating in public to construct
situations that would disrupt the normal flow of experience. This flow
was thematized as context-dependent, and the relevant contexts were objects
and events constituted through socially conditioned affect and expectations.
Disruption of these frames of reference through the creation of constructed
situations demonstrated directly the contingent nature of the normal order.
This demonstration was itself framed as a negation of that order.
Without the creation of a social space from which to operate, the
fashioning of a tactical repertoire and relation to Surrealism would have
been useless. Therefore, many articles that appeared in the first three issue
of IS are little more than extended lists of what Situationists were not: not
Surrealist, not Dada, not modernist, not Arguments, not Henri Lefebvre. The
45
combination of references adduced in these articles gives a good idea of

where the Situs hoped to end up: in the complex intersection of academic,
public-intellectual, political and art contexts that had been shaken up by the
passivity of the working class and intensification of the Algerian War.
Discrediting SB
SB appears in IS no.2s survey of Leftist organizations. Debord imagined
SB as paralyzed before the rapidly changing situation. He analyzed the
situation: The principal lesson that must be drawn is that revolutionary
thought must develop a critique of everyday life, requiring a new
revolutionary organization capable of locating, thinking, theorizing and
empowering new centers/types of social conflict. (IS 2, 10-11) SB was one of
the older organizations incapable of measuring up to the task:
Socialisme ou Barbarie, for which the proletariat is a sort of Hidden God
of History, congratulates itself with closed eyes for its own disarmament,
which can only correspond to a pinnacle of class consciousness, to a toolate liberation from the nefarious influence of parties and trade unions. (IS
2, 10)32
This is a well-informed dig. It makes indirect reference to the

organizational dispute that split the group during the summer of 1958, and
ridicules SBs attempts to position themselves at the forefront of the new
revolutionary movement.
The relationship changed quite abruptly once Blanchard and Debord
began to meet and talk. The lead article in IS no.4, Sur lemploi du temps
libre, begins by taking over the position that Daniel Blanchard (Canjeurs)
had developed in his critique of Alain Touraine in SB no. 27. The referent
was Touraines article Situation du mouvement ouvrier in Arguments no.
12-13, early in 1959.33 The journal had invited sociologists and political
militants to address the future of the revolutionary movement and the
meaning of May 1958. Touraine stated that the underlying thesis shared by
the sociologists who contributed to the journal34 was that the traditional
working class had ceased to exist Touraine advanced an embourgeoisement
thesis, according to which the working class only occupied its traditional
social place while in the factories: outside, they had been assimilated into
the bourgeoisie through consumption. This thesis was attacked by the
political militants who published in the issue35 and again in SB no. 27. The
thrust of Blanchards argument was that Mallet and Touraine were wrong,
because their frames of reference were tied to bourgeois formalism/science.
46
They had no real contact with working people; they needed go to a workingclass quartier and look around.36
Debords position in Sur lemploi... begins as a variation on
Blanchards, and then slides to a theoretical position close to that articulated
by the American worker newspaper Correspondence, one of SBs most
consistent interlocutors through the 1950s. For Debord, the working class
continues to function as a class for-itself in a negative manner, through its
rejection of the spectacle. Sociologists, invested by their professional nature
in the positive/extant as normative, could not be expected to recognize modes
of being that threatened the existing order with negation. By positing a
negative class consciousness that manifested itself through the wholesale
rejection of the dominant culture, Debord was able to superimpose some of
his main concerns/categories. Debord argues that, if the workers simply
reject the spectacle, then the problem for radical politics is free time, empty
time. Presumably, the workers experience only cultural dead air because
they reject the patterns of acceptable social interaction, without fashioning
cultural or political instruments to give content to a different time. The
problem would be resolved through revolutionary art:
There is no freedom in the usage of time without possession of the modern
instruments for the construction of everyday life. The use of such
instruments will mark the leap from a utopian revolutionary art to an
experimental revolutionary art. (Sur lemploi... IS No. 4)
In this position, one can see the outline of what will follow. The transition
from a vision of revolutionary art to its actualization would result from its
fulfillment by the revolutionary working class. In this, Debord follows
Lukacs, whose History and Class Consciousness had only appeared in French
translation in 1960 (over the strenuous objections of Lukacs himself). In
strategic terms, Lukacs had the advantage of treating the phenomenon of
alienation, and of providing an extended gloss on Marxist historical
materialism that paradoxically ended up by recasting as transcendent the
central categories in Marxs analysis of capitalist political economy. Just as
for Lukacs, orthodox Marxism is an attitude toward history that would be
unchanged even if all the theses associated with Marx should be proven
wrong, so the working class is an epiphenomenon of the working-out of
objective historical laws.37 It is therefore a kind of eternally present deus-exmachina that will swing onto the stage of history when the hapless hero
capitalism is done in by dialectical forces. Lukacs becomes, for Debord, a
fundamental text in his rejection of SBs claim that there was a crisis of the
47
Marxist Imaginary, in favor of conceptual closure. Debord uses Lukacs to

combine his theories about revolutionary art with a rigid Marxism. This
was a position in the internal debates within SB about the status of Marxism,
should the positions outlined in Castoriadiss Modern Capitalism and
Revolution prove correct.
Preceding avant-gardes have introduced themselves by affirming the
excellence of their methods and principles, on the basis of which one should
pass immediate judgment on the works.The I.S. is the first artistic
organization to found itself on the radical inadequacy of all permitted
works, the signification, the success or failure of which will only be judged
with the revolutionary practice of its time.
The pattern remains the same through IS no. 8. The lead article for IS
no. 5, Laventure, is a more extensive mapping the SB version of the
revolutionary project onto instruments of Situationist cultural warfare. One
can also see the more gradual importation of the notion of socialism as direct
democracywhich would be reduced by May, 1968 to a simple call for the
establishment of councilsin the juxtaposition of a quote from Castoriadiss
text on direct democracy, Sur le contenu du socialisme II and a Jorn
painting.38 A fair summary of the relationship appears in IS no. 6. Debords
Instructions pour une prise darmes writes IS into SBs umbrella
organization for a new, international revolutionary movement, counting itself
along with the UK Solidarity group, the American Correspondence collective
and the Italian Proletarian Unity. A few pages later, one finds spelled out the
relation between Situationist and revolutionary modes of critique. The
revolutionary movement provides a necessary counter-perspective, relative
to which a radicalized critique of the everyday is possible. (IS 6, 26-27) The
Situationists were therefore the inadequate art organization whose projects
were at once subordinated to and made coherent by the revolutionary
practice of our time channeled through SB.
This relationship changed again in 1964. During 1963, SB had been
consumed by an internal conflict triggered mostly by Castoriadiss attempt
to push to their logical conclusion the implications of his 1959-1961 text. If
the working class really had been destructured as a class for itself, and if
one plotted this development onto the extended critique of Marxism (politics,
economics, theory of history) that SB had pursued since 1946, then there
really was not much reason to continue to hold onto Marxism as a frame of
reference for thinking about revolution. Revolutionary theory would have
to be rethought from the most basic assumptions outward. One would have
to work out a core normative theory that was sufficiently abstract to be
48
applicable to social conflicts emerging from various directions. One would

also need to multiply the analyses of social conflicts: the working class could
no longer provide militants with a template that they could use as a sort of
overlay to break a new social movement into its component stages. And one
would have to rethink the whole notion of the militant as a function of the
definitions of the political arrived at through the reconstruction of
revolutionary theory. The debate about these issues split SB down the middle.
It revealed the affect with which many SB members invested the idea of
being-Marxist, and their reliance on proletarian struggles as a kind of magic
key for understanding all social conflict. It also revealed the material
limitations for a small group like SB, which found itself confronted with
what must have seemed like the call for a 1:1 map of the social world.39
For Debord, this was heresy. With the lead article in IS no. 9, Maintenant
LI.S. Debord announced that the Situationist International had assumed
SBs mantle as the revolutionary vanguard (despite SBs sustained critique
of the notion of a Vanguard Party). He coupled this with a campaign to
throw SB out of the Left. From the outset, Debord had surveyed and
resurveyed the Parisian scene, drawing lines that separated what he thought
acceptable from what was not. The journal Arguments had long been Debords
preferred example of empty revisionism: special ridicule was reserved for
Edgar Morin and Kostas Axelos. Argumentiste was a epithet hurled at
former Marxists who gave in to the lure of incoherence once they passed
beyond the borders of the Imaginary, patrolled by Guy Debord. In posing
the alternativeone can either be Marxist or be revolutionary SB slid
from leader of the revolutionary movement into Argumentiste revisionism.
Despite this banishment, Debord continued his close observation of the
group. The IS reproduced (with near-audible glee) an editorial disclaimer
that accompanied a review of Christianisme et rvolution by Maximillienne
Gautrat, as proof of SBs slide into dilettantism:40
Editorial note: It is perhaps useful to note that, for the vast majority of
Socialisme ou Barbarie members, the Kingdom of God is essentially
meaningless, and also that they do not see any reason why someone who
thinks otherwise should be prevented from self-expression.
Debords fiercer sarcasms were directed specifically at Castoriadis:

The revolutionary critique of all existing conditions certainly does not
have a monopoly on intelligence, but does on its use. In the present crisis
of culture and of society, those who do not have this usage do not, in fact,
have any discernible intelligence. Stop talking to us about intelligence
49
without [correct] usage, it would make us happy. Poor Heidegger! Poor

Lukacs! Poor Sartre! Poor Barthes! Poor Lefebvre! Poor Cardan
[Castoriadis]! Tic, tic and tic. Without the proper use of intelligence, one
has only the caricatural fragments of innovative ideas, those that could
understand the totality of our time and the movement that contests it as
well. It is not even clear how to plagiarize these ideas in a harmonious
way when one encounters them where they already are. (...)The former
specialist of ultra-left politics is dazzled to discover, along with
structuralism and psychosociology, an ethnological ideology [that is] entirely
new to him: the fact that the Zuni Indians do not have a history seems to
him a luminous explanation for his own incapacity to act on our history
(go laugh at the first 25 pages of no. 36 of Socialisme ou Barbarie). The
specialists of thought can only be thinkers of specialization. We do not
pretend to have a monopoly on the dialectic that everyone is talking about;
we only claim to have a provisional monopoly on its usage.
The change in the intellectual scene that Debord outlines has a complex
conjectural explanation: the end of the Algerian War and the collapse of the
radical scene that had developed within the oppositional movement, the
return to normal everyday life combined with Althussers intertwining
of structuralism and the dialectical to give the impression that there was a
refreeze in the Cold War. Debords polemical response to this situation,
and SBs role in it, is in part a power play: he was trying to supplant Sartre
as the cultural arbiter of the Left.
This culture-broker role was secondary to his desire to personally salvage
revolutionary politics. This intention was signaled by direct pronouncement.
The strategy amounted to a wholesale incorporation of older SB positions
into those of the IS. At the graphics level, IS took the format of SBs Le
Monde en Question, which surveyed the press for indications of conflict
and/or incoherence within the dominant order (echoes as the group called
them). From the contents of SB Debord took the call for the formation of
councils. If this was the goalDebords politics were, as I have argued, rooted
in a subjectivist positionthen to salvage revolutionary politics would be
to fully externalize the textual collage through which he (Debord) imagined
revolution. In trying to become Castoriadis and the revolutionary vanguard,
and in his effort to exclude SB from the Left as if the group had been part of
the IS, Debord blurred the organizational distinction between inside and
outside and the individual distinction between psyche and social world.
Debord himself was the oppositional movement: he was what the bourgeois
order feared. He was the specter haunting Europe. This sets up a reading of
his 1967 book, Society of the Spectacle, as Debords attempt to stage, through
collage, his subjective organization of the textual material that circulated
within the Marxist Imaginary. The book is Debords refusal of the crisis of
50
the Imaginary through a retreat into narcissism and a positing of traditional

revolutionary Marxism as transcendental. The recourse to the authorized
sources of theory was a traditional heretical move within this instituted
Imaginary, which presupposed it still operational and capable of renewal.
By fashioning this text-collage, Debord tries to map his voice onto that of
the Revolutionary Prophet, and in so doing, to mime that role. With this,
Debord began his period of megalomaniac ambition to be the revolutionary
vanguard, which he would later attribute to the Situationists as a group,
and which was the basis, in 1972, for his dissolving the organization.41
Conclusion
Socialisme ou Barbarie played a fundamental role in Debords evolution
from artist to revolutionary to defender of Marxist orthodoxy from heresy.
This relationship unfolded at two levels: through direct personal relationship
and through the positions SB occupied in the pages of the IS. We have seen
the points of compatibility and of dissonance between the two groups, and
how Debords and SBs notions of alienation as a conflict between analytic
premises led to very different notions of revolution and socialism. Debords
consumption-based radicalism is similar to arguments made by people in
cultural studies today. In mapping the relationship of SB to IS onto a broader
crisis of the Marxist Imaginary, I have attempted to show how Debord became
a monitor of conceptual closure, unable and unwilling to consider the
implications of Fordism and Stalinism in the destruction of the traditional
workers movement. When SB disintegrated over the problems raised by
any effort to cross out of the Marxist Imaginary, Debord reacted by consigning
SB to the trash-heap of Argumentisme and by making SB categories over
into a transcendent theory of history in the image of Lukcs. In the 1975 film
version of Society of the Spectacle, Debord cut up the text and his own narrative
voice and interspersed footage of battles. He could only deal with the collapse
of the Imaginary as a strategic defeat.
Stanford University
51
NOTES
1. There is an extensive bibliography on the Situationists and Guy Debord. Berrebys

Documents is full of reproductions of material (paintings, installations, journals,
ephemera) produced by the Lettristes in their various combinations and guises. The
standard English-language references include Marcus, 1989, which builds on earlier
work like Hebdige, 1995 in its linkage of Situationist practices to punk. See also Sadie
Plant, 1992. This article relies primarily on the journal LInternationale Situationniste and
on other works by Debord including Oeuvres Cinmatographiques Compltes 1952-1978,
Commentaires sur la Socit du Spectacle, Pangyrique, Society of the Spectacle.
2. The Situationiste Internationale was involved in several different political contexts and
its reception was different in each of them: it was not exclusively Parisian group, nor
synonymous with Guy Debord.
3. See Interview with Henri Lefebvre on NOT BORED! website. The bibliography on
Surrealist politics in the 1920s-1930s is extensive: see Thirion, 1975.
4. The organization was not a unitary bloc of people: one of the main divisions among
them was the break with art. From Asger Jorn to Constant to the evil Nashites, most
who left did so because they wanted to continue producing some kind of art. Debord
abandoned filmmaking from 1961 to 1975.
5. Thanks to David Ames Curtis for this formulation.
6. For an explanation of this term, see my Introduction to Hastings-King 1998.
7. The terms representation, intention and affect are taken from Castoriadis, Philosophy, 3346.
8. See the survey article by Pierre Brou in Arguments. Sartres Le fantme de Staline
appeared in the January, 1957 issue of Les Temps Modernes and argued that Poland, not
Hungary, revealed the essential nature of the crisis triggered by the XXth Party
Congress because Poland, and Gomulkism in particular, represented the possibility of
reform from within the Party. Sartres political position of the time would not allow for
any radical challenge to the notion of the Party itself, which was one dimension of SBs
reading of the Hungarian Revolt. Much ink was spent in the progressiste press
(LExpress, France Observateur, Les Temps Modernes) during 1957-1958 searching for the
reformist factions within the PCF.
9. Castoriadiss notion that SB simply followed the bureaucratic string is cited in Howard
1988.
10. Moth was the pseudonym for Jacques Gautrat, a machinist at the Renault factory at
Billancourt, an important writer for SB, and of enormous symbolic and political
importance for the group in his role as The Worker. See my Reading Moth, in HastingsKing 1998.
11. These tensions are explored at length in Hastings-King, 1998, ch. 2-5.
12. Blanchard, forthcoming. Unpaginated email printout, cited with permission. In SB,
Blanchard acted and wrote under the pseudonym Canjuers, which was a place not far
from where he grew up. He was part of SB from 1957 until its dissolution in 1966 and
struggled to come to terms with what SB meant when he was in it and afterward. Of the
SB members I interviewed in 1991-1992, he was probably the most deeply affected by
the groups dissolution. Blanchards article is interesting both for its personal detail
about both himself and Debord and for what the author has constructed between himself
in the present and his past. The sense of distance is indicated by the persistent underwater
imagery, which reads as though the whole scene were now some kind of drowned city
or Atlantis, or as if the clandestine world of revolutionary politics were like the deepest
trenches of the ocean where the intense water pressures enable bizarre creates to survive
that could not do so under more normal circumstances. The scene is also regarded with
52
great fondness, and remembered with precision. (The strangeness was not uncanny,
but rather attractive, incredibly enticing.)
13. This text has a complex genealogy. The final version is published in English in
Castoriadis, 1988, vol. 2.
14. Just as SB would try to do with the American Civil Rights and student movements
during the early 1960s.
15. When Castoriadis presented the implications of his position explicitly to the group in
1963, this precipitated the breakdown of SB as a group. See Pour une nouvelle
orientation and Rcommencer la rvolution. The former circulated internally; the
latter was published in SB no. 35, 1-36. Both are translated in Castoriadis, vol. 3, 1993. I
will return to this point below.
16. Originally published in an expensive and striking-looking version designed by Debord
in July, 1960. Its publication was announced in IS no. 5 (decembre, 1960) p. 11. Reprinted
by Notes et Critiques, a group loosely associated with SB in Bordeaux as Le
capitalisme: socit sans culture, along with an unpublished 2/61 text Pour un
jugement rvolutionnaire de lart (an extended critique on a review of Godards A bout
de souffle that appeared in SB no. 31. It appears with a note as to origin.) My thanks to
Daniel Blanchard for a copy of the original tract, and to Alain Guillerm (by way of
David Ames Curtis) for the Notes et Critiques version.
17. The translation of this quote and the following are mine.
18. Blanchard was not alone in not taking Castoriadiss arguments immediately as the
basis for his politics at this time. In 1963, he sided with Castoriadis in the split with
Lyotard, Souyri and Maso over the centrality of Marxism to revolutionary theory, and
stayed in SB until the end.
19. As an alternative to mandatory military service, which would have meant Algeria.
20. Pierre Guillaume, Debord on NOT BORED! website. Translation of an article originally
published in Guillaumes journal La Vieille Taupe no. 1 (Spring 1995). He provides
information on Debords resignation from SB not available from other sources. However,
his gloss on the information is highly particular, conditioned by his analysis of his own
experience. It should be noted that any use Guillaumes text is complicated by his
revisionism (denial of the Holocaust). He turns his relationship to Debord to its service:
he appropriates the public enemy number one persona and uses it to legitimate his
politics, and spends much of the latter part of the article intimating that at least some of
the old Situationists approve of this appropriation, as if to say that such approval makes
Guillaume a legitimate heir to Debord.
21. Summary of Castoriadis, Rapport dactivit de lorganisation in Socialisme ou
Barbarie, Bulletin Intrieur no. 25 (avril-mai, 1961), 16. The report notes two new
organizations, in Brussels and Lige. BI no. 24 contains a very brief note of who went to
Belgium. Guillaume stresses the importance that Debords connection to Raoul Vaneigem
played in providing SB with information.
22. See Guillaume, Debord and Alternatif from Castoriadis papers, SB 16:10.
23. In the internal documents that I have gathered from SB, Debord only speaks two or
three times, most of them at the Nationale Meeting just before he resigned.
24. A big name for a little thing according to Guillaume.
25. BI no. 25, 12. See Hastings-King, 1998 Ch. 4 and 5. Guy is Debord.
26. On Moth see note 8. Philippe Guillaume was Cyrille Rousseau de Beauplan, who
joined while the group was still an oppositional tendency in the PCI. A veteran militant
with a complex family history, Guillaume had decided after May 1958 to quit his post as
an economist at the OECD and to take factory jobs in order to be with the workers.
For these and other reasons, he was considered by many to be the groups heart and
conscience
53
27. On this and other questions of definition with respect to Marxism, see Marxism and
Revolutionary Theory Part I, in Castoriadis 1998, and, especially, On the Question of
the History of the Workers Movement, in Castoriadis 1993, 181ff.
28. This from David Ames Curtis as a paraphrase of Philippe Gottraux.
29. Pret wrote a dismissive article in the small surrealist periodical Bief that prompted an
equally dismissive response. He was in failing health by this point, but his symbolic
position was still central. Debords Les souvenirs au-dessous de tout is in IS no.2, 34 (1997, 34-35).
30. For interviews see Pret, 1995, vol. 7, 206-271.
31. It is interesting in this regard to note that when Pret died, SB published Le
dshonneur with an introduction by Jean-Jacques Lebel.
32. The reference is to the Castoriadis-Lefort/ILO split over the question of organization
in September 1958.
33. See the section, Quest-ce que la classe ouvrire franaise? in Arguments no. 12-13
(Janvier-Mars, 1959). Complete re-edition of the journal was done by Privat in 1983
under the supervision of Olivier Corpet and Mariateresa Padova. Touraines Situation
de la classe ouvrire is on pages 5-15.
34. These were Serge Mallet and Michel Crozier.
35. Including SBs Daniel Moth and the syndicalist Michel Collinet.
36. See Canjuers, P., Sociologie fiction pour gauche fiction ( propos de Serge Mallet) in
SB no.27 (avril-mai, 1959) pp. 13-32 and Delvaux, J.: Les classes sociales et M. Touraine,
33-52.
37. See What is Orthodox Marxism and Class Consciousness in Lukacs, 1968.
38. See bottom of IS no. 5, 47.
39. See Vga and Lyotard responses to CC.
40. Jacques, Maximillienne: review of Gerbe, J: Christianisme et rvolution in SB 36 p.84.
41. LInternationale Situationniste est constitue nominalement, mais cela ne signifie rien
que le debut dune tentative pour construire au-del de la dcomposition, dans laquelle
nous sommes entirement compris, comme tout le monde [...]. Ce nest pas grand-chose
dtre actuel: on nest que plus ou moins dcompos. La nouveaut est maintenant
entirement dpendante dun saut un niveau suprieur[...]. Nos ambitions sont
nettement mgalomanes, mais peut-tre pas msurables aux critres dominants de la
russite. From Encore un effort si vous voulez tre situationnistesLI.S. dans et contre
la dcomposition in Potlach 29 (November 5, 1957), quoted in En guise dintroduction
to the 1997 re-edition of IS., ix.
WORKS CITED
Arguments no. 12/13 (janvier-mars, 1959).
Badie, Bertrand. Stratgie de la grve. Paris: Presses de la Fondation nationale des Sciences
Politiques, 1977.
Berreby, G., ed. Documents relatifs la fondation de lInternationale Situationniste. Paris: Allia,
1985.
Blanchard, Daniel. Debord: The Resounding Cataracts of Time, trans. Helen Arnold, in
The Drunken Boat Anthology. San Francisco: City Lights, forthcoming.
Barthes, Roland. Camera Lucida. Trans. Richard Howard. New York: Hill and Wang, 1996.
Canjuers, P. Sociologie fiction pour gauche fiction ( propos de Serge Mallet) in SB no. 27
(avril-mai, 1959), pp. 13-22.
Castoriadis, Cornelius. The Social-Historical: Mode of Being, Problem of Knowledge,
trans. David Ames Curtis, in Philosophy, Politics, Autonomy. New York and Oxford: Oxford
UP, 1991.
54
. Political and Social Writings. Vols. 1-3. Trans. David Ames Curtis. Minneapolis:
University of Minnesota Press, 1988-93.
. The Imaginary Institution of Society. Trans. Kathleen Blamey. Cambridge: MIT Press,
1998.
Debord, Guy. Oeuvres Cinmatographiques Compltes, 1952-78. Paris: Champs Libre, 1978.
. Commentaires sur la Socit du Spectacle. Paris: Ed. Grard Lebovici, 1988.
. Pangyrique. Paris: Ed. Grard Lebovici, 1989.
. Society of the Spectacle. New York: Zone Books, 1994.
Guillaume, Pierre. Debord on NOT BORED! website: www.thorn.net/~rose/
guillaume.html
Hastings-King, Stephen, Fordism and the Marxist Revolutionary Project. Ph.D. dissertation,
Cornell University, 1998.
Hebdige, Dick. Subculture. London:Routledge, 1997.
Lefebvre, Henri, with Michelle Ross. Interview with Henri Lefebvre on NOT BORED!
website, www.thorn.net/~rose/lefebvre.html
Lukcs, Georg. History and Class Consciousness. Cambridge: MIT, 1971.
Marcus, Greil: Lipstick Traces. Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1989.
Peret, Benjamin. Oeuvres Compltes. Vol 7. Paris: Les Amis de Benjamin Peret, 1995.
Plant, Sadie. The Most Radical Gesture. London: Routledge, 1992.
Socialisme ou Barbarie no. 1-40 (1948-1966).
Woolf, Virginia. Three Guineas. New York: Harcourt, 1966.

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Crisis of the Marxist Imaginary

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The Situationniste Internationale was a small transnational group of

Substance # 90, 1999

Crisis of the Marxist Imaginary

revolutionary project were central components in Debords collage approach

Crisis of the Marxist Imaginary

in 1953. In the months following Hungary, building off of Leforts reading

Crisis of the Marxist Imaginary

activity. Broader oppositional attitudes were structured and legitimated with

departure of the more anarchist members of SB, including Claude Lefort

Blanchards relationship with Debord holds a particular place in the

Crisis of the Marxist Imaginary

Substance # 90, 1999

Crisis of the Marxist Imaginary

The mechanism of cultural constitution thus relies upon a

The first paragraph outlines a definition of the spectacle as a system of

himself to be victimized. Extended into 25 pages, the text is an exercise in

An interpretation among others of a work over which one has no hold.

Substance # 90, 1999

Crisis of the Marxist Imaginary

Revolutionary art would be produced through the deployment of free

Debords piece failed as an attempt to shape basic aspects of SBs

Crisis of the Marxist Imaginary

explanation to SBs awkwardness with respect to matters cultural, it would

Debord was rehearsing the grounds for his resignation speech by

Substance # 90, 1999

Crisis of the Marxist Imaginary

revolutionary Marxism. The lack of response indicates the older groups

Substance # 90, 1999

revolutionary organization]. And Debord came to the next meeting at le

Crisis of the Marxist Imaginary

Crisis of the Marxist Imaginary

combination of references adduced in these articles gives a good idea of

This is a well-informed dig. It makes indirect reference to the

Crisis of the Marxist Imaginary

Marxist Imaginary, in favor of conceptual closure. Debord uses Lukacs to

applicable to social conflicts emerging from various directions. One would

Debords fiercer sarcasms were directed specifically at Castoriadis:

Substance # 90, 1999

Crisis of the Marxist Imaginary

without [correct] usage, it would make us happy. Poor Heidegger! Poor

the Imaginary through a retreat into narcissism and a positing of traditional

Substance # 90, 1999

Crisis of the Marxist Imaginary

1. There is an extensive bibliography on the Situationists and Guy Debord. Berrebys

Substance # 90, 1999

Substance # 90, 1999

Crisis of the Marxist Imaginary

Substance # 90, 1999

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