Single-Phase Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow Phenomena of Microchannel Heat Exchangers

10
Single-Phase Heat Transfer

and Fluid Flow Phenomena
of Microchannel Heat Exchangers
Thanhtrung Dang1, Jyh-tong Teng2, Jiann-cherng Chu2, Tingting Xu3,
Suyi Huang3, Shiping Jin3 and Jieqing Zheng4
1Department
of Heat and Refrigeration Technology, Hochiminh City University of

Technical Education,Hochiminh City,
2Department of Mechanical Engineering, Chung Yuan Christian University, Chung-Li,
3School of Energy and Power Engineering, Huazhong
University of Science and Technology, Wuhan,
4College of Mechanical Engineering, Jimei University, Xiamen, Fujian,
1Vietnam
2Taiwan
3,4P. R. China
1. Introduction
In recent years, microfabrication technologies have been utilized in the fields of process
engineering using microchannel devices as heat exchangers. The microchannel heat transfer
means is of importance to the areas of small and confined spaces, high heat flux devices for
cooling electronic components, or other cooling applications in thermal and chemical
engineering. Increasing the heat transfer rate and decreasing characteristic dimension of a
heat exchanger are key design requirements, and a micro heat exchanger satisfies these
needs.
A review of micro heat exchanger related issues such as flow behaviors, fabrication
methods, and practical applications was done by Bowman and Maynes [1]. The review
firstly introduced the experimental and numerical investigations of channel flow.
Subsequently, Friction and heat transfer measurements of gas flow and liquid flow were
discussed in the paper. The paper indicated that the transition Reynolds number is a
function of surface roughness and channel geometry. Moreover, in the paper, the heat
exchanger designs including their comparison and optimization were also reviewed.
Furthermore, several fabrication methods including micromachining, chemical etching, laser
machining, electroplating, and lamination, were discussed.
Review of the experimental results concerning single-phase convective heat transfer in
microchannels was presented by Morini [2], with additional review of the results obtained
for friction factor, laminar-to-turbulent transition, and Nusselt number in channels having
hydraulic diameters less than 1 mm. Dang [3] and Dang et al. [4] presented the fluid flow
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250
Heat Exchangers Basics Design Applications
and heat transfer characteristics for rectangular-shaped microchannel heat exchangers, both
numerically and experimentally. Effects of flow arrangement on the performance index
(expressed as the ratio of the heat transfer rate to the pressure drop) of a microchannel heat
exchanger were evaluated. In addition, influences of configurations on the performance
index of microchannel heat exchangers were presented.
Brandner et al. [5] described microstructure heat exchangers and their applications in
laboratory and industry. In their paper, several micro heat exchangers were introduced,
including polymer microchannel heat exchanger with aluminum separation foil, electrically
powered lab-scale microchannel evaporator, ceramic counter-flow microstructure heat
exchanger, etc. An analysis of effectiveness and pressure drop in micro cross-flow heat
exchanger was presented by Kang and Tseng [6]. For each effectiveness, the heat transfer
rate and pressure drop as a function of average temperature were obtained. The results
indicated that pressure drop was reduced with a rising average temperature. Using silicon
or copper as the materials for the microchannel heat exchangers, the difference in heat
transfer rates between these two types of heat exchangers was found to be minimal. This
was due to the fact that the substrate thicknesses between the hot and the cold channels
were very thin; as a result, their thermal conductivity resistances were very small. Henning
et al. [7] made three devices the standard channel device with straight layout and a
hydraulic diameter of 153 m, the short channel with straight layout and a hydraulic
diameter of 149 m, and the wavy channel with wavy layout and a hydraulic diameter of
125 m. Their experimental results indicated that the standard channel device was the best
choice for heating at moderate and high flow rates.
The crossflow microstructure heat exchanger made of stainless steel W316L was studied by
Brandner [8]. It was observed that heat transfer in a microstructure heat exchanger was
enhanced by using staggered microcolumn array heat exchangers which were designed to
operate in the transition or turbulent flow regime. Results obtained from experiments and
from modeling of an integrated preferential oxidation-heat exchanger (ProxHeatex)
microdevice were presented by Delsman et al. [9]. The ProxHeatex consisted of two heat
exchangers and a cooled reactor, as shown in Fig. 1. Those researchers also improved a new
version of a ProxHeatex from an earlier prototype [10]. Heat recovery efficiency of the
ProxHeatex device was found to be a function of the reformatted gas flow rate. The overall
heat recovery of the device varies between 73% and 95%, with the higher values
corresponding to higher ow rates and higher oxygen excess.
Shen and Gau [11] presented a paper dealing with design and fabrication of sensors and
heaters for the study of micro-jet impingement cooling. The local Nusselt number
distribution along the wall, Nux, was found to be a function of Z/B ratio, where Z is nozzleto-wall distance and B is the slot width. A heat exchanger for power electronic components
was studied by Gillot et al. [12]. The prototype was composed of four elementary modules.
Each module was composed of two IGBT (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor) chips directly
brazed onto a piece of copper where rectangular channels were machined. The thermal
resistance of the chips was calculated using 3D finite element simulation tool (FLUX 3D).
Numerical and experimental values of the metal temperature at five testing locations were
in good agreement, with the maximum percentage error being 1.7%. The pressure drop
observed to be increased with a rising flow rate. The heat spread effect was observed to be a
function of the heat transfer coefficient.
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Single-Phase Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow Phenomena of Microchannel Heat Exchangers
251
Fig. 1. Schematic of the integrated preferential oxidation-heat exchanger [3,4,9,10].

Ceramic microstructure devices in the forms of counter-flow and cross-flow microchannel
heat exchangers were manufactured by Alm et al. [13] and used in thermal and chemical
process engineering. The peak experimental heat transfer coefficient for the cross-flow heat
exchanger was observed to reach 22 kW/(m2K). Hallmark et al. [14] presented an
experimental investigation on the heat transfer response of plastic microcapillary lms
(MCF). Thermal power removed by the MCF heat exchanger was shown to be a function of
input electrical power for an increasing flow rate of the MCF. Jiang et al. [15] investigated
fluid flow and forced convection heat transfer in microchannel heat exchanger (MCHE).
The transition from laminar to turbulent ow in the microchannel heat exchanger was
observed to occur at Re 600. A new method of fabrication of heat transfer surfaces with
micro-structured prole was presented by Schulz et al. [16]. By the ion track etching
combined with metal electro-plating method, arrays of copper whiskers with high aspect
ratio were produced on surfaces of heat transfer tubes. At the same temperature, the
structured tube had higher heat flux or heat transfer coefficient value than that of the
smooth one. Lee et al. [17] studied a polymer type micro-heat exchanger applicable to 272
BGA multi-chip module (MCM) and selected polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) as the package
material. The design was evaluated numerically using the Fluent CFD simulation tool.
Results obtained from both the experiment and the simulation for each fabricated heat
exchanger were compared; difference of temperature distribution in chip was less than 2 C.
Surface temperature of the chip was found to be a function of pressure drop, the
temperature decreased with a rising of the pressure drop for all the conditions being tested.
Wei [18] fabricated a stacked microchannel heat sink using microfabrication techniques.
Experiments were conducted to study the thermal performance of stacked microchannel
structure, and overall thermal resistance was determined to be less than 0.1 K/W for both
counter-flow and parallel-flow configurations. In the study, the numerical simulations were
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252
References
Brandner
[5]
Kang [6]

Material/
Shape
Polymer
Pressure
Working
Flow rate
Heat transfer
drop
fluid
Water
m: 10-400 kg/h q: 0.2-1.1 W/cm2 0-0.4 MPa
Silicon/Rect
Water
m: 0.0643-0.07
kg/s
Q: 2,690-2,925 W
m: 0.17460.0026 kg/s
Q: 500-7,300 W
0.16-0.28
MPa (Hot
side)
0.22-0.44
MPa
(Cold
side)
Given the same

effectiveness
Given the same

effectiveness
Given the same
temperature
Henning
[7]
Metal
Water
m: 0.0663-0.724 Q: 2,780-3,030 W
kg/s
10-400
m: 0.1803kPa
Q: 500-7,500 W
0.0027 kg/s
(Hot side)
10-900
kPa
(Cold
side)
m: 64 kg/h
Q: 3,000 W
None
Brandner
[8]
Stainless
steel/
Rect
Water
m: 0-400 kg/h
Copper/Rect Water
Delsman
[9,10]
Shen [11]
m: 0-300 kg/h
Stainless
Methanol, V: 2.5-6 SLM
steel/
water
Rect
Silicon/ Rect Air
None
Z
Nu 0.045Re
L
0.4
None
0.5
Alm [13]
Hallmark
[14]
Jiang [15]
Copper/ Rect Water

V: 130-280 ml/s R: 100-110 K/kW
with 40%
glycol
Ceramic
Water
m: 10-140 kg/h h: 7-22 kW/m2K
(For crossflow
HE)
Plastic
Water
Schulz [16] Copper/ tube Water
V: 30 or 60 or
120 mL/min
m: 0.0093-0.34
kg/s
V: 4 L/m
Lee [17]
None
Copper/ Rect Water
PDMS/ Rect
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Water
Given the same

temperature
Electrical power
up to 3 kW with
effectiveness
~ 0.95
0-6.2x105 For hydraulic
Q: 0-8,500 W
diameter of 70
Pa
None
Q: 0-12,000 W
m
For staggered
microcolumns
Heat recovery efficiency of the ProHeatex: 7395%
Z
Nu 0.052Re
L
Gillot [12]
Comments
h: 125-230
W/m2K
Kv:11-38.5
MW/m3K
q: 1,000-17,000
W/m2
Q: 0-14 W
None
For the case

before jet
breakdown
For the case
after jet break
down
50-200
kPa
20-450
kPa (For
counterflo
w HE )
None
3.3-90 kPa
None
0-10 kPa
Overheat from
4-16 oC
The top chips
temperature
was 125 oC
References
Wei [18]
Material/
Shape
Silicon/Rect
Hasan [19] Silicon

Dang [2131]
Working
Flow rate
fluid
Water
V: 1.410-6
5.810-6 m3/s
Water
Re = 50
Silicon/
Water
Trapezoidal
Aluminum/R Water
ect
m: 0.0579
0.1158 g/s
m: 0.18590.3625 g/s
Aluminum/R Water
ect
m: 0.20430.401g/s
253
Pressure
Comments
drop
R: 0.2410-4 0.12 p = f(V)
for several
channels
10-4 Cm2/W
7.8 kPa
For rectangular
= f (Kr)
channel
None
q: 12 13.6
W/cm2
500-1400 With the mass
q: 6.5 8.2
Pa
flow rate of the
W/cm2
hot side of
0.1667 g/s
With the mass
q: 14.3 17.8
flow rate of the
W/cm2
hot side of
: 13.9-21.7
0.2321 g/s
W/kPa
Heat transfer
(Note: Rect- Rectangular, Q-heat transfer rate, q-heat flux, R-thermal resistance, h-heat transfer
coefficient, Kv-volumetric heat transfer coefficient, Nu -average Nusselt number, SLM-standard liter per
minute, m-mass flow rate, V-volume flow rate, PDMS- polydimethylsiloxane, Z- nozzle-to-wall
distance, L- distance from nozzle to the breakdown point of the jet, HE-heat exchanger), Kr-thermal
conductivity ratio, and - performance index)
Table 1. Summary of the microchannel heat exchangers with single phase flow [3,4].
also done by using Fluent CFD package. Hasan et al. [19] evaluated the effect of the size and
shape of channels for a counter-flow microchannel heat exchanger by using Fluent CFD
numerical simulation. The effect of various channels showed that the circular shape
achieved the best overall performance, with the second being the square channels. Results
obtained from the numerical analyses and the experimental data of [18, 19] were in good
agreement with the maximum error being 5.1% and the maximum difference in wall
temperature being 1.7 K. Ameel et al. [20] presented an overview of the miniaturization
technologies and their applications to energy systems. Based on the MEMS
(microelectromechanical systems) technologies, the processes (including silicon-based
micromachining, deep X-ray lithography, and the micro mechanical machining) were
discussed in the context of applications to fluid flow, heat transfer, and energy
systems.
A study on the simulations of a trapezoidal shaped micro heat exchanger was presented by
Dang et al. [21]. Using the geometric dimensions and the flow condition associated with this
micro heat exchanger, a heat flux of 13.6 W/cm2 was determined by the numerical method.
The effects of flow arrangement on the heat transfer behaviors of a microchannel heat
exchanger were presented by Dang et al. [22-25]. For all cases done in these studies, the heat
flux obtained from the counter-flow arrangement was observed to be always higher than
that obtained from the parallel-flow: the value obtained from the counter-flow was
evaluated to be 1.1 to 1.2 times of that obtained from the parallel-flow. The authors also
presented an experimental study of the effects of gravity on the behaviors of heat transfer
and pressure drop of a microchannel heat exchanger. The results showed that for
microchannel heat exchangers, the influence of gravity on the pressure drop and heat
transfer behaviors was negligibly small [26, 27].
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254
Dang and Teng [28, 29] studied the effects of the configuration (such as substrate thickness,
cross-sectional area, and inlet/outlet location) on the behaviors of heat transfer and fluid
flow of the microchannel heat exchangers. It was found that the actual heat transfer rate was
observed to vary insignificantly with the substrate thickness in the range from 1.2 to 2 mm.
Moreover, a comparison of the pressure drop and heat transfer behaviors between the
microchannel and minichannel heat exchangers was done by Dang et al. [30]. Furthermore,
numerical simulations of the microchannel heat exchangers using solver with the capability
of dealing with steady-state and time-dependent conditions were carried out [31].
Numerical studies of the behaviors of the microchannel heat exchangers with 3D singlephase fluid flow and heat transfer in [22-26, 28-31] were done by using the COMSOL
Multiphysics software, version 3.5. The algorithm of this software was based on the finite
element method. The results obtained from the simulation were in good agreement with
those obtained from the experiments, with the maximum percentage error being less than
9%.
To summarize, Table 1 listed the heat transfer and fluid flow behaviors for single phase
microchannel heat exchangers [3, 4]. The heat exchangers were manufactured by different
materials with a variety of shapes. Water was the most frequently used working fluid. The
heat transfer coefficient and pressure drop were observed to be functions of the mass flow
rate. The staggered microcolumn array and the micro-structured surface were found to
enhance heat transfer rate in the micro heat exchangers. Because that the substrate thickness
(between the hot and the cold channels) of micro heat exchangers was very thin, so the
differences between the heat transfer rates obtained from these heat exchangers were
negligibly small for several materials used in the studies.
From the above literatures, it is important to better understand the behaviors of heat transfer
and pressure drop of the fluid through the microchannel heat exchangers in order to
improve their design and optimize their performance. For the present study, single phase
heat transfer and uid ow phenomena obtained from experiments and numerical
simulations for rectangular-shaped microchannel heat exchangers were investigated. In the
following sections, five heat exchangers with different geometrical congurations will be
discussed.
2. Experimental method
2.1 Experimental setup
Three major parts are used in the experimental system: the test section (the microchannel
heat exchangers), syringe system, and overall testing loop, as shown in Fig. 2, with four
microchannel heat exchangers being tested. The heat transfer process of these devices is
carried out between two liquids which are hot water and cold water; the hot and cold fluids
are flowing in the opposite directions.
Fig. 3 shows the dimensions of the test sections. The material used for the substrate of heat
exchangers is aluminum, with thermal conductivity of 237 W/(mK), density of 2,700 kg/m3,
and specific heat at constant pressure of 904 J/(kgK). For each microchannel heat exchanger,
the top side for the hot water has 10 microchannels and the bottom side for the cold water
also has 10 microchannels. The length of each microchannel is 32 mm. Microchannels have
rectangular cross-section with the width and the depth being Wc and Dc, respectively.
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255
P
Exhaust
air
valve
Buffer
Pump tank
Heat exchanger
Pre-heater
Heater
Water tank
Balance
Pump
Balance
Buffer tank
Fig. 2. Schematic of the test loop for the heat exchangers [3, 22-31].
In a microchannel heat exchanger, all channels are connected by manifolds for the inlet and
outlet of hot water and for those of cold water, respectively. The manifolds of the heat
exchangers are of the same cross-sections: having a rectangular shape with a width of 3 mm
and a depth of 300 m. Figs. 3a and 3b show the dimensions of the S-types and I-type,
respectively, with three S-types and one I-type being designed and manufactured and their
dimensions listed in Table 2. Fig. 4 shows the photos of the microchannel heat exchangers
with S-type and I-type manifolds. These test sections were manufactured by precision
micromachining [20]. Each inlet hole or outlet hole of the heat exchangers has a crosssectional area of 9 mm2. The four sides of the heat exchanger were thermally insulated by
the glass wool with a thickness of 5 mm. To seal the microchannels, two layers of PMMA
(polymethyl methacrylate) were bonded on the top and bottom sides of the substrate by UV
(ultraviolet) light process, as shown in Fig. 4. The physical properties of the PMMA and the
glass wool are listed in Table 3 [32].
No.
Type
T1
T2
T3
T4
S- Type (Microchannel)
I- Type (Microchannel)
Dimensions of the substrate

(mm)
L
W
T
46
26.5
1.2
46
26.5
2
46
26.5
1.2
54
26.5
2
Dimensions of the
channel (m)
Wc
Dc
500
300
500
300
500
180
500
300
Table 2. Geometric parameters of the microchannel heat exchangers [3, 25].
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256
a) S-type
Channel
Manifold
b) I-type
Fig. 3. Dimensions of the test samples.
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Glass wool
257
PMMA
a) S-type
b) I-type
Fig. 4. Photos of the microchannel heat exchangers being tests.

Material
PMMA
Glass wool
Density kg/m3
1420
154
Thermal conductivity W/(mK)

0.19
0.051
Table 3. Physical properties of the PMMA and the glass wool [32].
Experimental data for the microchannel heat exchanger were obtained under the constant
room temperature of 25 26 C. DI water (deionized water) was used as the working fluid.
Each inlet or outlet of the heat exchanger has a set of two thermocouples to record the
temperature values, and there are eight thermocouples in total. At each side, a differential
pressure transducer was used to measure the pressure drop. To assess the accuracy of
measurements presented in this work, the uncertainty values for measured parameters are
listed in Table 4. In addition, the uncertainties on the dimensions of microchannel evaluated
by using a scanning laser made by Mitaka/Ryokosha model NH-3. The uncertainties of the
scanning laser were estimated to be 0.03 m. Equipments used for the experiments are
listed as follows [3, 22-31]:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Thermocouples, T-type
Pump, Model PU-2087, made by Jasco
Pump, VSP-1200, made by Tokyo Rikakikai
Heater, Model AXW-8, made by Medilab
Differential pressure transducer, Model PMP4110, made by Duck
Micro electronic balance, Model TE-214S, made by Sartorious.
Parameter
Temperature
Pressure
Mass flow rate
Channel height
Channel width
Channel length
Table 4. Uncertainty data for measured parameters.
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Uncertainty
0.1 C
0.025% FS
0.0015 g
7 m
10 m
70 m
258
2.2 Analysis of data

In the following analyses, five assumptions were made:
-
The fluid flow is laminar

The fluid flow is incompressible and continuum
Heat transfer is steady
Radiation heat transfer is negligible
Four heat exchangers were designed and fabricated by a precision micromachining
process; as a result of this manufacturing process, roughness of microchannels was of
the same order.
For the experiments carried out in this study, the effects of various parameters on the heat
transfer and fluid flow such as heat flux, effectiveness, pressure drop, and performance
index of the heat exchangers are discussed as follows.
The maximum heat transfer rate, Qmax, is evaluated by
Qmax mc min Th , i Tc ,i
(1)
The heat transfer rate of the heat exchanger, Q, is calculated by

Qc mc cc Tc , o Tc ,i
(2)
The effectiveness (NTU method) is determined by
Qc
Qmax
(3)
Qc m c cc (Tc,o -Tc,i )
nL c Wc
A
(4)
Heat flux is calculated by

q
or
q = k Tlm = Tlm
The overall thermal resistance R is determined by
R Rcond Rconv
(5)
(6)
The log mean temperature difference is calculated by
Tlm
Tmax Tmin
T
ln max
Tmin
(7)
where m is mass flow rate (subscripts h and c stand for the hot side and cold side,
respectively), n is number of microchannels, c is specific heat, Th,i, Th,o, Tc,i and Tc,o are inlet
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259
and outlet temperatures of the hot and cold side, respectively, q is heat flux, A is heat
transfer area, k is overall heat transfer coefficient, Rcond / is conductive thermal
resistance, Rconv 1 / hh 1 / hc is convective thermal resistance, hh and hc are the convective
heat transfer coefficients of the hot side and the cold side, respectively, is thickness of heat
transfer, is thermal conductivity, and Tlm is the log mean temperature difference.
The Reynolds number is calculated by:
Re
wDh
2m
Wc Dc
(8)
The pressure drop due to friction is determined by [33,34] :

p 2 f w 2
L
L
2 f Re 2 w
Dh
Dh
(9)
where Dh 4 Ac / P is the hydraulic diameter, w is velocity in the z-direction, is dynamic

viscosity, is density, Ac is cross-sectional area, P is wetted perimeter, L is channel length,
and f is Fanning friction factor.
The total pressure drop of the heat exchanger is given by
pt ph pc
(10)
where ph and pc are pressure drops of hot and cold sides, respectively.
The performance index, , is determined by [19, 25]
Qc m c c c (Tc,o -Tc,i )
pt
ph pc
(11)
The experimental uncertainties were estimated, following the method described by Holman
[35]; the final expressions for uncertainties were given as follows:
2
2
2
2
2
m c T Tc , i Wc Lc
c c c , o
mc cc Tc , o Tc ,i Wc Lc
q
1/2
Uq
2
2
2
2
2

T Tc ,i Wc Lc
mc cc c , o
U k mc cc Tc , o Tc ,i Wc Lc
k T 2 T 2 T 2 T 2
h ,i
h ,o
c ,i
c ,o
Th ,i Th , o Tc ,i Tc , o
2
2
2
2
2
URe m Wc Dc

Re m Wc Dc
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(12)
1/2
(13)
1/2
(14)
260

2
2
2
2
2
m c m c Tc , o Tc ,i Th ,i Tc ,i
c c
mc cc m c Tc , o Tc ,i Th ,i Tc ,i
2
2
2
2
2
m c T Tc ,i ph pc
c c c , o
mc cc Tc , o Tc ,i ph pc
2 1/2
(15)
1/2
(16)
By using the estimated errors of parameters listed in Table 3, the maximum experimental
uncertainties in determining q, k, Re, , and were 2.1%, 2.2%, 3.1%, 0.9%, and 3.3%,
respectively, for all cases being studied.
3. Numerical simulation
Numerical study of the behavior of the microchannel heat exchanger with 3D single-phase
fluid flow and heat transfer was done by using the COMSOL Multiphysics software, version
3.5. The algorithm of this software was based on the finite element method. For the
COMSOL package, the generalized minimal residual (GMRES) method was used to solve
for the model used in this study; the GMRES method was an iterative method for general
linear systems. At every step, the method performed minimization of the residual vector in
a Krylov subspace [32], and the Arnoldi iteration was used to find this residual vector. To
improve the convergence of the iterative solver used by the GMRES method, the Incomplete
LU (lower-upper) pre-conditioner was selected for nonsymmetric systems, where LU is a
matrix which was the product of a lower triangular matrix and an upper triangular matrix.
For the study, water was used as the working fluid. With the mass flow rate of water from
0.1667 to 0.8540 g/s, the Reynolds number was lower than 400 and the working fluid in the
microchannels of the heat exchanger was under laminar flow condition [2]. No internal heat
generation was specified, resulting in Qi = 0. The finite elements in the grid meshes were
partitioned to be triangular, as shown in Fig. 5. The maximum element size scaling factor
was 1.9, with element growth rate of 1.7, mesh curvature factor of 0.8, and mesh curvature
cut-off of 0.05. In Fig. 4, the schematic meshing of the heat exchanger consists of 26,151 mesh
elements, the number of degrees of freedom is 76,411, and a relative tolerance is 10-6.
Fig. 5. Grid mesh diagram of the microchannel heat exchanger.
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261
4. Results
4.1 Effects of fluid properties
For the effects of fluid properties on heat transfer and fluid flow behaviors, the
microchannel heat exchanger T1 was tested; the results were shown more in detail by Dang
et al. [26]. The parameters of heat exchangers are listed in Table 2.
Flow rate and inlet temperature being constant for the cold side
For experiments carried out in the study, the inlet temperature and mass flow rate of the
cold side were fixed at 26.5 C and 0.1773 g/s, respectively. For the hot side, an inlet
temperature was fixed at 52 C and the mass flow rates were varying from 0.1841 to 0.3239
g/s. The thermal boundary conditions of the top and bottom walls of the heat exchanger
were assumed to be constant heat flux. The convective heat transfer coefficient between the
wall and the ambient used for this solver was 10 W/(m2K), with the ambient temperature
and air velocity of 26 C and 0.2 m/s, respectively. The temperature profile of the
microchannel heat exchanger is shown in Fig. 6 for a mass flow rate of 0.2556 g/s at the hot
side.
At a constant inlet temperature of 52 C at the hot side, for the case with both mass flow rate
and temperature constant at the inlet of cold side, a relationship between the outlet
temperatures (for both the hot side and cold side) and the mass flow rate of the hot side is
shown in Fig. 7a. The outlet temperatures increase as the mass flow rate of the hot side
increases. Because that the heat exchanger under study is the one with counter-flow, the
outlet temperature of the cold side is higher than that obtained at the hot side [22-24]. A
comparison between the numerical and experimental results is also shown in Fig. 7a. Fig 7a
shows the outlet temperatures as a function of the mass flow rate of the hot side, and the
results obtained from the simulation are in good agreement with those obtained from the
experiments. The maximum difference of the outlet temperatures is 0.8 C and the
maximum percentage error is 2%.
Fig. 6. The temperature profile of the microchannel heat exchanger.
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At the condition stated above, the heat transfer rates of the hot side and cold side increase
with rising mass flow rate of the hot side, as shown in Fig. 7b. The maximum difference of
the heat transfer rate between the numerical results and experimental data is 1.08 W and the
maximum percentage error is 7.3%. However, it is observed that the heat transfer rate for
the hot side increases at a higher slope than that for the cold side as the mass flow rate
increases. It is also observed that the actual effectiveness for the microchannel heat
exchanger decreases with rising mass flow rate of the hot side, as shown in Fig. 7c. This
means that the heat loss increases with rising flow rate of the hot side. Fig. 7c shows a
relation of effectivenesses (actual effectiveness and NTU effectiveness) as a function of the
mass flow rate of the hot side.
Num. results of hot side
50
20
Exp. results of hot side
Heat transfer rate, W
Outlet temperature, C
Num. results of cold side

46
Exp. results of cold side
42
38
34
30
0.1600
0.2000
0.2400
0.2800
0.3200
16
12
Num. results of cold side
0.2000
0.2400
0.2800
0.3200
0.3600
b) Heat transfer rate
1.00
10.0
0.80
8.0
Heat flux, W/cm2
Effectiveness
a) Outlet temperature
0.60
Num. results of actual eff.
Exp. results of actual eff.
Num. results of eff.
0.20
Exp. results of cold side
Mass flow rate of hot side, g/s
0.40
Exp. results of hot side
0
0.1600
0.3600
Num. results of hot side
6.0
Num. results
4.0
Exp. results
2.0
Exp. results of eff.

0.00
0.1600
0.2000
0.2400
0.2800
0.3200
c) Effectiveness
0.3600
0.0
0.1600
0.2000
0.2400
0.2800
0.3200
0.3600
d) Heat flux
Fig. 7. A comparison between numerical and experimental results at constant inlet

temperature and mass flow rate for the cold side.
Because that the inlet temperatures of both sides are fixed at constant values and that the
heat capacity rate (mc)min is fixed, the maximum heat transfer Qmax is fixed at a constant
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value, as shown in Eq. (6). When the mass flow rate of the hot side is increased, the heat
transfer rate Q of the heat exchanger increases also. As a result, heat transfer obtained from
the effectiveness increases with a rising the mass flow rate at the hot side. The trends of
effectiveness and actual effectiveness are observed to be in the opposite directions, as shown
in Fig. 7c.
The results obtained from numerical simulation and from experimental data for the actual
effectiveness and for the effectiveness are compared also. Fig. 7c indicates that at various
mass flow rates of the hot side, the heat transfer results obtained from the actual
effectivenesses are higher than those obtained from the effectivenesses. The maximum
difference of the effectivenesses between the two occurs at high mass flow rate of the hot
side, with the maximum difference of 0.7 and the maximum percentage error of 8.7 %. This
difference may be due to errors in the experiments or mesh generation in the numerical
simulations. It is noted that experimental results of effectiveness obtained from this study
are higher than those obtained from Kang and Tseng [6].
Again, at the condition stated above, the heat flux of the microchannel heat exchanger
increases from 5.8 to 8.0 W/cm2 with a rising the mass flow rate of the hot side ranging from
0.1841 to 0.3239 g/s, as shown in Fig. 7d. A comparison between the numerical and
experimental results for the heat flux at various mass flow rates of the hot side is shown in
Fig. 7d. Since the heat flux obtained from the simulation is only slightly higher than that
obtained from the experiment, the results obtained from the simulation are judged to be in
good agreement with those obtained from the experiments. The maximum difference of heat
fluxes is 0.40 W/cm2; it occurs at low mass flow rate of the hot side, and the maximum
percentage error is 7.2%. This difference may be due to errors in the experiments or mesh
generation in the numerical simulations also. The heat flux obtained from this study is
higher than that obtained from [5]; the latter has the heat flux increasing from 0.2 to 1.1
W/cm2 and the mass flow rate increasing from 2.7 to 111.1 g/s. However, due to the
variation in presenting data, it is difficult to make a complete comparison between the
results obtained from the present study and those obtained from [5] and [7].
To summarize, for this case with the results presented in Figs. 7a-7d, the trends for actual
effectiveness and effectiveness indicate that as the mass flow rate of hot side goes up, the
former goes down while the latter goes up; this is an important effect observed for the
microchannel heat exchanger used in the study.
Flow rate and inlet temperature being constant for the hot side
For this case, the inlet temperature and mass flow rate of the hot side were fixed at 52 C and
0.1667 g/s, respectively. For the cold side, an inlet temperature was fixed at 26.5 C and the
mass flow rates were varying from 0.1859 to 0.3625 g/s. Fig. 8a shows a relationship
between the outlet temperatures (for both the hot side and cold side) and the mass flow
rates of the cold side at the condition stated above. Contrary to the category of cases of
constant mass flow rate and inlet temperature for the cold side, the outlet temperatures
decrease as the mass flow rate of the cold side increases. A comparison between the results
obtained from numerical simulation and experimental data for the outlet temperatures of
both the hot side and the cold side is shown in Fig. 8a. The maximum difference between the
two results is 0.4 C, occurring at low mass flow rate of cold side, with the maximum
percentage error of 1.2%.
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It is observed that with a rising the mass flow rate of the cold side, the outlet temperatures
decrease, as shown in Fig. 8a; however, for the same flow rate condition, both the heat
transfer rates of the hot side and cold side increase. As the mass flow rate of the cold side
increases, the heat transfer rate for the cold side increases at a slightly higher rate than that
for the hot side. It is also observed that the actual effectiveness for the microchannel heat
exchanger increases with a rising the mass flow rate of the cold side, as shown in Fig. 8b.
The results obtained from the effectiveness (NTU method) are lower than those obtained
from the actual effectiveness, as shown in Fig. 8.b. Hence, a conclusion can be drawn for the
heat exchanger under study: at constant inlet temperature and mass flow rate of the hot
side, it is more effective to use the heat exchanger with high mass flow rate of cold side.
However, leakage of liquid out of the microchannel heat exchanger can occur when the
mass flow rate of the cold side increases above 0.854 g/s, as a result of the excessive
pressure exerted on the system under study.
0.95
50
0.90
Exp. results for hot side

Num. results for cold side
46
0.85
Exp. results for cold side
Effectiveness
Outlet temperature, oC
Num. results for hot side
42
38
Num. results of actual eff.
0.80
Exp. results of actual eff.

0.75
Num. results of eff.

Exp. results of eff.
0.70
0.65
0.60
34
0.55
30
0.1600
0.2000
0.2400
0.2800
0.3200
0.3600
0.4000
0.50
0.1600
0.2000
0.2800
0.3200
0.3600
0.4000
Mass flow rate of cold side, g/s
b) Effectiveness
9
1.000
8
0.800
Heat flux, W/cm2
Overall heat transfer coefficient k,

W/(cm2K)
0.2400
0.600
0.400
Num. results
Exp. results
Num. results
Exp. results
4
3
2
0.200
1
0.000
0.1600
0.2000
0.2400
0.2800
0.3200
0.3600
0.4000
c) Overall heat transfer coefficient
0
0.1600
0.2000
0.2400
0.2800
0.3200
d) Heat flux
Fig. 8. Comparison between numerical and experimental results at constant inlet

temperature and mass flow rate for the hot side.
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0.3600
0.4000
265
At the condition stated above, the overall heat transfer coefficient k of the heat exchanger
increases from 0.625 to 0.815 W/(cm2K) with the mass flow rate of cold side rising from
0.1859 to 0.3625 g/s, as shown in Fig. 8c. At a hydraulic diameter of 375 m, Kandlikar et al.
[44] gave k = 0.85 W/(cm2K), compared to k = 0.815 W/(cm2K) obtained in this study. Thus,
the two results are in good agreement. For this case, the change in the log mean temperature
difference is small: it reduces from 10.7 to 10.0 C with the mass flow rate of cold side rising
from 0.1859 to 0.3625 g/s. The heat flux increases from 6.2 to 8.2 W/cm2 with the mass flow
rate of cold side rising from 0.1859 to 0.3625 g/s, as shown in Fig. 8d. Thus, the heat flux
affected by the log mean temperature difference is less than that by the overall heat transfer
coefficient (7.0% versus 30.4% on a percentage basis). Comparisons between the results
obtained from numerical simulation and experimental data for the outlet temperature, the
effectiveness, the overall heat transfer coefficient, and the heat flux at various mass flow
rates of the cold side are shown in Figs. 8a-8d, respectively, with the maximum percentage
error being less than 7.2%.
Fluid behaviors
The boundary conditions of the two outlets of the hot side and the cold side are at the
atmospheric pressure. Fig. 9 shows the velocity field along channels of the microchannel
heat exchanger. The streamlines of water pass from the microchannels to the manifold. At
the edge between channels and manifold, the streamlines appear to be curved in shape. The
velocity field at the outlet of the manifold is parabolic which is consistent with that
predicted by the laminar flow theory for fluid in a channel.
Fig. 9. The velocity field along channels of the microchannel heat exchanger.
Fig. 10 shows the pressure distribution in channels of the hot side at the mass flow rate of
0.2321 g/s and the inlet temperature of 45 C. The pressure decreases gradually from the
first channel to the last one, with the first channel being the nearest one to the entrance of
the inlet of the manifold [25, 26].
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For microchannel heat exchanger used in this study, at an inlet temperature of 25 C, the
pressure drop increases from 889 to 4,411 Pa, with the mass flow rate rising from 0.1812 to
0.8540 g/s. In addition, the pressure drop decreases as the inlet temperature increases, since
as the inlet temperature increases, the dynamic viscosity decreases. Because that the
Poiseuille number (Po = f Re) depends only on the geometry of the microchannel, the
pressure drop decreases with a rising inlet temperature of water. This conclusion is in
agreement with [6]. Fig. 11 shows the pressure drop obtained experimentally as a function
of the inlet water temperature for various mass flow rates. At a mass flow rate of 0.4972 g/s,
the pressure drop decreases from 2,437 to 1,776 Pa, with the inlet temperature rising from 25
C to 52 C.
Fig. 10. Pressure distribution of the hot side of the heat exchanger.
0.1812
0.3555
0.4972
0.6718
0.8540
Pressure drop, Pa
5000
4000
g/s
g/s
g/s
g/s
g/s
3000
2000
1000
0
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
Water temperature, oC
Fig. 11. Pressure drop as a function of the inlet water temperature for various mass flow rates.
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Fig. 12 shows a comparison between numerical and experimental results for the pressure
drops and the mass flow rates at various inlet water temperatures. As shown in the figure,
the pressure drop decreases as the inlet water temperature increases. The maximum
difference between the two results obtained is 131 Pa, with a maximum percentage error of
7.8%.
5000
Exp. results of water at 25 C

Num. results of water at 25 C
Pressure drop, Pa
4000
Exp. results of water at 52 C

Num. results of water at 52 C
3000
2000
1000
0
0.1500
0.3500
0.5500
0.7500
0.9500
Mass flow rate, g/s

Fig. 12. Comparison between numerical and experimental results for the pressure drop and
the flow rate at various inlet water temperatures.
Under various conditions for all cases studied up to now, the maximum percentage errors
between the results obtained from numerical simulations and those from experimental data
are found to be less than 9% and are in good agreement.
4.2 Effects of flow arrangements
For this section, single-phase heat transfer and fluid flow phenomena obtained from
experimental data and numerical simulations for the microchannel heat exchanger T1 were
investigated. Two cases of flow arrangements will be discussed for the heat exchanger
under investigation: (1) the counter-flow arrangement and (2) the parallel-flow
arrangement. The dimensions of this microchannel heat exchanger are shown in Fig 3 and
its geometric parameters are listed in Table 2. The conditions of the numerical simulation
and experimental data are indicated in more detail in [3, 22-25].
For the experiments carried out in this section, the inlet temperature and the mass flow rate
of the cold side were fixed at 22.5 C and 0.2043 g/s, respectively. For the hot side, the mass
flow rate was fixed at 0.2321 g/s and the inlet temperatures were varying from 45 to 70 C
(Dang et al. [26]). The thermal boundary conditions of the top and bottom walls of the heat
exchanger are assumed to be constant heat flux. The temperature profile of the
microchannel heat exchanger is shown in Fig. 13 for the inlet temperature of 45 C at the hot
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side. Fig. 13a and Fig. 13b show the temperature profiles for the cases with counter-flow and
parallel-flow at the conditions specified above.
The 3D temperature profiles of the microchannel heat exchanger were shown in more detail
in [24-26] also. Profiles of the temperature gradients shown in Fig. 14 indicate the
temperature gradients from heat exchangers cold region towards its hot region, with Fig.
14a being the counter-flow and Fig. 14b being the parallel-flow. Distribution of the
temperature gradients varies along the channel length of the heat exchanger with counterflow and parallel-flow configurations. In the middle of the heat exchanger with counterflow arrangement, the temperature gradients are in fishbone shapes. However, the
temperature gradients are in the perpendicular direction towards the substrate of the heat
exchanger with parallel-flow arrangement.
a) Counter-flow
b) Parallel-flow
Fig. 13. Temperature profiles of the microchannel heat exchanger.
a) Counter-flow
b) Parallel-flow
Fig. 14. The profiles of temperature gradients of the microchannel heat exchanger.
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a) Cross-section for counter-flow
c) Counter-flow for 2D
269
b) Cross-section for parallel-flow
d) Parallel-flow for 2D
Fig. 15. Temperature profiles of a cross-section of the microchannel heat exchanger.

The temperature profiles of the microchannel heat exchanger are shown in Fig. 15 for the
inlet temperature of 45 C at the hot side at the cross-section through three points: (-0.01,
0.02, -0.02), (-0.01, 0.02, 0.00), and (-0.01, 0, 0.00). Fig. 15a and Fig. 15b show the temperature
profiles of the cross-section in the microchannel heat exchanger for the cases with counterflow and parallel-flow at the conditions specified above. At this cross-section, it is observed
that the temperature profiles varying along the distance measured from the substrate for
counter-flow arrangement are more evenly distributed (as shown in Fig. 15c) than those for
parallel-flow arrangement with the hot temperature region skewed to the right-side of the
microchannel, as shown in Fig. 15d.
As a result, the range of temperature gradient obtained from counter-flow arrangement is
smaller than that obtained from parallel-flow one. For the counter-flow one, the temperature
gradients obtained numerically ranging from 50.3 to 529.1 K/m, as shown in Fig. 16a.
However, the range is from 16.6 to 574 K/m for parallel-flow one, as shown in Fig. 16b. The
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profiles of the temperature gradients in 3D and in these three planes (x-y, y-z, and z-x
planes) for the whole subdomains of the heat exchanger were shown in more detail in [2426].
a) Counter-flow
b) Parallel-flow
Fig. 16. Profiles of 2D temperature gradients of the microchannel heat exchanger.

Under the condition stated above, the inlet temperature and the mass flow rate of the cold
side were fixed at 22.5 C and 0.2043 g/s, respectively. For the hot side, the mass flow rate
was fixed at 0.2321 g/s and the inlet temperatures were varying from 45 to 70 C [22-25]. A
relationship of the experimental results between the counter-flow and the parallel-flow
cases is shown in Fig. 17.
For the counter-flow case, the outlet temperature at the cold side is higher than that
obtained at the hot side (see Fig. 17a). However, for the parallel-flow case, the outlet
temperature at the cold side is lower than that obtained at the hot side. As a result, the heat
transfer rate obtained from the counter-flow arrangement is higher than that obtained from
the parallel-flow arrangement of the microchannel heat exchanger, as shown in Fig. 17b. It is
noted that to compute the heat transfer rates for an adiabatic heat exchanger, these rates
were based on those of the cold side. Fig. 17c shows the comparison of pressure drops of
both cases for the counter- and parallel-flow arrangements. It is observed that the pressure
drop obtained from the hot side is higher than that obtained from the cold side; this is
consistent with the fact that the mass flow rate of the hot side is also higher than that of the
cold side. It is also observed that the pressure drop obtained from the counter-flow
arrangement is the same as that obtained from parallel-flow one. As a result, the
performance index obtained from the counter-flow arrangement is higher than that obtained
from the parallel-flow one: the value obtained from the counter-flow is 1.192 to 1.2 times of
that obtained from the parallel-flow, as shown in Fig. 17d.
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50
25
46
20
Heat transfer rate, W
O utle t te m pe r a tur e s, o C
42
38
Hot side-Counter
Hot side-Parallel
34
Cold side-Counter
15
10
Counter
Parallel
5
Cold side-Parallel
30
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
Inlet temperature of hot side, C
b) Heat transfer rate
800
25
Performance index, W/kPa
Pressure drop, Pa
700
600
500
400
Hot side-counter
300
Hot side-parallel
Cold side-counter
200
Cold side-parallel
100
0
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
20
15
10
Counter
5
Parallel
0
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
c) Pressure drop
d) Performance index
Fig. 17. Comparison of the experimental results between the counter-flow and parallel-flow.
When the inlet temperature of the hot side is increased, the heat transfer rate Q of the heat
exchanger increases also. As a result, the heat transfer result obtained from the effectiveness
(NTU method) increases with rising inlet temperature at the hot side, as shown in Fig. 18a.
The figure shows a comparison between numerical and experimental results of the
effectiveness (NTU method) for the microchannel heat exchanger with counter-flow
arrangement. The maximum difference of the effectiveness is 0.009; it occurs at low inlet
temperature of the hot side, and the maximum percentage error is 1.6%. Fig. 18b shows the
comparison of the performance indexes between the numerical and experimental results for
the case with counter-flow arrangement. Since the performance index obtained from the
simulation is in the vicinity of that obtained from the experiment, the results obtained from
the simulation are judged to be in good agreement with those obtained from the
experiments. The maximum difference of the performance index is 0.413 W/kPa; it occurs at
low inlet temperature of the hot side for the counter-flow arrangement, and the maximum
percentage error is 5.3%.
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25
Effectiveness (NTU method)
0.6
0.58
0.56
0.54
Num. results of counter-flow
Exp. results of counter-flow
0.52
0.5
20
15
10
Num. results of counter-flow
5
Exp. results of counter-flow
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
a) Effectiveness (NTU method)
b) Performance index
Fig. 18. Comparison between numerical and experimental results.

25
20
Heat flux, W/cm2
16
12
Counter-flow
Parallel-flow
0
0.1500
0.2000
0.2500
0.3000
0.3500
0.4000
Mass flow rate of cold side g/s
a) Heat flux
0.4500
20
15
Counter
10
Parallel
0
0.1500
0.2000
0.2500
0.3000
0.3500
0.4000
0.4500
Fig. 19. Comparison of the experimental results with a rising mass flow rate of the cold side.
Under another experimental condition, for the experiments done in this study, the inlet
temperature and the mass flow rate of the hot side were fixed at 70 C and 0.2321 g/s,
respectively. For the cold side, the inlet temperature was fixed at 22.5 C and the mass flow
rates were varying from 0.2043 to 0.401 g/s. The outlet temperatures are a function of the
mass flow rate at the cold side, as shown in more detail in [22-25]. Contrary to the case of
varying inlet temperature of the hot side, the outlet temperatures decrease as the mass flow
rate of the cold side increases. For the counter-flow case, the outlet temperature of the cold
side is higher than or equal to that obtained at the hot side. However, for the parallel-flow
case, the outlet temperature at the cold side is lower than that obtained at the hot side. As a
result, for the microchannel heat exchanger, the heat flux obtained from the counter-flow
arrangement is higher than that obtained from the parallel-flow arrangement, as shown in
Fig. 19a. The heat flux of 17.81104 W/m2 (or 17.81 W/cm2) was achieved for water from the
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hot side of the device having the inlet temperature of 70 C and mass flow rate of 0.2321 g/s
and for water from the cold side having the inlet temperature of 22.5 C and mass flow rate
of 0.401 g/s.
Fig. 19b shows the comparison of the performance indexes between the counter- and
parallel-flow arrangements. The performance index obtained from the counter-flow
arrangement is higher than that obtained from the parallel-flow one: the value obtained
from the counter-flow is 1.13 to 1.17 times of that obtained from the parallel-flow. The
performance index of 21.69 W/kPa was achieved for water from the hot side of the device
having the inlet temperature of 70 C and the mass flow rate of 0.2321 g/s and for water
from the cold side having the inlet temperature of 22.5 C and the mass flow rate of 0.401
g/s.
4.3 Effects of geometrical configurations
In order to study the effects of geometrical configurations on the performance of the heat
exchangers, all experimental conditions for the four microchannel heat exchangers were
kept the same, more detail in [28,29]. Throughout the section, two cases of testing were
discussed: the first one for increasing the inlet temperature of the hot side and the second for
increasing the mass flow rate of the cold side. Further details of these cases are as follows:
1.
2.
Case No. 1 is for the case of increasing the inlet temperature of the hot side: the inlet
temperature and the mass flow rate of the cold side were fixed at 22.5 C and 0.2135
g/s, respectively; at the hot side, the mass flow rates was fixed at 0.2308 g/s and the
inlet temperature were varying from 45 to 70 C.
Case No. 2 is for the case of increasing the mass flow rate of the cold side: the inlet
temperature and the mass flow rate of the hot side were fixed at 70 C and 0.2308 g/s,
respectively; at the cold side, the inlet temperature was fixed at 22.5 C and the mass
flow rates were varying from 0.2135 to 0.401 g/s.
The flow parameters for these two cases are summarized in Table 5.
Case
1
Flow conditions
Variable parameters
Fixed parameters
mh = 0.2308 g/s
mc = 0.2135 g/s
Th,i = 45 70 C
Tc,i = 22.5 C
mh = 0.2308 g/s
mc= 0.2135 0.401
Th,i = 70 C
g/s
Tc,i = 22.5 C
Table 5. Flow parameters for the cases under study.
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The effects of substrate thicknesses

For the effects of substrate thicknesses, the two microchannel heat exchangers (T1 and T2)
were tested. These two heat exchangers have the same dimensions of the channel and the
manifolds with the same means (that is, the S-type, as shown in Fig. 3a)) for connecting the
channels to the manifolds; however, the two heat exchangers under study have different
substrate thicknesses. Detailed parameters of the heat exchangers (T1 and T2) are listed in
Table 2.
Fig. 20 shows the effects of the substrate thickness with rising inlet temperature of the hot
side. The heat flux is a function of the inlet temperature of hot side; the heat flux increases
with rising inlet temperature of the hot side, as shown in Fig. 20a. For the substrate
thicknesses of 1.2 (Heat Exchanger T1) and 2 mm (Heat Exchanger T2), the heat fluxes of
T1 are 1.024 to 1.046 times of those obtained from T2. Besides, it was found that the heat
transfer rate obtained from the present study (23 W) is slightly higher than that obtained
from Garca-Hernando et al. [36] (22 W) (At Reynolds number of 400, the present study
used the overall channel size with 9.5 mm in width and 32 mm in length (304 mm2 in
area), compared with that of 20 mm in width and 16 mm in length (320 mm2 in area) for
Garca-Hernando et al. [36]). It was also found for the present study that the heat transfer
rate increases with rising inlet temperature of the hot side. As a result, the effectiveness
defined as the ratio of heat transfer rate to the maximum heat transfer rate, expressed by
Eq. (3) increases with rising inlet temperature of the hot side, as shown in Fig. 20b.
Because that the configuration of the heat exchangers and the mass flow rates of water at
the hot and cold sides are fixed and the variation of temperature of water at both side is
minimal, so the convective heat transfer term is essentially fixed. Further, it is found that
the conductive heat transfer term does not affect strongly the overall heat transfer
coefficient of the heat exchangers. It is concluded that the results shown in Figs. 20a and
20b indicate that the substrate thickness affects negligibly the parameters associated with
the heat transfer process of the heat exchangers with the substrate thicknesses of 1.2 and 2
mm.
For the present study, the results obtained from the experimental data showed the
pressure drop as a function of the inlet temperature of the hot side. For both heat
exchangers (T1 and T2), the mass flow rate of the hot side is higher than those of the cold
side, so the pressure drop obtained from the hot side is higher than that obtained from the
cold side, as shown in Fig. 20c. Fig. 20c illustrates that pressure drop of T2 is not the same
as that of T1, due to the fact that the roughness of channels in T2 could be higher than that
of channels in T1. However, the maximum difference of pressure drops between T1 and
T2 is less than 10 %.
Fig. 20d shows that the performance of the heat exchangers increase with the rising of inlet
temperature of the hot side; the performance obtained from T1 is higher than that obtained
from T2. The performance index of 21.67 W/kPa was achieved for water from the hot side of
Heat Exchanger T1 having the inlet temperature of 70 C and mass flow rate of 0.2308 g/s
and water from the cold side having the inlet temperature of 22.5 C and mass flow rate of
0.2135 g/s.
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15
0.60
12
0.56
Effectiveness
Heat flux, W/cm2
9
T1
T2
0.52
T1
0.48
T2
0.44
0.40
0
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
40
75
45
55
60
65
70
75
70
75
a) Heat flux
b) Effectiveness
25
900
800
700
Pressure drop, Pa
50
600
500
Hot side-T1
400
Hot side-T2
Cold side-T1
300
Cold side-T2
200
20
15
10
T1
T2
100
0
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
o
75
40
45
50
55
60
65
0
c) Pressure drop
Fig. 20. Effects of the substrate thickness with a rising inlet temperature of hot side.
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20
25
Heat flux, W/cm2
16
T1
12
T2
8
0
0.1500
0.2000
0.2500
0.3000
0.3500
0.4000
a) Heat flux
0.4500
20
15
T1
10
T2
5
0
0.1500
0.2000
0.2500
0.3000
0.3500
0.4000
0.4500
Fig. 21. Effects of the substrate thickness with a rising mass flow rate of cold side.
For the case of increasing the mass flow rate of the cold side (Case 2 was developed to
study the effects of substrate thickness at various mass flow rates of the cold side), the
heat fluxes of the heat exchangers increase with rising mass flow rate of the cold side, as
shown in Fig. 21. Fig. 21 shows the effects of the substrate thickness with rising mass flow
rate of the cold side. For this case, the heat flux obtained from T1 is also higher than that
obtained from T2, as shown in Fig. 21a. When the mass flow rate of the cold side
increases, the pressure drop of the cold side also increases; when the mass flow rate of the
cold side increases, the average temperature of the hot side decreases, resulting in an
increase of the pressure drop of the hot side. Besides, it was observed from the
experimental data that the pressure drops increase at a higher slope than those for the
effectiveness. It is noted that the performance index decreases with the rising mass flow
rate of the cold side, as shown in Fig. 21b; however, the performance index obtained from
the T1 is higher than that obtained from T2.
The effects of cross-sectional areas
For the evaluation of the effects of cross-sectional areas on the fluid and heat transfer of the
microchannel heat exchangers, two cases were investigated: (1) Case 1 for the study of the
effects of cross-sectional area for the heat exchanger at various inlet temperatures of the hot
side and (2) Case 2 for the study of the effects of cross-sectional area for the heat exchanger
at various mass flow rates of the cold side. Two microchannel heat exchangers T1 and T3 are
tested for the effects of magnitude of cross-sectional area on the behaviors of heat transfer
and fluid flow. These two microchannel heat exchangers have the same physical
configurations for their substrates, manifolds, and lengths of channels. However, only the
cross-sectional areas of microchannels are different. The microchannels of T1 have a
rectangular cross-section with width of 500 m and depth of 300 m; the microchannel of
T3, width of 500 m and depth of 180 m. These dimensions are listed in Table 2.
For Case 1, Fig. 22 shows the effects of the cross-sectional areas on the behaviors of heat flux,
effectiveness, pressure drop, and performance index for T1 and T3 with the inlet temperatures
of the hot side ranging from 45 to 70 C. The heat fluxes of the heat exchangers increase with
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the inlet temperature of the hot side increasing, as shown in Fig. 6a. It is observed that the heat
transfer rates obtained from T3 are higher than those obtained from T1, leading to the fact that
heat fluxes obtained from T3 are higher than those obtained from T1. The results obtained
from the present study are in good agreement with those obtained from [37]. Foli et al. [37]
indicated that under the constant mass flow rate condition, the higher the heat flux, the lower
the aspect ratio (defined as the ratio of the microchannel height to its width). Under the same
condition, the mass flow rates are fixed for two cases T1 and T3 used in this study. The
conductive thermal resistance of T1 was found to be lower than that of T3. However, the
convective thermal resistance of T1 was found to be higher than that of T3. The heat fluxes
obtained from Fig. 22a show that the effect of the convective thermal resistance on the overall
thermal resistance (appeared in Eqs. (5) and (6)) of the microchannel heat exchangers is more
significantly than that of the conductive thermal resistance.
The effectiveness obtained from T3 is higher than that obtained from T1, as shown in Fig.
22b. However, because that the hydraulic diameter of channel in T3 is smaller than that of
channel in T1, this results in the velocity in the channel of T3 to be higher than that of T1,
leading to a higher pressure drop in T3 than that in T1, as shown in Fig. 22c. It was found
that the pressure drop of T3 is 2 times higher than that of T1, while the effectiveness of T3 is
1.04 times higher than that of T1. As a result, the performance index (defined as the ratio of
the heat transfer rate to the pressure drop in the heat exchanger) obtained from T1 is higher
than that obtained from T3, as shown in Fig. 22d.
For Case 2, Fig. 23 shows the effects of the cross-sectional area on the behaviors of heat flux
and performance index for T1 and T3 with the mass flow rates of the cold side ranging from
0.2135 to 0.401 g/s. It was found that the heat fluxes of T3 are higher than those of T1, as
shown in Fig. 23a. For microchannel heat exchanger T3, a heat flux of 18.7 W/cm2 (or overall
average heat transfer coefficient of 8,500 W/m2K) was achieved for water from the hot side
having a fixed inlet temperature of 70 C and a fixed mass flow rate of 0.2308 g/s and for
water from the cold side having a fixed inlet temperature of 22.5 C and a mass flow rate of
0.401 g/s. It was also found that the pressure drop of T3 is higher than that of T1; the curve
of the pressure drop is at a higher slope than that of the heat flux; as a result, the
performance index of T1 is higher than that of T3, as shown in Fig. 23b.
From Figs. 20-23 obtained in this study, it indicates that for the microchannel heat
exchangers being investigated, the effect of the hydraulic diameter on the performance
index is more pronounced than that of the substrate thickness. In addition, it demonstrates
that the lower the hydraulic diameter, the higher the heat flux and the pressure drop.
The effects of inlet/outlet location
Again, in Dang [3] and Dang and Teng [25], two cases were investigated: (1) Case 1 for the
study of the effects of inlet/out location for the heat exchanger at various inlet temperatures of
the hot side and (2) Case 2 for the study of the effects of inlet/out location for the heat
exchanger at various mass flow rates of the cold side. The inlet/outlet locations affect
significantly the behaviors of heat transfer and fluid flow of the microchannel heat exchangers.
The two microchannel heat exchangers T2 and T4 were tested for this case. These two heat
exchangers have the same dimensions of the channel and manifold; however, as shown in Fig.
3, the configuration of manifold together with the channel for T2 is the S-type and that for T4 is
the I-type. Parameters of the heat exchangers are listed in more detail in Table 2.
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0.60
16
Effectiveness
Heat flux, W/cm2
0.56
12
T1
T3
0.52
T1
0.48
T3
0.44
0.40
0
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
40
75
45
50
60
65
70
75
70
75
a) Heat flux
b) Effectiveness
25
2000
1600
Pressure drop, Pa
55
1200
800
Hot side-T1
Hot side-T3
Cold side-T1
Cold side-T3
400
20
T1
T3
15
10
0
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
o
c) Pressure drop
75
40
45
50
55
60
65
0
Fig. 22. Effects of the cross-sectional area with a rising inlet temperature of hot side.
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20
25
Heat flux, W/cm2
16
T1
12
T3
8
0
0.1500
0.2000
0.2500
0.3000
0.3500
0.4000
0.4500
20
15
T1
T3
10
0
0.1500
0.2000
0.2500
0.3000
0.3500
0.4000
a) Heat flux
0.4500
Fig. 23. Effects of the cross-sectional area with a rising mass flow rate of cold side.
For Case 1, Fig. 24 shows the effects of the inlet/outlet location on the behaviors of heat flux,
effectiveness, pressure drop, and performance index for heat exchangers T2 and T4 with the
inlet temperatures of the hot side ranging from 45 to 70 C. In these two heat exchangers, the
effects of maldistribution by the manifolds are important for heat transfer and pressure
drop. The distance of flow path for the fluid moving from the entrance to the exit for the Stype microchannel heat exchanger is longer than that for the I-type, leading to the fact that
the heat flux of T2 is higher than that of T4, as shown in Fig. 24a; as a result, the
effectiveness of T2 is also higher than that of T4, as shown in Fig. 24b. However, it is also
due to the fact that the distance the fluid moves from the entrance to the exit for the S-type is
longer than that obtained with the I-type, so the pressure drop obtained from T2 is higher
than that obtained from T4 for the same mass flow rate through the two heat exchangers
being investigated, as shown in Fig. 24c. Fig. 24d shows the performance index of the heat
exchangers as a function of the inlet temperature of the hot side. The performance index
obtained from T4 is higher than that obtained from T2.
For Case 2, Fig. 25 shows the effects of the cross-sectional area on the behaviors of heat flux
and performance index for the heat exchangers T2 and T4 with the mass flow rates of the
cold side ranging from 0.2135 to 0.401 g/s. It was found that the heat fluxes obtained from
T2 are higher than those from T4, as shown in Fig. 25a. However, when the mass flow rates
of the cold side increase, the pressure drops increase also, leading to the fact that the
pressure drop of T4 is lower than that of T2. it was also found that the performance index of
T4 is higher than T2, as shown in Fig. 25b.
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15
0.60
12
0.56
T4
T2
Effectiveness
Heat flux, W/cm2
T4
T2
0.52
0.48
0.44
0.40
0
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
40
75
45
50
a) Heat flux
60
65
70
75
b) Effectiveness
25
900
800
700
Pressure drop, Pa
55
Inlet temperature of hot side, oC
600
500
Hot side-T4
400
Hot side-T2
300
Cold side-T4
200
Cold side-T2
20
T4
T2
15
10
100
0
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
0
c) Pressure drop
75
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
0
Fig. 24. Effects of the inlet/outlet location with a rising inlet temperature of hot side.
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281
20
25
Heat flux, W/cm2
16
12
T4
T2
8
0
0.1500
0.2000
0.2500
0.3000
0.3500
0.4000
a) Heat flux
0.4500
20
15
T4
10
T2
0
0.1500
0.2000
0.2500
0.3000
0.3500
0.4000
0.4500
Fig. 25. Effects of the inlet/outlet location with a rising mass flow rate of cold side.
In summary, Figs. 20-25 indicate that the highest heat flux achievable for all cases studied is
the microchannel heat exchanger T3. However, the performance index of T3 is lowest
among all cases being investigated. It is observed that the heat flux and pressure drop
obtained from the S-type manifold together with the channels are higher than that from the
I-type. However, the performances indexes of both types of heat exchangers are essentially
the same. For all cases studied, the microchannel heat exchanger T1 yields the highest
performance index, with T4 being the second best. From the experimental data shown in
Figs. 20-25, the overall average heat transfer coefficients of the heat exchangers with a value
of 8,500 W/(m2K) which was evaluated in this study are in good agreement with the overall
heat transfer coefficient obtained in Kandlikar et al. [34] for microchannels with the same
hydraulic diameter; however, the overall average heat transfer coefficient obtained from the
present study is higher than that (~5,100 W/(m2K)) obtained in Garca-Hernando et al. [36]
due to the difference in design.
4.4 Effects of gravity
An experimental study of the effects of gravity on the fluid in microchannel heat exchangers
was carried out in the study to find out how does the gravity affect the behaviors of heat
transfer and pressure drop for the microchannel heat exchangers? For the experimental
system, the inlet temperature and the mass flow rate of the hot side were fixed at 70 C and
0.2308 g/s, respectively; at the cold side, the inlet temperature was fixed at 22.5 C and the
mass flow rates were varying from 0.2135 to 0.401 g/s. In this study, influence of gravity
was determined by two cases: one with horizontal channels, the other with vertical
channels. For vertical channels, the hot water is flowing upward which is against the
gravitational field, while the cold water is flowing downward which is in the same direction
as the gravitational field [26,27]. Two microchannel heat exchangers T1 and T3 were tested:
these two microchannel heat exchangers have the same physical configurations for their
substrates, manifolds, and lengths of channels; only the cross-sectional areas of
microchannels are different. The microchannels of T1 have a rectangular cross-section with
width of 500 m and depth of 300 m; the microchannel of T3, width of 500 m and depth of
180 m. Parameters of the heat exchangers (T1 and T3) are listed in more detail in Table 2.
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46
T 1-horizontal
O utlet tem pera ture o f ho t side,
T 1-vertical
T 3-horizontal
44
T 3-vertical
42
40
38
36
0.1500
0.2000
0.2500
0.3000
0.3500
0.4000
0.4500
M ass flow rate of cold side , g/s

Fig. 26. Comparison of outlet temperatures of hot side.
50
O utlet tem perature o f cold side,
Fig. 26 shows a comparison of at specified mass flow rate of the cold side the difference
between outlet temperature of hot side obtained from a horizontal channel (either T1 or T3)
and that from the vertical one (the corresponding T1 or T3) is negligibly small. A
comparison of the outlet temperatures of cold side of two microchannel heat exchangers is
shown in Fig. 27. The outlet temperatures (for both the hot and the cold sides) are functions
of the mass flow rate of cold side; the outlet temperatures decrease as the mass flow rate of
the cold side increases.
48
46
44
42
T 1-horizontal
T 1-vertical
40
T 3-horizontal
T 3-verticcal
38
0.1500
0.2000
0.2500
0.3000
0.3500
0.4000

Fig. 27. Comparison of outlet temperatures of cold side.
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283
The outlet temperatures of hot side obtained from T1 is higher than those obtained from T3;
however, the outlet temperatures of cold side obtained from T1 is lower than those obtained
from T3. As a result, the heat transfer rate obtained from T3 is higher than that obtained
from T1, as shown in Fig. 28. The results obtained from the present study are in good
agreement with those obtained from [37]. Foli et al. [37] indicated that under the constant
mass flow rate condition, the higher the heat flux, the lower the aspect ratio (defined as the
ratio of the microchannel height to its width).
H ea t tra nsfer ra te, W
30
28
26
T 1-horizontal
24
T 1-vertical
T 3-horizontal
22
T 3-vertical
20
0.1500
0.2000
0.2500
0.3000
0.3500
0.4000
0.4500

Fig. 28. Comparison of heat transfer rates.
It is shown from Fig. 28 that at specified mass flow rate of the cold side the difference between
the heat transfer rate obtained from a horizontal channel (either T1 or T3) and that from the
vertical one (the corresponding T1 or T3) is negligibly small. The heat transfer rate of the heat
exchangers is a function of the mass flow rate of cold side: it increases from 24.8 to 29.92 W
with the mass flow rate of cold side rising from 0.2043 to 0.401 g/s (for the heat exchanger T3).
Because that the hydraulic diameter of channel in T3 is smaller than that of channel in T1,
this results in the velocity in the channel of T3 to be higher than that of T1, leading to a
higher total pressure drop in T3 than that in T1, as shown in Fig. 29. Besides, the figure
shows that the total pressure drop is a function of Reynolds number of cold side; the total
pressure drop increases as rising the Re number of cold side.
Experimental results for effects of gravity on the behavior of pressure drop for the
microchannel heat exchanger are also shown in Fig. 29. It is observed that the change of
pressure drop between the two cases (horizontal channels and vertical channels) is
negligibly small; the maximum change in pressure is 7.2% for a pressure drop from 1060 to
2044 Pa.
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6000
T 1-horizontal
T 1-vertical
To tal pressure drop, Pa
5000
T 3-horizontal
T 3-vertical
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
100
140
180
220
260
300
Re numbe r of cold side

Fig. 29. Comparison of total pressure drops.
22
18
T 1-horizontal
14
T 1-vertical
T 3-horizontal
T 3-vertical
10
2
100
140
180
220
260
300
Re number of cold side
Fig. 30. Comparison of performance indices.

It was found that the pressure drop of T3 is 2 times higher than that of T1, while the heat
transfer rate of T3 is 1.06 times higher than that of T1. As a result, the performance index
(defined as the ratio of the heat transfer rate to the pressure drop in the heat exchanger)
obtained from T1 is higher than that obtained from T3, as shown in Fig. 30. For heat
exchanger T1, a performance index of 21.68 W/kPa was achieved for water from the hot
side having an inlet temperature of 70 C and a mass flow rate of 0.2308 g/s and for water
from the cold side having an inlet temperature of 22.5 C and mass flow rate of 0.2135 g/s. It
is also observed that the change of performance between the two cases (horizontal channels
and vertical channels) is negligibly small; the maximum change in performance is 5.5%, out
of a performance index from 13.69 to 21.68 W/kPa.
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In summary, it is concluded that for both heat transfer and pressure drop behaviors, the
impact of gravity on the fluid flowing through the microchannel heat exchange can be
ignored as indicated in [3,26,27,33,34].
5. Conclusion
In this study, for the cases with both inlet temperature and mass flow rate constant at the
cold side of the device, the trends for the results obtained from the actual effectiveness
method and those obtained from the effectiveness (-NTU) method are in the opposite
directions as the mass flow rate of the hot side increases. However, for the cases with
constant inlet temperature and mass flow rate at the hot side of the device, the trends for the
results obtained from both methods for evaluating effectiveness are in the same directions.
With all cases done in the study, the performance index obtained from the counterflow is always
higher than that obtained from the parallel-flow. As a result, the microchannel heat exchanger
with counter-flow should be selected to use for every case (except few special cases).
In the study, it indicates that the substrate thickness affects negligibly the parameters
associated with the heat transfer process of the heat exchangers with the substrate
thicknesses of 1.2 and 2 mm. The effect of the hydraulic diameter (cross-sectional area) on
the performance index is more pronounced than that of the substrate thickness. In addition,
it demonstrates that the lower the hydraulic diameter, the higher the heat flux and the
pressure drop. Regarding the effects of inlet/outlet locations, for two types (I-type and Stype) of the microchannel heat exchangers, the heat flux and pressure drop obtained from
the S-type are higher than those from the I-type, even though the performance indexes of
both heat exchangers are essentially the same.
The impact of gravity on the fluid flowing through the microchannel heat exchanger was found
to be small, with the maximum difference between the results of horizontal and vertical channels
being less than 8%. In addition, in this study, good agreements were achieved between the
results obtained from the present study and the results obtained from the literatures.
In the study, good agreements were achieved for the behaviors of heat transfer and fluid
flow between the results obtained from numerical simulations and those obtained from
experimental data for fluid flowing in the counter-flow microchannel heat exchanger used,
with the maximum percentage difference between the two results of less than 9%.
This chapter summarized the work performed and the results obtained both in the fluid
flow and heat transfer done by TFAG over the last several years. The authors would like to
express their deep appreciation for the financial supports obtained from National Science
Council, the Republic of China in Taiwan (Grant Nos. NSC93-2212-E-033-012, NSC94-2212E-033-017, NSC95-2212-E-033-066, NSC96-2212-E-033-039, NSC97-2212-E-033-050, NSC992212-E-033-025, and NSC 100-2221-E-033-065) and Chung Yuan Christian University (Grant
No. CYCU-98-CR-ME).
6. Nomenclature
Ac
Dh
f
cross-sectional area, m2
hydraulic diameter, m
friction factor
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h
k
Kr
Kv
L
m
n
NTU
Nu
Nu
p
P
Q
q
R
Re
T
Td
V
Z
heat transfer coefficient, W/m2K

overall heat transfer coefficient, W/m2K
thermal conductivity ratio
volumetric heat transfer coefficient, W/m3K
length of channel, m
distance from the nozzle to the breakdown point of the jet, m
mass flow rate, kg/s
number of tubes
Number of Transfer Unit
Nusselt number
average Nusselt number
pressure, Pa
wetted perimeter, m
heat transfer rate, W
heat flux, W/m2
thermal resistance, m2K/W
Reynolds number
temperature, K
mean temperature, K
volume flow rate, m3/s
nozzle-to-wall distance, m
Greek symbols
T
p
dynamic viscosity, Ns/m2

density, kg/m3
thermal conductivity, W/m K
velocity, m/s
effectiveness
performance index, W/kPa
liquid fill ratio
different temperature, K
pressure drop, Pa
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Flow in Minichannels and Microchannels, Elsevier Pte Ltd, Singapore, 2006.
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[36] N. Garca-Hernando, A. Acosta-Iborra, U. Ruiz-Rivas and M. Izquierdo, Experimental
investigation of fluid flow and heat transfer in a single-phase liquid flow microheat exchanger, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 52 (23-24) (2009)
5433-5446
[37] K. Foli, T. Okabe, M. Olhofer, Y. Jin, and B. Sendhoff, Optimization of micro heat
exchanger: CFD, analytical approach and multi-objective evolutionary algorithms,
International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 49 (5-6) (2006) 1090-1099.
www.intechopen.com
Heat Exchangers - Basics Design Applications

Edited by Dr. Jovan Mitrovic
ISBN 978-953-51-0278-6
Hard cover, 586 pages
Publisher InTech
Published online 09, March, 2012
Published in print edition March, 2012

Selecting and bringing together matter provided by specialists, this project offers comprehensive information
on particular cases of heat exchangers. The selection was guided by actual and future demands of applied
research and industry, mainly focusing on the efficient use and conversion energy in changing environment.
Beside the questions of thermodynamic basics, the book addresses several important issues, such as
conceptions, design, operations, fouling and cleaning of heat exchangers. It includes also storage of thermal
energy and geothermal energy use, directly or by application of heat pumps. The contributions are
thematically grouped in sections and the content of each section is introduced by summarising the main
objectives of the encompassed chapters. The book is not necessarily intended to be an elementary source of
the knowledge in the area it covers, but rather a mentor while pursuing detailed solutions of specific technical
problems which face engineers and technicians engaged in research and development in the fields of heat
transfer and heat exchangers.
How to reference
In order to correctly reference this scholarly work, feel free to copy and paste the following:
Thanhtrung Dang, Jyh-tong Teng, Jiann-cherng Chu, Tingting Xu, Suyi Huang, Shiping Jin and Jieqing Zheng
(2012). Single-Phase Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow Phenomena of Microchannel Heat Exchangers, Heat
Exchangers - Basics Design Applications, Dr. Jovan Mitrovic (Ed.), ISBN: 978-953-51-0278-6, InTech,
Available from: http://www.intechopen.com/books/heat-exchangers-basics-design-applications/single-phaseheat-transfer-and-fluid-flow-phenomena-of-microchannel-heat-exchangers
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Phone: +385 (51) 770 447
Fax: +385 (51) 686 166
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Phone: +86-21-62489820
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10

Single-Phase Heat Transfer

of Heat and Refrigeration Technology, Hochiminh City University of

Heat Exchangers Basics Design Applications

Fig. 1. Schematic of the integrated preferential oxidation-heat exchanger [3,4,9,10].

Heat Exchangers Basics Design Applications

Given the same

Given the same

Copper/ Rect Water

Schulz [16] Copper/ tube Water

Copper/ Rect Water

Given the same

For the case

Hasan [19] Silicon

Heat Exchangers Basics Design Applications

Dimensions of the substrate

Table 2. Geometric parameters of the microchannel heat exchangers [3, 25].

Heat Exchangers Basics Design Applications

Fig. 4. Photos of the microchannel heat exchangers being tests.

Thermal conductivity W/(mK)

Table 4. Uncertainty data for measured parameters.

Heat Exchangers Basics Design Applications

2.2 Analysis of data

The fluid flow is laminar

The heat transfer rate of the heat exchanger, Q, is calculated by

The effectiveness (NTU method) is determined by

Heat flux is calculated by

The overall thermal resistance R is determined by

The log mean temperature difference is calculated by

The pressure drop due to friction is determined by [33,34] :

where Dh 4 Ac / P is the hydraulic diameter, w is velocity in the z-direction, is dynamic

Heat Exchangers Basics Design Applications

Fig. 5. Grid mesh diagram of the microchannel heat exchanger.

Fig. 6. The temperature profile of the microchannel heat exchanger.

Heat Exchangers Basics Design Applications

Exp. results of hot side

Heat transfer rate, W

Num. results of cold side

Exp. results of cold side

Num. results of cold side

b) Heat transfer rate

Heat flux, W/cm2

Exp. results of cold side

Mass flow rate of hot side, g/s

Mass flow rate of hot side, g/s

Exp. results of hot side

Num. results of hot side

Exp. results of eff.

Mass flow rate of hot side, g/s

Mass flow rate of hot side, g/s

Fig. 7. A comparison between numerical and experimental results at constant inlet

Heat Exchangers Basics Design Applications

Exp. results for hot side

Exp. results for cold side

Num. results for hot side

Num. results of actual eff.

Exp. results of actual eff.

Num. results of eff.