Compass Survey

COMPASS SURVEY
Chain surveying can be used when the area to be surveyed is small and fairly flat. However,
when large areas, with irregular boundaries and many obstacles are involved, the process of
triangulation is not possible. In such cases traversing is adopted. In this process, the direction of
survey lines is fixed by taking angular measurements with suitable instruments.
The following instruments are used to make such measurements:
A.
Instruments for direct measurement of directions:
i.
Surveyors compass
ii.
Prismatic compass
B.
Instruments for measurement of angles:
i.
Sextant
ii.
Theodolite
Traversing is that type of survey in which a number of connected lines form the framework and
the directions and length of survey line are measured with the help of an angle (or direction
measuring instrument and a tape (or chain) respectively. Thus, a traverse consists of a series of
connected lines whose lengths and directions are known. Thus, traversing is a method of fixing
the points and not a method of detailed survey.
When the lines form a circuit which ends at starting point, it is known as closed traverse. If the
circuit ends elsewhere, it is said to be an open traverse.

TRAVERSING and TRIANGULATION

Traversing
S. No. Characteristics / Points
1. Area covered by survey It progresses only in one
direction by series of straight
lines.
2. Checks
It is more susceptible to
propagation of errors as it has
few and not so simple checks.
3. Measurements
It makes use of both linear as
well as angular measurements.
4. Nature of area
It is very useful for flat areas.
5.
6.

Period of work
Reconnaissance survey

Triangulation
It covers quite an extensive area
by way of network of triangles,
quadrilaterals and polygons.
It offers many and simple
checks.

It makes use of linear

measurements only.
It is useful for hilly and
undulating grounds.
It is slow.
It proceeds more quickly.
The amount of reconnaissance The reconnaissance work is
work is small.
much more.

METHOD of MEASURING DIRECTION

In case of traverse, it will be required to locate the direction of the line. The following are the
two methods adopted for this purpose:
1.
Chain angles: In this method, suitable points are selected on two lines of the traverse and
by measuring the lengths and swinging the arcs, it is possible to determine the direction of
the line. It is however unsuitable for accurate works.
2.
Included angles: In this method, the angles between the successive lines are measured by
means of suitable instruments such as compass, theodolite and box sexant. The angles can
be measured with reference to a certain fixed direction such as north, as in case of
compass.

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Compass Survey

BEARINGS and ANGLES

The direction of survey lines can either be established:
a. In relation to each other (gives the angle between two lines)
b. With relation to any meridian (gives the bearing of the line)
Bearing of a line is defined as the angle made by the line with some reference direction or
meridian. A meridian is any direction such as:
1.
True Meridian: True meridian through a point is the line which a plane passing through
that point and the geographical north and south poles, intersect with the surface of the
earth. It thus, passes through true north and south. It can be established by astronomical
observations.
True Bearing: True bearing of a line is the horizontal angle which it makes with the true
meridian through one of the extremities of the line. Since the direction of true meridian
through a point remains fixed, true bearing of a line is a constant quantity. It is also know
as azimuth.
2.
Magnetic Meridian: Magnetic meridian through a point is the direction shown by a freely
floating and balanced needle from all other attractive forces. It can be established with the
help of a magnetic compass.
Magnetic Bearing: Magnetic bearing of a line is the horizontal angle which it makes with
the magnetic meridian passing through one of the extremities of the line. A magnetic
compass is used to measure it.
3.
Arbitrary Meridian: Arbitrary meridian is any convenient direction joining the survey
station to some permanent and prominent object, mark or signal. It is used for small
surveys.
Arbitrary Bearing: Arbitrary bearing of a line is the horizontal angle which it makes with
any arbitrary meridian passing through one of the extremities.
Declination is the difference in direction between the true meridian and the magnetic meridian.
Thus, it indicates the horizontal angle between the true meridian and magnetic meridian at a
place. The declination is never constant and it varies from place to place and from time to time.
If the magnetic meridian is towards the east of the true meridian, it is known as easterly
declination and if it is towards the west of true meridian, it is known as westerly meridian.

Use

True bearing of a line = magnetic bearing of line declination.

+ sign when declination is east
and
- sign when declination is west

Designation of Bearings
The following are the two systems of designation of bearings:
1.
Quadrantal bearing system (Q.B.): It is also known
as reduced bearing (R.B.). In this system the
bearing line is measured eastward or westward
from north or south, whichever is nearer. Thus,
both north and south are used as reference
meridians and the directions can either be
clockwise or anti clockwise depending upon the
position of the line. There are four quadrants
namely, NE, NW, SE, and SW. In this system, the
numerical value of the angles does not exceed 90o.
It helps in trigonometrical calculations. The
bearings are never reckoned from the east and west
direction and hence, the letter which precedes the
figure must be either N or S.
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Advantages:
i.
They never exceed 90o
ii.
The values of their trigonometrical functions can easily be extracted from ordinary
tables.
Disadvantages:
i.
It is necessary to put the appropriate cardinal points without which bearings will
have no significance.
ii.
The alternate clockwise and anti clockwise direction of increase of angles in the
different quadrants is sometimes inconvenient and may easily lead to mistake being
made.
iii.
The noting of cardinal points may prove to be an extra unnecessary trouble.
2.

Whole circle bearing system (W.C.B.): It is also

known as azimuthal system. In this system, the
bearing line or angle is measured with the
magnetic north (or with south) in clockwise
direction. The value of bearing thus varies from 0o
to 360o. Prismatic compass is graduated on this
system.
Advantages:
i.
It is easy to calculate the included angle
between two lines with the help of this
system of bearings.
ii.
The plotting of traverse becomes easy (as
the bearings are measured only in the
clockwise direction).
iii.
The convention of reckoning the bearing
clockwise from the magnetic north is simple. It is not necessary to remember
whether the bearings are observed with reference to north meridian or south
meridian.
iv.
There is no botheration if putting the cardinal points.
Disadvantages:
i.
When the bearings are to be used for computation and where the values of the
trigonometrical functions are required, they are to be reduced to be reduced to their
equivalent values.

Conversion of one bearing system to another:

Conversion of W.C.B. into R.B.
W.C.B. between
Rule for R.B.
0o and 90 o
R.B. = W.C.B.
90 o and 180 o
R.B. = 180 o W.C.B.
o
o
180 and 270
R.B. = W.C.B. - 180 o
270 o and 360 o
R.B. = 360 o W.C.B.

R.B.
NE
SE
SW
NW

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Quadrant
NE
SE
SW
NW

Conversion of R.B. into W.C.B.

Rule for W.C.B.
W.C.B. between
W.C.B. = R.B.
0o and 90 o
W.C.B. = 180 o R.B.
90 o and 180 o
o
W.C.B. = 180 + R.B.
180 o and 270o
o
W.C.B. = 360 R.B.
270 o and 360 o

Compass Survey

Fore Bearing and Back Bearing

The bearing of a line whether
expressed in W.C.B. system or in
Q.B. system, differs according as the
observation is made from one end of
the line or from the other. If the
bearing of a line AB is measured
from A towards B, it is known as
forward bearing or fore bearing
(F.B.). It the bearing the line AB is
measured from B towards A, it is
known as backward bearing or back bearing (B.B.).
Considering first the W.C.B. system, the fore
bearing of line AB is and the back bearing of the
line is . = 180o + . Similarly, the fore bearing
of CD is and the back bearing is . = - 180o.
Thus, in general, B.B. = F.B. 180o, using + sign
when F.B. is less than 180o and sign when F.B.
is greater than 180o.
Considering the Q.B. system, the fore bearing of
the line AB is N E and therefore the back bearing
is S W. Similarly, the fore bearing of line CD is
S W and the back bearing is equal to N E.
Thus, to convert the fore bearing to back bearing, it
is only necessary to change the cardinal points by substituting N for S and E for W and vice
versa. The numerical value of the bearing remains the same.

COMPASSES
The instruments which are used for finding out the magnetic bearings or simply bearings of a
line are known as compass. Any compass consists of the following three parts:
1.
Circle with graduation
2.
Line of sight
3.
Magnetic needle supported freely
The following are the main five types of compasses:
1.
Prismatic compass (magnetic compass)
2.
Surveyors compass (magnetic compass)
3.
Transit or level compass (magnetic compass)
4.
Through compass
5.
Tubular compass

MAGNETIC COMPASSES
Magnetic compass gives directly the magnetic bearings of lines. The bearings measured are
entirely independent of any other measurement.
The general principle of all magnetic compass depends upon the fact that if a long, narrow strip
of steel or iron is magnetised, and is suitably suspended or pivoted about a point near its centre
so that it can oscillate freely about the vertical axis, it will establish itself in the magnetic
meridian at the place of observation.
The most essential features of a magnetic
compass are:


Magnetic Needle, to establish the
magnetic meridian.
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Compass Survey

A magnetic needle shows north south direction when allowed to move freely on a
support.
A Line of Sight, to sight the other end of the line.
A Graduated Scale, either attached to the box or to the needle, to read the direction of
lines.
A Compass Box, to house the above parts.
A Tripod, or suitable stand, to support the box.
It should possess the following qualities:
a.
It should be light in weight.
b.
It should be portable.
c.
It should be rigid at joints.

Earths Magnetic Field and Dip

The earth acts as a powerful magnet and
forms a magnetic field which exerts directive
influence on a magnetised bar of steel or iron.
A magnet freely suspended will align itself in
a position parallel to the lines of magnetic
force of the earth at that point.
The lines of the force of earths magnetic
field run generally from South to North. Near
the equator they are parallel to the earths
surface. The horizontal projections of the
lines of force define the magnetic meridian.
The angle which these lines of force make
with the surface of the earth is called angle of
dip or simply dip of the needle. In elevation,
these lines of force (i.e. the North end of the
needle), are inclined downwards towards the
North in the Northern hemisphere and
downwards towards South in the Southern
hemisphere. At a place near 70o North
latitude and 96o West longitude, it will dip
90o. This area is called North magnetic pole. A similar area in Southern hemisphere is called the
South magnetic pole. The magnetic poles act like the ends of a magnet and make compass
needles point north. The north magnetic pole is about 1400kms from the North Pole. The south
magnetic pole is about 2750kms from the South Pole.
THE PRISMATIC COMPASS
It is the most convenient, handy and
portable form of magnetic compass,
which can either be used as a hand
instrument or fitted on a tripod. It is
circular in shape and its diameter
varies from 85mm to 110mm. it is
made up of non magnetic material.
It consists of the following parts:
i.
A magnetic needle of broad
type supported over a
centrally situated pivot made
of hard steel.

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ii.

iii.

iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
viii.
ix.

A graduated aluminium
ring
attached
with
needle. It is divided into
degrees and half degrees.
The graduations start
from zero marked at
south end of the needle
and they run clockwise,
so that 90o, 180o, and
are
marked
270o
respectively at west,
north and east. The
figures
are
written
inverted.
The eye vane (it consists of vertical slit cut into the upper assembly of the prism unit) and
object vane (it consists of a vertical hair attached to a suitable frame), fixed diametrically
opposite each other. The line joining the eye vane and object vane passes through the
centre of the compass.
The reflecting prism, provided near the eye vane. It facilitates the reading to be taken in a
vertical position.
The focussing stud, to adjust the eye sights of the different persons.
A break pin, to stop the oscillations of the ring.
A glass cover at top, to prevent dust particles from entering the compass.
The sunglasses, to facilitate the sighting of objects.
A hinged mirror with sighting or object vane. The mirror can be inclined at any angle so
that it becomes possible to sight the objects which are too low or too high.

Method of using the prismatic compass:

Suppose it is required to observe the bearing of line AB.
The procedure will be as follows:
i.
The temporary adjustments of the compass are carried out. It involves two operations,
namely, centring and levelling. The process of obtaining centre of compass over the
centre of the peg is known as centring. This can be done either by a plumb bob or by
allowing a small pebble to fall from the centre of the compass and hit the peg.
ii.
The compass can be held in hand, but it is generally mounted on a light tripod. The
process of making the needle horizontal is known as levelling and it is achieved by
means of a ball and socket joint. When the compass is levelled, the needle swings freely.
It should be clamped, when perfectly levelled.
iii.
After centring and levelling of the compass is done over the station A, the sighting vane
and prism of the compass are raised. The prism is adjusted so that the readings can be
clearly seen.
iv.
The compass box is rotated until the ranging rod at station B; hair of object vane and slit
of eye vane a re in the same line.
v.
The needle is brought to rest by pressing the knob, if necessary and then, the reading is
taken. The readings are usually taken upto an accuracy of 15 minutes.
vi.
The reading will indicate the angle which the line AB makes with the north line.
The greatest advantage of prismatic compass is that both sighting the object as well as reading
circle can be done simultaneously without changing the position of the eye.
Adjustment of Prismatic compass
The following are the adjustments usually necessary in the prismatic compass.
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Compass Survey

i.

ii.

Station or Temporary Adjustments: Temporary adjustments are those adjustments which

have to be made at every set up of the instrument. They comprise the following:
a. Centring: It is the process of keeping the instrument exactly over the station. The
centring is invariably done by adjusting or manipulating the legs of the tripod. A
plumb-bob may be used to judge the centring.
b. Levelling: If the instrument is a hand instrument, it must be held in hand in such a
way that graduated disc is swinging freely and appears to be level as judged from
the top edge of the case. Generally, a tripod is provided with ball and socket
arrangement with the help of which the top of the box can be levelled.
c. Focusing the prism: The prism attachment is slided up or down for focusing till the
readings are seen to be sharp and clear.
Permanent Adjustments: The permanent adjustments of prismatic compass are almost the
same as that of the surveyor's compass.

Use of prismatic compass

The prismatic compass is widely used for the surveys in wooded country; preliminary survey for
a road, rough traverses, filling in details, military purposes, etc. It however, proves unreliable in
places abounding in magnetic rock or iron ore.
THE SURVEYORS COMPASS
This compass was formerly used
for land surveying. But at present;
it is practically replaced by the
prismatic compass. It is in the form
of a circular box having diameter
of about 127 mm.
The parts of the surveyors
compass are:
i.
A graduated ring directly
attached to the box, and not
with the needle. The edge
bar needle freely floats over
the pivot. Thus, the
graduated card or ring is
not oriented in the magnetic
meridian, as was the case in
the prismatic compass.
ii.
An edge bar needle, which
also acts as an index.
iii.
The object vane is similar to that of prismatic
compass.
iv.
The eye vane consists of a simple metal vane with a
fine slit.
v.
A light tripod or a single rod known as Jacobs
staff.
Since no prism is provided, the object is to be sighted first
with the object and eye vanes and the reading is then taken
against the North end of the needle, by looking vertically
through the top glass.
When the line of sight is in magnetic meridian, the North
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Compass Survey

and South ends of the needle will be over the 0 N and 0 S graduations of the graduated card.
The card is graduated in
quadrantal system having 0 at
N and S ends and 90 at East
and West ends.
Adjustment of Surveyors
Compass
i.
Station or Temporary
Adjustments:
Temporary adjustments
are those adjustments
which have to be made
at every set up of the
instrument.
They
comprise the following:
a.
Centring: It is the
process of keeping the instrument exactly over the station. The centring is
invariably done by adjusting or manipulating the legs of the tripod. A plumb-bob
may be used to judge the centring.
b.
Levelling: The process of making the needle horizontal is known as levelling. The
tripod is provided with ball and socket arrangement with the help of which the top
of the box can be levelled.
ii.

Permanent Adjustments of Surveyor's Compass

Permanent adjustments are those adjustments which are done only when the fundamental
relations between the parts are disturbed. They are, therefore, not required to be repeated
at every set up of the instrument. These consist of:
a.
Adjustment of levels: To make the levels, when they are fitted, perpendicular to
the vertical axis.
b.
Adjustment of sight vanes: To bring the sight vanes into a vertical plane when the
instrument is levelled.
c.
Adjustment of needle: The needle is adjusted for:

Sensitivity

Balancing the needle

Straightening vertically, and

Straightening horizontally.
d.
Adjustment of pivot point: To bring the pivot point exactly in the centre of the
graduated circle.

Difference between Prismatic Compass and Surveyors Compass

Item
Magnetic
Needle
Graduated
Card

1.
2.
3.
4.

Sighting

5.
6.
7.

Prismatic Compass
The needle is of broad needle type.
It does not act as an index.
The graduated card ring is attached with
the needle.
The ring does not rotate along with the
line of sight.
The graduations are in W.C.B. system.
The graduations are engraved inverted.
The object vane consists of metal vane

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Surveyors Compass
The needle is of edge bar type.
It acts as an index,
The graduated card is attached to the
box and not to the needle.
The card rotates along with the line
of sight.
The graduations are in Q.B. system.
The graduations are engraved erect.
The object vane consists of metal
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Compass Survey

Vanes
8.
Readings

9.
10.

Tripod

11.

with a vertical hair.

The eye vane consists of a small metal
vane with slit.
The reading is taken with the help of a
prism provided with an eye slit.
Sighting and reading can be done
simultaneously, from one position of the
observer.
Tripod may or may not be provided.

vane with a vertical hair.

The eye vane consists of a metal
vane with a fine slit.
The reading is taken by directly
seeing through the top of the glass.
Sighting and reading taking can not
be done simultaneously, from one
position of the observer.
The instrument can not be used
without a tripod.

TRANSIT OR LEVEL COMPASS

This is an ordinary prismatic compass attached to the level with the following two points of
difference:
i.
The telescope is used to sight the object and hence, there is no sighting vane in this
compass.
ii.
The prism is placed exactly over W i.e. at right angles to the line of sight. Hence, 0o, 90o,
180o and 270o are marked below W, N; E and S respectively. A needle or index point
fixed with the side of the box is provided to indicate the reading.
TROUGH COMPASS
This compass is used to locate the line of magnetic
meridian on paper. It has got no vanes so that bearings of
lines cannot be measured by this compass. The compass
is in the form of a trough.

TUBULAR COMPASS

The use of this compass is same as that of trough

compass, namely, it is used to mark direction of
north line on paper and it cannot be used to measure
the bearings of lines. The compass is in the form of
a tube.

MAGNETIC DECLINATION
Magnetic declination at a place is the horizontal
angle between the true meridian and the magnetic
meridian shown by the needle at the time of
observation. If the magnetic meridian is to the right
side (or eastern side) of the true meridian,
declination is said to be eastern or positive and if it
to be the left side (or western side), the declination
is said to be western or negative.
Mariners call declination by the name variation.
The declination at any particular location can be obtained by establishing a true meridian from
astronomical observations and then reading the compass while sighting along the true meridian.
Isogonic line is the line drawn through the points of same declination. Agonic line is the line
made up of points having a zero declination.

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Variations in Declination
The value of declination at a place never remains constant but changes from time to time. There
are four types of variations in declination:
i.
Diurnal variation: The diurnal variation or daily variation is the systematic departure of
the -declination from its mean value during a period of 24 hours.
ii.
Annual variation: The variation which has a yearly period is known as annual variation.
iii.
Secular variation: Due to its magnitude, secular variation is the most important in the
work of surveyor. It appears to be of periodic character and follows a roller-coaster (sinecurve) pattern. It swings like a pendulum.
iv.
Irregular variation: The irregular variations are due to what are known as 'magnetic
storms', earthquakes and other solar influences. They may occur at any time and cannot
be predicted. Change of this kind amounting to more than a degree have been observed.
Determination of True Bearing
All important surveys are plotted with reference to true meridian, since the direction of magnetic
meridian at a place changes with time. If however, the magnetic declination at a place, at the
time of observation is known, the true bearing can be calculated from the observed magnetic
bearing by the following relation:
True bearing = magnetic bearing declination.
Use plus sign if the declination is to the East and minus sign if it is to the West.
The above rule is valid for whole circle bearings only. If however, a reduced bearing has been
observed, it is always advisable to draw the diagram and calculate bearing.

LOCAL ATTRACTION
A magnetic meridian at a place is established by a magnetic needle which is uninfluenced by
other attracting forces. However, sometimes, the magnetic needle may be attracted and
prevented from indicating the true magnetic meridian when it is in proximity to certain magnetic
substances.
Local attraction is a term used to denote any influence, such as the above, which prevents the
needle from pointing to the magnetic North in a given locality.
Some of the sources of local attraction are; magnetite in the ground, wire carrying electric
current, steel structures, railroad rails, underground iron pipes, keys, steel-bowed spectacles,
metal buttons, axes, chains, steel tapes etc., which may be lying on the ground nearby.

ERRORS IN COMPASS SURVEY

The errors may be classified as:
i.
Instrumental errors: They are those which arise due to the faulty adjustments of the
instruments. The may be due to the following reasons:
a.
The needle not being perfectly straight
b.
Pivot being bent.
c.
Sluggish needle
d.
Blunt pivot point
e.
Improper balancing weight
f.
Plane of sight not being vertical
g.
Line of sight not passing through the centres of the right
h.
Graduated scale not being horizontal
i.
Vanes not being vertical
j.
Vane hair being loose or too thick
ii.

Personal errors: These errors due to personal mistakes on the part of the surveyor. They
may be due to the following reasons:

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Compass Survey

a.
b.
c.
d.
iii.

Inaccurate levelling of the compass box

Inaccurate centring
Inaccurate bisection of ranging rods
Carelessness in reading and recording

Errors due to natural causes: They may occur due to the following reasons:
a.
Variation in declination
b.
Local attraction due to proximity of local attraction forces
c.
Magnetic changes in the atmosphere due to clouds and storms
d.
Irregular variations due to magnetic storms
e.
Earthquakes

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