PHYSICS PROJECT

SUBMITTED TO: Mr. IMTIAZ ALI

SUBMITTED BY:
MUHAMMAD JAWAD RAUF
ENROLLEMENT NUMBER: 01_133092_144
SAJJAD ALI
ENROLLEMENT NUMBER: 01_133092_153

BS-E:1ST SEMESTER
 HYBRID ELECTRIC
VEHICLE(HEV)

CONTENTS:
1) HISTORY OF HEV
2) INTRODUCTION TO HEV
3) WORKING IN HEV
4) COMPONENTS USED IN HEV
5) ADVANTAGES OF HEV
6) DISADVANTAGES OF HEV
7) MODELS OF HEV

1) HISTORY OF HEV:
In 1901, while employed at Lohner Coach Factory, Ferdinand
Porsche designed the Mixte, a 4WD series-hybrid version of
"System Lohner-Porsche" electric carriage previously appeared in
1900 Paris Salon. The Mixte included a pair of generators driven
by 2.5-hp Daimler IC engines to extend operating range.[7][8] The
Mixte broke several Austrian speed records, and also won
the Exelberg Rally in 1901 with Porsche himself driving. The Mixte
used a gasoline engine powering a generator, which in turn
powered electric hub motors, with a small battery pack for
reliability. It had a range of 50 km, a top speed of 50 km/h and a
power of 5.22 kW during 20 minutes.
In 1905, H. Piper filed a US patent application for a hybrid vehicle.
[9]

The 1915 Dual Power, made by the Woods Motor Vehicle electric
car maker, had a four-cylinder ICE and an electric motor. Below
15 mph (25 km/h) the electric motor alone drove the vehicle,
drawing power from a battery pack, and above this speed the
"main" engine cut in to take the car up to its 35 mph (55 km/h) top
speed. About 600 were made up to 1918.
The first gasoline-electric hybrid car was released by the Woods
Motor Vehicle Company of Chicago in 1917. The hybrid was a
commercial failure, proving to be too slow for its price, and too
difficult to service.
In 1931 Erich Gaichen invented and drove from Altenburg to Berlin
a 1/2 horsepower electric car containing features later
incorporated into hybrid cars. Its maximum speed was 25 miles
per hour (40 km/h), but it was licensed by the Motor Transport
Office, taxed by the German Revenue Department and patented
by the German Reichs-Patent Amt. The car battery was re-
charged by the motor when the car went downhill. Additional
power to charge the battery was provided by a cylinder of
compressed air which was re-charged by small air pumps
activated by vibrations of the chassis and the brakes and by
igniting oxyhydrogen gas. An account of the car and his
characterization as a "crank inventor" can be found in Arthur
Koestler's autobiography, Arrow in the Blue, pages 269-271, which
summarize a contemporaneous newspaper account written by
Koestler. No production beyond the prototype was reported.

2) INTRODUCTION TO HEV:
“Hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) use both electricity and
hydrocarbon fuels to provide motive power, but the vehicle’s sole
energy source is the hydrocarbon fuel. Relative to conventional
vehicles in heavy urban traffic, HEVs can achieve around 50%
better fuel economy, achieved by the regenerative braking and
turning off their internal combustion engine when the vehicle is
stopped or moving slowly. In open highway driving these benefits
matter little, so a HEV will gave fuel consumption similar to an
otherwise comparable conventional vehicle.
Hybrid-electric vehicles come in two flavours: parallel and series.
In parallel HEVs, both the internal combustion engine and electric
motors drive the wheels; usually the electric motor and internal
combustion engine drive the same transaxle. The Toyota Prius is
the familiar example.
In series HEVs, the internal combustion engine only drives a
generator, which supplies power to batteries. The wheel drive
motors are supplied only from the batteries or other onboard
storage. The GM Volt will be a series PHEV [ Plug-in Hybrid
Electric Vehicle ].”
A hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) combines a conventional internal
combustion engine (ICE) propulsion system with
an electric propulsion system. The presence of the electric power
train is intended to achieve either better fuel economy than
a conventional vehicle, or better performance. A variety of types of
HEV exist, and the degree to which they function as EVs varies as
well. The most common form of HEV is the hybrid electric car,
although hybrid electric trucks (pickups and tractors) also exist.
Modern HEVs make use of efficiency-improving technologies such
as regenerative braking, which converts the vehicle's kinetic
energy into battery-replenishing electric energy, rather than
wasting it as heat energy as conventional brakes do. Some
varieties of HEVs use their internal combustion engine to generate
electricity by spinning an electrical generator (this combination is
known as a motor-generator), to either recharge their batteries or
to directly power the electric drive motors. Many HEVs reduce idle
emissions by shutting down the ICE at idle and restarting it when
needed; this is known as a start-stop system. A hybrid-electric

Produces less emissions from its ICE than a comparably-sized

gasoline car, as an HEV's gasoline engine is usually smaller than
a pure fossil-fuel vehicle, and if not used to directly drive the car,
can be geared to run at maximum efficiency, further improving fuel
economy.
The hybrid-electric vehicle did not become widely available until
the release of the Toyota Prius in Japan in 1997, followed by
the Honda Insight in 1999. While initially perceived as
unnecessary due to the low cost of gasoline, worldwide increases
in the price of petroleum caused many automakers to release
hybrids in the late 2000s; they are now perceived as a core
segment of the automotive market of the future.[3][4] Worldwide
sales of hybrid vehicles produced by Toyota reached 1.0 million
vehicles by May 31, 2007, and the 2.0 million mark was reached
by August 31, 2009, with hybrids sold in 50 countries. Worldwide
sales are led by the Prius, with cumulative sales of 1.43 million by
August 2009.[1] The second-generation Honda Insight was the top-
selling vehicle in Japan in April 2009, marking the first occasion
that an HEV has received the distinction. American automakers
have made development of hybrid cars a top priority.
3) WORKING IN HEV:
At the centre of Toyota’s hybrid technology is the Hybrid Synergy
Drive. This system makes intelligent use of a vehicle’s electric
motors and gas/petrol engine to take advantage of the key
attributes of the two power sources to ensure that the car operates
at optimum fuel efficiency.

1. At start-off/low-speeds, Hybrid Synergy Drive runs the car on

the electric motors only, since the gas/petrol engine does not
perform efficiently. A gas/petrol engine cannot produce high torque
in the low r.p.m. range, whereas electric motors can - delivering a
very responsive and smooth start.
2. However, the gas/petrol engine is quite energy efficient for
cruising. Power produced by the gas/petrol engine is used to drive
the wheels and also the generator to provide power to the electric
motors or to charge the battery. By making use of the
engine/motor dual powertrain, the energy produced by the
gas/petrol engine is transferred to the road surface with minimal
loss.
3. Under deceleration or braking, Hybrid Synergy Drive uses the
car's kinetic energy to let the wheels turn the electric motors and
recover regenerative energy to recharge the battery. Energy that is
normally lost as friction heat under deceleration is converted into
electrical energy, which is recovered in the battery to be reused
later.

THE HYBRID'S ELECTRIC MOTOR:

The electric motor handles normal stop-and-go travel and initial
highway acceleration. The electric motor also assists the gas or
diesel engine to reduce fuel consumption and emissions. For
example, it is the electric motor that drives energy-wasting
accessories like the power steering pump and air conditioner.
THE HYBRID'S GASOLINE MOTOR:
The gasoline- or diesel-powered internal combustion engine kicks
in whenever the vehicle gets to higher speeds. Hybrids have a
sophisticated computer control system that decides when to switch
from one power source to the other.
The gas or diesel engine also can generate power for the electric
motor. At highway speeds, the gasoline engine recharges the
electric motor's battery.

THE HYBRID'S SUPER BATTERY:

The Hybrid's ultracapacitor battery feeds power to the electric
motor. The battery itself is recharged during the times that the
vehicle is coasting and braking. (Therefore, Hybrids never need to
be plugged into an outside charging device.) During coasting and
braking, the electric motor switches to "generate" instead of
"consume" electricity. Whenever the brake is released, the engine
restarts instantaneously. This process of switching power between
the two types of engines saves gas and avoids pollution.
Just like the battery under the hood of your current vehicle, a
Hybrid vehicle's electric battery pack may eventually wear out and
need to be replaced. However, auto manufacturers are stating that
the Hybrid's battery is designed to last the lifetime of the vehicle -
somewhere between 150,000 and 200,000 miles. It is simply too
early to tell.
4) COMPONENTS USED IN
HEV:
Essentially, an HEV combines an energy storage system, a power
unit, and a vehicle propulsion system. The primary options for
energy storage includebatteries, ultracapacitors, and flywheels.
Although batteries are by far the most common choice for energy
storage, research is still being done in other energy storage areas.
Hybrid power unit options are spark ignition engines, compression
ignition engines, gas turbines, and fuel cells. Propulsion can come
entirely from an electric motor, such as in a series configuration, or
the engine might provide direct mechanical input to the vehicle
propulsion system in aparallel configuration system.

BATTERY MONITORING UNIT:

The battery-monitoring unit monitors the voltage, current and

temperature of the high-voltage battery.

Conventional battery-monitoring units place only low voltage

elements on both sides of the circuit board. DENSO's new battery-
monitoring unit places not only low voltage elements but also high
voltage elements on both sides of the circuit board. This, along
with reducing the number of elements, enables the new battery-
monitoring unit to be approximately 65 percent smaller and
approximately 50 percent lighter than conventional products.
The battery ECU also detects:

• main battery abnormalities

• degree of the main battery deterioration
• accidental electrical connection between the high-voltage
part and the body

DENSO provides battery ECUs for nickel metal hydride batteries

as well as lithium ion batteries.

Benefits and Features:

• Quick and precise voltage detection

o In 2003, DENSO developed a new voltage detection
circuit that more quickly and precisely detects voltages
than a conventional circuit, while maintaining the
insulating property between the high-voltage and low-
voltage sides in the battery ECU. Compared to a
conventional circuit, DENSO achieved an
approximately 50 percent reduction in voltage
detection time and voltage detection error.
• Small size and light weight
o The newly developed voltage detection circuit has a
simple structure composed only of switching elements
and condensers, significantly reducing the size and
weight of the battery ECU.
DC-DC Converter:

The DC-DC converter converts the main battery’s high voltage

(200 to 400 volts) to the auxiliary battery’s lower voltage (12 volts)
and charges the auxiliary battery. The DC-DC converter also
serves as a power source for 12-volt equipment including
headlamps, windshield wipers and horns.

For its new DC-DC converter, DENSO developed a unique power

conversion circuit that reduces energy loss by half compared to a
conventional DC-DC converter, decreasing the amount of heat
generated during power conversion, and improving fuel
consumption. This enables the DC-DC converter to be cooled by
air instead of the conventional method of cooling by water,
allowing more flexibility in installation location.

The full-bridge circuit accommodates a wide range of input

voltages and provides high output. DENSO has minimized size
and weight by using high-frequency switching and low-profile
magnetic parts.

DENSO Technology – Leading the World

• In 2000, DENSO launched a compact DC-DC converter that

achieved the world’s largest output current – 100 amperes.

Benefits and Features

• High reliability
o Adopting an isolated converter circuit.
• Small size and light weight
INTEGRATED STARTER GENERATOR:

DENSO’s small, long-life Integrated Starter Generator (Stop-Start

technology) allows the engine to instantly and quietly restart after
the idle stop. It has a life expectancy of more than 10x
conventional technology, allowing around 300,000 re-starts.

ISG Functions:

• The ISG instantly and quietly restarts the vehicle’s engine

after the idle stop.
• As a conventional alternator, the ISG produces electric
power when the vehicle is running, and supplies the electric
power to electric devices and/or charges the battery.
• The ISG can help to decelerate the vehicle by generating
electric power, which is called regenerative braking. The
electric power generated charges the battery, reducing fuel
consumption.
• If a clutch disconnects the ISG and the compressor from the
engine during the idle stop, the ISG can drive the air-
conditioning compressor via a belt.
CO2 AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM:

As a leader in the field of air conditioners, DENSO has been at the

forefront of environmental technology. In 2002, DENSO introduced
the world’s first carbon dioxide (CO2) air conditioning system for
Toyota’s fuel cell hybrid vehicle (FCHV-4). The GWP of CO2 is
extremely low – about 1/1,300 of that of HFC-134a. DENSO
currently produces the following components.

COMPRESSOR:

The compressor for the CO2 air conditioning system is unique. It is

designed to withstand high pressure and reduce its power
consumption to improve the coefficient of performance (COP)* of
the system.

The compressor used for Toyota’s fuel cell hybrid vehicle (FCHV-
4) is a scroll type and is driven electrically rather than by an engine
via a belt. The electric compressor can be made airtight, which
makes refrigerant leakage unlikely. In addition, since the
compressor can be controlled by a motor regardless of the engine
speed, the CO2 air conditioning system works efficiently in all
driving conditions, providing comfortable air to passengers.

COP = cooling capability/compressor consumption

GAS COOLER:
The gas cooler corresponds to a conventional condenser and
cools the CO2 refrigerant discharged from the compressor at a
high pressure.

Because of this high pressure, the tubes in which refrigerant flows

and the tank for distributing the refrigerant into the tubes of the gas
cooler are strengthened compared to a conventional heat
exchanger. Specifically, each tube is made five to 10 times
stronger than a conventional tube by optimizing the hole diameter
and wall thickness. The tank is reduced in size in order to
decrease the area that receives high pressure, without losing the
capability to uniformly distribute the refrigerant into the tubes.

In addition, the gas cooler uses a unique tank structure, which

allows refrigerant to flow more efficiently in the gas cooler to
exchange heat with air.

INTERNAL HEAT EXCHANGER:

The CO2 air conditioning system incorporates an internal heat
exchanger that is installed between the outlet of the gas cooler
and the evaporator. The internal heat exchanger, which is not
equipped with the conventional HFC-134a, helps to further cool
the CO2 refrigerant by exchanging heat with refrigerant flowing at
the low-pressure side of the system. The internal heat exchanger
increases the amount of liquid refrigerant flowing into the
evaporator to increase the cooling performance, resulting in
increased the coefficient of performance (COP = cooling
capability/compressor consumption) of the system.

The internal heat exchanger is integrated with the accumulator and

the expansion valve so that the structure of the CO2 air
conditioning system becomes simple and easy to install.
ELECRTIC COMPRESSOR:

In 2003, DENSO launched the world’s first small, light-weight

electric compressor for hybrid electric vehicles. The electric
compressor provides comfortable air conditioning even during
“idle” stops (when the engine shuts down to save fuel and
emissions). This maintains cabin comfort while significantly
reducing fuel consumption.

Benefits and Features:

• Small size and light weight

o By adopting a newly developed motor winding method,
DENSO achieves 30 percent size reduction and 53
percent weight reduction of the electric compressor
compared to traditional electric compressors, providing
more space in the vehicle and further improving fuel
consumption.
o High revolution speed (7500 rotations per minute),
regardless of the engine speed, reduces the
displacement (amount of refrigerant discharged from
the compressor per one rotation) to 18 cm3, allowing
the compressor to be more compact.
• High efficiency and quiet operation
o The electric compressor combines a scroll compressor
and a DC brushless motor. The optimized scroll form
and advanced motor control technology improves
efficiency and reduces noise and vibration.
 • Quick starting
o DENSO’s advanced motor control technology enables
the electric compressor to start at a high revolution
speed as soon as the air conditioning system is turned
on.

SYSTEM MAIN RELAY:

The system main relay connects and

disconnects electric currents between the
high-voltage battery and high-voltage
system by controlling the contact of
movable and fixed parts. It also shuts off
the high electrical voltage in a collision to
secure the safety of vehicle occupants.

DENSO's newly developed system main

relay reduces operation noise by
approximately 10 dB by using a structure
that lessens the impact when a movable
part comes into contact with a fixed part,
without slowing the speed in shutting off
the high electrical voltage in a collision.
DENSO also reduced the number of
components used in the product, making
assembly easier.

BATTERY COOLING SYSTEM:

In conventional battery cooling systems, the battery blower draws
only cabin air to cool the hybrid vehicle's main battery. DENSO's
newly developed battery cooling system can use cooled air from
the cooling unit of the rear air conditioning system as well as cabin
air to cool the main battery.

Accordingly, the new battery cooling system provides comparable

cooling performance with approximately half the amount of air
required by previous models. This reduces noise from blowing air
by approximately 30 percent, contributing to quieter
vehicle interiors

5) ADVANTAGES OF HEV:
Here some of the advantages of HEV.
1) Hybrid Vehicles are good for the environment. They can reduce
smog by 90 percent and they use far less gasoline than
conventional cars.
2) Hybrid Vehicles are economical. They can get up to 55 to 60
mpg in city driving, while a typical SUV might travel 15-20 miles
per gallon, or use three times as much gas for the same distance!
3) Hybrids are better than all-electric cars because hybrid car
batteries recharge as you drive so there is no need to plug in.
Also, most electric cars cannot go faster than 50-60 mph, while
hybrids can.
4) Greater operating efficiency because HEVs use regenerative
braking, which helps to minimize energy loss and recover the
energy used to slow down or stop a vehicle;
5) Lighter engines because HEV engines can be sized to
accommodate average load, not peak load, which reduces the
engine's weight;
6) Greater fuel efficiency because hybrids consume significantly
less fuel than vehicles powered by gasoline alone;
7) Cleaner operation because HEVs can run on alternative fuels
(which have lower emissions), thereby decreasing our dependency
on fossil fuels (which helps ensure our national security)
8) Lighter vehicle weight overall because special lightweight
materials are used in their manufacture.
6) DISADVANTAGES OF
HEV:
Unlike the conventional cars that make use of a single source of
energy, a hybrid car runs on a combination of a battery and a fuel
engine. However, these two sources are used alternatively by the
car and are not merged with each other. Hybrid cars are gaining
popularity because of their economical, social, and environmental
benefits. But, these 'green cars' also have some disadvantages
which should be kept in mind before considering them for a
purchase.

Following are the 5 main drawbacks of a hybrid car:

1) The main shortcoming of a hybrid car that prevents it from

gaining popularity with the masses is its high cost. It has also been
estimated that the price of hybrid cars will increase over the years,
inviting more troubles for the buyers. The fuel savings expected in
a hybrid car are also believed to be a bit exaggerated, when
compared to the total costs of purchasing and maintaining a hybrid
car.

2) Another disadvantage is that the acceleration of most hybrid

cars is not exhilarating. That is, they tend to accelerate at a slower
speed when compared to the conventional gas-powered cars. To
put in simple words, you would not be able to achieve the
anticipated speed within the same time period in a hybrid car, than
you would in cars that are powered only by gasoline. This feature
of a hybrid car will certainly make you feel unsafe while driving as
you would not be able to keep pace with the other normal cars on
the road.

3) The third disadvantage of a hybrid car is the high cost of its

batteries. Although the battery pack comes with an extended
warranty, it needs to be replaced on completing 80,000 miles.
Depending on the model of your car, this battery pack may cost
you anything between $5,000 and $8,000. Therefore, if you are a
frequent traveler, a hybrid car is definitely not a good choice for
you.

4) In order to facilitate high speeds, hybrid cars are made using

light-weight body materials and are kept small in size. Owing to
their small size and light weight, they become more vulnerable to
serious damage when involved in any accident, small or big.

5) As these cars are new and expensive, their stocks are limited
and are not available in all parts of the country. Also, there are not
many skilled hybrid car repair mechanics. So, you can imagine the
kind of troubles you will have to face if you buy an expensive
hybrid car from a place far away from your residence, and then,
when required, get it repaired from a local unskilled repair
mechanic

Hybrid cars do have the above mentioned disadvantages, but that

does not mean they are not worth buying at all. Just like any other
new technology, hybrid cars also have their pros and cons. They
are environment friendly and help in saving a lot of fuel. So, if you
can really afford to buy and maintain a hybrid car, you should
definitely go for it.
6) MODELS OF HEV: