INDEX

Sr.No. contents Page

no.
1. Introduction of Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle 4
2. Introduction of Fuel Cell 5
3. Types Of Fuel Cell 6
4. Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) Fuel Cell 6
5. Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC) 8
6. Alkaline Fuel cell (AFC) 10
7. Molten Carbonate fuel cell (MCFC) 12
8. Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell 15
9. Conclusion 18
10. Reference 19

1
 Introduction to Fuel Cell Electrical Vehicles :

A fuel cell vehicle (FCV) or fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV) is an

electric vehicle that uses a fuel cell, sometimes in combination with a small
battery or supercapacitor, to power its onboard electric motor. Fuel cells in
vehicles generate electricity generally using oxygen from the air and
compressed hydrogen. Most fuel cell vehicles are classified as zero-emissions
vehicles that emit only water and heat. As compared with internal combustion
vehicles, hydrogen vehicles centralize pollutants at the site of the hydrogen
production, where hydrogen is typically derived from reformed natural gas.
Transporting and storing hydrogen may also create pollutants.

A fuel cell vehicle (FCV) or fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV) is a type of
electric vehicle which uses a fuel cell, instead of a battery, or in combination
with a battery or super capacitor, to power its on-board electric motor. Fuel cells
in vehicles generate electricity to power the motor, generally using oxygen from
the air and compressed hydrogen.

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 Most fuel cell vehicles are classified as zero-emissions vehicles that
emit only water and heat. As compared with internal combustion vehicles,
hydrogen vehicles centralize pollutants at the site of the hydrogen production,
where hydrogen is typically derived from reformed natural gas. Transporting
and storing hydrogen may also create pollutants. Fuel cells have been used in
various kinds of vehicles including forklifts, especially in indoor applications
where their clean emissions are important to air quality, and in space
applications.

++

Fuel Cell Electric Bus Fuel Cell Electric Car

The first commercially produced hydrogen fuel cell automobile, the

Hyundai Tucson FCEV, was introduced in 2013, Toyota Mirai followed in 2015
and then Honda entered the market. Fuel cells are also being developed and tested
in trucks, buses, boats,motorcycles and bicycles, among other kinds of vehicles.
Critics doubt whether hydrogen will be efficient or cost-effective for automobiles,
as compared with other zero emission technologies.

• Introduction to Fuel Cells :

All fuel cells are made up of three parts: an electrolyte, an anode and a
cathode. In principle, a hydrogen fuel cell functions like a battery, producing
electricity, which can run an electric motor. Instead of requiring recharging,
however, the fuel cell can be refilled with hydrogen. Different types of fuel cells
include polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) Fuel Cells, direct methanol fuel
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cells,

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phosphoric acid fuel cells, molten carbonate fuel cells, solid oxide fuel cells,
reformed methanol fuel cell and Regenerative Fuel Cells.

• Types of Fuel Cells :

1) Polymer Electrolyte Membrane ( PEM ) Fuel Cell

Proton-exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFC), also known as polymer

electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cells, are a type of fuel cell being developed
mainly for transport applications, as well as for stationary fuel-cell applications and
portable fuel-cell applications. Their distinguishing features include lower
temperature/pressure ranges (50 to 100 °C) and a special proton-conducting
polymer electrolyte membrane. PEMFCs generate electricity and operate on the
opposite principle to PEM electrolysis, which consumes electricity. They are a
leading candidate to replace the aging alkaline fuel-cell technology, which was used
in the Space Shuttle.

Diagram of a PEM fuel cell

5
 These Fuel Cells are built out of membrane electrode assemblies (MEA)
which include the electrodes, electrolyte, catalyst, and gas diffusion layers. An ink
of catalyst, carbon, and electrode are sprayed or painted onto the solid electrolyte
and carbon paper is hot pressed on either side to protect the inside of the cell and
also act as electrodes. The pivotal part of the cell is the triple phase boundary (TPB)
where the electrolyte, catalyst, and reactants mix and thus where the cell reactions
actually occur.[2] Importantly, the membrane must not be electrically conductive so
the half reactions do not mix. Operating temperatures above 100 °C are
desired[citation needed] so the water byproduct becomes steam and water
management becomes less critical in cell design.

• Reactions:

A proton exchange membrane fuel cell transforms the chemical energy

liberated during the electrochemical reaction of hydrogen and oxygen to electrical
energy, as opposed to the direct combustion of hydrogen and oxygen gases to
produce thermal energy.

A stream of hydrogen is delivered to the anode side of the MEA. At the

anode side it is catalytically split into protons and electrons. This oxidation halfcell
reaction or hydrogen oxidation reaction (HOR) is represented.

The newly formed protons permeate through the polymer electrolyte

membrane to the cathode side. The electrons travel along an external load circuit to
the cathode side of the MEA, thus creating the current output of the fuel cell.
Meanwhile, a stream of oxygen is delivered to the cathode side of the MEA. At the
cathode side oxygen molecules react with the protons permeating through the
polymer electrolyte membrane and the electrons arriving through the external
circuit to form water molecules.

Overall Reaction:

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The reversible reaction is expressed in the equation and shows the reincorporation
of the hydrogen protons and electrons together with the oxygen molecule and the
formation of one water molecule. The potentials in each case are given with respect
to the standard hydrogen electrode.

• Polymer Electrolyte Membrane:

To function, the membrane must conduct hydrogen ions (protons) but not electrons
as this would in effect "short circuit" the fuel cell. The membrane must also not
allow either gas to pass to the other side of the cell, a problem known as gas
crossover. Finally, the membrane must be resistant to the reducing environment at
the cathode as well as the harsh oxidative environment at the anode.

• Efficiency :

The maximal theoretical efficiency applying the Gibbs free energy equation
ΔG = −237.13 kJ/mol and using the heating value of Hydrogen (ΔH = −285.84
kJ/mol) is 83% at 298 K.

The practical efficiency of a PEMs is in the range of 50–60% .[citation needed]

Main factors that create losses are:

• Activation losses
• Ohmic losses
• Mass transport losses

• Applications:

The major application of PEM fuel cells focuses on transportation primarily

because of their potential impact on the environment, e.g. the control of emission of
the green house gases (GHG). Other applications include distributed/stationary and
portable power generation. Most major motor companies work solely on PEM fuel
cells due to their high power density and excellent dynamic characteristics as
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compared with other types of fuel cells. Due to their light weight, PEMFCs are
most suited for transportation applications. PEMFCs for buses, which use
compressed hydrogen for fuel, can operate at up to 40% efficiency.

2) Solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC):

A solid oxide fuel cell (or SOFC) is an electrochemical conversion device
that produces electricity directly from oxidizing a fuel. Fuel cells are characterized
by their electrolyte material; the SOFC has a solid oxide or ceramic electrolyte.

These fuel cells are best suited for large-scale stationary power generators
that could provide electricity for factories or towns. This type of fuel cell operates
at very high temperatures (between 700 and 1,000 degrees Celsius). This high
temperature makes reliability a problem, because parts of the fuel cell can break
down after cycling on and off repeatedly. However, solid oxide fuel cells are very
stable when in continuous use. In fact, the SOFC has demonstrated the longest
operating life of any fuel cell under certain operating conditions.
The high temperature also has an advantage: the steam produced by the fuel
cell can be channeled into turbines to generate more electricity. This process is
called co-generation of heat and power (CHP) and it improves the overall efficiency
of the system.

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 Cross section of three ceramic layers of a tubular SOFC. From inner to outer:
porous cathode, dense electrolyte, porous anode
A solid oxide fuel cell is made up of four layers, three of which are ceramics
(hence the name). A single cell consisting of these four layers stacked together is
typically only a few millimeters thick. Hundreds of these cells are then connected in
series to form what most people refer to as an "SOFC stack". The ceramics used in
SOFCs do not become electrically and ionically active until they reach very high
temperature and as a consequence, the stacks have to run at temperatures ranging
from 500 to 1,000 °C. Reduction of oxygen into oxygen ions occurs at the cathode.
These ions can then diffuse through the solid oxide electrolyte to the anode where
they can electrochemically oxidize the fuel. In this reaction, a water byproduct is
given off as well as two electrons. These electrons then flow through an external
circuit where they can do work. The cycle then repeats as those electrons enter the
cathode material again.

Advantages of solid oxide fuel cells :

High combined heat and power efficiencyLong-term stability

Fuel flexibility,
Low emissions
Relatively low cost.

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Disadvantage of solid oxide fuel cells :

High operating temperature which results in longer start-up times and mechanical
and chemical compatibility issues.

3) Alkaline fuel cell (AFC) :

The alkaline fuel cell or hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell was designed and first
demonstrated publicly by Francis Thomas Bacon in 1959. It was used as a primary
source of electrical energy in the Apollo space program. The cell consists of two
porous carbon electrodes impregnated with a suitable catalyst such as Pt, Ag, CoO,
etc.

The space between the two electrodes is filled with a concentrated solution
of KOH or NaOH which serves as an electrolyte. H2 gas and O2 gas are bubbled
into the electrolyte through the porous carbon electrodes. Thus the overall reaction
involves the combination of hydrogen gas and oxygen gas to form water. The cell
runs continuously until the reactant’s supply is exhausted. This type of cell operates
efficiently in the temperature range 343–413 K and provides a potential of about
0.9
V. AAEMFC is a type of AFC which employs a solid polymer electrolyte instead of
aqueous potassium hydroxide (KOH) and it is superior to aqueous AFC.

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 Diagram of an Alkaline Fuel Cell:
Substances as following:
1. Hydrogen
2. Electron flow
3. Load
4. Oxygen5. Cathode
6. Electrolyte
7. Anode
8. Water
9. Hydroxide Ions

Chemistry Behind it

The fuel cell produces power through a redox reaction between hydrogen and
oxygen. At the anode, hydrogen is oxidized according to the reaction:

producing water and releasing electrons. The electrons flow through an external
circuit and return to the cathode, reducing oxygen in the reaction

producing hydroxide ions. The net reaction consumes one oxygen molecule and two
hydrogen molecules in the production of two water molecules. Electricity and heat
are formed as by-products of this reaction.

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Advantages over acidic fuel cells:

Alkaline fuel cells operate between ambient temperature and 90 °C with an

electrical efficiency higher than fuel cells with acidic electrolyte, such as proton
exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFC), solid oxide fuel cells, and phosphoric acid
fuel cells. Because of the alkaline chemistry, oxygen reduction reaction (ORR)
kinetics at the cathode are much more facile than in acidic cells, allowing use of
non- noble metals, such as iron, cobalt, or nickel, at the anode (where fuel is
oxidized); and cheaper catalysts such as silver or iron phthalocyanines at the
cathode, due to the low overpotentials associated with electrochemical reactions at
high pH.

An alkaline medium also accelerates oxidation of fuels like methanol,

making them more attractive. Less pollution results compared to acidic fuel cells.

4 ) Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell :

Like the SOFC, these fuel cells are also best suited for large stationary power
generators. They operate at 600 degrees Celsius, so they can generate steam that
can be used to generate more power. They have a lower operating temperature than
solid oxide fuel cells, which means they don't need such exotic materials. This
makes the design a little less expensive

Molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFCs) require a high operating

temperature, 650 °C (1,200 °F), similar to SOFCs. MCFCs use lithium potassium
carbonate salt as an electrolyte, and this salt liquefies at high temperatures, allowing
for the movement of charge within the cell – in this case, negative carbonate ions.

Like SOFCs, MCFCs are capable of converting fossil fuel to a

hydrogenrich gas in the anode, eliminating the need to produce hydrogen
externally. The reforming process creates CO
2 emissions. MCFC-compatible fuels include natural gas, biogas and gas

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 produced from coal. The hydrogen in the gas reacts with carbonate ions from the
electrolyte to produce water, carbon dioxide, electrons and small amounts of other
chemicals. The electrons travel through an external circuit creating electricity and
return to the cathode. There, oxygen from the air and carbon dioxide recycled from
the anode react with the electrons to form carbonate ions that replenish the
electrolyte, completing the circuit. The chemical reactions for an MCFC system can
be expressed as follows:

Anode reaction: CO32− + H2 → H2O + CO2 + 2e−

Cathode reaction: CO2 + ½O2 + 2e− → CO32−
Overall cell reaction: H2 + ½O2 → H2O

As with SOFCs, MCFC disadvantages include slow start-up times because

of their high operating temperature. This makes MCFC systems not suitable for
mobile applications, and this technology will most likely be used for stationary fuel
cell purposes. The main challenge of MCFC technology is the cells' short life span.
The high-temperature and carbonate electrolyte lead to corrosion of the anode and
cathode. These factors accelerate the degradation of MCFC components, decreasing
the durability and cell life. Researchers are addressing this problem by exploring
corrosion-resistant materials for components as well as fuel cell designs that may
increase cell life without decreasing performance.
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 MCFCs hold several advantages over other fuel cell technologies, including
their resistance to impurities. They are not prone to "carbon coking", which refers to
carbon build-up on the anode that results in reduced performance by slowing down
the internal fuel reforming process. Therefore, carbon-rich fuels like gases made
from coal are compatible with the system. The United States Department of Energy
claims that coal, itself, might even be a fuel option in the future, assuming the
system can be made resistant to impurities such as sulfur and particulates that result
from converting coal into hydrogen.[5] MCFCs also have relatively high
efficiencies. They can reach a fuel-to-electricity efficiency of 50%, considerably
higher than the 37–42% efficiency of a phosphoric acid fuel cell plant. Efficiencies
can be as high as 65% when the fuel cell is paired with a turbine, and 85% if heat is
captured and used in a combined heat and power (CHP) system.

FuelCell Energy, a Connecticut-based fuel cell manufacturer, develops and

sells MCFC fuel cells. The company says that their MCFC products range from 300
kW to 2.8 MW systems that achieve 47% electrical efficiency and can utilize CHP
technology to obtain higher overall efficiencies. One product, the DFC-ERG, is
combined with a gas turbine and, according to the company, it achieves an
electrical efficiency of 65%

5) Phosphoric-acid fuel cell (PAFC):

The phosphoric-acid fuel cell has potential for use in small stationary
powergeneration systems. It operates at a higher temperature than polymer
exchange membrane fuel cells, so it has a longer warm-up time. This makes it
unsuitable for use in car.

Phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFC) were first designed and introduced in
1961 by G. V. Elmore and H. A. Tanner. In these cells phosphoric acid is used as a
non- conductive electrolyte to pass positive hydrogen ions from the anode to the
cathode. These cells commonly work in temperatures of 150 to 200 degrees Celsius.
This high temperature will cause heat and energy loss if the heat is not removed
and used
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properly. This heat can be used to produce steam for air conditioning systems or
any other thermal energy consuming system. Using this heat in cogeneration can
enhance the efficiency of phosphoric acid fuel cells from 40 to 50% to about 80%.
Phosphoric acid, the electrolyte used in PAFCs, is a nonconductive liquid acid
which forces electrons to travel from anode to cathode through an external electrical
circuit. Since the hydrogen ion production rate on the anode is small, platinum is
used as catalyst to increase this ionization rate. A key disadvantage of these cells is
the use of an acidic electrolyte. This increases the corrosion or oxidation of
components exposed to phosphoric acid.

Scheme of a phosphoric acid fuel cell

Electrolyte is highly concentrated or pure liquid phosphoric acid (H3PO4)

saturated in a silicon carbide matrix (SiC). Operating range is about 150 to 210 °C.
The electrodes are made of carbon paper coated with a finely dispersed platinum
catalyst.
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Anode reaction: 2H2(g) → 4H+ + 4e‾

Cathode reaction: O2(g) + 4H+ + 4e‾ → 2H2O

Overall cell reaction: 2 H2 + O2 → 2H2O

Advantages & Disadvantages of Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell :

At an operating range of 150 to 200 °C, the expelled water can be converted
to steam for air and water heating (combined heat and power). This potentially
allows efficiency increases of up to 70%. PAFCs are CO2-tolerant and can tolerate
a CO concentration of about 1.5%, which broadens the choice of fuels they can use.
If gasoline is used, the sulfur must be removed. At lower temperatures phosphoric
acid is a poor ionic conductor, and CO poisoning of the platinum electro-catalyst in
the anode becomes severe. However, they are much less sensitive to CO than
PEMFCs and AFCs.

Disadvantages include rather low power density and aggressive electrolyte.

Applications :

PAFC have been used for stationary power generators with output in the 100
kW to 400 kW range and are also finding application in large vehicles such as
buses.

These are some Types of fuel cells used in E-Vehicles Now lets learn some
economics and markets to about Fuel Cells :

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In 2012, fuel cell industry revenues exceeded $1 billion market value worldwide,
with Asian pacific countries shipping more than 3/4 of the fuel cell systems
worldwide. however, as of January 2014, no public company in the industry had yet
become profitable.[178] There were 140,000 fuel cell stacks shipped globally in
2010, up from 11,000 shipments in 2007, and from 2011 to 2012 worldwide fuel cell
shipments had an annual growth rate of 85%.[179] Tanaka Kikinzoku expanded its
manufacturing facilities in 2011.[180] Approximately 50% of fuel cell shipments in
2010 were stationary fuel cells, up from about a third in 2009, and the four dominant
producers in the Fuel Cell Industry were the United States, Germany, Japan and
South Korea.[181] The Department of Energy Solid State Energy Conversion
Alliance found that, as of January 2011, stationary fuel cells generated power at
approximately $724 to $775 per kilowatt installed.In 2011, Bloom Energy, a major
fuel cell supplier, said that its fuel cells generated power at 9–11 cents per kilowatt-
hour, including the price of fuel, maintenance, and hardware.[183][184]

Industry groups predict that there are sufficient platinum resources for future
demand,[185] and in 2007, research at Brookhaven National Laboratory suggested
that platinum could be replaced by a gold-palladium coating, which may be less
susceptible to poisoning and thereby improve fuel cell lifetime.[186] Another
method would use iron and sulphur instead of platinum. This would lower the cost
of a fuel cell (as the platinum in a regular fuel cell costs around US$1,500, and the
same amount of iron costs only around US$1.50). The concept was being
developed by a coalition of the John Innes Centre and the University of
MilanBicocca.[187] PEDOT cathodes are immune to monoxide poisoning.

In 2016, Samsung "decided to drop fuel cell-related business projects, as the

outlook of the market isn't good".

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Conclusion:
A fuel cell vehicle (FCV) or fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV) is an
electric vehicle that uses a fuel cell, sometimes in combination with a small battery
or supercapacitor, to power its onboard electric motor. Fuel cells in vehicles
generate electricity generally using oxygen from the air and compressed hydrogen.
Most fuel cell vehicles are classified as zero-emissions vehicles that emit only
water and heat. As compared with internal combustion vehicles, hydrogen vehicles
centralize pollutants at the site of the hydrogen production, where hydrogen is
typically derived from reformed natural gas. Transporting and storing hydrogen
may also create pollutants.

Reference:

www.wikipedia.org

www.byjus.com

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