Macromol. Symp.

2006, 238, 5766

DOI: 10.1002/masy.200650609

Biodeterioration of Paper: A SEM Study of Fungal

Spoilage Reproduced Under Controlled Conditions
Flavia Pinzari,*1 Giovanna Pasquariello,2 Antonella De Mico3

Summary: Biodeterioration phenomena represent a complex of physical and chemical alteration processes in various materials, such as those constituting the objects
that represent our cultural heritage. The biodegradation of paper is conditioned by
several variables such as the materials from which cellulose is obtained, the
manufacturing processes employed, the occurrence of other affecting substances
such as lignin or metallic compounds, and by the environmental conditions in which
papers are conserved. In this study, biodeterioration of paper was artificially induced
in order to evaluate the role of a range of chemical and physical variables on damage
caused by cellulolytic fungi. A variable pressure SEM instrument was used to
characterise paper samples with different fibre origins, and alterations obtained
in vitro. Two fungal strains, Aspergillus terreus Thom and Chaetomium globosum
Kunze, which are cellulolytic species frequently associated with paper spoilage, were
used to produce stains with characteristics close to those observable on art objects
made from paper. The stains obtained on the different samples of paper were
compared at both low and high magnification, in order to visualize the macro- and
microscopic characteristics of paper fibres, inorganic constituents, impurities, and
the deteriorating agents related to the spoiled areas. During this survey it was
observed that single paper characteristics can strongly influence the intensity and the
results of the fungal action. For example, the activity of a fungal strain on paper
grades containing fibres of the same origin, but with different sizing, led to the
formation of profoundly different stains and alterations. Moreover fungal structures,
analysed by low vacuum SEM, in areas on paper corresponding to the stains appeared
in different physiological states suggesting an important effect of paper constituents
on fungal growth and their sporulating ability.
Keywords: cellulose; degradation; fungi; paper; SEM

Introduction
Biodeterioration phenomena represent a
complex of natural physical and chemical
spoilage processes in various materials,
such as those composing most of the objects

ICPL Istituto Centrale per la Patologia del Libro, Via

Milano 76, 00184 Rome, Italy
Fax (39) 06 4814968
E-mail: icplbio@tin.it
ING Istituto Nazionale per la Grafica, Via della Lungara 230, 00165 Rome, Italy
CNR - ICB Sez. Roma c/o Dipartimento di Chimica,
Universita` La Sapienza, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, box
34 RM62, 00185 Rome, Italy

currently considered cultural heritage, and

are caused by the growth of very different
organisms. These are generically called
biodeteriogens,[1] but they are all characterised by the saprotrophic ability of using
substrata to sustain their growth and
reproduction. In paper-supported works
of art (documents, books, prints, etc.) many
factors occur together and contribute to the
formation of different forms of biological
alteration.[24] At a relative humidity (RH)
level higher than 65%, and a temperature
higher than 20 8C, moisture content of
paper can reach 810%, with consequent
water activity (aw), namely the ratio of the

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Macromol. Symp. 2006, 238, 5766

vapour pressure of the water in the substrate

and the vapour pressure of pure water at the
same temperature and RH,[57] higher than
0.65: in these conditions microbial spores
can germinate and develop by using paper as
a growth medium, thus affecting the object
of cultural value.[28] Paper, before being the
constituent of ancient books and precious
manuscripts, is an organic material, and
therefore a source of nourishment for many
organisms. It is chiefly made of cellulose of
various origin (cotton, linen, hardwood,
softwood, hemp), but in addition paper
usually contains sizes, fillers, traces of
metallic elements (such as iron, copper)
and other substances (such as inks, pigments,
etc.) which make it a complex and heterogeneous medium. Cellulose, from the chemical point of view, is a linear polymer of
glucose, a hygroscopic compound affected
by many chemical and biological agents.
However, microbial activity on paper is
possible only in the presence of unbound
water in the substrate which is available for
the growth of the mould. Bound water is the
fraction of water that forms a monomolecular layer covalently bonded to molecules
in the materials, and it has an aw lower than
0.2; water weakly bonded to cellulose
molecules and forming a multilayered film
located in capillaries less than 30 mm in
diameter has an aw still lower than 0.650.70;
only the free water that is present in
capillaries grater than 30 mm in diameter
has an aw above 0.650.70 and can actually
brings about cellulose degradation processes.[711]
Fungal species (over 200) are the main
cause of damage to objects of cultural
heritage made of or supported on paper,[2
11]
and many of them have, in fact, at least a
partial cellulolytic action. In paper-supported works of art (documents, books,
prints, etc.) the colonisation of cellulose
substrata by specific groups of microorganisms often poses more than a simple
aesthetic problem. In fact, the microbial
activity affects not only the appearance of
the objects causing stains, patinas, etc., but
often consists of a deep modification of
their chemical and physical structure.

In this study paper samples with artificially induced damage were studied using a
variable pressure SEM instrument. The
variable pressure SEM technique proved to
be particularly useful because it allowed for
the direct observation of a non-conductive
material such as paper, and its chemical
characterisation without the need of surface metallization. With this equipment the
spots and stains occurring on naturally
aged and artificially biodeteriorated papers,
could be observed at the right magnification
in order to study, in the spoiled areas of the
samples, the microscopic characteristics of
cellulose fibres, inorganic constituents,
impurities, and deteriorating agents. A set
of samples with experimentally induced
alterations was obtained as reported in the
materials and methods section. The set up
of the experimental protocol was governed
by the aim of studying paper biodeterioration phenomena in simplified models in
which some of the variables could be
controlled. Paper samples with artificially
induced stains and spots were then analysed
macro- and microscopically and the behaviours of the different components in the
built-up model-systems were evaluated.
The results of this paper were obtained in
the framework of the CNR Project Progetto Finalizzato Beni Culturali, Sottoprogetto 3 of the Consiglio Nazionale delle
Ricerche (CNR- Rome) with the cooperation of ICB-CNR Rome, with the cooperation of the ICPL, and ING - Ministero per i
Beni e le Attivita` Culturali.

Materials and Methods

Paper Types
Six types of paper of different compositions
(Table 1), on account of fiber origins,
chemical treatments undergone during
the manufacturing processes, and sizing
and filling materials, were used in this study.
As a control-paper Whatman 1CHR (for
chromatography) Cat. N8 3001 917 made of
pure linter and not subjected to any sizing
procedure was used. The paper samples
were cut into 2
6 cm strips. Before being

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59

Table 1.
Caption of paper samples and their characteristics
Sample N8
1
2
3
4
5
6
0

Origin of the fibres

Filling material

Sizing

Pulp pH

Chemical pulp of hemp

Chemical pulp of hemp
Chemical pulp of linen
Chemical pulp of linen
Chemical pulp from softwood
Chemical pulp from softwood
Cotton (Whatman)

kaolin and alum

calcium carbonate
kaolin and alum
calcium carbonate
kaolin and alum
calcium carbonate
none

rosin
alkyl ketene dimer
rosin
alkyl ketene dimer
rosin
alkyl ketene dimer
none

4.55.0
7.58.0
4.55.0
7.58.0
4.55.0
7.58.0
6.57.0

inoculated with fungal spores, both sides

of the strips were exposed to sterilising UV
light for 45 minutes, using a tubular lamp
with light emission at 254 nm collocated
parallel to samples at 10 cm of distance
from them, corresponding in a dose of
approximately 40 mW.s  cm2, in order to
decontaminate the surface of samples from
airborne fungal and bacterial cells which
could result, during the incubation of paper,
in undesired growth and side effects.
Fungal Strains used for the Test
Two fungal strains were utilised to inoculate the paper strips. Aspergillus terreus
Thom and Chaetomium globosum Kunze
both obtained by the ATCC culture
collection. Both these species are considered frequently associated with library
materials biodeterioration and are cellulolytic.[1213] The two strains differ in their
behaviour on the substrata and also in their
reproductive traits. A. terreus is a deuteromycetes producing only mitosporic conidia because it has lost the sexual part of its
biological cycle. C. globosum is an ascomycete, producing meiotic fruiting bodies
which contain spores that result from sexual
reproduction. The ability of the two species
in the spoilage of paper differs in intensity
and quality.
Mycelial Cultures and Inoculum of
Fungi on Paper
Fungal cultures were inoculated on MEA
(Malt Extract Agar)[13] and incubated at
25 8C. C. globosum strain was cultered for 14
days to obtain the production of perithecia
which were then harvested using a loop and
then squashed in a watch glass in order to

effect the release of the spores. The spores

from A. terreus were obtained by scraping
the surface of 7-day-old cultures with a
swab. Spores were then suspended in 30 ml
of sterile, distilled water containing 0.02%
Tween 80 (Merck-Schuchardt - Germany).
The spore suspensions were filtered through
sterile gauze to remove impurities. The
spore density was defined for each strain
by counting the elements in a Thoma
Chamber to obtain a spore concentration
of 4
10  ml2. A defined volume of each
spore suspension was diluted with nutritive
broth (Sabouraud Broth by Difco, Becton
Dickinson, USA) in order to inoculate the
paper strips. All the inoculations were
performed under a laminar flow hood
to assure sterility in the procedures. We
used 100ml of broth for every paper strip,
depositing 34 drops of this on to each strip.
Control samples consist of strips of each type
of paper inoculated with 100ml of broth not
containing fungal spores. Four replicates
for each treatment were considered. Each
inoculated paper strip was placed in a 15 cm
polystyrene Petri dish. Two levels of relative
humidity (RH) were used during the test:
100% and 75%, and the temperature was
maintained at 25 8C. The conditions were
created in double-bottomed glass containers;
the 100% RH was obtained using distilled
water; the 75% RH level was obtained using
a saturated solution of NaCl.[4,5] The
Petri dishes containing the samples were
placed in the glass containers that were kept
in a thermostatic cell at T 27 8C for 7 days.
A sensor to register the internal RH
(Hygrolog-D Rotronic AY- Swiss) was
kept in each container throughout the
incubation time.

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SEM Analysis
The analysis of paper samples before and
after fungal growth was conducted with a
variable pressure SEM instrument (LEO
1450 VP, Carl-Zeiss Electron Microscopy
Group) that allows the direct observation
of non-conductive materials. This SEM
technique permitted the description of
paper surfaces without preparation by
means of metallization. The possibility of
observing uncoated specimens, with a not
conductive surface, allowed appreciating
the signals given by backscattered electrons
that are the result of electron-nucleus
interaction. The characteristics of a backscattered electron image are dependent
primarily upon the nature of the specimen.
The intensity of elastically scattered electrons in the signal significantly influences the image contrast, and this intensity,
in turn, depends upon the average atomic
number of the specimen and the incident
angle of the primary beam on the specimen.[14] Differences in atomic number of
the specimen give rise to appreciable contrast in the image. The differences in chemical composition, and therefore in average
atomic number of the organic (vegetable
fibres and fungal mycelium) and inorganic
materials allowed for well contrasted observation of filling materials and ions distribution on paper surfaces, and the fungal
structures growing on them.[14]

Figure 1.
A conidiophore of Aspergillus terreus with chains of
conidia. Picture obtained with an Olympus AX60
optical microscope.

perithecia which, being of large dimensions

(they can reach 0.5 mm in diameter), and
darkly coloured, can be visualised by the
naked eye. Two well defined growth
patterns could be perceived in samples
carrying the Chaetomium inoculum: A)
development of fungal perithecia only in
correspondence to the inoculum points and
B) diffuse development of fungal perithecia
all over the paper strips. Development type
A was described in all the paper samples

Results and Discussion

The two fungal strains (Figure 1 and 2)
showed marked differences in their growth
and sensitivity to limiting factors (relative
humidity), and to substrata (paper/sizing
qualities).
C. globosum showed little or no growth
at 75% RH while at 100% RH its spoiling effect on substrata was vigorous. The
pattern of growth of C. globosum on
the paper samples clearly differed between
paper qualities with different types of
sizing, while smaller differences were noted
between different types of fibres. Figure 3
shows the paper strips with Chaetomiums

Figure 2.
An open perithecia (fruit-body) of Chaetomium globosum; meiotic spores can be seen among the perithecial hairs (sterile hyphae). Picture obtained with an
Olympus AX60 optical microscope.

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61

Figure 3.
Paper samples obtained inoculating fungal spores of Chaetomium globosum (samples on the left) and Aspergillus
terreus (samples on the right) on the paper grades 1 to 6, as listed in Table 1. Picture obtained with a Photo Stylus
Epson Scanner.

Figure 4.
SEM picture at 775
. Paper sample n. 5 made of softwood and sized with rosin, kaolin and alum. Arrows indicate
the not germinated spores of C. globosum deposited on paper samples and incubated at 75% of RH.
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Macromol. Symp. 2006, 238, 5766

characterised by an acidic pH and sizing

made with rosin, alum and kaolin. Among
these samples, despite the same growth
pattern, some quantitative differences in
the Chaetomiums perithecia growth were
observed, namely: the hemp>linen>softwood>controls. Development type B was
typical of all the three samples containing
alkyl ketene dimer (AKD) and calcium
carbonate as sizing material and a neutral
pH. Among these samples a gradient was
observed in the development of perithecia,
the hemp sample being the most palatable
to the fungal strain and the control less
so. Additionally, quantitative differences
between neutral samples were less marked
than between acidic samples.
A. terreus showed mycelial growth and
conidial production at both 75% RH and
100% RH, although its spread and conidial
production was more vigorous with higher
RH. The pattern of growth of A. terreuson
the paper samples (Figure 3) differed bet-

ween paper qualities with different types of

sizing, especially in the case of softwood
samples, while smaller differences could be
seen in hemp and linen samples. In common with samples inoculated with Chaetomium, the growth pattern of A. terreuson
acidic samples could be described as more
localised with respect to the inoculation
points.
SEM observations were performed on all
the samples and were aimed at the description of mycelial growth in the different areas
of the samples. With SEM imaging it was
possible to define the occurrence of spores in
the Chaetomiums perithecia, the degree of
maturation of conidial heads in Aspergillus,
the sporulation of inoculated spores in
samples where no growth was recorded by
the naked eye or at reflected light stereomicroscopy, the presence and degree of
development of fungal hyphae in correspondence to the inner area of the inoculation
points on samples, at the boundaries of

Figure 5.
SEM picture at 1.800
. Paper sample n. 1 made of hemp and sized with rosin, kaolin and alum. Arrows indicate a
conidiophora of A. terreus with short chains of conidia, developed at 75% RH.
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Macromol. Symp. 2006, 238, 5766

visible colonies and in the area outside the

inoculation points.
According to our SEM observations the
spores of C. globosum deposited on paper
samples and incubated at 75% of RH did
not germinate at all (Figure 4), indicating
that for this set of samples the limiting
factor for fungal activity as a paper spoiler
was water availability. A different situation
was disclosed by SEM images for A. terreus,
because this species grew at 75% RH
(Figure 5) and in most samples produced
conidiophora with conidia, mainly in the
area of inoculum, independent of the
reaction of the sample. The main difference
shown by A. terreus in its growth on acidic
and neutral paper samples at 75% RH was
the tendency in the first case of producing a
dense mycelium with scarce hyphae exploring the sample, with an overgrowth in
the inoculum point, whilst in neutral paper
samples a more dispersed and aerial mycelium was observed.

63

The presence of mature conida of A.

terreus was noted in both acidic and neutral
samples, but the conidiophores were completely developed only in samples incubated at 100% RH (Figure 6), and almost
exclusively limited to the inoculum area,
this suggesting that water and nutrients
availability played an important role in
fungal production of mitotic spores.
The production of perithecia by C.
globosum according to our microscopic
observations appeared limited to the inoculum point only in samples with an acidic
sizing, indicating that the formation of
reproductive structures requires nutrients,
but also, the absence of influential elements
such as the acidity of the medium. C.
globosum on neutral paper samples and with
a RH of 100% (Figure 7) produced fruiting
bodies all over the paper stripes, independent of the presence of the nutritive microelements that were deposited on paper with
the broth at the inoculum point.

Figure 6.
SEM picture at 499
. Paper sample n. 1 made of hemp and sized with rosin, kaolin and alum. Arrows indicate
conidiophores of A. terreus with conidia, developed at 100% RH.
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Macromol. Symp. 2006, 238, 5766

Figure 7.
SEM picture at 600
. Paper sample n. 2 made of hemp and sized with AKD and calcium carbonate. Arrows
indicate the walls (w) of a broken perithecia of C. globosum with spores (s) developed at 100% RH.

A possible explanation of the different

growth pattern in acidic and neutral paper
samples is the possibility of the fungal
strains performing a nutrient translocation
from the inoculum point to other areas of
the sample, where the only nutritive matter
consists of the paper itself. Acidic reaction
or some other chemical factors limited,
in the acidic samples, the growth of
aerial hyphae capable of translocation of
nutrients.
The remarkable differences observed
between paper samples with different sizing
and filling materials suggest that these play
a major role in promoting or inhibiting
fungal growth. Deeper insight into the
nature of these materials could help in
the interpretation of results.
Sizing is necessary to give paper the
appropriate properties for writing and
printing.[15] Generally they are classified
in reactive (synthetic materials such as alkyl
ketene dimer) and non-reactive (rosin)

depending on the presence of covalent

bonding with cellulose molecules.[15,16]
AKD is the main sizing agent extensively
used in the pH range of 710.[16] Commercially available AKDs consist of waxy
materials insoluble in water with a variable
chain length.[17] They are prepared from
natural fatty acid sources and stearic acid is
mainly used for this purpose. During paper
sizing processes AKD reacts with cellulose
fibre and forms a beta-keto ester bond that
makes paper hydrophobic.[17]
Rosin (also called colophony) is a translucent resin, soluble in alcohol, ether,
turpentine, and several other organic solvents, and in solutions of various metal
hydroxides. Rosin is a mixture of several
compounds, chiefly abietic acid. It is used
for internal sizing of paper and paperboard
to enhance its ability to repel moisture.[18]
Alum is commonly used for precipitating
rosin size on to the pulp fibres to impart
water resistant properties (when water

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65

Figure 8.
SEM picture at 406x. Paper sample n. 5 made of chemical pulp of softwood, sized with rosin, kaolin and alum and
incubated at 100% RH. Arrows indicate perithecia of C. globosum with well developed sterile hyphae, but no
visible spores.

colours, inks, etc. are used) to the paper

made using it. Kaolin is a naturally occurring white form of anhydrous aluminium
silicate clay mineral that is added to paper
pulp, increasing the opacity and other
characteristics of the sheet. It is also used
to make a paper coating mixture.[1921] Calcium carbonate generally gives opacity and
bulking characteristics. As well as filler
calcium carbonate is used to buffer acidity
due to several causes (i.e. pollution, acid
inks, etc.) and it is also used in permanent papermaking to provide an alkaline
reserve.[16,17] As shown in Table 1 paper
grades sized by means of rosin and alum are
acidic, while those sized with alkyl ketene
dimer are rather alkaline. Acidic environments promote biodeterioration by means
of fungal growth[22] mainly deuteromycetes
(A. terreus), while alkaline environments
can stimulate specific groups of ascomycetes such as C. globosum,whose growth is

optimal at the pH interval 7.110.4. [13,22,23]

The positive effect of neutral to alkaline
reaction in paper on its spoilage by
C. globosum was confirmed by this study.
According to SEM observations the neutral
to alkaline pH also promoted the maturation of the perithecia and the production of
ascospores.
In addition, the chemical activity of rosins
aromatic compounds can have fungi static
effects that can explain the growth pattern of
C. globosum on all paper samples sized with
rosin and of A. terreus in some of the samples
sized with rosin. According to SEM observations, perithecia of C. globosum cultured on
acidic paper samples could barely produce
ascospores (Figure 8), even though their
sterile hyphae appeared well developed
suggesting a good usage of substrata by the
fungus.
The exploitation of the substrata was
much localised when rosin and kaolin were

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Macromol. Symp. 2006, 238, 5766

present, while AKD and calcium carbonate

supported a better growth of the fungi,
especially the C. globosum, independent of
the origin of the fibres.
The sample of paper made with a
chemical pulp of softwood and sized with
rosin and kaolin appeared less suitable for
fungal growth and development, probably
on account of the co-occurrence of both an
acidic and chemical (aromatic) obstacle to
hyphal exploitation of surfaces, and the
presence of lignin and therpenic compounds due to the origin of the pulp.

Conclusions
In this study we have observed that not only,
and not always, fibres in paper influence the
intensity and the results of the biodeteriorating action of fungi, but other factors also
profoundly and intrinsically act to define the
event of degradation. For example, fungal
activity on paper containing different types of
sizing led to very different stains and damage.
Moreover, SEM observation of fungal structures in corresponding stained areas showed
that despite an apparent homogeneous
growth of the fungal strain, different physiological situations could be found, suggesting a
sharp and varied effect of paper constituents
on the different phases of the fungal life cycle.
Further studies are needed in order to explain
some of the observed phenomena, but there
is plenty of evidence to suggest that natural
alterations occurring in paper should be
studied, considering the large number of
variables that interact in causing these
processes.
[1] D. Allsopp, K.J. Seal, Introduction to Biodeterioration. Edward Arnold, London 1986.
[2] R. Kowalik, Restaurator, 1980, 4, 99.
[3] F. Gallo, Biological Factors in the Deterioration of
Books. ICCROM, Rome, 1985.

[4] F. Gallo, Il biodeterioramento di libri e documenti.

Centro di Studi per la Conservazione della carta
ICCROM, Roma, 1992.
[5] F. Gallo, P. Valenti, P. Colaizzi, G. Pasquariello, M.C.
Sclocchi, M. Scorrano, O. Maggi, A.M. Persiani,
`, International Confer[6] In: C. Federici, P.F. Munafo
ence on Conservation and Restauration of Archives
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Palumbo, 1996 Roma, p. 177.
[7] H. Arai, Science for Conservation, 1987, 26, 43.
[8] N.J. Dix, Trans. Br. mycol. 1985, 85, 649.
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Naturali, 27 giugno 2001. Accademia Nazionale delle
Scienze detta dei XL, 1198, vol. XXV, p.129.
[10] H. Szczepanowska, The Paper Conservation. 1986,
10, 31.
[11] M.L.E. Florian, Heritage Eaters. Insect and Fungi in
Heritage Collection. James and James Science Publishers Ltd, 1997, London.
[12] B. Zyska, Int. Biodet. & Biodeg., 1997, 40, 43.
[13] J. Pitt, A.D. Hocking, The ecology of fungal
food spoilage, in: J. Pitt, A.D. Hocking, Fungi and
Food Spoilage. CSIRO-Division of Food ResearchSydney. Academic Press Australia, 1985 pp. 518.
[14] M.A. Hayat, Introduction to biological scanning
electron microscopy. 1978, University Park Press. Baltimore, p.18.
[15] C. J. Biermann, Essential of pulping and paper.
1993, New York.
[16] F. Gallo, G. Pasquariello, F. Rocchetti, Biological
Investigation on Sizings for Permanent Papers. Restaurator, 1998, 19: 61.
[17] J.C. Roberts, Neutral and alkaline sizing, in: Paper
Chemistry, 2nd ed. (Ed. J.C. Roberts), Blacklie A&P,
Glasgow, UK, 1996, pp. 140.
[18] S. Abell, Alkaline papermaking and rosin size, in:
Proceedings of TAPPI Alkaline papermaking Conference, TAPPI Press. 1985, 31.
[19] G. Villavecchia, F. Eigemmann, Dizionario di Merceologia e di Chimica applicata. vol.3, 1939, Hoepli
Milano.
[20] E. Gianni, Carte, cartoni, cartoncini. 1959, Hoepli,
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[21] K. W. Britt, Handbook of Pulp and Paper Technology. Reinhold Publishing Corporation, 1970, New
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[22] E. T. Reese, M. H. Downing, Mycologia. 1951, 43,
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[23] K. H. Domsch, W. Gams &T.H. Anderson,
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