6

Exploiting a living resource:

Fisheries

> F o r d e c a d e s , th e catc h from the worlds fisheries steadily inc reased w i t h t he

res ul t t ha t m a ny fis h s to c k s a re n o w cla s sified as overexploited or depleted. Failed fisheries p ol i ci es

an d poor f i s he r ie s ma n a g e m e n t a re to b la me for this situation. Short- term profits appear to take pr i or i ty o v e r t h e d e ve l o p m e n t o f a l o w - i m p a c t , sustainable fisheries sector that will remain econo mically
via bl e i n t he l on g te rm .

120

> Cha pt e r 06

Marine fisheries the state of affairs

> F i sh i s a n i m p o r t a n t s o u r ce o f f o o d f o r p e o p l e . I t a l s o r e p r es en t s an

im por t a nt se c t or of t he e c onom y : t h e e s t i m a t e d a n n u a l l a n d e d v a l u e o f f i s h g l o b a l l y i s a r o u n d U SD
90 bi l l i on. How e v e r, i n m a ny of t h e w o r l d s m a r i t i m e r e g i o n s , p e r p e t u a l o v e r f i s h i n g i s p u t t in g s t o cks
a t r i sk .

Wild-caught fish are also used as breeding stock.

E x pl oi t a t i on on a m a ssi v e sc a l e

Switching to consumption of farmed fish alone, thereTotal global production of fish and fishery products from

fore, does not necessarily protect wild fish stocks.

capture fisheries and aquaculture currently stands at

The expansion of marine fishing has contributed sig-

around 140 million tonnes per annum. Until the early

nificantly to the decline and in some cases the depletion

1990s, the harvest from marine fishing followed an

of global fish stocks. Overexploitation particularly affects

almost constant upward trajectory, with landings world-

long-lived fish species such as redfish (Sebastes marinus)

wide increasing fourfold from an annual figure below

which take several years to reach maturity and begin

20million tonnes in 1950 to around 80 million tonnes in

spawning. In extreme cases, it may even lead to the

1990. Since the 1990s, the total amount of fish, shellfish

depletion of the stock. For example, stocks of cod in the

and crab caught in the sea has remained more or less

Northwest Atlantic off the United States coast have

constant.

collapsed after years of overfishing.

Due to the great demand for fishery products, fish farming is also steadily expanding, especially in Asian coun-

D e cl i n e o f s p a w n i n g s t o ck

tries. With an annual growth of around 7 per cent, aquaculture is one of the most rapidly expanding food industry

North Sea cod stocks, too, have been greatly reduced by

of North Sea cod

sectors. Aquaculture already provides more than 40 per

intensive fishing. This species is a particularly good exam-

shows how a fish

cent of the global consumption of fish and shellfish.

ple of the effects of the exploitation of the seas. Experts

stock collapses

However, many fish species raised in the aquaculture

define a stock as a self-sustaining population of a fishspe-

depleted) if there

sector are predatory fish, which rely on a supply of other

cies within a geographically defined area. The spawning

are no longer

fish for food. Wild-caught fish are therefore used as feed.

stock i.e. the mature individuals that are capable of

enough mature fish

Although the amounts vary considerably according to

reproduction are particularly important in scientific

green) available to

species, it takes an average of around 5 kilograms of fish

terms. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the

produce offspring.

meal and fish oil to produce 1 kilogram of farmed fish.

United Nations (FAO) does not provide any precise

6.1 > The example

(i.e. becomes

600

defin itions of the various status categories of stocks. For

250

500

exampl e, the boundary between fully exploited and

200

400

150

300

Recovering

100

overexploited status is somewhat fuzzy. According to

Depleted

50

200

Fully
exploited

100

Overexploited

300

Catch (10 0 0 t)

Spawning stock biomass

(SSB) (10 0 0 t)

(spawning stock,

the FAO, the term fully exploited means that a fishery

is operating at or close to an optimal yield level, with no
expected room for further expansion. A stock is termed
overexploited if it is being exploited above a level that

1970

19 8 0

19 9 0

20 0 0

is believed to be sustainable in the long term, evident

E x p l o i t i n g a l i v i n g re s o u rc e : F i s h e r i e s <

121

6.2 > Aquaculture is

a booming industry
today and fish are
being farmed on a
large scale, as seen
here on the Chinese
island of Hainan.
However, fish farms
do not necessarily
help to conserve
wild fish stocks as
they require large
quantities of fish
meal or wild-caught
forage fish for feed.

from the steady decline of the stock. A stock is said to be

is increasingly turning to species that were previously

depleted if catches are well below historical levels, irre-

regarded as unprofitable, of poor quality, or unfit for con-

spective of the amount of fishing effort exerted. A stock

sumption.

is said to be recovering if catches are again increasing

after having been depleted.

S t o ck a s s e s s m e n t a d i ff i cu l t t a s k

According to FAO estimates, there has been a steady

increase in the proportion of overexploited and depleted

Correctly assessing fish stocks is a difficult task. As it is

stocks since the 1970s. By contrast, there has been a

not possible to count fish individually, stock sizes are

decrease of around 50 per cent in the proportion of under

now estimated using mathematical models. Current catch

exploited stocks, which stood at an estimated 20 per cent

figures from the fishing industry are an important source

in 2006. This trend may be due to the development of

of data in this endeavor. The models also take account of

increasingly efficient fishing technology, including tech-

the effort that must be employed in order to catch this

nically improved means to locate shoals of fish and ever

quantity of fish, based, for example, on the number of

more powerful fishing vessels. The construction of enor-

fishing days or the fleet size for the fewer the fish there

mous factory ships means that large catches can be fro-

are in the sea, the greater the effort needed to achieve a

zen while the vessel is still at sea, enabling ships to

specific catch volume. However, even today not all

exploit fishing grounds at great distances from the port of

catches are reported, so the available data may be incom-

landing. Continuing advances in fishing technology also

plete. The mathematical models therefore also include

allow fish to be caught at ever greater depths. Further-

information from scientific test catches, which are regu-

more, due to a lack of alternatives, commercial fishing

larly carried out by fisheries biologists and include data

6.4 > World marine capture fisheries production since 1950

20 0 6

20 0 4

20 02

20 0 0

19 9 8

19 9 6

19 9 4

19 92

19 9 0

19 8 8

19 8 6

19 8 4

19 82

19 8 0

1978

1976

1974

197 2

1970

19 6 8

19 6 6

19 6 4

19 6 2

19 6 0

19 58

19 56

19 5 4

19 52

19 5 0

Million tonnes ( live weight )

Ger ma ny

Europ ea n
Union

Ba ngladesh

S out h Korea

V iet na m

Mya nma r

Nor way

Tha ila nd

Philippines

Russia n
Federat ion

Chile

India

Ja pa n

USA

Indonesia

Per u

China

Million
tonnes

122
> Cha pt e r 06

16

14
20 07

12

10

6.3 > Top producer countries, based on catch

10 0

90
Wor ld including China

80
Wor ld excluding China

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

E x p l o i t i n g a l i v i n g re s o u rc e : F i s h e r i e s <

30%

C atch 20 0 6

25%
S a les va lue 20 0 6
20 %
15%
10 %
5%

6.5 > Catches and landing values by groups of species

8,9 0 6, 822
2,925, 58 4
2,14 8,0 58
1, 5 0 0,692

1,6 8 6,422

19, 825,6 70

3,114, 39 8

1,6 42, 534

11, 535,020
4,18 0,024
6,0 58,4 87

11,757,126
633,6 41

1,436,4 0 5

2,49 9,7 37

10, 38 5
3,7 35

112, 8 45

6.6 > Catches by region in tonnes (live weight) (2007)

Miscellaneous migrator y
fishes (e.g. shads, river eels)

Sharks, rays, chimaeras

Flounders, halibuts, soles

Salmons, trouts, smelts

Miscellaneous demersal
fishes (e.g. hair tails,
congers)

Marine fishes not identified

Cods, hakes, haddocks

Tunas, bonitos, billfishes

Miscellaneous coastal
fishes (e.g. croakers,
threadfin breams)

Miscellaneous pelagic fishes

(e.g. jacks, capelins)

Herrings, sardines,
anchovies

0%

123

124

> Cha pt e r 06

T h e fate o f the c od
Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) commonly known simply as cod

are still being harvested annually in the Northeast Atlantic,

and also found in other maritime regions, including the Baltic

whereas cod stocks in the Northwest Atlantic range off the east

Sea was a popular staple food across much of northern Europe

coast of North America are an outstanding example of failed

and the islands of the North Atlantic for a very long time. Cod

fisheries management. Here, the once abundant cod stocks off

stocks were abundant and the species was easy to catch. It was

Newfoundland, which in the past yielded some 600,000 tonnes

one of the main ingredients in Britains national dish, fish and

of catch weight annually, have now collapsed after years of over-

chips, while in Norway, air-dried cod (stockfish) was a popular

fishing.

traditional food. Cod which can reach up to 1.5 metres in

How could this have happened? After centuries of mainly

length is a demersal fish, which means that it lives on or near

coastal fishing using smaller fishing vessels, in 1950 the fishing

the bottom of the sea. Its habitats are located in the coastal

industry switched to industrial bottom fishing using trawl nets

regions of the Atlantic Ocean. Cod can be found near the coast

and also began fishing in deeper waters. Catches increased con-

as well as at depths of up to 600 metres. Cod is a difficult species

siderably in the short term, leading to a decrease in population

to farm, however.

size. Attempts to regulate catches with international fishing

The great dependence of the fishing nations on their cod

quotas and Canadas efforts to tackle the problem by expanding

stocks was demonstrated in the Cod Wars from 1958 until

its Exclusive Economic Zone could not curb the dramatic drop in

1975. During this period, a series of political confrontations

yield. After the population had completely collapsed at the end

erupted after Iceland concerned about the future of its tradi

of the 1980s, there was no option but to close the commercial

tional fishing grounds and more intensive competition from

cod fishery in 1992, followed by a ban on artisanal fishery in the

foreign deep-sea trawlers progressively expanded its Exclusive

coastal communities of Newfoundland in 2003. The social and

Economic Zone (EEZ) (Chapter 10) from 3 to 200 nautical miles.

economic consequences of this move have been severe. Biolo-

In so doing, Iceland succeeded in protecting cod stocks in the

gists now believe that due to the massive disruption of the

Northe ast Atlantic from overexploitation by other fishing nations.

marine ecosystem, it has passed a tipping point and that even

This is evident from the fact that around 1 million tonnes of cod

with a total ban on fishing, cod stocks will not recover.

6.7 > Fighting over fish: the economic significance of the fishing

some 35 nautical miles off the Icelandic coast. According to the Bri-

industry for some nations became apparent during the Cod Wars

tish version of events, the collision occurred after Thor attempted to

in the Northeast Atlantic. The United Kingdom and Iceland even de-

cut the nets of the British trawler Portia (above right, centre). During

ployed warships in the conflict over control of the fishing grounds.

the manoeuvre, Thor abruptly changed course and rammed the fri-

On 7January 1976, the Icelandic patrol boat Thor (above left, back-

gate. The dispute between the two countries was so intense that

ground) collided with the British frigate Andromeda (foreground)

Iceland even broke off diplomatic relations with the UK for a time.

E x p l o i t i n g a l i v i n g re s o u rc e : F i s h e r i e s <

125

secondly, because various fish species enjoy different

10 0 %
O verexploited /depleted

90%

levels of popularity among consumers. Rare species of

80%

tuna can command prices in excess of 100 euros per kilo-

70 %

gram on the Asian market, whereas fishermen are paid

60%

as little as 10 to 20 cent for a kilo of sprats.

Fully exploited

50%

The prices of fishery products also depend on how the

40%

catches are processed. Broken down by quantity, the

30%

various forms of utilization of world fisheries production

6.9 > Utilization of

have remained more or less constant over recent years.

fisheries produc-

Around three-quarters of the catch is destined for direct

tion (breakdown

20 %
M oderately exploited

10 %
0%
1974

19 8 0

19 8 5

19 9 0

19 9 5

20 0 0

20 0 6

human consumption, with approximately half of this

by quantity), 2006.
Non-food purposes

reaching the final consumer in the form of fresh fish, a

largely consists of

6.8 > The use intensity of commercially relevant fish stocks

quarter being processed into frozen food products, and a

the production of

has increased significantly worldwide.

further quarter being preserved by curing, pickling or

canning before being brought to market. The remaining

fish meal and fish

oil for use in fish or
livestock farming.

on the age structure of the fish stocks and stock density.

23 per cent of the catch is processed into fish meal

Measured in terms of total catch weight, the Peoples

and fish oil, mainly for the feedstuffs indus-

Republic of China tops the list of the worlds leading

try, and is used in aquaculture and poultry

fishing nations by a clear margin; China claims to land an

farming, for example. The significance

estimated 14 million tonnes of fish or more annually. In

of fish in terms of its contribution to

Ma r ket ing a s
fresh produce

second place is Peru, with an annual catch weight of

the human diet also varies from re-

Freezing

around 7 million tonnes. In regional terms, the North

gion to region. Consumption of fish-

west Pacific (19.8 million tonnes) and the Southeast

ery products is heavily dependent on

Pacific (11.8 million tonnes) are the fishing areas yielding

the availability of other food sources

the largest catches.

and proximity to the sea. Worldwide,

With annual production of 7 to 10 million tonnes, the

23%

C a nning

8%

Cur ing
Non- Food
pur poses
11%

approximately 16.4 kilograms of fishery

Peruvian anchoveta is the most productive marine spe-

products (live weight) per capita per year (aver-

cies. It is a mainstay of the Peruvian fishing industry and

age for 2003 to 2005) are used for consumption.

is also caught by other countries. Second in the ranking

This figure includes products from inland fisheries and

is Alaska pollock (Theragra chalcogramma) (2.9 million

aquaculture. However, per capita consumption in the

tonnes), followed by Atlantic herring (Clupea harengus)

European Union countries (EU-15) is 25.7 kilograms

(2.4 million tonnes).

well above this average. Compared with countries such

as Spain (42.6 kilograms) and Portugal (55.4 kilograms),

Generating billions i n r e v e n u e

where fish has traditionally formed a major part of

with fish meal and gour m e t f i l l e t s

the diet, per capita consumption of fishery products in

Germany is 14.3 kilograms, and hence broadly in line

The estimated landed value of fish globally is around

with the global average.

USD 90 billion. Even more added value is generated in

Fishing and aquaculture provide employment for an

the processing industry, which turns the fresh catch into

estimated 43.5 million people worldwide, mostly in

a variety of fishery products. The commercial value of dif-

Asian and African countries. The Peoples Republic of

ferent fish species varies considerably, firstly due to the

China accounts for the major share, with more than

different amounts available on the world markets and,

12 million people employed in fishing and aquaculture.

20%

37%

126

> Cha pt e r 06

The causes of overfishing

> I t i s n o w g e n e r a l l y u n d e r s t o o d w h e n a n d w h y f i s h s t o ck s b e co m e d ep let ed .

G l o b a l d e m a n d f o r f i s h a n d t h e i n t e n s i t y o f f i s h i n g a c t i v i t y a r e k n o w n t o b e k e y f a c t o r s i n t h i s context,
but e c ol ogi c a l a spe c t s a l so pl a y a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e . T h e i n f l u e n ci n g v a r i a b l e s n e e d t o b e s t u d ied in
m or e de t a i l , how e v e r, i n or de r t o p r o v i d e a co n cl u s i v e e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e ca u s e s o f o v e r f i s h in g .

Dwindling fish stocks

sumer demand that determines to what extent the fishing

too c om pl e x f or si m pl e e x pl a nat i o n s

effort pays off for fishermen.

Fishing opportunities are also influenced by a variety

Whether a fish stock survives over the long term or is

of ecological factors. The marine ecosystem comprises

fished to the point of depletion depends on how much of

not only the various fish stocks, each characterized by

the fish is caught. This is determined primarily by the

their individual stock density and age structure, but also

fishing effort deployed. The term fishing effort com-

the biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) environment.

prises the combination of the structure of the fleet within

The biotic environment includes predators such as ma-

a given fishery, the fishing gear and fishing technology

rine mammals, birds and predatory fish, as well as prey

used, and the amount of time spent fishing. Another

such as plankton and other species of fish. It also in-

factor influencing catch volumes is consumer demand,

cludes species of flora and fauna that interact with the

e.g. for certain species of fish or for products that have

fish stocks in other ways corals are one example, as

been processed in a particular way. Ultimately, it is con-

they form habitats for fish. Key parameters of the abiotic

environment include temperature, salinity and oxygen
concentration, as well as water quality.

Sus t ainable man ag e m e nt t he Al a sk a pol l oc k f i s h e r y

The interactions between the various influencing factors occurring throughout the ecosystem are highly com-

There are many stocks of Alaska pollock (Theragra chalcogramma) in the

plex and therefore difficult to determine. They may also

Pacific, five of which are managed in accordance with the US Groundfish

change over time, for example, as a consequence of

Fishery Management Plans (FMPs). These plans contain expert groups

recommendations on the precise catch volumes that are sustainable for specific species, and are intended to ensure that fishing activity takes place in

global warming (Chapters 1, 2 and 5). Consumer demand

and fishing effort indirectly affect the marine ecosystem

accordance with the maximum sustainable yield (MSY) principle. On the aver-

as well. Depending on the volume and composition of

age, stocks have now already reached almost 80 per cent of the level required

the catch, the age structure and density of the fish stocks

for harvesting at MSY. A moderate level of fishing activity takes place, which

may change, and this can affect the coexistence of the

means that the quantities of fish being withdrawn from the sea are relatively

various species of marine flora and fauna.

small, and this level may even be less than is strictly necessary. Nonetheless,
fishermen are currently still able to harvest approximately 1.1million tonnes
annually, mainly in the Bering Sea and around the Aleutian Islands. The fishermen use nets that are trawled through the water, not dragged along the sea

Ecological and economic objectives

o f f i s h e r i e s p o l i cy

floor. This does much to conserve bottom-dwelling species. Careful selection

of nets with appropriate mesh sizes and other technical measures will also

The implementation plan adopted at the 2002 World

help to substantially reduce bycatch.

Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) in Johannesburg established the maximum quantity of fish that

E x p l o i t i n g a l i v i n g re s o u rc e : F i s h e r i e s <

Catch
Ecosystem
Fish stocks
s3TOCKDENSITY
s!GESTRUCTURE

6.10 > Schematic

Composition
s3PECIES
s3IZES
s!GE

Biotic (living) environment

s0REDATORSANDPREY
s)NTERACTIONAMONG
ALLSPECIES
Abiotic (non-living)
environment
s4EMPERATURE
s3ALINITY
s/YXGENCONCENTRATION
s7ATERQUALITY

Fishing effort

Fishing gear/technology
s&ISHINGPRODUCTIVITY
s3ELECTIVITY
Demand
consumers

Fishing activity
s4IMEOFYEAR
s4IMESPENTFISHING

s#ONSUMER
PREFERENCES
s0ROCESSING

quence, fishing is particularly profitable if the difference

worlds stocks. This is known as the maximum sustain-

between the fishing yield and the total costs is sufficient-

able yield (MSY). The MSY is the maximum annual catch

ly large. Analogous to the MSY, the value of the largest

that can be taken from a species stock over an indefinite

positive difference between total revenues and total

period without jeopardizing that stock. The volume of the

costs of fishing is known as the maximum economic

catch that can be sustained over an indefinite period

yield (MEY).

depends on the size of the stock. For many stocks, the

E co n o m i c i n ce n t i v e s f o r o v e r f i s h i n g

around half the natural equilibrium stock without fishing

activity.

overview of a marine
fishery. The white

Fleet structure
s.UMBERANDTYPEOF
VESSELS
s3IZETONNAGE
s%NGINEPOWER

can be harvested annually with a view to protecting the

size of the stock that would permit MSY is equivalent to

127

From an economic perspective, the problem of overfish-

As fish species vary in terms of their commercial value,

ing arises because marine fish stocks are a common

the economically relevant variable is not the weight of

resource: a fish, once caught, belongs to the fisherman,

the catch in tonnes but the value of the fishing yield.

whereas a fish that is still in the sea does not. Viewed in

Fishing costs are the second major economic variable

economic terms, a fish in the sea has value by virtue of

in a given fishery. An increase in fishing effort leads to

the fact that it reproduces and continues to gain in weight,

higher operating costs due to the costs of increasing

which means that the fishing yield will increase in the

inputs such as wages, fuel and fishing gear. As a conse-

future if the fish stays in the sea. So there is a price asso-

arrows show the

route taken by the
fish from the sea to
the consumer. The
dark-green arrows
show the impacts of
consumer demand
and fishing effort on
catch volumes and the
marine ecosystem.

6.11 > Even today, deep-sea fishing

is back-breaking work. However,
vessels are now equipped with
state-of-the-art fishing technology,
including aids to locate shoals of
fish.

E x p l o i t i n g a l i v i n g re s o u rc e : F i s h e r i e s <

129

ciated with catching the fish because this value is lost. In

the case of overexploited stocks, which are in particular

The profits of fishing

need of recovery, this price may even exceed the market

price obtained for the landed fish. As fish stocks are a
common resource, however, in an open and completely
unregulated open-access fishery no one ever pays the
true economic price. For that reason, the economic costs

To what extend fishing is economically profitable in the long term by considering the yield, the operating costs and the fishing effort. A specific constant
effort will result in the maximum sustainable yield (MSY) being achieved. This
is the maximum annual catch that can be taken from a species stock over an
indefinite period without jeopardizing that stock. The maximum economic

of fishing are underestimated and far more fish are caught

yield (MEY), by contrast, is a monetary variable. It is equivalent to the maxi-

than is economically sensible.

mum annual earnings from fishing, and represents the largest difference

If a fish stock is of a size that permits the maximum

economic yield (MEY) to be achieved, there is a strong
incentive for individual fishermen to deploy addition al
vessels or work additional shifts in order to increase their

between total revenues and total costs. The MEY is attained at a lower level
of effort than the MSY. Without regulation, the fishing effort would increase
for as long as fishing remained commercially viable, i.e. as long as the
earnings obtained from fishing remain positive. In an unregulated fishery, the
effort is therefore the point at which revenue and costs are equally high.

personal earnings. This means that in an open fishery, the

fishing effort will be scaled up until it is virtually impossible for any fisherman to generate any profits at all.

in many cases by direct or indirect subsidies. Every year

worldwide, more than USD 10 billion is paid to fishermen
in the form of fuel subsidies or through modernization

Maximum
economic yield
(MEY)

yield. Fishermens individual operating costs are reduced

Yield/costs ( Euro)

effort have already exceeded the value of the fishing

According to calculations by the World Bank, the global fishing effort should be reduced by 44 to 54 per cent
in order to maximize total economic benefits from global

Fishing effor t (fishing days)

fishe ry, i.e. in order to achieve maximum economi c yield.

The World Bank currently estimates the loss of future net
benefits due to overfishing to be in the order of USD

ments. Illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing

50billion annually a substantial figure comp ared with

obstructs efforts to conserve and maintain fish stocks.

the total annual landed value of fish globally, i.e. around

IUU fishing is not just carried out by a few private entre-

USD 90 billion.

preneurs who deliberately violate the law and others

A further major difficulty for successful regulation of

fishing rights. It also involves vessels registered in coun-

fishing, in terms of the maximum economic yield (MEY),

tries whose own standards do not meet those adopted by

is ongoing enforcement and monitoring. If a particular

the international community or who lack the capacities

fishery is highly profitable, fishermen may be tempted

to establish control mechanisms. Illegal, unreported and

to drive up their earnings by making illegal landings.

unregulated fishing therefore mainly harms artisanal

Around one-third of all fishery products reaching the

fisher ies in the coastal regions of developing countries.

market are estimated to come from illegal fishing, or

The annual global economic cost of IUU fishing is esti-

fishing activities that circumvent international agree-

mated to be at least USD 10 billion.

sts

ld

alized countries.

co

Yie

programmes, with 80 per cent of this in the industri-

Yield without regulation

maintained even when the direct costs of the fishing

Maximum
sustainable yield
(MSY)

Fis

Furthermore, state subsidies allow the fishery to be

g
hin

130

> Cha pt e r 06

Classic approaches to fisheries management

> F or m a n y y e a r s , a u t h o r i t i e s h a v e b e e n a t t e m p t i n g t o co n t r ol f is h in g

w i t h a v a r i e t y o f r e g u l a t o r y i n s t r u m e n t s i n o r d e r t o c o n s e r v e s t o c k s . T h e s e i n s t r u m e n ts include
fi shi ng quot a s, l i m i t s on t he nu m b e r o f f i s h i n g d a y s , a n d r e s t r i ct i o n s o n t h e e n g i n e p o w e r o f f is h in g
v e s s e l s . H o w e v e r, m a n y o f t h e s e m e a s u r e s f a i l b e c a u s e t h e q u o t a s a n d r e s t r i c t i o n s i n t r o duced are
n o t s t r i n g e n t e n o u g h , a r e n o t p r o p e r l y m o n i t o r e d , o r b e c a u s e f i s h i n g p r a c t i c e s i m p l y i gnores the
re g u l a t i o n s .

How c a n ov e r f i shi ng be a v oi de d ?

nomic yield (MEY) to be achieved in the long term.

Howe ver, TACs alone are not enough to safeguard eco-

Overfishing means that the annual catch volumes are

nomic efficiency, for at the start of every new fishing

ecologically and economically unsustainable. Ultimately,

season with a limited TAC, each fisherman would attempt

excessively high catches are the result of too much

to secure the largest possible share of the quota for him-

fishing effort. As fish stocks decline, the effort required

self by engaging in a very high fishing effort for a short

to catch a given quantity of fish continually increases.

period (also known as the race to fish). If the quota is

Fis heries policy or centralized fisheries management has

thus exhausted within a relatively short time, fishing

responded to this situation by adopting direct measures

capacity then remains unused until the next fishing

that aim to limit catch volumes or indirect measures

season. In order to give the individual fishermen a

focussing on fishing effort.

modicum of planning security throughout the entire

fishing season, the TACs are therefore allocated to

Reducing catches

individual vessels, fisherm en or cooperatives.

Fisheries policy strategies that grant fishermen the

6.12 > Deep-frozen

tuna for sale at a

In order to reduce total catch to a biologically and eco-

right, in one way or another, to determine the quantity of

Tokyo fish market.

nomically sustainable level, authorities frequently intro-

fish they will harvest over the long term are known as

largest fishing nation

duce Total Allowable Catches (TACs). Ideally, the TACs

rights-based management of fisheries. Individual trans-

in the world.

should be set at a level that allows the maximum eco-

ferable quotas (ITQs) are the prime example. Here,

Japan is the fifth-

fisherm en are allocated individual quotas, which they can

trade freely with other fishermen. Fishermen who operate relatively uneconomically are likely to sell some of
their quotas, while more economically efficient companies can purchase additional ITQs. In the long term, the
effect of this is to concentrate the quotas among a small
number of fishery enterprises, thereby ensuring that the
Total Allowable Catch is landed at lower total cost.
These concentration processes can be observed in
practice. In New Zealand, for example, where a system
of ITQs has been in place since 1986, the number of
ITQ holders was around one-third lower in 2000 than
in 1990. Obviously, not all social objectives can be
achieved solely by means of the individual transferable

E x p l o i t i n g a l i v i n g re s o u rc e : F i s h e r i e s <

/UTPUTCatch

131

)NPUTFishing effort
6.13 > Classic approaches to fisheries

Total Allowable Catch (TAC)

s,IMITSTHEMAXIMUMCATCH
PERSPECIES

Fishing licences and capacity restrictions

s'RANTINGOFFISHERIESLICENCES
s2ESTRICTIONSONFISHPRODUCTION

management either
focus directly on
restricting catches or
attempt to limit
fishing effort. However, monitoring

Landing fees
s)NTRODUCESPAYMENTSPERTONNE
OFLANDEDFISH

Technical restrictions
s#RITERIATOINCREASESELECTIVITY
s"ANSONCERTAINFISHINGPRACTICES

Individual (tradable) quotas

s!LLOCATESSHARESOFTHE4OTAL
!LLOWABLE#ATCHTOINDIVIDUAL
FISHERMENFISHERYENTERPRISES

Subsidies/taxation of inputs
s&UELSUBSIDIES
s3UPPORTFORMODERNIZATIONPROGRAMMES

Selectivity criteria (age/sex)

s%STABLISHESMINIMUMSIZECRITERIA

Limits on the number of fishing days

s.UMBEROFDAYSATSEA
s#OMPLIANCEWITHCLOSEDPERIODS

quotas, especially if there is a desire to ensure the sur-

rights-based management of fisheries has performed well

vival of small, less economically efficient fishery enter-

overall. New studies based on large datasets show that

prises. As small fishery enterprises can opt to sell their

this management approach promotes not only economic

quotas, however, they are clearly in a more favourable

efficiency but also sustainability of fisheries. For exam-

position than would be the case without the option of

ple, the share of depleted stocks in fisheries subject to

quota trading.
As a rule, quotas are specified in tonnes and are broken
down by species. However, the actual catch consists of

rights-based management is just 14 per cent far less

than the 28 per cent in fisheries without a similar type of
regulation.

fish from different age groups and levels of quality, and

As an alternative to tradable quotas, there is also the

therefore different values. This often encourages fisher

possibility of regulating overfishing using landing fees.

men to engage in the practice of high grading, i.e. the

These fees operate in a similar manner to individual

selective landing of fish so that only the best-quality fish

tradable quotas. The difference is that the fisherman

are brought ashore. Lower-quality fish are discarded back

does not buy additional quotas but pays a fee, based on

into the sea so that the quota is filled with high-grade

the amount of fish actually caught, to a designated authori-

fish.

ty. The land ing fee ensures that the true economic price

This practice reduces fish stocks without benefiting

the consumer. In some fisheries, bycatch amounts to

is paid for the fish, thereby removing any incentive for

overfishing.

40 per cent or more of the catch. This bycatch is dis-

Similar to the data requirements for setting a TAC, the

carded overboard like waste. Despite these difficulties,

fees can only be set at the optimal level if information is

these regimes is
often fraught with
difficulty.

132

> Cha pt e r 06

A negative exam p l e E U f i s h e r i e s m a n a g e m e n t
One example of a fisheries management regime which is widely

In response to this situation, the Community Fisheries Control

regarded as a failure is the current Common Fisheries Policy (CFP)

Agency (CFCA) was established in 2005 to organize operational

adopted by the European Union. The stated aim of the CFP is to help

coordination of fisheries control and inspection activities by the

conserve fish stocks and to contribute to an economically viable and

Member States and to assist them to cooperate so as to comply with

competitive fisheries and aquaculture industry. And yet, in recent

the rules of the Common EU Fisheries Policy. However, there is still

years, there has been a dramatic decline in fish stocks in some cases,

a lack of reliable data about catches, violations of the regime, and

as well as a significant decrease in fishing industry profits.

illegal fishing. In fact, there is some evidence that even the European

There is one primary reason for this: every year, the European

Commission is reluctant to impose sanctions on Member States which

Commission makes recommendations on the Total Allowable Catch

violate the CFP. For example, the Commission rarely makes use of its

(TAC) to the Council of Ministers based on scientific evidence. The

powers, conferred upon the Commission in respect of Member States

Council of Ministers, however, often disregards these recommenda-

by Articles 226 and 228 of the EC Treaty, to bring matters before the

tions because, as a rule, the priority for these ministers seems to

European Court of Justice (ECJ) if they fail to enforce the CFP in their

protect jobs in the short term, not to maintain sustainability. As a

own country.

consequence, the annual catch agreed to by the Council of Ministers

Furthermore, the subsidies paid to the European fishing industry

is generally around 48 per cent more than the scientists recommen-

create the wrong incentives. Between 2000 and 2006, some 4 billion

ded figure. The fact that 88 per cent of European fish stocks, mea-

euros were paid out in subsidies for, among other things, fleet

sured against maximum sustainable yield (MSY), are overexploited is

modernization and the fish processing industry. There are also

due in part to these excessively high catch quotas.

numerous regulations governing how the individual subsidies are to

Furthermore, the minimum sizes of fish that may be landed are

be used. These regulations are intended to prevent further increases

often so small that 50 per cent of the fish have no chance of ever

in overcapacity in the fishing fleets. In total, the European Union has

spawning before they are caught. The minimum legally permissible

an estimated 2000 rules and regulations relating to the fishing indus-

mesh sizes of fishing nets also allow fish smaller than the minimum

try, many of them difficult to understand and in some cases even

landing size to be caught. These fish amounting to as much as

contradictory. From a legal perspective, a further factor in the failure

40per cent of the catch die as a result of capture and are general-

of the CFP is thus the lack of transparency in the measures adopted

ly discarded overboard. The CFP has introduced a range of regulato-

by the European Union. Due to the different interests and priorities,

ry instruments, such as the annual Total Allowable Catch (TAC),

as well as the different election schedules in the various Member

restrictions on the permissible number of fishing days, fleet reduc-

States, it is very difficult to achieve a consensus among the national

tions, and limits on the size and engine power of fishing vessels.

ministers responsible for fisheries, who decide the annual Total Allow-

Besides numerous regulations relating to fishing technology, such as

able Catches (TACs) in the Council of Ministers. As a consequence,

minimum mesh sizes, the CFP also allows some fishing grounds to be

measures adopted within the CFP framework generally tend to be

closed. Enforcement of the regime involves monitoring and sanctions.

geared toward the lowest common denominator. Given the flawed

However, in a highly diverse community like the European Union, this

state of fisheries in the European Union, the European Union is now

is fraught with difficulty, for in practice every Member State applies

planning a comprehensive reform of the CFP. At present, numerous

the regime with varying levels of efficiency. There is very little incen-

proposals are being discussed for the framing of a new CFP to be

tive for a Member State to impose stringent controls on its fishing

adopted in 2012. In order to ensure that the new CFP has legitimacy,

fleet if neighbour states fishing the same waters fail to do so. A

the existing regional advisory bodies that bring together various

further problem is that bycatch is not recorded or sanctioned. This

interest groups fishermen, scientists, politicians and environmental

means that fishermen can fish above their quota and simply discard

organizations should be expanded. Admittedly, it is still too early

the surplus by dumping it overboard. This common practice, which is

at this stage for a conclusive assessment, but hopefully this will

known as high grading, consistently undermines the annual fishing

promote more transparency and more broad-based practical support

quotas set by the Council of Ministers.

for the CFPs objectives.

E x p l o i t i n g a l i v i n g re s o u rc e : F i s h e r i e s <

Fixin g To tal Allo w a bl e Ca t c he s ( TACs)

with in th e frame w or k of t he E Us Com m on F i sh e r i e s P o l i cy

European Commission
s$IRECTORATE 'ENERAL
FOR-ARITIME!FFAIRS
AND&ISHERIES
0ROPOSESA4OTAL!LLOWABLE
#ATCH4!# TOTHE#OUNCIL
OF-INISTERSBASEDON
SCIENTIFICRECOMMENDATIONS

Council of the
European Union
s!GRICULTUREAND
&ISHERIES#OUNCIL
s#OUNCILOF-INISTERS
2ESPONSIBLEFORTHE
ANNUALMULTIANNUAL
FIXINGOFTHE4!#AND
ALLOCATIONTO-EMBER
3TATES

Scientific Advice
s)NTERNATIONAL#OUNCILFOR
THE%XPLORATIONOFTHE3EA
)#%3
s3CIENTIFIC4ECHNICALAND
%CONOMIC#OMMITTEEFOR
&ISHERIES34%#&
4HESEBODIESREVIEW
STOCKTRENDSAND
RECOMMEND4OTAL
!LLOWABLE#ATCHES

Member States
'ERMANY
s&EDERAL-INISTRYOF&OOD
!GRICULTUREAND#ONSUMER
0ROTECTION"-%,6
s&EDERAL!GENCYFOR
!GRICULTUREAND&OOD",%
4HESEIMPLEMENT
FISHERIESPOLICYAND
ALLOCATENATIONAL
QUOTASTOINDIVIDUAL
FISHERMEN

Supervision of Fisheries
s#OMMUNITY&ISHERIES
#ONTROL!GENCY#&#!
s.ATIONALAGENCIES
EG&EDERAL!GENCYFOR
!GRICULTUREAND&OOD;",%=
IN'ERMANY
2ESPONSIBLEFOR
RECORDINGCATCHES
ANDMONITORING
COMPLIANCEWITHLEGAL
PROVISIONSBYCARRYING
OUTINSPECTIONS

Fisheries
s%NTERPRISESAND
COOPERATIVES
4HESEREPORTCATCHES
FISHINGREGIONSAND
TIMESTOTHESUPERVISORY
AUTHORITIES

133

134

6.14 > Different

> Cha pt e r 06

Fishing gear

How it works

Bycatch
(other fish species)

Bycatch
(turtles, seabirds,
mammals)

Adverse
impacts on
sea floor

Gillnet

The gillnet is anchored at

a fixed position in the
water. The fish are
caught in the mesh.

Low level of bycatch of

other species, not least
due to the specific
sites selected for the
setting of gillnets.

High levels in some

cases. The use of
acoustic deterrent
devices (pingers)
is not particularly
effective.

Minimal

Pound ne t

The net is anchored at

a fixed position in the
water. Fish are caught
in the closed end of the
net.

Not a problem as
bycatch remains alive.

Nets should be
covered to prevent
birds from being
caught. Very little
data available about
bycatches of mammals and turtles.

Minimal

Purse seine

The purse seine is a net

that is used to encircle a
school of fish. The net is
then drawn together to
retain the fish by using
a line at the bottom,
allowing the net to be
closed like a purse.

Low, as purse seines

target schools of one
species.

High levels of
dolphin bycatch.
Mitigation techniques are now
reducing dolphin
bycatch in purse
seine gear.

None

Pelagic trawl

This is a funnel-shaped
net that is towed by
one or two vessels. The
fish are captured in the
cod end, i.e. the
trailing end of the net.

Can be a problem in
some areas, depending
which species is being
targeted for trawling.

Low

None

Bottom trawl

Works in a similar way

to the pelagic trawl, but
is dragged along the
seabed.

Can be a problem in
some areas, depending
which species is being
targeted for trawling.

Low

High, depending
on the type of
trawl gear used.

Beam trawl

The net is mounted on a

heavy metal beam and is
towed along the seabed.

Can be a problem in
some areas, depending
which species is being
targeted for trawling.

Low

Very high: the

beams and
chains plough up
the seabed to a
depth of several
centimetres.

Long-line

Consists of a long main

line with a large number
of short lines (called
snoods) carrying numerous baited hooks.

Can be a problem in
some areas, depending
which species is being
targeted. Sharks are
the most common
bycatch.

Problematical in
some fisheries,
posing a threat to
seabirds and turtles.

None

fishing techniques
have various impacts
on fish stocks and
the marine environment.

E x p l o i t i n g a l i v i n g re s o u rc e : F i s h e r i e s <

135

available about the structure and size of fish stocks. Here,

the main problem is that fishermen reject the concept of
direct payments for, unlike quotas, which are allocated
free of charge, these fees reduce their earnings. Landing
fees therefore play only a minor role in practical fisheries
policy at present.
R es tr ictin g fish ing e ff or t

In addition to the use of quotas, fishing can also be regulated by restricting the fishing effort. For example, fishing
capacity can be limited by capping the number of licences
available for allocation to fishing vessels or by restricting
the engine power or size of vessels. It is also possible to
limit the duration of fishing, e.g. by capping the number
of days that may be spent at sea.
Effort-based regulation offers fishermen a number of

A l l o ca t i n g f i s h i n g r i g h t s

6.15 > Blast fishing

the practice of using

loopholes, however. Fishermen frequently circumvent

explosives to kill

the restrictions on fishing time by increasing their fishing

Territorial use rights in fisheries (TURF) are an alterna-

capacity. They can thus harvest the same quantity of fish

tive to centralized approaches to fisheries management.

most places around

in a reduced number of days spent at sea. A well-known

Here, individual users or specific user groups, such as

the world as it kills

example is the Pacific halibut fishery, where at the end

cooperatives, are allocated a long-term and exclusive

of the 1980s, fishing was only permitted for three days a

right to fish a geographically limited area of the sea.

areas where there is

year. In practice, during this very short fishing season, a

Catches and fishing effort are decided upon by the indi-

very little control of

vast fishing fleet was deployed and caught the same

vidual fishermen or user groups.

quantity of fish as had previously been harvested in an

entire year.

This self-organization by the private sector can also

help to achieve a substantial reduction in government

Moreover, an effort-based regime requires constant

expenditure on regulation and control. Users also have a

adaptation to bring it into line with the latest technologi-

vested interest in ensuring that they do not overexploit

cal developments. Increasingly efficient technology to

the stocks, as this is necessary to safeguard their own

locate fish shoals, for example, makes it possible to track

incomes in the long term. However, a use right for a

and harvest a given quantity of fish in ever shorter time

stock of fish or other living resource in the ocean is exclu-

periods. Increasingly detailed legal provisions are also

sive only for non-migratory species such as crustacea and

required, ultimately leading to overregulation and gener-

molluscs.

ating high economic costs.

One example of successful management by means of

Nonetheless, experts agree that some regulation of

territorial use rights is the artisanal coastal fishery in

fishing technology and practices is essential. For exam-

Chile, which mainly harvests bottom-living species, par-

ple, fishing methods that inflict particularly severe

ticularly sea urchins and oysters. Fishermen here have

damage on the marine ecosystem are banned in many

shown that they have a vested interest in pursuing

regions; these methods include blast fishing, which uses

sustainable fishing once they have the prospect of ob

explosives and indiscriminately kills all the fish within

taining secure revenues from these fishing practices over

a given area.

the long term.

fish is banned in

a large number of
marine organisms. In

fishing practices by
the authorities, some
fishermen continue
to deploy this devastating technique, as
seen here in Brazil.

136

> Cha pt e r 06

Toward more sustainable fisheries

> I n o r d e r t o i m p r o v e t h e s i t u a t i o n a n d e n s u r e t h a t f i s h s t o c k s a r e managed

sust a i na bl y, t he c ur r e nt a ppr oa ch t o f i s h e r i e s m a n a g e m e n t u r g e n t l y n e e d s t o b e r e f o r m e d . To p r o te c t f i s h s t o c k s i n t h e f u t u r e , g r e a t e r a c c o u n t m u s t a l s o b e t a k e n o f t h e e c o l o g i c a l l i n k a g e s between

v a r i ous f i sh spe c i e s a nd t he i r h a b i t a t s , a s s o f a r, s t o ck s h a v e t e n d e d t o b e v i e w e d i n i s o l a t io n .

Ta ngi bl e sc ope f or i m pr ov e m e n t

(VMS), enable the routes taken by industrial fishing

vessels to be tracked. However, one problem is defining

In view of the weaknesses described, a reform of the

the right size for the protected area. If the protected area

existing approach to fisheries management is urgently

is too small, its effect will be limited, as fish will migrate

needed. It would be sensible to start by applying the clas-

out of the protected area and will be caught elsewhere.

sic instruments used to regulate catches far more consis-

And indeed, a higher level of fishing activity has been

tently and enforce them more effectively. It must be

observed on the periphery of existing protected areas

borne in mind, in this context, that a quota can only be

compared with elsewhere. If it is too large, however, the

effective if it is set at a sufficiently stringent level. In

stock may recover within the protected area, but this

addition to better quota regimes, instruments such as the

does not benefit the fishery, which has no access to these

establishment of marine protected areas and certification

increased fish stocks.

of sustainable fisheries can also contribute to sustainable

fisheries management.

It would seem that areas providing refuge for juveniles

are most suitable as protected areas for the purpose of
fisheries management. Heavily overfished maritime

M a r i ne pr ot e c t e d a r e a s ha v e n s f o r

regions, where very few fish can be caught in any case,

endangered species

may also be suitable for designation as marine protected

areas. However, the refuge areas used by the juveniles

Marine protected areas are geographically defined areas

of various species are often distributed across many

of the sea in which all or some economic activities

different maritime regions, so a single protected area

especially fishing are prohibited. Closing off these areas

may not always help to protect several species at once.

helps to conserve marine ecosystems, especially by protecting endangered species or unique habitats such as

T h e d i ff i c u l t q u e s t f o r t h e r i g h t p r o t e c ted area

coral reefs. Since 2004, for example, the North East

t h e ca s e o f t h e B a l t i c S e a co d

Atlantic Fisheries Commission (NEAFC) has banned the

use of bottom trawls in some areas in order to protect

It is extremely difficult to determine exactly which re-

cold-water corals.

gion is the right one in which to establish a marine pro-

Various studies have shown that marine protected

tected area, as the example of the Baltic Sea cod clearly

areas can help to support the recovery of fish stocks. One

illustrates. As a result of severe overfishing and unfavour-

advantage of protected areas is that they are relatively

able environmental conditions such as oxygen depletion

easy to establish and monitor. Satellite-based location

in the deep water, stocks of Baltic Sea cod massively

and electronic logbook systems, known as Vessel Detec-

declined in the 1980s, falling to around one-seventh of

tion Systems (VDS) and Vessel Monitoring Systems

their former levels within just a few years. Despite some

E x p l o i t i n g a l i v i n g re s o u rc e : F i s h e r i e s <

137

Protected area
Breeding ground

S W EDEN

LAT VIA

GB

LIT HUANIA

6.16 > In order to

promote the recovery
of cod, protected
areas were estab-

GD

lished in the deep

BB

basins of the Baltic

R USSIAN
FEDER AT ION

POLAND

Sea (red). In the case

of the Bornholm Basin
(BB), however, the

Marine protected areas

for the Baltic Sea cod

survival rate of the

Deep basins in the Baltic Sea

Sea cod (shown in

brood of the Baltic

orange above) proved

G E R MA N Y

to be highest outside
the protected area.

recovery in recent years, stocks are still well below a

the sea with high spawning activity, current studies

level that would permit harvesting at maximum sustain-

show that there are spatial differences in mortality.

able yield (MSY).

The highest survival rates of larvae and juveniles are,

In order to constrain the fishing of spawning populations and stabilize the radically depleted stock, fishing

it seems, found on the margins of the Bornholm Basin,

i.e. outside the current protected area.

bans were imposed in some areas of the Baltic Sea. The

This study suggests that the wrong location may pos-

Bornholm Basin (BB) is particularly important for the

sibly have been chosen for the protected area. As a con-

continued existence of the Baltic Sea cod, as the survival

sequence, the areas that are important for the survival of

rate of eggs and larvae in the more easterly spawning

the species are inadequately protected, and there is even

grounds such as the Gotland Basin (GB) and the Gdansk

a risk that the protected area has a counterproductive

Basin (GD) is relatively low due to the often poor oxygen

effect, as fishing activity is now shifting to the major

conditions here.

spawning grounds.

The fishing ban area in the Bornholm Basin was first

Despite these setbacks, however, protected areas are

established for the period from May to August 1995.

an important building block for the conservation or

Despite the progressive expansion of the protected area

recovery of a stock. However, the example also shows

in subsequent years, however, no significant stock

that the establishment of protected areas is only really

imp rovem ent was observed. The reason for this is that,

beneficial if it is based on adequate ecological and eco-

although the protected area is located in an area of

nomic data.

138

> Cha pt e r 06

6.17 > Cod is common throughout

the North Atlantic. Its western stocks
have been depleted by fishing, however. Protected areas for cod have
been established in the Baltic Sea.

E x p l o i t i n g a l i v i n g re s o u rc e : F i s h e r i e s <

C erti f icatio n o f sust a i na bl e f i she r i e s

139

particular criticism, such as the use of beam trawls,

which destroy seabed habitats. Two of the best-known

The complex economic interactions between the various

movements are the Marine Stewardship Council and the

influencing factors, such as consumer demand for dif-

Friend of the Sea initiative.

ferent species of fish, are often still not considered in

The Marine Stewardship Council (MSC) was founded

conventional fisheries management. For this reason,

in 1997 by an environmental organization and an inter-

non-governmental organizations and some initiatives

national food corporation, and has operated on an inde-

supported by the private sector are opting for a different

pendent basis since 1999. The Friend of the Sea initiative

solution.

was also established by an environmental organization

Their aim is to influence consumer demand by means

and is notable for the fact that it certifies aquaculture

of information campaigns and the certification of sus-

products as well. Critics of these certification schemes

tainable fishery products with a view toward reducing

complain about the often inadequate ecological criteria

6.18 > The Marine

demand for overexploited species, and encouraging con-

established for certified fishery products. A further point

Stewardship Council

sumers to choose products from sustainable fisheries

of contention is to what extent demand for certified fish

instead. The idea is to encourage producers, over the long

is genuinely replacing the demand for conventionally

vation organization

term, to respond to this shift in consumer demand and

caught fish, or whether it is in fact generating additional

WWF and the food

switch to more sustainable methods of production.

demand for fishery products.

the nature conser-

corporation Unilever
in 1997 in order to

Certification is therefore conditional upon fulfilment of

Overall, then, demand-oriented approaches may be a

specific production criteria, such as a commitment to

good way of enhancing sound fisheries management, but

refrain from fishing endangered stocks and from deploy-

are not an sufficient solution on their own to guarantee

ing destructive fishing techniques that have attracted

sustainable fisheries.

C onc lus i on
I s s us tain ab le fishi ng f e a si bl e ?

was established by

arising in the future will be to achieve a better

understanding of the connections between human

Fishing contributes significantly to our food supply

influence on the ecosystems and the development

and provides a source of income for millions of

of natural resources, in order to establish a sustain-

people. Most fish stocks worldwide, however, have

able and economically viable marine fisheries sec-

been fished to the limits of their capacity or beyond.

tor. Furthermore, successful fisheries management

In the interest of sustainable fishing, it would be

must take account of the economic interactions

sensible to start by applying the classic instruments

between various fisheries.

used to regulate catches far more consistently than

Maintaining natural resources is, ultimately, the

hitherto, and to enforce them more effectively. It

key prerequisite for achieving long-term and sus-

must be borne in mind, in this context, that a quota

tainable revenues. Successful fisheries management

can only be effective if it is set at a sufficiently strin-

will increase the profitability and productivity of the

gent level. The basic prerequisites for a sustainable

fishing industry. If stocks are given the chance to

and efficient fishing industry are effective national

recover, this will also benefit the industry. Much

and international institutions to establish and moni-

higher yields could then be achieved in the long

tor fisheries policy. One of the greatest challenges

run, at greatly reduced fishing costs.

promote responsible
fishing.

Ta bl e of f i gur e s c ha pt e r 6
pp. 118119: Arctic- Images/Corbis, Fig.6.1: after Quaas, FAO Fishstat,
Fig. 6.2: imago/Xinhua, Fig. 6.3: after FAO Fishstat, Fig. 6.4: after FAO, Fig. 6.5:
after FAO Fishstat, Fig. 6.6: after FAO Fishstat, Fig. 6.7: links: dpa PictureAlliance/PA, rechts: dpa Picture-Alliance/UPI, Fig. 6.8: after Quaas,
FAO Fishstat, Fig.6.9: after FAO Fishstat, Fig. 6.10: after Quaas, Fig. 6.11: Jean
Gaumy/Magnum Photos/Agentur Focus, Fig. p. 129: after Quaas, Fig. 6.12:
Pierre Tremblay/Masterfile, Fig.6.13: after Quaas, Fig. p. 133: after Quaas,
Fig.6.14: maribus, Fig. 6.15: M. Tristao/UNEP/Still Pictures/OKAPIA, Fig.6.16:
after Rudi Voss/Bastian Huwer, DTU-Aqua, Fig. 6.17: Peter Verhoog/
Foto Natura/MINDEN PICTURES/Getty Images, Fig. 6.18: www.msc.org
Reproduction, translation, microfilming, electronic processing and transmission
in any form or by any means are prohibited without the prior permission in
writing of maribus gGmbH. All the graphics in the World Ocean Review were
produced exclusively by Walther-Maria Scheid, Berlin. The list of illustrations
states the original sources which were used as a basis for the preparation of
the illustrations in some cases.

P ubl i c a t i on de t a i l s
Project manager: Jan Lehmkster
Editing: Tim Schrder
Copy editing: Dimitri Ladischensky
Editorial team at the Cluster of Excellence: Dr. Kirsten Schfer,
Dr. Emanuel Sding, Dr. Martina Zeller
Design and typesetting: Simone Hoschack
Photo-editing: Petra Kossmann
Graphics: Walther-Maria Scheid
Printing: Druckhaus Berlin-Mitte GmbH
Paper: Recysatin, FSC-certified
ISBN 978-3-86648-012-4
Published by: maribus gGmbH, Pickhuben 2, 20457 Hamburg
www.maribus.com