Contents

35

Sets and Probability

35.1 Sets

35.2 Elementary Probability

14

35.3 Addition and Multiplication Laws of Probability

29

35.4 Total Probability and Bayes Theorem

44

Learning outcomes
In this Workbook you will learn about probability. In the first Section you will learn about
sets and how they may be combined together using the operations of union and
intersection. Then you will learn how to apply the notation of sets to the notion of
probability and learn about the fundamental laws of probability.

35.1

Sets
Introduction

If we can identify a property which is common to several objects, it is often useful to group them
together. Such a grouping is called a set. Engineers for example, may wish to study all components
of a production run which fail to meet some specified tolerance. Mathematicians may look at sets of
numbers with particular properties, for example, the set of all even numbers, or the set of all numbers
greater than zero. In this block we introduce some terminology that is commonly used to describe
sets, and practice using set notation. This notation will be particularly useful when we come to study
probability in Section 35.2.

Prerequisites

have knowledge of basic algebra

Before starting this Section you should . . .


'


$

state what is meant by a set

use set notation

Learning Outcomes
On completion you should be able to . . .

&

explain the concepts of the intersection and

union of two sets
define what is meant by the complement of a
set
use Venn diagrams to illustrate sets
HELM (2008):
Workbook 35: Sets and Probability

1. Sets
A set is any collection of objects. Here, the word object is used in its most general sense: an object
may be a diode, an aircraft, a number, or a letter, for example.
A set is often described by listing the collection of objects - these are the members or elements of
the set. We usually write this list of elements in curly brackets, and denote the full set by a capital
letter. For example,
C = {the resistors produced in a factory on a particular day}
D = {on, off}
E = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}
The elements of set C, above, are the resistors produced in a factory on a particular day. These
could be individually labeled and listed individually but as the number is large it is not practical or
sensible to do this. Set D lists the two possible states of a simple switch, and the elements of set E
are the digits used in the decimal system.
Sometimes we can describe a set in words. For example,
A is the set all odd numbers.
Clearly all the elements of this set A cannot be listed.
Similarly,
B is the set of binary digits i.e. B = {0, 1}.
B has only two elements.
A set with a finite number of elements is called a finite set. B, C, D and E are finite sets. The set
A has an infinite number of elements and so is not a finite set. It is called an infinite set.
Two sets are equal if they contain exactly the same elements. For example, the sets {9, 10, 14} and
{10, 14, 9} are equal since the order in which elements are written is unimportant. Note also that
repeated elements are ignored. The set {2, 3, 3, 3, 5, 5} is equal to the set {2, 3, 5}.

Subsets
Sometimes one set is contained completely within another set. For example if X = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6} and Y =
{2, 3, 6} then all the elements of Y are also elements of X. We say that Y is a subset of X and
write Y X.

Example 1
Given A = {0, 1, 2, 3}, B = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} and C = {0, 1}, state which sets
are subsets of other sets.

Solution
A is a subset of B, that is A B
C is a subset of B, that is C B
C is a subset of A, that is C A.

HELM (2008):
Section 35.1: Sets

Task
A factory produces cars over a five day period; Monday to Friday. Consider the
following sets,
(a) A = {cars produced from Monday to Friday}
(b) B = {cars produced from Monday to Thursday}
(c) C = {cars produced on Friday}
(d) D = {cars produced on Wednesday}
(e) E = {cars produced on Wednesday or Thursday}
State which sets are subsets of other sets.

Your solution

Answer
(a) B is a subset of A, that is, B A.
(b) C is a subset of A, that is, C A.
(c) D is a subset of A, that is, D A.
(d) E is a subset of A, that is, E A.
(e) D is a subset of B, that is, D B.
(f) E is a subset of B, that is, E B.
(g) D is a subset of E, that is, D E.

HELM (2008):
Workbook 35: Sets and Probability

The symbol
To show that an element belongs to a particular set we use the symbol . This symbol means is a
member of or belongs to. The symbol 6 means is not a member of or does not belong to.
For example if X = {all even numbers} then we may write 4 X, 6 X, 7 6 X and 11 6 X.

The empty set and the universal set

Sometimes a set will contain no elements. For example, suppose we define the set K by
K = {all odd numbers which are divisible by 4}
Since there are no odd numbers which are divisible by 4, then K has no elements. The set with no
elements is called the empty set, and it is denoted by .
On the other hand, the set containing all the objects of interest in a particular situation is called the
universal set, denoted by S. The precise universal set will depend upon the context. If, for example,
we are concerned only with whole numbers then S = { 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, . . . }.
If we are concerned only with the decimal digits then S = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}.

The complement of a set

Given a set A and a universal set S we can define a new set, called the complement of A and
denoted by A0 . The complement of A contains all the elements of the universal set that are not in
A.

Example 2
Given A = {2, 3, 7}, B = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4} and S = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} state
(a) A0 (b) B 0

Solution
(a) The elements of A0 are those which belong to S but not to A.
A0 = {0, 1, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9}
(b) B 0 = {5, 6, 7, 8, 9}

Sometimes a set is described in a mathematical way. Suppose the set Q contains all numbers which
are divisible by 4 and 7. We can write
Q = {x : x is divisible by 4 and x is divisible by 7}
The symbol : stands for such that . We read the above as Q is the set comprising all elements x,
such that x is divisible by 4 and by 7.

HELM (2008):
Section 35.1: Sets

2. Venn diagrams
Sets are often represented pictorially by Venn diagrams (see Figure 1).

S
Figure 1
Here A, B, C, D represent sets. The sets A, B have no items in common so are drawn as nonintersecting regions whilst the sets C, D have some items in common so are drawn overlapping.
In a Venn diagram the universal set is represented by a rectangle and sets of interest by area regions
within this rectangle.

Example 3
Represent the sets A = {0, 1} and B = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4} using a Venn diagram.

Solution
The elements 0 and 1 are in set A, represented by the small circle in the diagram. The large circle
represents set B and so contains the elements 0,1,2,3 and 4. A suitable universal set in this case is
the set of all integers. The universal set is shown by the rectangle.
Note that A B. This is shown in the Venn diagram by A being completely inside B.

0
1

3
4

B
S

Figure 2: The set A is contained completely within B

HELM (2008):
Workbook 35: Sets and Probability

Task
Given A = {0, 1} and B = {2, 3, 4} draw Venn diagrams showing
(a) A and B
(b) A0 (c) B 0

Your solution
(a)

Answer
Note that A and B have no elements in common. This is represented pictorially in the Venn
diagram by circles which are totally separate from each other as shown in the diagram.
A

0
1

3
4
S

Your solution
(b)

Answer
The complement of A is the set whose elements do not belong to A. The set A0 is shown shaded
in the diagram.

The complement of A contains elements which are not in A.

HELM (2008):
Section 35.1: Sets

Your solution
(c)

Answer
The set B 0 is shown shaded in the diagram.

B
S

3. The intersection and union of sets

Intersection
Given two sets, A and B, the intersection of A and B is a set which contains elements that are
common both to A and B. We write A B to denote the intersection of A and B. Mathematically
we write this as:

Key Point 1
Intersection of Sets
A B = {x : x A and x B}
This says that the intersection contains all the elements x such that x belongs to A and also x
belongs to B.

Note that A B and B A are identical. The intersection of two sets can be represented by a Venn
diagram as shown in Figure 3.

HELM (2008):
Workbook 35: Sets and Probability

S
AB

Figure 3: The overlapping area represents A B

Example 4
Given A = {3, 4, 5, 6}, B = {3, 5, 9, 10, 15} and C = {4, 6, 10} state
(a) A B, (b) B C and draw a Venn diagram representing these intersections.

Solution
(a) The elements common to both A and B are 3 and 5. Hence A B = {3, 5}
(b) The only element common to B and C is 10. Hence B C = {10}
A

5
B

6 4

9 15

10
S

Figure 4

Task
Given D = {a, b, c} and F = {the entire alphabet} state D F .

Your solution

Answer
The elements common to D and F are a, b and c, and so D F = {a, b, c}
Note that D is a subset of F and so D F = D.
The intersection of three or more sets is possible, and is the subject of the next Example.
HELM (2008):
Section 35.1: Sets

Example 5
Given A = {0, 1, 2, 3}, B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and C = {2, 3, 4, 7, 9} state
(a) A B

(b) (A B) C

(c) B C

(d) A (B C)

Solution
(a) The elements common to A and B are 1, 2 and 3 so A B = {1, 2, 3}.
(b) We need to consider the sets (A B) and C. A B is given in (a). The elements
common to (A B) and C are 2 and 3. Hence (A B) C = {2, 3}.
(c) The elements common to B and C are 2, 3 and 4 so B C = {2, 3, 4}.
(d) We look at the sets A and (B C). The common elements are 2 and 3. Hence
A (B C) = {2, 3}.
Note from (b) and (d) that here (A B) C = A (B C).

The example illustrates a general rule. For any sets A, B and C it is true that
(A B) C = A (B C)
The position of the brackets is thus unimportant. They are usually omitted and we write A B C.
Suppose that sets A and B have no elements in common. Then their intersection contains no
elements and we say that A and B are disjoint sets. We express this as
AB =
Recall that is the empty set. Disjoint sets are represented by separate area regions in the Venn
diagram.

Union
The union of two sets A and B is a set which contains all the elements of A together with all the
elements of B. We write A B to denote the union of A and B. We can describe the set A B
formally by:

Key Point 2
Union of Sets
A B = {x : x A or x B or both}

10

HELM (2008):
Workbook 35: Sets and Probability

Thus the elements of the set A B are those quantities x such that x is a member of A or a member
of B or a member of both A and B. The deeply shaded areas of Figure 5 represents A B.

AB

AB

(a)

(b)

Figure 5
In Figure 5(a) the sets intersect, whereas in Figure 5(b) the sets have no region in common. We say
they are disjoint.

Example 6
Given A = {0, 1}, B = {1, 2, 3} and C = {2, 3, 4, 5} write down
(a) A B
(b) A C
(c) B C

Solution
(a) A B = {0, 1, 2, 3}
(b) A C = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
(c) B C = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}.

Recall that there is no need to repeat elements in a set. Clearly the order of the union is unimportant
so A B = B A.

HELM (2008):
Section 35.1: Sets

11

Task
Given A = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, B = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} and C = {3, 5, 7, 9, 11} state
(a) A B (b) (A B) C (c) A B
(d) (A B) C
(e) A B C

Your solution

Answer
(a) A B = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10}
(b) We need to look at the sets (A B) and C. The elements common to both of these
sets are 3 and 5. Hence (A B) C = {3, 5}.
(c) A B = {2, 4, 6}
(d) We consider the sets (A B) and C. We form the union of these two sets to obtain
(A B) C = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 11}.
(e) The set formed by the union of all three sets will contain all the elements from all the
sets:
A B C = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11}

12

HELM (2008):
Workbook 35: Sets and Probability

Exercises
1. Given a set A, its complement A0 and a universal set S, state which of the following expressions
are true and which are false.
(a) A A0 = S (b) A S = (c) A A0 =
(d) A A0 = S (e) A = S (f) A = A
(g) A =
(h) A = A (i) A =
(j) A S = A
(k) A S = (l) A S = S
2. Given A = {a, b, c, d, e, f }, B = {a, c, d, f, h} and C = {e, f, x, y} obtain the sets:
(a) A B
(d) C (B A)

(b) B C
(e) A B C

(c) A (B C)
(f) B (A C)

3. List the elements of the following sets:

(a) A = {x : x is odd and x is greater than 0 and less than 12}
(b) B = {x : x is even and x is greater than 19 and less than 31}
4. Given A = {5, 6, 7, 9}, B = {0, 2, 4, 6, 8} and S = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} list the elements
of each of the following sets:
(a) A0
(d) A0 B 0
(g) (A B)0

(b) B 0
(e) A B
(h) (A0 B)0

(c) A0 B 0
(f) (A B)0
(i) (B 0 A)0

What do you notice about your answers to (c),(g)?

What do you notice about your answers to (d),(f)?
5. Given that A and B are intersecting sets, i.e. are not disjoint, show on a Venn diagran the
following sets
(a) A0

(b) B 0

(c) A B 0

(d) A0 B 0

(e) A0 B 0

Answers
1.(a) T, (b) F, (c) T, (d) F, (e) F, (f) T, (g) F, (h) F, (i) T, (j) F, (k) F), (l) T.
2.(a) {a, b, c, d, e, f, h}, (b) {f }, (c) {a, c, d, e, f }, (d) {e, f }, (e) {f }, (f) {a, c, d, e, f, h}.
3.(a) {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11}, (b) {20, 22, 24, 26, 28, 30}.
4.(a) {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 8}, (b) {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}, (c) {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9}, (d) {1, 3},
(e) {0, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}, (f) {1, 3}, (g) {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9}, (h) {1, 3, 5, 6, 7, 9},
(i) {0, 2, 4, 8}.
5.
B

HELM (2008):
Section 35.1: Sets

(b)

(a)

(c)

B
S

(d)

(e)

13