FEM Lecture Notes

Lecture Notes: Introduction to the Finite Element Method
Lecture Notes: Introduction to the
Finite Element Method

Yijun Liu
CAE Research Laboratory
Mechanical Engineering Department
University of Cincinnati
Cincinnati, OH 45221-0072, U.S.A.
E-mail:
Web:
Yijun.Liu@uc.edu
http://urbana.mie.uc.edu/yliu
This document is downloaded from the course website:

http://urbana.mie.uc.edu/yliu/FEM-525/FEM-525.htm
(Last Updated: May 21, 2003)
1997-2003 by Yijun Liu, University of Cincinnati.

1997-2003 Yijun Liu, University of Cincinnati
Copyright Notice
1997-2003 by Yijun Liu, University of Cincinnati.
All rights reserved. Permissions are granted for personal
and educational uses only. Any other uses of these lecture
notes (such as for classroom lectures outside the University
of Cincinnati, trainings elsewhere, and those of a
commercial nature) are not permitted, unless such uses
have been granted in writing by the author.
ii
Table of Contents
Copyright Notice ....................................................................................................... ii
Table of Contents ..................................................................................................... iii
Preface .......................................................................................................................v
Chapter 1. Introduction ............................................................................................1
I. Basic Concepts ...................................................................................................1
II. Review of Matrix Algebra .................................................................................7
III. Spring Element ..............................................................................................14
Chapter 2. Bar and Beam Elements.......................................................................25
I. Linear Static Analysis .......................................................................................25
II. Bar Element .....................................................................................................26
III. Beam Element .................................................................................................53
Chapter 3. Two-Dimensional Problems ................................................................75
I. Review of the Basic Theory ...............................................................................75
II. Finite Elements for 2-D Problems ..................................................................82
Chapter 4. Finite Element Modeling and Solution Techniques........................... 105
I. Symmetry ........................................................................................................ 105
II. Substructures (Superelements) ..................................................................... 107
III. Equation Solving......................................................................................... 109
IV. Nature of Finite Element Solutions ............................................................. 112
V. Numerical Error............................................................................................ 114
iii
VI. Convergence of FE Solutions ...................................................................... 116

VII. Adaptivity (h-, p-, and hp-Methods) ........................................................... 117
Chapter 5. Plate and Shell Elements ................................................................... 119
I. Plate Theory ................................................................................................... 119
II. Plate Elements ............................................................................................. 129
III. Shells and Shell Elements........................................................................... 133
Chapter 6. Solid Elements for 3-D Problems ..................................................... 138
I. 3-D Elasticity Theory ..................................................................................... 138
II. Finite Element Formulation.......................................................................... 142
III. Typical 3-D Solid Elements ......................................................................... 144
Chapter 7. Structural Vibration and Dynamics................................................... 157
I. Basic Equations.............................................................................................. 157
II. Free Vibration............................................................................................... 163
III. Damping ...................................................................................................... 167
IV. Modal Equations.......................................................................................... 168
V. Frequency Response Analysis....................................................................... 171
VI. Transient Response Analysis ....................................................................... 172
Chapter 8. Thermal Analysis ............................................................................... 177
I. Temperature Field.......................................................................................... 177
II. Thermal Stress Analysis................................................................................ 180
Further Reading.................................................................................................... 183
iv
Preface
These online lecture notes (in the form of an e-book) are intended to serve as
an introduction to the finite element method (FEM) for undergraduate students or
other readers who have no previous experience with this computational method.
The notes cover the basic concepts in the FEM using the simplest mechanics
problems as examples, and lead to the discussions and applications of the 1-D bar
and beam, 2-D plane and 3-D solid elements in the analyses of structural stresses,
vibrations and dynamics. The proper usage of the FEM, as a popular numerical
tool in engineering, is emphasized throughout the notes.
This online document is based on the lecture notes developed by the author
since 1997 for the undergraduate course on the FEM in the mechanical engineering
department at the University of Cincinnati. Since this is an e-book, the author
suggests that the readers keep it that way and view it either online or offline on
his/her computer. The contents and styles of these notes will definitely change
from time to time, and therefore hard copies may become obsolete immediately
after they are printed. Readers are welcome to contact the author for any
suggestions on improving this e-book and to report any mistakes in the
presentations of the subjects or typographical errors. The ultimate goal of this ebook on the FEM is to make it readily available for students, researchers and
engineers, worldwide, to help them learn subjects in the FEM and eventually solve
their own design and analysis problems using the FEM.
The author thanks his former undergraduate and graduate students for their
suggestions on the earlier versions of these lecture notes and for their contributions
to many of the examples used in the current version of the notes.
Yijun Liu
Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
December 2002
Lecture Notes: Introduction to Finite Element Method
Chapter 1. Introduction
I. Basic Concepts
The finite element method (FEM), or finite element analysis
(FEA), is based on the idea of building a complicated object with
simple blocks, or, dividing a complicated object into small and
manageable pieces. Application of this simple idea can be found
everywhere in everyday life, as well as in engineering.
Examples:
Lego (kids play)
Buildings
Approximation of the area of a circle:
Element Si
i
R
Area of one triangle: S i = 2 R 2 sin i

N
2
2
Area of the circle: S N = Si = 2 R N sin N R as N
i =1
where N = total number of triangles (elements).
Observation: Complicated or smooth objects can be
represented by geometrically simple pieces (elements).
Why Finite Element Method?

Design analysis: hand calculations, experiments, and
computer simulations
FEM/FEA is the most widely applied computer simulation
method in engineering
Closely integrated with CAD/CAM applications
...
Applications of FEM in Engineering

Mechanical/Aerospace/Civil/Automobile Engineering
Structure analysis (static/dynamic, linear/nonlinear)
Thermal/fluid flows
Electromagnetics
Geomechanics
Biomechanics
...
Modeling of gear coupling
Examples:
...
A Brief History of the FEM

1943 ----- Courant (Variational methods)
1956 ----- Turner, Clough, Martin and Topp (Stiffness)
1960 ----- Clough (Finite Element, plane problems)
1970s ----- Applications on mainframe computers
1980s ----- Microcomputers, pre- and postprocessors
1990s ----- Analysis of large structural systems
Can Drop Test (Click for more information and an animation)
FEM in Structural Analysis (The Procedure)

Divide structure into pieces (elements with nodes)
Describe the behavior of the physical quantities on each
element
Connect (assemble) the elements at the nodes to form an
approximate system of equations for the whole structure
Solve the system of equations involving unknown
quantities at the nodes (e.g., displacements)
Calculate desired quantities (e.g., strains and stresses) at
selected elements
Example:
FEM model for a gear tooth (From Cooks book, p.2).
Computer Implementations
Preprocessing (build FE model, loads and constraints)
FEA solver (assemble and solve the system of equations)
Postprocessing (sort and display the results)
Available Commercial FEM Software Packages

ANSYS (General purpose, PC and workstations)
SDRC/I-DEAS (Complete CAD/CAM/CAE package)
NASTRAN (General purpose FEA on mainframes)
ABAQUS (Nonlinear and dynamic analyses)
COSMOS (General purpose FEA)
ALGOR (PC and workstations)
PATRAN (Pre/Post Processor)
HyperMesh (Pre/Post Processor)
Dyna-3D (Crash/impact analysis)
...
A Link to CAE Software and Companies
Objectives of This FEM Course

Understand the fundamental ideas of the FEM
Know the behavior and usage of each type of elements
covered in this course
Be able to prepare a suitable FE model for given problems
Can interpret and evaluate the quality of the results (know
the physics of the problems)
Be aware of the limitations of the FEM (dont misuse the
FEM - a numerical tool)
FEA of an Unloader Trolley (Click for more info)

By Jeff Badertscher (ME Class of 2001, UC)
See more examples in:

Showcase: Finite Element Analysis in Actions
II. Review of Matrix Algebra

Linear System of Algebraic Equations
a 11 x1 + a 12 x 2 +...+ a 1n x n = b1
a 21 x1 + a 22 x 2 +...+ a 2 n x n = b2
.......
(1)
a n1 x1 + a n 2 x 2 +...+ a nn x n = bn
where x1, x2, ..., xn are the unknowns.

In matrix form:
Ax = b
(2)
where
a11
a
21
A = aij =
...
a
n1
x1
x
2
x = { xi } =
:
xn
a12
a22
...
[ ]
an 2
... a1n
... a2 n
... ...
... ann
b1
b
2
b = {bi } =
:
bn
(3)
A is called a nn (square) matrix, and x and b are (column)

vectors of dimension n.
Row and Column Vectors

v = [ v1
w1

w = w2
w
3
v3 ]
v2
Matrix Addition and Subtraction

For two matrices A and B, both of the same size (mn), the
addition and subtraction are defined by
C= A+B
with
cij = aij + bij
D = AB
with
d ij = a ij bij
Scalar Multiplication
A = [a ij ]
Matrix Multiplication
For two matrices A (of size lm) and B (of size mn), the
product of AB is defined by
C = AB
with cij = aik bkj

k =1
where i = 1, 2, ..., l; j = 1, 2, ..., n.

Note that, in general, AB BA , but ( AB )C = A ( BC)
(associative).
Transpose of a Matrix
If A = [aij], then the transpose of A is
[ ]
A T = a ji
Notice that ( AB ) T = B T A T .
Symmetric Matrix
A square (nn) matrix A is called symmetric, if
A = AT
Unit (Identity) Matrix

1 0
0 1
I=
... ...
0 0
or
a ij = a ji
... 0
... 0
... ...
... 1
Note that AI = A, Ix = x.
Determinant of a Matrix
The determinant of square matrix A is a scalar number
denoted by det A or |A|. For 22 and 33 matrices, their
determinants are given by
a b
det
= ad bc
c d
and
a11 a12
det a21 a22
a31 a32
a13
a23 = a11a22 a33 + a12 a23a31 + a21a32 a13
a33
a13a22 a31 a12a21a33 a23a32 a11
Singular Matrix
A square matrix A is singular if det A = 0, which indicates
problems in the systems (nonunique solutions, degeneracy, etc.)
Matrix Inversion
For a square and nonsingular matrix A ( det A 0 ), its
inverse A-1 is constructed in such a way that
AA 1 = A 1 A = I
The cofactor matrix C of matrix A is defined by
Cij = ( 1)i + j Mij

where Mij is the determinant of the smaller matrix obtained by
eliminating the ith row and jth column of A.
Thus, the inverse of A can be determined by
A 1 =
1
CT
det A
We can show that ( AB ) 1 = B 1A 1 .
10
Examples:
a b
(1)
c d
1
d b
(ad bc) c a
Checking,
1
1
a b a b
d b a b 1 0
=
c d c d (ad bc) c a c d = 0 1
1 1 0
(2) 1 2 1
0 1 2
3 2 1
3 2 1
1
2 2 1 = 2 2 1
=
(4 2 1)
1 1 1
1 1 1
Checking,
1 1 0 3 2 1 1 0 0
1 2 1 2 2 1 = 0 1 0
0 1 2 1 1 1 0 0 1
If det A = 0 (i.e., A is singular), then A-1 does not exist!

The solution of the linear system of equations (Eq.(1)) can be
expressed as (assuming the coefficient matrix A is nonsingular)
x = A 1b
Thus, the main task in solving a linear system of equations is to

found the inverse of the coefficient matrix.
11
Solution Techniques for Linear Systems of Equations
Gauss elimination methods

Iterative methods
Positive Definite Matrix
A square (nn) matrix A is said to be positive definite, if for
all nonzero vector x of dimension n,
x T Ax > 0
Note that positive definite matrices are nonsingular.

Differentiation and Integration of a Matrix
Let
A( t ) = a ij ( t )
then the differentiation is defined by

da (t )
d
A(t ) = ij
dt
dt
and the integration by
A(t )dt = aij (t )dt
12
Types of Finite Elements

1-D (Line) Element
(Spring, truss, beam, pipe, etc.)

2-D (Plane) Element
(Membrane, plate, shell, etc.)

3-D (Solid) Element
(3-D fields - temperature, displacement, stress, flow velocity)
13
III. Spring Element

Everything important is simple.
One Spring Element
fi
ui
uj
fj
Two nodes:
i, j
Nodal displacements:
ui, uj (in, m, mm)
Nodal forces:
fi, fj (lb, Newton)
Spring constant (stiffness):
k (lb/in, N/m, N/mm)
Spring force-displacement relationship:

F = k
with = u j ui
Linear
Nonlinear
F
k
k = F / (> 0) is the force needed to produce a unit stretch.
14
We only consider linear problems in this introductory

course.
Consider the equilibrium of forces for the spring. At node i,

we have
f i = F = k ( u j ui ) = kui ku j
and at node j,
f j = F = k ( u j ui ) = kui + ku j
In matrix form,
k
k
k ui f i
=
k u j f j
or,
ku = f
where
k = (element) stiffness matrix

u = (element nodal) displacement vector
f = (element nodal) force vector
Note that k is symmetric. Is k singular or nonsingular? That is,
can we solve the equation? If not, why?
15
Spring System
k1
k2
u1, F1
u2, F2
u3, F3
For element 1,
k1
k
1
k1 u1 f 11
=
k1 u2 f 21
element 2,
k2
k
2
k 2 u2 f 12
=
k 2 u3 f 22
where f i m is the (internal) force acting on local node i of element

m (i = 1, 2).
Assemble the stiffness matrix for the whole system:

Consider the equilibrium of forces at node 1,
F1 = f 11
at node 2,
F2 = f 21 + f 12
and node 3,
F3 = f 22
16
That is,
F1 = k1u1 k1u2
F2 = k1u1 + ( k1 + k 2 )u2 k 2 u3
F3 = k 2 u2 + k 2 u3
In matrix form,
k1
k1
k k + k
1 1 2
k2
0
0 u1

k2 u2 =
k2 u3
F1

F2
F
3
or
KU = F
K is the stiffness matrix (structure matrix) for the spring system.
An alternative way of assembling the whole stiffness matrix:

Enlarging the stiffness matrices for elements 1 and 2, we
have
k1
k
1
0
k1
k1
0
0
0 k
2
0 k 2
0 u1 f 11

0 u2 = f 21
0 u3 0
0 u1 0

k 2 u2 = f 12
k 2 u3 f 22
17
Adding the two matrix equations (superposition), we have

k1
k1
k
1
0
k1 + k 2
k2
0 u1 f 11

k 2 u2 = f 21 + f 12
k 2 u3 f 22
This is the same equation we derived by using the force

equilibrium concept.
Boundary and load conditions:

Assuming,
u1 = 0
and
F2 = F3 = P
we have
k1
k
1
0
k1
k1 + k 2
k2
0 0 F1

k 2 u2 = P
k 2 u3 P
which reduces to
k1 + k 2
k
k 2 u2 P
=
k 2 u3 P
and
F1 = k1u2
Unknowns are
u2
U=
u3
and the reaction force F1 (if desired).
18
Solving the equations, we obtain the displacements

2 P / k1
u2
2
/
+
/
u
P
k
P
k
3
1
2
and the reaction force
F1 = 2 P
Checking the Results
Deformed shape of the structure

Balance of the external forces
Order of magnitudes of the numbers
Notes About the Spring Elements
Suitable for stiffness analysis

Not suitable for stress analysis of the spring itself
Can have spring elements with stiffness in the lateral
direction, spring elements for torsion, etc.
19
Example 1.1
k1
1
Given:
k2
k3
For the spring system shown above,
k1 = 100 N / mm, k 2 = 200 N / mm, k 3 = 100 N / mm

P = 500 N, u1 = u4 = 0
Find:
(a) the global stiffness matrix

(b) displacements of nodes 2 and 3
(c) the reaction forces at nodes 1 and 4
(d) the force in the spring 2
Solution:
(a) The element stiffness matrices are

100 100
k1 =
100 100
(N/mm)
(1)
200 200
k2 =
(N/mm)
200 200
(2)
100 100
k3 =
100 100
(3)
(N/mm)
20
Applying the superposition concept, we obtain the global stiffness

matrix for the spring system as
u1
u2
u3
u4
0
0
100
100
100 100 + 200
0
200
K=
200 + 100 100
200
0
0
0
100
100
or
0
0
100 100
100 300 200
0
K=
200 300 100
0
0
0
100 100
which is symmetric and banded.

Equilibrium (FE) equation for the whole system is
0
0 u1 F1
100 100
100 300 200
0 u2 0
=
200 300 100 u3 P

0
0
0
100 100 u4 F4
(4)
(b) Applying the BC ( u1 = u4 = 0 ) in Eq(4), or deleting the 1st and

4th rows and columns, we have
21
300 200 u2 0
200 300 u = P
(5)
Solving Eq.(5), we obtain

u2 P / 250 2
=
= (mm)
u3 3 P / 500 3
(6)
(c) From the 1st and 4th equations in (4), we get the reaction forces
F1 = 100u 2 = 200 (N)
F4 = 100u 3 = 300 (N )
(d) The FE equation for spring (element) 2 is

200 200 ui f i
200 200 u = f
j j
Here i = 2, j = 3 for element 2. Thus we can calculate the spring
force as
u2
F = f j = f i = [ 200 200]
u3
2
= [ 200 200]
3
= 200 (N)
Check the results!

22
Example 1.2
k4
k1
F1
k2
F2
k3
Problem: For the spring system with arbitrarily numbered nodes

and elements, as shown above, find the global stiffness
matrix.
Solution:
First we construct the following
Element Connectivity Table

Element
Node i (1)
Node j (2)
1
2
3
4
4
2
3
2
2
3
5
1
which specifies the global node numbers corresponding to the

local node numbers for each element.
23
Then we can write the element stiffness matrices as follows

u4
k1
k1 =
k1
u3
k3
k3 =
k 3
u2
u2
k1
k1
k2
k2 =
k 2
u5
u3
k2
k 2
u2
k3
k 3
k4
k4 =
k 4
u1
k4
k 4
Finally, applying the superposition method, we obtain the global

stiffness matrix as follows
u1
k4
k
4
K= 0
0
u2
u3
u4
k4
k1 + k 2 + k 4
k2
k1
0
0
k2
k2 + k3
0
k3
0
k1
0
k1
0
u5
0
0
k3
0
k 3
The matrix is symmetric, banded, but singular.
24
Chapter 2. Bar and Beam Elements

I. Linear Static Analysis
Most structural analysis problems can be treated as linear
static problems, based on the following assumptions
1. Small deformations (loading pattern is not changed due
to the deformed shape)
2. Elastic materials (no plasticity or failures)
3. Static loads (the load is applied to the structure in a slow
or steady fashion)
Linear analysis can provide most of the information about

the behavior of a structure, and can be a good approximation for
many analyses. It is also the bases of nonlinear analysis in most
of the cases.
25
II. Bar Element

Consider a uniform prismatic bar:
uj
ui
fi
A,E
fj
L
L
length
cross-sectional area
elastic modulus
u = u( x )
displacement
= ( x)
strain
= ( x)
stress
Strain-displacement relation:
du
dx
(1)
Stress-strain relation:
= E
(2)
26
Stiffness Matrix --- Direct Method

Assuming that the displacement u is varying linearly along
the axis of the bar, i.e.,
u( x ) = 1
x
x
ui + u j
L
L
(3)
we have
u j ui
L
= E =
( = elongation)
E
L
(4)
(5)
We also have
F
A
(F = force in bar)
(6)
Thus, (5) and (6) lead to

F=
where k =
EA
= k
L
(7)
EA
is the stiffness of the bar.
L
The bar is acting like a spring in this case and we conclude

that element stiffness matrix is
27
k
k=
k
EA EA
k L
L
=
k EA EA
L
L
or
k=
EA 1 1
L 1 1
(8)
This can be verified by considering the equilibrium of the forces

at the two nodes.
Element equilibrium equation is

EA 1 1 ui f i
=
L 1 1 u j f j
(9)
Degree of Freedom (dof)

Number of components of the displacement vector at a
node.
For 1-D bar element: one dof at each node.
Physical Meaning of the Coefficients in k

The jth column of k (here j = 1 or 2) represents the forces
applied to the bar to maintain a deformed shape with unit
displacement at node j and zero displacement at the other node.
28
Stiffness Matrix --- A Formal Approach

We derive the same stiffness matrix for the bar using a
formal approach which can be applied to many other more
complicated situations.
Define two linear shape functions as follows

N i ( ) = 1 ,
N j ( ) =
(10)
where
x
,
L
0 1
(11)
From (3) we can write the displacement as

u( x ) = u( ) = N i ( )ui + N j ( )u j
or
ui
N j = Nu
u j
u = Ni
(12)
Strain is given by (1) and (12) as
du d
= Nu = Bu
dx dx
(13)
where B is the element strain-displacement matrix, which is

B=
i.e.,
d
N i ( )
dx
N j ( ) =
B = [ 1 / L 1 / L]
d
N i ( )
d
N j ( )
d
dx
(14)
29
Stress can be written as
= E = EBu
(15)
Consider the strain energy stored in the bar

U=
1
1
T dV =
2
2
(u
B T EBu)dV
1 T
T
= u ( B EB )dV u
2
(16)
where (13) and (15) have been used.

The work done by the two nodal forces is
W=
1
1
1
f i ui + f j u j = u T f
2
2
2
(17)
For conservative system, we state that
U =W
(18)
which gives
1 T
1
T
u ( B EB )dV u = u T f
2
2
We can conclude that
T
(B EB )dV u = f
30
or
ku = f
(19)
where
k=
(B
EB )dV
(20)
is the element stiffness matrix.

Expression (20) is a general result which can be used for
the construction of other types of elements. This expression can
also be derived using other more rigorous approaches, such as
the Principle of Minimum Potential Energy, or the Galerkins
Method.
Now, we evaluate (20) for the bar element by using (14)
L
k=
1 / L
EA 1 1
E [ 1 / L 1 / L] Adx =
1
/
L
L 1 1
which is the same as we derived using the direct method.

Note that from (16) and (20), the strain energy in the
element can be written as
1
U = u T ku
2
(21)
31
Example 2.1
1 2A,E
1
2 A,E
2
Problem: Find the stresses in the two bar assembly which is

loaded with force P, and constrained at the two ends,
as shown in the figure.
Solution: Use two 1-D bar elements.
Element 1,
u1
u2
2 EA 1 1
k1 =
L 1 1
Element 2,
u2
u3
EA 1 1
k2 =
L 1 1
Imagine a frictionless pin at node 2, which connects the two

elements. We can assemble the global FE equation as follows,
32
2 2 0 u1 F1
EA

2 3 1 u2 = F2
L
0 1 1 u3 F3
Load and boundary conditions (BC) are,

u1 = u3 = 0,
F2 = P
FE equation becomes,
2 2 0 0 F1
EA

2 3 1 u2 = P
L
0 1 1 0 F3
Deleting the 1st row and column, and the 3rd row and column, we
obtain,
EA
3]{u2 } = { P}
[
L
Thus,
u2 =
PL
3EA
and
u1
0
PL
u2 =
1
u 3EA 0
3

Stress in element 1 is
33
u
u2
1 = E 1 = EB 1u1 = E[ 1 / L 1 / L] 1
=E
u2 u1 E PL
P
=
0 =
L
L 3EA 3 A
Similarly, stress in element 2 is
u2
u3
2 = E 2 = EB 2 u 2 = E [ 1 / L 1 / L]
=E
u3 u2 E
PL
P
= 0
=
L
L
3EA
3A
which indicates that bar 2 is in compression.

Check the results!
Notes:
In this case, the calculated stresses in elements 1 and 2
are exact within the linear theory for 1-D bar structures.
It will not help if we further divide element 1 or 2 into
smaller finite elements.
For tapered bars, averaged values of the cross-sectional
areas should be used for the elements.
We need to find the displacements first in order to find
the stresses, since we are using the displacement based
FEM.
34
Example 2.2
1
1
A,E
2
2
3
Problem: Determine the support reaction forces at the two ends

of the bar shown above, given the following,
P = 6.0 104 N ,
A = 250 mm2 ,
E = 2.0 104 N / mm 2 ,
L = 150 mm, =1.2 mm
Solution:
We first check to see if or not the contact of the bar with
the wall on the right will occur. To do this, we imagine the wall
on the right is removed and calculate the displacement at the
right end,
PL (6.0 104 )(150)
= 18
. mm > = 12
. mm
0 =
=
EA (2.0 104 )(250)
Thus, contact occurs.
The global FE equation is found to be,
35
1 1 0 u1 F1
EA

1 2 1 u2 = F2
L
0 1 1 u3 F3
The load and boundary conditions are,

F2 = P = 6.0 10 4 N
u1 = 0,
u3 = = 1.2 mm
FE equation becomes,
1 1 0 0 F1
EA

1 2 1 u2 = P
L
0 1 1 F3
The 2nd equation gives,

u2
EA
2
1
[
]
= { P}
L

that is,
EA
EA
2]{u2 } = P +
[
L
L
Solving this, we obtain

1 PL
u2 =
+ = 15
. mm
2 EA
and
36
u1 0

. ( mm)
u2 = 15
u 12
3 .
To calculate the support reaction forces, we apply the 1st

and 3rd equations in the global FE equation.
The 1st equation gives,
u1
EA
EA
F1 =
[ 1 1 0] u 2 = ( u 2 ) = 5.0 10 4 N
L
u L
3
and the 3rd equation gives,

u1
EA
EA
F3 =
0 1 1]u2 =
( u2 + u3 )
[
L
L
u
3
= 10
. 10 4 N
Check the results.!
37
Distributed Load
q
i
qL/2
qL/2
Uniformly distributed axial load q (N/mm, N/m, lb/in) can

be converted to two equivalent nodal forces of magnitude qL/2.
We verify this by considering the work done by the load q,
L
Wq =
1
1
qL
uqdx =
u( )q ( Ld ) =
u( ) d
2
2
2
qL
=
2
qL
=
2
[ N ( )
i
ui
N j ( ) d
u j
ui
1
[
] u
j
0
1 qL
=
2 2
qL ui

2 u j
qL / 2
uj
qL / 2
1
u
2 i
38
that is,
qL / 2
with f q =
qL
2
/
1
Wq = u T f q
2
(22)
Thus, from the U=W concept for the element, we have

1 T
1
1
u ku = u T f + u T f q
2
2
2
(23)
which yields
ku = f + f q
(24)
The new nodal force vector is

f i + qL / 2
f + fq =
+
f
qL
/
2
j
(25)
In an assembly of bars,
q
1
qL/2
1
qL
2
qL/2
3
39
Bar Elements in 2-D and 3-D Space

2-D Case
ui
i
ui
vi
X
Local
Global
x, y
X, Y
ui' , v i'
ui , v i
1 dof at a node
2 dofs at a node
Note: Lateral displacement vi does not contribute to the stretch

of the bar, within the linear theory.
Transformation
ui
ui' = ui cos + v i sin = [ l m]
v i
ui
v i' = ui sin + v i cos = [ m l ]
v i
where l = cos , m = sin .

40
In matrix form,
m ui
ui' l
' =
v
m
l
v
i
i
(26)
or,
~
u i' = Tu i
where the transformation matrix

m
~ l
T=
m l
~
~
is orthogonal, that is, T 1 = T T .
(27)
For the two nodes of the bar element, we have

m 0 0 ui
ui' l
'
0 0 v i
v i m l

' =
l
m u j
u j 0 0
v 'j 0 0 m l v j
(28)
~
T 0
with T =
~
0
T
(29)
or,
u = Tu
'
The nodal forces are transformed in the same way,

f ' = Tf
(30)
41
Stiffness Matrix in the 2-D Space

In the local coordinate system, we have
'
'
EA 1 1 ui f i
=
L 1 1 u 'j f j'
Augmenting this equation, we write

1
EA 0
L 1
0
0 1
0 0
0 1
0 0
0 ui' f i '

0 vi' 0
' =
0 u j f j'
0 v 'j 0
or,
k 'u' = f '
Using transformations given in (29) and (30), we obtain

k ' Tu = Tf
Multiplying both sides by TT and noticing that TTT = I, we

obtain
T T k ' Tu = f
(31)
Thus, the element stiffness matrix k in the global coordinate

system is
k = TT k 'T
(32)
which is a 44 symmetric matrix.
42
Explicit form,
ui
vi
uj
vj
lm l 2 lm
l2
m2 lm m2
EA lm
k=
L l 2 lm l 2
lm
2
2
lm
m
lm
m
(33)
Calculation of the directional cosines l and m:

l = cos =
X j Xi
L
m = sin =
Yj Yi
L
(34)
The structure stiffness matrix is assembled by using the element

stiffness matrices in the usual way as in the 1-D case.
Element Stress
ui'
1
= E = EB ' = E
L
u j
ui

1 l m 0 0 vi

L 0 0 l m u j
v j
That is,
ui
v
E
i
= [ l m l m]
L
u j
v j
(35)
43
Example 2.3
A simple plane truss is made
of two identical bars (with E, A, and
L), and loaded as shown in the
figure. Find
1) displacement of node 2;
3
45o
2
P2
2
P1
2) stress in each bar.

45o
Solution:
1
This simple structure is used

here to demonstrate the assembly
and solution process using the bar element in 2-D space.
In local coordinate systems, we have

EA 1 1
k =
= k '2
L 1 1
'
1
These two matrices cannot be assembled together, because they

are in different coordinate systems. We need to convert them to
global coordinate system OXY.
Element 1:
= 45o , l = m =
2
2
Using formula (32) or (33), we obtain the stiffness matrix in the

global system
44
u1
v1
u2
v2
1 1 1
1
1
1
1
1
EA
k 1 = T1T k 1' T1 =
1
2 L 1 1 1
1 1 1
1
Element 2:
= 135o , l =
2
2
, m=
2
2
We have,
u2
v2
u3
v3
1 1 1 1
1 1
1
1
EA
k 2 = T2T k '2 T2 =
1 1
2 L 1 1
1 1 1 1
Assemble the structure FE equation,

u1
v1
u2
v2
u3
v3
1 1 1 0
0 u1 F1 X
1
1
1 1 1 0
0 v1 F1Y

0 1 1 u2 F2 X
EA 1 1 2
=
2
1 1 v2 F2Y
2 L 1 1 0
0
0 1 1
1 1 u3 F3 X
v
0
0
1
1
1
1
3 3Y
45
Load and boundary conditions (BC):

u1 = v1 = u3 = v3 = 0,
F2 X = P1 , F2Y = P2
Condensed FE equation,
EA 2 0 u2 P1
=
0
2
2L
v2 P2
Solving this, we obtain the displacement of node 2,
u2 L P1
=

v2 EA P2
Using formula (35), we calculate the stresses in the two bars,
0

E 2
L 0
2
1 1 1 1]
1 =
( P1 + P2 )
[
=
L 2
EA P1 2 A
P2
P1

E 2
L P2
2
2 =
[1 1 1 1] 0 = ( P1 P2 )
L 2
EA 2 A
0
Check the results:
Look for the equilibrium conditions, symmetry,

antisymmetry, etc.
46
Example 2.4
(Multipoint Constraint)
2
L
1 Y
3
45o
For the plane truss shown above,

P = 1000 kN,
L = 1m,
A = 6.0 10 4 m2
E = 210 GPa ,
for elements 1 and 2,
A = 6 2 10 4 m2 for element 3.
Determine the displacements and reaction forces.

Solution:
We have an inclined roller at node 3, which needs special
attention in the FE solution. We first assemble the global FE
equation for the truss.
Element 1:
= 90 o , l = 0, m = 1
47
u1
v1 u2 v2
0 0
( 210 10 9 )(6.0 10 4 ) 0 1
k1 =
1
0 0
0 1
0
0 1
( N / m)
0 0
0 1
Element 2:
= 0o ,
l = 1, m = 0
u2
( 210 10 9 )(6.0 10 4 ) 0
k2 =
1
1
0
v2 u3 v3
0 1 0
0 0 0
( N / m)
0 1 0
0 0 0
Element 3:
= 45o , l =
1
1
, m=
2
2
u1
v1
u3
v3
0.5 0.5 0.5

0.5
0.5 0.5 0.5

(210 10 9 )( 6 2 10 4 ) 0.5
k3 =
0.5
0.5 0.5 0.5
2
0.5 0.5 0.5
0.5
( N / m)
48
The global FE equation is,

0.5 0.5 0 0 0.5 0.5 u1 F1 X
. 0 1 0.5 0.5 v1 F1Y

15

1
1 0
0 u2 F2 X
5
1260 10
v = F
1
0
0
2 2Y
15
0.5 u3 F3 X
.
F
v
0
5
.
Sym.
3 3Y
Load and boundary conditions (BC):

u1 = v1 = v2 = 0, and v3' = 0,
F2 X = P , F3 x ' = 0.
From the transformation relation and the BC, we have

2
v =
2
'
3
2 u3
2
=
( u3 + v3 ) = 0,

2 v3 2
that is,
u3 v3 = 0
This is a multipoint constraint (MPC).

Similarly, we have a relation for the force at node 3,
2
F3 x ' =
2
2 F3 X
2
=
( F3 X + F3Y ) = 0,
2 F3Y 2
that is,
49
F3 X + F3Y = 0
Applying the load and BCs in the structure FE equation by

deleting 1st, 2nd and 4th rows and columns, we have
1 1 0 u2 P

1260 105 1 15
. 0.5 u3 = F3 X
0 0.5 0.5 v3 F3Y
Further, from the MPC and the force relation at node 3, the
equation becomes,
1 1 0 u2 P

. 0.5 u3 = F3 X
1260 105 1 15
0 0.5 0.5 u3 F3 X
which is
P
1 1
u
2
1260 105 1 2 = F3 X
u3
F
1
0
3X
The 3rd equation yields,

F3 X = 1260 105 u3
Substituting this into the 2nd equation and rearranging, we have

1 1 u2 P
1260 105
=
1 3 u3 0
Solving this, we obtain the displacements,

50
1
u2
3 P 0.01191
=

=
( m)
5
u
P
.
0
003968
3 2520 10
From the global FE equation, we can calculate the reaction

forces,
500
0 0.5 0.5
F1 X
0 0.5 0.5 u
500
F
1Y
2

5
0
0 u3 = 0.0 (kN)
F2Y = 1260 10 0
v 500
1 15
F
.
.
0
5
3X
3
500
F3Y
0
0.5
0.5
Check the results!
A general multipoint constraint (MPC) can be described as,
Aj u j = 0
j
where Ajs are constants and ujs are nodal displacement

components. In the FE software, such as MSC/NASTRAN, users
only need to specify this relation to the software. The software
will take care of the solution.
Penalty Approach for Handling BCs and MPCs
51
3-D Case
y
Y
i
Local
Global
x, y, z
X, Y, Z
ui' , vi' , wi'
ui , vi , wi
1 dof at node
3 dofs at node
Element stiffness matrices are calculated in the local

coordinate systems and then transformed into the global
coordinate system (X, Y, Z) where they are assembled.
FEA software packages will do this transformation

automatically.
Input data for bar elements:
(X, Y, Z) for each node
E and A for each element
52
III. Beam Element

Simple Plane Beam Element
y
vi, Fi
i
i, Mi
L
length
I
E
v = v( x )
vj, Fj
j
E,I
L
j, Mj
moment of inertia of the cross-sectional area

elastic modulus
deflection (lateral displacement) of the
neutral axis
dv
dx
F = F ( x)
shear force
M = M ( x)
moment about z-axis
rotation about the z-axis
Elementary Beam Theory:

d 2v
EI 2 = M ( x )
dx
(36)
My
I
(37)
53
Direct Method
Using the results from elementary beam theory to compute
each column of the stiffness matrix.
(Fig. 2.3-1. on Page 21 of Cooks Book)
Element stiffness equation (local node: i, j or 1, 2):

vi
vj
6 L 12 6 L vi Fi
12

2
2
EI 6 L 4 L 6 L 2 L i M i
=
L3 12 6 L 12 6 L v j Fj
6 L 2 L2 6 L 4 L2 M
j j
(38)
54
Formal Approach
Apply the formula,
L
k=
B T EIBdx
(39)
To derive this, we introduce the shape functions,

N 1 ( x ) = 1 3x 2 / L2 + 2 x 3 / L3
N 2 ( x ) = x 2 x 2 / L + x 3 / L2
(40)
N 3 ( x ) = 3x / L 2 x / L
2
N 4 ( x ) = x 2 / L + x 3 / L2
Then, we can represent the deflection as,

v ( x ) = Nu
= [ N1 ( x)
N 2 ( x)
N 3 ( x)
vi

i
N 4 ( x )]
v j
j
(41)
which is a cubic function. Notice that,
N1 + N 3 = 1
N2 + N3 L + N4 = x
which implies that the rigid body motion is represented by the
assumed deformed shape of the beam.
55
Curvature of the beam is,

d 2v d 2
= 2 Nu = Bu
2
dx
dx
(42)
where the strain-displacement matrix B is given by,

d2
B = 2 N = N 1" ( x ) N 2" ( x ) N 3" ( x ) N 4" ( x )
dx
6 12 x
4 6 x 6 12 x
2 6x
= 2 + 3 + 2
+
L
L L L2 L3
L L2
L
(43)
Strain energy stored in the beam element is

U=
1
1
T dV =
2
2
1
=
2
0 A
My 1 My
dAdx
I E I
L
1 d 2v
d 2v
T 1
M
Mdx =
EI 2 dx
dx
2 dx 2
EI
1
(Bu) T EI (Bu)dx
=
2
1 T
T
= u B EIBdx u
2
We conclude that the stiffness matrix for the simple beam

element is
L
k=
B T EIBdx
56
Applying the result in (43) and carrying out the integration, we

arrive at the same stiffness matrix as given in (38).
Combining the axial stiffness (bar element), we obtain the
stiffness matrix of a general 2-D beam element,
ui
vi
i
uj
vj
j
EA
0
L
12 EI
0
L3
6 EI
0
2
L
k=
EA
0
L
12 EI
3
0
L
6 EI
0
L2
0
6 EI
L2
4 EI
L
0
6 EI
L2
2 EI
L
EA
L
0
0
EA
L
0
0
0
12 EI
L3
6 EI
2
L
0
12 EI
L3
6 EI
2
L
0
6 EI
L2
2 EI
L
0
6 EI
2
L
4 EI
L
3-D Beam Element

The element stiffness matrix is formed in the local (2-D)
coordinate system first and then transformed into the global (3D) coordinate system to be assembled.
(Fig. 2.3-2. On Page 24 of Cooks book)
57
Example 2.5
1
1
E,I
2
3
Given:
The beam shown above is clamped at the two ends and

acted upon by the force P and moment M in the midspan.
Find:
The deflection and rotation at the center node and the

reaction forces and moments at the two ends.
Solution: Element stiffness matrices are,

v1
v2
6 L 12 6 L
12
2
2
EI 6 L 4 L 6 L 2 L
k1 = 3
L 12 6 L 12 6 L
6 L 2 L2 6 L 4 L2
v2
v3
6 L 12 6 L
12
2
2
EI 6 L 4 L 6 L 2 L
k2 = 3
L 12 6 L 12 6 L
6 L 2 L2 6 L 4 L2
58
Global FE equation is,

v1
v2
v3
6 L 12 6 L
0
0 v1 F1Y
12
6 L 4 L2 6 L 2 L2
0
0 1 M 1

0
12 6 L v2 F2Y
EI 12 6 L 24
=
0
8 L2 6 L 2 L2 2 M 2
L3 6 L 2 L2
0
0
12 6 L 12 6 L v3 F3Y

0
6L
2 L2 6 L 4 L2 3 M 3
0
Loads and constraints (BCs) are,

F2Y = P ,
M2 = M ,
v1 = v3 = 1 = 3 = 0
Reduced FE equation,
EI
L3
24 0 v2 P
0 8 L2 = M
Solving this we obtain,

2
v 2
L PL
=
2 24 EI 3 M
From global FE equation, we obtain the reaction forces and

moments,
59
12 6 L
F1Y
2
M
1 EI 6 L 2 L v2
=
= 3
F
12
6
L
L
2
3Y
6L
M 3
2 L2
2 P + 3 M / L
1 PL + M
4 2 P 3 M / L
PL + M
Stresses in the beam at the two ends can be calculated using the
formula,
= x =
My
I
Note that the FE solution is exact according to the simple beam

theory, since no distributed load is present between the nodes.
Recall that,
d 2v
EI 2 = M ( x )
dx
and
dM
= V (V - shear force in the beam)
dx
dV
= q (q - distributed load on the beam)
dx
Thus,
d 4v
EI 4 = q( x )
dx
If q(x)=0, then exact solution for the deflection v is a cubic
function of x, which is what described by our shape functions.
60
Equivalent Nodal Loads of Distributed Transverse Load
q
i
qL/2
qL/2
qL2/12
j
qL2/12
This can be verified by considering the work done by the

distributed load q.
q
L
qL/2
qL
qL2/12
L
61
Example 2.6
E,I
L
Given:
A cantilever beam with distributed lateral load p as

shown above.
Find:
The deflection and rotation at the right end, the

reaction force and moment at the left end.
Solution: The work-equivalent nodal loads are shown below,

y
f
m
E,I
L
where
f = pL / 2,
m = pL2 / 12
Applying the FE equation, we have
62
6 L 12 6 L v1 F1Y
12
2
2

EI 6 L 4 L 6 L 2 L 1 M 1
=
L3 12 6 L 12 6 L v2 F2 Y
6 L 2 L2 6 L 4 L2 M
2 2
Load and constraints (BCs) are,

F2 Y = f ,
M2 = m
v1 = 1 = 0
Reduced equation is,
EI
L3
12 6 L v2 f
6 L 4 L2 = m
Solving this, we obtain,

2
4
v 2
L 2 L f + 3 Lm pL / 8 EI
=
EI
6
Lf
m
pL
EI
3
6
6
/
2
(A)
These nodal values are the same as the exact solution. Note
that the deflection v(x) (for 0 < x< 0) in the beam by the FEM is,
however, different from that by the exact solution. The exact
solution by the simple beam theory is a 4th order polynomial of
x, while the FE solution of v is only a 3rd order polynomial of x.
If the equivalent moment m is ignored, we have,
2
4
v 2
L 2 L f pL / 6 EI
=
2 6 EI 3 Lf pL / 4 EI
(B)
The errors in (B) will decrease if more elements are used. The
63
equivalent moment m is often ignored in the FEM applications.

The FE solutions still converge as more elements are applied.
From the FE equation, we can calculate the reaction force
and moment as,
F1Y L3 12 6 L v2 pL / 2
=
6 L 2 L2 = 5 pL2 / 12
M
EI
2
1
where the result in (A) is used. This force vector gives the total
effective nodal forces which include the equivalent nodal forces
for the distributed lateral load p given by,
pL / 2
2
pL / 12
The correct reaction forces can be obtained as follows,
F1Y pL / 2 pL / 2 pL
=
= 2
2
2
M
pL
pL
5
12
12
/
/
1
pL / 2

Check the results!
64
Example 2.7
P
E,I
1
2
1
L
Given:
2
3
L
P = 50 kN, k = 200 kN/m, L = 3 m,

E = 210 GPa, I = 210-4 m4.
Find:
Deflections, rotations and reaction forces.
Solution:
The beam has a roller (or hinge) support at node 2 and a
spring support at node 3. We use two beam elements and one
spring element to solve this problem.
The spring stiffness matrix is given by,
v3
k
ks =
k
v4
k
k
Adding this stiffness matrix to the global FE equation (see

Example 2.5), we have
65
v1
v2
v3
v4
0
0
0 v1 F1Y
12 6 L 12 6 L
4 L2 6 L 2 L2
0
0
0 1 M 1

24
0
12
6L
0 v2 F2Y
EI

2
2
8L
6L 2 L
0 2 = M 2
L3

12 + k ' 6 L k ' v3 F3Y
2
L
4
0
3 M 3
Symmetry
k ' v4 F4Y
in which
L3
k '=
k
EI
is used to simply the notation.
We now apply the boundary conditions,
v1 = 1 = v2 = v4 = 0,
M 2 = M 3 = 0,
F3Y = P
Deleting the first three and seventh equations (rows and

columns), we have the following reduced equation,
6 L 2 L2 2 0
8 L2
EI

'
L
k
L
6
12
+
6
v 3 = P
3
L
2 L2
6 L 4 L2 3 0
Solving this equation, we obtain the deflection and rotations at

node 2 and node 3,
66
3
2
2
PL

7 L
v3 =
EI (12 + 7 k ')

9
3
The influence of the spring k is easily seen from this result.

Plugging in the given numbers, we can calculate
2 0.002492 rad

v3 = 0.01744 m
0.007475 rad
From the global FE equation, we obtain the nodal reaction

forces as,
F1Y 69.78 kN
M 69.78 kN m
1
=

.
kN
F
116
2
Y
2

F4Y 3.488 kN
Checking the results: Draw free body diagram of the beam
69.78 kN
1
69.78 kNm
50 kN
2
116.2 kN
3
3.488 kN
67
FE Analysis of Frame Structures

Members in a frame are considered to be rigidly connected.
Both forces and moments can be transmitted through their joints.
We need the general beam element (combinations of bar and
simple beam elements) to model frames.
Example 2.8
3000 lb
E, I, A
500 lb/ft
2
3
8 ft
X
12 ft
Given:
E = 30 10 6 psi, I = 65 in.4 , A = 6.8 in.2
Find:
Displacements and rotations of the two joints 1 and 2.
Solution:
For this example, we first convert the distributed load to its
equivalent nodal loads.
68
3000 lb
3000 lb
72000 lb-in.
3000 lb
72000 lb-in.
In local coordinate system, the stiffness matrix for a general 2-D

beam element is
ui
vi
EA
0
L
12 EI
0
3
L
6 EI
0
L2
k=
EA
0
L
12 EI
3
0
L
6 EI
0
L2
i
0
6 EI
L2
4 EI
L
0
6 EI
L2
2 EI
L
uj
EA
L
0
0
EA
L
0
0
vj
0
12 EI
L3
6 EI
2
L
0
12 EI
L3
6 EI
2
L
j
0
6 EI
L2
2 EI
L
0
6 EI
2
L
4 EI
L
69
Element Connectivity Table

Element
Node i (1)
Node j (2)
1
2
3
1
3
4
2
1
2
For element 1, we have

u1
v1
u2
v2
.
0
0
141.7
0
0
1417
0
0.784
56.4
0
0.784 56.4
56.4
5417
0
56.4 2708
0
4
k 1 = k 1 ' = 10
.
.
1417
0
0
1417
0
0
0
0.784 56.4
0
0.784 56.4
56.4
2708
0
56.4 5417
0
For elements 2 and 3, the stiffness matrix in local system is,

ui '
vi '
i '
uj '
vj'
j'
0
0
0
0
212.5
212.5
0
2.65
127
0
2.65 127
127
8125
0
127 4063
0
k 2 ' = k 3 ' = 104
.
.
212
5
0
0
212
5
0
0
0
0
2.65 127
2.65 127
0
127
4063
0
127
8125
where i=3, j=1 for element 2 and i=4, j=2 for element 3.
70
In general, the transformation matrix T is,

l
m
0
T=
0
0
m
l
0
0
0
0
0 0
0 0
1 0
0 l
0 m
0 0
0
0
0
m
l
0
0
0
0
0
0
We have
l = 0, m = 1
for both elements 2 and 3. Thus,
0
1
0
T=
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0 0
0 0
1 0
0 0
0 1
0 0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Using the transformation relation,

k = TT k ' T
we obtain the stiffness matrices in the global coordinate system

for elements 2 and 3,
71
u3
v3
u1
v1
0
127 2.65
0
127
2.65
0
212.5
0
0
212.5
0
0
8125 127
0
4063
127
k 2 = 10 4
.
.
2
65
0
127
2
65
0
127
0
212.5
0
0
212.5
0
0
4063 127
0
8125
127
and
u4
v4
u2
v2
0
127 2.65
0
127
2.65
0
212.5
0
0
212.5
0
0
8125 127
0
4063
127
k 3 = 104
.
.
2
65
0
127
2
65
0
127
0
212.5
0
0
212.5
0
0
4063 127
0
8125
127
Assembling the global FE equation and noticing the following

boundary conditions,
u3 = v3 = 3 = u4 = v4 = 4 = 0
F1 X = 3000 lb, F2 X = 0, F1Y = F2Y = 3000 lb,
M1 = 72000 lb in. , M 2 = 72000 lb in.
we obtain the condensed FE equation,
72
.
0
127 1417
0
0 u1
144.3
0
0.784 56.4 v1
213.3
56.4
0

56.4 2708 1
56.4
13542
0
127
4
10
u
.
.
1417
0
0
144
3
0
127
2
0
0.784 56.4
0
213.3 56.4 v2

56.4 13542 2
56.4
2708
127
0
3000
3000
72000
=
3000
72000
Solving this, we get
0.092 in.
u1
v 0.00104 in.
1
1 0.00139 rad
=
u
0
.
0901
in.
2
v2 0.0018 in.

. 10 5 rad
2 388
To calculate the reaction forces and moments at the two ends,
we employ the element FE equations for element 2 and element
3. We obtain,
73
F3 X 672.7 lb

F3Y = 2210 lb
M 60364 lb in.
and
F4 X 2338 lb
F4Y = 3825 lb
M 112641 lb in.
Check the results:
Draw the free-body diagram of the frame. Equilibrium is

maintained with the calculated forces and moments.
3000 lb
3000 lb
72000 lb-in.
3000 lb
72000 lb-in.
112641 lb-in.
60364 lb-in.
2338 lb
672.7 lb
2210 lb
3825 lb
74
Chapter 3. Two-Dimensional Problems

I. Review of the Basic Theory
In general, the stresses and strains in a structure consist of
six components:
x , y , z , xy , yz , zx
for stresses,
x , y , z , xy , yz , zx
for strains.
and
y
yz
xy
zx
z
z
Under contain conditions, the state of stresses and strains

can be simplified. A general 3-D structure analysis can,
therefore, be reduced to a 2-D analysis.
75
Plane (2-D) Problems
Plane stress:
z = yz = zx = 0
( z 0)
(1)
A thin planar structure with constant thickness and

loading within the plane of the structure (xy-plane).
y
Plane strain:
z = yz = zx = 0
( z 0)
(2)
A long structure with a uniform cross section and

transverse loading along its length (z-direction).
y
76
Stress-Strain-Temperature (Constitutive) Relations

For elastic and isotropic materials, we have,
x 1/ E

y = / E
0
xy
0 x x 0
/ E

1/ E
0 y + y 0
0
1 / G xy xy 0
(3)
or,
= E 1 + 0
where 0 is the initial strain, E the Youngs modulus, the
Poissons ratio and G the shear modulus. Note that,
G=
E
2(1 + )
(4)
which means that there are only two independent materials

constants for homogeneous and isotropic materials.
We can also express stresses in terms of strains by solving
the above equation,
x
E

=
y
2
1

xy
0
x x 0
1

1
0

y y 0
0 0 (1 ) / 2 xy xy 0
(5)
or,
= E + 0
where 0 = E 0 is the initial stress.
77
The above relations are valid for plane stress case. For
plane strain case, we need to replace the material constants in
the above equations in the following fashion,
E
E
1 2
(6)
1
GG
For example, the stress is related to strain by
x
1
E

1
y =
(1 + )(1 2 ) 0
0
xy
in the plane strain case.
x x 0

0
y y 0
(1 2 ) / 2 xy xy 0
0
Initial strains due to temperature change (thermal loading)

is given by,
x 0 T

y 0 = T
0
xy 0
(7)
where is the coefficient of thermal expansion, T the change

of temperature. Note that if the structure is free to deform under
thermal loading, there will be no (elastic) stresses in the
structure.
78
Strain and Displacement Relations

For small strains and small rotations, we have,
x =
u
v
u v
, y = , xy =
+
x
y
y x
In matrix form,
0
x / x

u , or = Du
0
/
=
y
y
v
/ y / x
xy
(8)
From this relation, we know that the strains (and thus

stresses) are one order lower than the displacements, if the
displacements are represented by polynomials.
Equilibrium Equations
In elasticity theory, the stresses in the structure must satisfy
the following equilibrium equations,
x xy
+
+ fx = 0
x
y
xy y
+
+ fy = 0
x
y
(9)
where fx and fy are body forces (such as gravity forces) per unit
volume. In FEM, these equilibrium conditions are satisfied in
an approximate sense.
79
Boundary Conditions
ty
tx
y
St
x
Su
The boundary S of the body can be divided into two parts,

Su and St. The boundary conditions (BCs) are described as,
u = u,
tx = tx ,
v = v,
ty = ty ,
on Su
on S t
(10)
in which tx and ty are traction forces (stresses on the boundary)

and the barred quantities are those with known values.
In FEM, all types of loads (distributed surface loads, body
forces, concentrated forces and moments, etc.) are converted to
point forces acting at the nodes.
Exact Elasticity Solution
The exact solution (displacements, strains and stresses) of a
given problem must satisfy the equilibrium equations (9), the
given boundary conditions (10) and compatibility conditions
(structures should deform in a continuous manner, no cracks or
overlaps in the obtained displacement fields).
80
Example 3.1
A plate is supported and loaded with distributed force p as
shown in the figure. The material constants are E and .
y
p
x
The exact solution for this simple problem can be found
easily as follows,
Displacement:
p
x,
E
v =
p
,
E
y =
x = p,
y = 0,
u=
p
y
E
Strain:
x =
p
,
E
xy = 0
Stress:
xy = 0
Exact (or analytical) solutions for simple problems are

numbered (suppose there is a hole in the plate!). That is why we
need FEM!
81
II. Finite Elements for 2-D Problems

A General Formula for the Stiffness Matrix
Displacements (u, v) in a plane element are interpolated
from nodal displacements (ui, vi) using shape functions Ni as
follows,
u N 1
=
v 0
N2
N1
N2
u1
v
1
L
u2
L
v
2
M
or
u = Nd (11)
where N is the shape function matrix, u the displacement vector

and d the nodal displacement vector. Here we have assumed
that u depends on the nodal values of u only, and v on nodal
values of v only.
From strain-displacement relation (Eq.(8)), the strain vector
is,
= Du = DNd,
or
= Bd
(12)
where B = DN is the strain-displacement matrix.
82
Consider the strain energy stored in an element,

U=
1
1
T dV =
2
2
1
2
x + y y + xy xy ) dV
T
E ) dV =
(
1 T
E dV
2
1
= d T B T EB dV d
2
1
= d T kd
2
From this, we obtain the general formula for the element
stiffness matrix,
k=
B T EB dV
(13)
Note that unlike the 1-D cases, E here is a matrix which is given
by the stress-strain relation (e.g., Eq.(5) for plane stress).
The stiffness matrix k defined by (13) is symmetric since E
is symmetric. Also note that given the material property, the
behavior of k depends on the B matrix only, which in turn on the
shape functions. Thus, the quality of finite elements in
representing the behavior of a structure is entirely determined by
the choice of shape functions.
Most commonly employed 2-D elements are linear or
quadratic triangles and quadrilaterals.
83
Constant Strain Triangle (CST or T3)

This is the simplest 2-D element, which is also called
linear triangular element.
v3
3
(x3, y3)
y
u3
v
v1
1
(x1, y1)
v2
u
(x, y)
2
(x2, y2)
u1
u2
Linear Triangular Element
For this element, we have three nodes at the vertices of the

triangle, which are numbered around the element in the
counterclockwise direction. Each node has two degrees of
freedom (can move in the x and y directions). The
displacements u and v are assumed to be linear functions within
the element, that is,
u = b1 + b2 x + b3 y , v = b4 + b5 x + b6 y
(14)
where bi (i = 1, 2, ..., 6) are constants. From these, the strains

are found to be,
x = b2 , y = b6 ,
xy = b3 + b5
(15)
which are constant throughout the element. Thus, we have the

name constant strain triangle (CST).
84
Displacements given by (14) should satisfy the following

six equations,
u1 = b1 + b2 x1 + b3 y1
u2 = b1 + b2 x 2 + b3 y 2
M
v 3 = b4 + b5 x 3 + b6 y3
Solving these equations, we can find the coefficients b1, b2, ...,
and b6 in terms of nodal displacements and coordinates.
Substituting these coefficients into (14) and rearranging the
terms, we obtain,
u N1
=
v 0
0
N1
N2
0
0
N2
N3
0
u1
v
1
0 u2

N 3 v 2
u3

v3
(16)
where the shape functions (linear functions in x and y) are

1
{( x 2 y3 x3 y 2 ) + ( y 2 y3 ) x + ( x3 x 2 ) y}
2A
1
N2 =
{( x3 y1 x1 y3 ) + ( y3 y1 ) x + ( x1 x3 ) y}
2A
1
N3 =
{( x1 y 2 x 2 y1 ) + ( y1 y 2 ) x + ( x 2 x1 ) y}
2A
N1 =
(17)
and
85
1 x1
1
A = det 1 x 2
2
1 x3
y1
y2
y3
(18)
is the area of the triangle (Prove this!).

Using the strain-displacement relation (8), results (16) and
(17), we have,
x
y 23
1

0
=
Bd
=
2
A

x32
xy
0
x32
y 23
y31
0
x13
0
x13
y 31
y12
0
x 21
u1
v
0 1
u2
x 21 (19)
v2
y12
u3

v3
where xij = xi - xj and yij = yi - yj (i, j = 1, 2, 3). Again, we see

constant strains within the element. From stress-strain relation
(Eq.(5), for example), we see that stresses obtained using the
CST element are also constant.
Applying formula (13), we obtain the element stiffness
matrix for the CST element,
k=
B T EB dV = tA( B T EB )
(20)
in which t is the thickness of the element. Notice that k for CST

is a 6 by 6 symmetric matrix. The matrix multiplication in (20)
can be carried out by a computer program.
86
Both the expressions of the shape functions in (17) and

their derivations are lengthy and offer little insight into the
behavior of the element.
=0
=a
=0
=b
=1
=1
(a, b)
2
The Natural Coordinates

We introduce the natural coordinates ( , ) on the triangle,
then the shape functions can be represented simply by,
N1 = , N 2 = , N 3 = 1
(21)
Notice that,
N1 + N 2 + N 3 = 1
(22)
which ensures that the rigid body translation is represented by

the chosen shape functions. Also, as in the 1-D case,
1,
Ni =
0,
at node i;
at the other nodes
(23)
and varies linearly within the element. The plot for shape
function N1 is shown in the following figure. N2 and N3 have
similar features.
87
=0
N1
=1
1
2
1
Shape Function N1 for CST

We have two coordinate systems for the element: the global
coordinates (x, y) and the natural coordinates ( , ) . The
relation between the two is given by
x = N1x1 + N 2 x 2 + N 3 x3
y = N1 y1 + N 2 y 2 + N 3 y3
(24)
or,
x = x13 + x 23 + x3
y = y13 + y 23 + y3
(25)
where xij = xi - xj and yij = yi - yj (i, j = 1, 2, 3) as defined earlier.

Displacement u or v on the element can be viewed as
functions of (x, y) or ( , ) . Using the chain rule for derivatives,
we have,
u x

u = x

y u
u
x
x
=
J
u
y u

y
y
(26)
where J is called the Jacobian matrix of the transformation.

88
From (25), we calculate,

x
J = 13
x 23
y13
,
y 23
J 1 =
1 y 23
2 A x 23
y13
x13
(27)
where det J = x13 y 23 x 23 y13 = 2 A has been used (A is the area of

the triangular element. Prove this!).
From (26), (27), (16) and (21) we have,
u
x 1 y 23
u =
2 A x 23
y
=
u
y13

x13 u

1 y 23
2 A x 23
(28)
y13 u1 u3
x13 u2 u3
Similarly,
v
x 1 y 23
v =
x
A
2
23

y
y13 v1 v3
x13 v 2 v3
(29)
Using the results in (28) and (29), and the relations

= Du = DNd = Bd, we obtain the strain-displacement matrix,
y 23
1
0
B=
2A
x32
y31
y12
x32
x13
y 23
x13
y31
x 21
0
x 21
y12
(30)
which is the same as we derived earlier in (19).

89
Applications of the CST Element:
Use in areas where the strain gradient is small.

Use in mesh transition areas (fine mesh to coarse mesh).
Avoid using CST in stress concentration or other crucial
areas in the structure, such as edges of holes and corners.
Recommended for quick and preliminary FE analysis of
2-D problems.
Analysis of composite materials (for which the CST is NOT appropriate!)
90
Linear Strain Triangle (LST or T6)

This element is also called quadratic triangular element.
v3
u3
3
y
v5
5
v6
u6
u5
v2
v1
1
u1
u4
u2
v4
x
Quadratic Triangular Element

There are six nodes on this element: three corner nodes and
three midside nodes. Each node has two degrees of freedom
(DOF) as before. The displacements (u, v) are assumed to be
quadratic functions of (x, y),
u = b1 + b2 x + b3 y + b4 x 2 + b5 xy + b6 y 2
v = b7 + b8 x + b9 y + b10 x + b11 xy + b12 y
2
(31)
where bi (i = 1, 2, ..., 12) are constants. From these, the strains

are found to be,
x = b2 + 2b4 x + b5 y
(32)
y = b9 + b11 x + 2b12 y
xy = ( b3 + b8 ) + ( b5 + 2b10 ) x + ( 2b6 + b11 ) y

which are linear functions. Thus, we have the linear strain
triangle (LST), which provides better results than the CST.
91
In the natural coordinate system we defined earlier, the six

shape functions for the LST element are,
N 1 = ( 2 1)
N 2 = ( 2 1)
N 3 = ( 2 1)
(33)
N 4 = 4
N 5 = 4
N 6 = 4
in which = 1 . Each of these six shape functions
represents a quadratic form on the element as shown in the
figure.
=0
=1/2
6
=1
N1
4
Shape Function N1 for LST

Displacements can be written as,
6
u = N i ui ,
i =1
v = N i vi
(34)
i =1
The element stiffness matrix is still given by

k = B T EB dV , but here BTEB is quadratic in x and y. In
V
general, the integral has to be computed numerically.
92
Linear Quadrilateral Element (Q4)
v4
=1
u3
u4
v1
1
= 1
v3
v2
u2
u1
= 1
=1
Linear Quadrilateral Element

There are four nodes at the corners of the quadrilateral
shape. In the natural coordinate system ( , ) , the four shape
functions are,
1
1
N 1 = (1 )(1 ),
N 2 = (1 + )(1 )
4
4
(35)
1
1
N 3 = (1 + )(1 + ),
N 4 = (1 )(1 + )
4
4
Note that
N i = 1 at any point inside the element, as expected.

i =1
The displacement field is given by

4
u = N i ui ,
i =1
v = N i vi
(36)
i =1
which are bilinear functions over the element.

93
Quadratic Quadrilateral Element (Q8)

This is the most widely used element for 2-D problems due
to its high accuracy in analysis and flexibility in modeling.
=1
8
y
= 1
= 1
=1
Quadratic Quadrilateral Element
There are eight nodes for this element, four corners nodes
and four midside nodes. In the natural coordinate system ( , ) ,
the eight shape functions are,
1
N 1 = (1 )( 1)( + + 1)
4
1
N 2 = (1 + )( 1)( + 1)
4
1
N 3 = (1 + )(1 + )( + 1)
4
1
N 4 = ( 1)( + 1)( + 1)
4
(37)
94
1
N 5 = (1 )(1 2 )
2
1
N 6 = (1 + )(1 2 )
2
1
N 7 = (1 + )(1 2 )
2
1
N 8 = (1 )(1 2 )
2
Again, we have
N i = 1 at any point inside the element.

i =1
The displacement field is given by

8
u = N i ui ,
i =1
v = N i vi
(38)
i =1
which are quadratic functions over the element. Strains and

stresses over a quadratic quadrilateral element are linear
functions, which are better representations.
Notes:
Q4 and T3 are usually used together in a mesh with

linear elements.
Q8 and T6 are usually applied in a mesh composed of
quadratic elements.
Quadratic elements are preferred for stress analysis,
because of their high accuracy and the flexibility in
modeling complex geometry, such as curved boundaries.
95
Example 3.2
A square plate with a hole at the center and under pressure
in one direction.
y
p
A
The dimension of the plate is 10 in. x 10 in., thickness is

0.1 in. and radius of the hole is 1 in. Assume E = 10x106 psi, v
= 0.3 and p = 100 psi. Find the maximum stress in the plate.
FE Analysis:
From the knowledge of stress concentrations, we should

expect the maximum stresses occur at points A and B on the
edge of the hole. Value of this stress should be around 3p (=
300 psi) which is the exact solution for an infinitely large plate
with a hole.
96
We use the ANSYS FEA software to do the modeling

(meshing) and analysis, using quadratic triangular (T6 or LST),
linear quadrilateral (Q4) and quadratic quadrilateral (Q8)
elements. Linear triangles (CST or T3) is NOT available in
ANSYS.
The stress calculations are listed in the following table,
along with the number of elements and DOF used, for
comparison.
Table. FEA Stress Results
Elem. Type
No. Elem.
DOF
Max. (psi)
T6
966
4056
310.1
Q4
493
1082
286.0
Q8
493
3150
327.1
...
...
...
...
Q8
2727
16,826
322.3
Discussions:
Check the deformed shape of the plate

Check convergence (use a finer mesh, if possible)
Less elements (~ 100) should be enough to achieve the
same accuracy with a better or smarter mesh
Well redo this example in next chapter employing the
symmetry conditions.
97
FEA Mesh (Q8, 493 elements)
FEA Stress Plot (Q8, 493 elements)
98
Transformation of Loads
Concentrated load (point forces), surface traction (pressure
loads) and body force (weight) are the main types of loads
applied to a structure. Both traction and body forces need to be
converted to nodal forces in the FEA, since they cannot be
applied to the FE model directly. The conversions of these loads
are based on the same idea (the equivalent-work concept) which
we have used for the cases of bar and beam elements.
qB
fB
qA
fA
s
B
L
B
A
Traction on a Q4 element
Suppose, for example, we have a linearly varying traction q

on a Q4 element edge, as shown in the figure. The traction is
normal to the boundary. Using the local (tangential) coordinate
s, we can write the work done by the traction q as,
L
Wq = t un ( s )q( s )ds
0
where t is the thickness, L the side length and un the component

of displacement normal to the edge AB.
For the Q4 element (linear displacement field), we have
99
un ( s ) = (1 s / L )unA + ( s / L )unB
The traction q(s), which is also linear, is given in a similar way,

q( s ) = (1 s / L )q A + ( s / L )qB
Thus, we have,
Wq = t [ unA
0
L
q A
1 s / L
s
/
L
s
/
L
unB ]
1
ds
[
]
q B
s / L
= [ unA
( s / L )(1 s / L ) q A
(1 s / L ) 2
unB ]t
ds q
2
s
L
s
L
s
L
(
/
)(
/
)
(
/
)
1
0
B
= [ unA
unB ]
tL 2 1 q A
6 1 2 q B
and the equivalent nodal force vector is,

f A tL 2 1 q A
=
q
1
2
f
6
B
B
Note, for constant q, we have,
f A qtL 1
=
f
2
1
B
For quadratic elements (either triangular or quadrilateral),
the traction is converted to forces at three nodes along the edge,
instead of two nodes.
Traction tangent to the boundary, as well as body forces,
are converted to nodal forces in a similar way.
100
Stress Calculation
The stress in an element is determined by the following
relation,
x
x

y = E y = EBd

xy
xy
(39)
where B is the strain-nodal displacement matrix and d is the

nodal displacement vector which is known for each element
once the global FE equation has been solved.
Stresses can be evaluated at any point inside the element
(such as the center) or at the nodes. Contour plots are usually
used in FEA software packages (during post-process) for users
to visually inspect the stress results.
The von Mises Stress:
The von Mises stress is the effective or equivalent stress for

2-D and 3-D stress analysis. For a ductile material, the stress
level is considered to be safe, if
e Y
where e is the von Mises stress and Y the yield stress of the
material. This is a generalization of the 1-D (experimental)
result to 2-D and 3-D situations.
101
The von Mises stress is defined by
e =
1
( 1 2 ) 2 + ( 2 3 ) 2 + ( 3 1 ) 2
2
(40)
in which 1 , 2 and 3 are the three principle stresses at the

considered point in a structure.
For 2-D problems, the two principle stresses in the plane
are determined by
1P =
2 =
P
x + y
2
x + y
2
x y
2
+
+ xy
2
2
x y
2

+ xy
2
(41)
Thus, we can also express the von Mises stress in terms of

the stress components in the xy coordinate system. For plane
stress conditions, we have,
e = ( x + y ) 2 3( x y xy2 )
(42)
Averaged Stresses:
Stresses are usually averaged at nodes in FEA software

packages to provide more accurate stress values. This option
should be turned off at nodes between two materials or other
geometry discontinuity locations where stress discontinuity does
exist.
102
Discussions
1) Know the behaviors of each type of elements:

T3 and Q4:
linear displacement, constant strain and stress;
T6 and Q8:
quadratic displacement, linear strain and stress.
2) Choose the right type of elements for a given problem:
When in doubt, use higher order elements or a finer mesh.
3) Avoid elements with large aspect ratios and corner angles:
Aspect ratio = Lmax / Lmin

where Lmax and Lmin are the largest and smallest characteristic
lengths of an element, respectively.
Elements with Bad Shapes
Elements with Nice Shapes

103
4) Connect the elements properly:
Dont leave unintended gaps or free elements in FE models.

A
Improper connections (gaps along AB and CD)
104
Chapter 4. FE Modeling and Solution Techniques
Chapter 4. Finite Element Modeling and

Solution Techniques
I. Symmetry
A structure possesses symmetry if its components are
arranged in a periodic or reflective manner.
Types of Symmetry:
Reflective (mirror, bilateral) symmetry

Rotational (cyclic) symmetry
Axisymmetry
Translational symmetry
...
Examples:
105
Applications of the symmetry properties:
Reducing the size of the problems (save CPU time, disk

space, postprocessing effort, etc.)
Simplifying the modeling task
Checking the FEA results
...
Symmetry of a structure should be fully exploited and

retained in the FE model to ensure the efficiency and quality of
FE solutions.
Examples:
Cautions:
In vibration and buckling analyses, symmetry concepts, in
general, should not be used in FE solutions (works fine in
modeling), since symmetric structures often have antisymmetric
vibration or buckling modes.
106
II. Substructures (Superelements)

Substructuring is a process of analyzing a large structure as
a collection of (natural) components. The FE models for these
components are called substructures or superelements (SE).
Physical Meaning:
A finite element model of a portion of structure.
Mathematical Meaning:
Boundary matrices which are load and stiffness matrices
reduced (condensed) from the interior points to the exterior or
boundary points.
107
Advantages of Using Substructures/Superelements:
Large problems (which will otherwise exceed your

computer capabilities)
Less CPU time per run once the superelements have
been processed (i.e., matrices have been saved)
Components may be modeled by different groups
Partial redesign requires only partial reanalysis (reduced
cost)
Efficient for problems with local nonlinearities (such as
confined plastic deformations) which can be placed in
one superelement (residual structure)
Exact for static stress analysis
Disadvantages:
Increased overhead for file management

Matrix condensation for dynamic problems introduce
new approximations
...
108
III. Equation Solving

Direct Methods (Gauss Elimination):
Solution time proportional to NB2 (N is the dimension of

the matrix, B the bandwidth)
Suitable for small to medium problems, or slender
structures (small bandwidth)
Easy to handle multiple load cases
Iterative Methods:
Solution time is unknown beforehand

Reduced storage requirement
Suitable for large problems, or bulky structures (large
bandwidth, converge faster)
Need solving again for different load cases
109
Gauss Elimination - Example:

8 2 0 x1 2
2 4 3 x = 1
2
0 3 3 x 3 3
or Ax = b .
Forward Elimination:
Form
(1) 8 2 0
( 2) 2 4 3
(3) 0 3 3
2
1 ;
(1) + 4 x (2) (2):

0
(1) 8 2
( 2) 0 14 12
3
(3) 0 3
(2) +
2
2 ;
14
(3) (3):
3
0
(1) 8 2
( 2) 0 14 12
2
(3) 0 0
2
2 ;
12
Back Substitution:
x 3 = 12 / 2 = 6
x 2 = ( 2 + 12 x 3 ) / 14 = 5
x1 = ( 2 + 2 x 2 ) / 8 = 1.5
or
1.5

x = 5 .
6

110
Iterative Method - Example:

The Gauss-Seidel Method
Ax = b
(A is symmetric)
or
aij x j = bi ,
i = 1, 2, ..., N .
j =1
Start with an estimate x ( 0 ) and then iterate using the following:

xi
( k + 1)
i 1
N
( k + 1)
(k )
b
a
x
a
x
i
ij
j
ij
j
j =1
j = i +1
for i = 1, 2, ..., N .
1
=
a ii
In vector form,
1
x ( k + 1) = A D b A L x ( k + 1) A L x ( k ) ,
where
A D = a ii is the diagonal matrix of A,
A L is the lower triangular matrix of A,
T
such that A = A D + A L + A L .
Iterations continue until solution x converges, i.e.
x ( k + 1) x ( k )
x
(k )
where is the tolerance for convergence control.
111
IV. Nature of Finite Element Solutions

FE Model A mathematical model of the real structure,
based on many approximations.
Real Structure -- Infinite number of nodes (physical
points or particles), thus infinite number of DOFs.
FE Model finite number of nodes, thus finite number
of DOFs.
Displacement field is controlled (or constrained) by the
values at a limited number of nodes.
Recall that on an element :

4
u = N u
=1
Stiffening Effect:
FE Model is stiffer than the real structure.

In general, displacement results are smaller in
magnitudes than the exact values.
112
Hence, FEM solution of displacement provides a lower

bound of the exact solution.
(Displacement)
Exact Solution
FEM Solutions
No. of DOFs
The FEM solution approaches the exact solution from

below.
This is true for displacement based FEA!
113
V. Numerical Error
Error Mistakes in FEM (modeling or solution).
Type of Errors:
Modeling Error (beam, plate theories)

Discretization Error (finite, piecewise )
Numerical Error ( in solving FE equations)
Example (numerical error):

u1
u2
k1
k2
FE Equations:
k1
k
1
and
k 1 u1 P
=
k 1 + k 2 u 2 0
Det K = k 1 k 2 .
The system will be singular if k2 is small compared with k1.
114
P
k1
u2 = u1
u2
u2 =
k1
u1
k1 + k 2
k2 << k1 (two lines close):

System ill-conditioned.
u1
P/k1
u2
u2 = u1
P
k1
u2 =
k1
u1
k1 + k 2
k2 >> k1 (two line apart):

System well conditioned.
P/k1
u1
Large difference in stiffness of different parts in FE

model may cause ill-conditioning in FE equations.
Hence giving results with large errors.
Ill-conditioned system of equations can lead to large
changes in solution with small changes in input
(right hand side vector).
115
VI. Convergence of FE Solutions

As the mesh in an FE model is refined repeatedly, the FE
solution will converge to the exact solution of the mathematical
model of the problem (the model based on bar, beam, plane
stress/strain, plate, shell, or 3-D elasticity theories or
assumptions).
Type of Refinements:
h-refinement: reduce the size of the element (h refers to the
typical size of the elements);
p-refinement:
Increase the order of the polynomials on an

element (linear to quadratic, etc.; h refers to
the highest order in a polynomial);
r-refinement:
re-arrange the nodes in the mesh;
hp-refinement: Combination of the h- and p-refinements

(better results!).
Examples:
116
VII. Adaptivity (h-, p-, and hp-Methods)

Future of FE applications
Automatic refinement of FE meshes until converged
results are obtained
Users responsibility reduced: only need to generate a
good initial mesh
Error Indicators:
Define,
--- element by element stress field (discontinuous),

*--- averaged or smooth stress (continuous),
E = - * --- the error stress field.
Compute strain energy,
M
U = U i ,
i =1
U = U i* ,
*
i =1
M
U E = U E i ,
i =1
Ui =
1 T 1
2 E dV ;
V
i
U* =
i
1 *T 1 *
2 E dV ;
V
i
UEi =
1 T 1
2 E E E dV ;
V
i
where M is the total number of elements, Vi is the volume of the

element i.
117
One error indicator --- the relative energy error:

1/ 2
UE
=
.
U + U E
(0 1)
The indicator is computed after each FE solution. Refinement

of the FE model continues until, say
0.05.
=> converged FE solution.
Examples:
118
Chapter 5. Plate and Shell Elements

I. Plate Theory
Flat plate
Lateral loading
Bending behavior dominates
Note the following similarity:
1-D straight beam model 2-D flat plate model
Applications:
Shear walls
Floor panels
Shelves

119
Forces and Moments Acting on the Plate:

z
y
y
My
q(x,y)
Mxy
Qy
t
Mx
Qx
Mid surface
Mxy
Stresses:
z
yz
y
xy
xz
x
xy
120
Relations Between Forces and Stresses

Bending moments (per unit length):
M x = t / 2 x zdz ,
t/2
( N m / m)
(1)
t/2
( N m / m)
(2)
( N m / m)
(3)
( N / m)
(4)
( N / m)
(5)
M y = t / 2 y zdz ,
Twisting moment (per unit length):
t/2
M xy = t / 2 xy zdz ,
Shear Forces (per unit length):
t/2
Q x = t / 2 xz dz ,
t/2
Q y = t / 2 yz dz ,
Maximum bending stresses:
( x ) max =
6M x
,
t2
( y ) max =
6M y
t2
(6)
Maximum stress is always at z = t / 2

No bending stresses at midsurface (similar to the beam
model)
121
Thin Plate Theory ( Kirchhoff Plate Theory)
Assumptions (similar to those in the beam theory):
A straight line along the normal to the mid surface remains

straight and normal to the deflected mid surface after loading,
that is, these is no transverse shear deformation:
xz = yz = 0 .
Displacement:
w
x
w
x
w = w( x, y ),
w
u = z
,
x
w
v = z
.
y
( deflection )
(7)
122
Strains:
2w
x = z 2 ,
x
2w
y = z 2 ,
y
2w
xy = 2 z
.
xy
(8)
Note that there is no stretch of the mid surface due to the

deflection (bending) of the plate.
Stresses (plane stress state):

x
E

y =
2
1

xy
0
1
x
1
,
0
y

0 0 (1 ) / 2 xy
or,
2w
2
0 x2
x
1
E

w .
1
0
y = z
2
y 2

0 0 (1 ) 2 w
xy
xy
(9)
Main variable: deflection w = w( x, y ) .
123
Governing Equation:
D 4 w = q ( x , y ) ,
(10)
where
4
4
4
( 4 + 2 2 2 + 4 ),
x
x y y
4
Et 3
D=
(the bending rigidity of the plate),
2
12(1 )
q = lateral distributed load (force/area).
Compare the 1-D equation for straight beam:
d 4w
EI
= q( x ) .
4
dx
Note: Equation (10) represents the equilibrium condition in

the z-direction. To see this, refer to the previous figure showing
all the forces on a plate element. Summing the forces in the zdirection, we have,
Q x y + Q y x + qxy = 0,
which yields,
Q x Q y
+ q( x , y ) = 0 .
+
y
x
Substituting the following relations into the above equation, we

obtain Eq. (10).
124
Shear forces and bending moments:

Qx =
M x M xy
,
+
y
x
Qy =
2w
2w
M x = D 2 + 2 ,
y
x
M xy
x
M y
y
2w
2w
M y = D 2 + 2 .
x
y
The fourth-order partial differential equation, given in (10)

and in terms of the deflection w(x,y), needs to be solved under
certain given boundary conditions.
Boundary Conditions:
Clamped:
w = 0,
w
= 0;
n
(11)
Simply supported:
w = 0,
M n = 0;
(12)
Free:
Q n = 0,
M n = 0;
(13)
where n is the normal direction of the boundary. Note that the

given values in the boundary conditions shown above can be
non-zero values as well.
s
boundary
125
Examples:
A square plate with four edges clamped or hinged, and
under a uniform load q or a concentrated force P at the center C.
z
C
L
y
L
Given: E, t, and = 0.3
For this simple geometry, Eq. (10) with boundary condition

(11) or (12) can be solved analytically. The maximum
deflections are given in the following table for the different
cases.
Deflection at the Center (wc)

Clamped
Simply supported
Under uniform load q
0.00126 qL4/D
0.00406 qL4/D
Under concentrated
force P
0.00560 PL2/D
0.0116 PL2/D
in which: D= Et3/(12(1-v2)).
These values can be used to verify the FEA solutions.
126
Thick Plate Theory (Mindlin Plate Theory)

If the thickness t of a plate is not thin, e.g., t / L 1 / 10
(L = a characteristic dimension of the plate), then the thick plate
theory by Mindlin should be applied. This theory accounts for
the angle changes within a cross section, that is,
xz 0,
yz 0 .
This means that a line which is normal to the mid surface before
the deformation will not be so after the deformation.
w
w
x
New independent variables:
x and y : rotation angles of a line, which is normal to the

mid surface before the deformation, about x- and y-axis,
respectively.
127
New relations:
u = z y ,
v = z x ;
(14)
y
,
x
y = z x ,
y

xy = z ( y x ),
y x
w
xz =
+ y ,
x
w
yz =
x.
y
x = z
(15)
Note that if we imposed the conditions (or assumptions)

that
xz =
w
+ y = 0,
x
yz =
w
x = 0,
y
then we can recover the relations applied in the thin plate theory.
Main variables: w( x, y ), x ( x, y ) and y ( x, y ) .
The governing equations and boundary conditions can be
established for thick plate based on the above assumptions.
128
II. Plate Elements

Kirchhoff Plate Elements:
4-Node Quadrilateral Element

z
Mid surface
x
1
w w
w1 , ,
x 1 y 1
DOF at each node:
w w
w2 , ,
x 2 y 2
w,
w w
,
.
y y
On each element, the deflection w(x,y) is represented by
w
w
w( x, y ) = N i wi + N xi ( ) i + N yi ( ) i ,
x
y
i =1
4
where Ni, Nxi and Nyi are shape functions. This is an

incompatible element! The stiffness matrix is still of the form
k = B T EBdV ,
V
where B is the strain-displacement matrix, and E the stressstrain matrix.

129
Mindlin Plate Elements:
4-Node Quadrilateral
z
8-Node Quadrilateral
z
y
3
x
1
DOF at each node:
w, x and y.
On each element:
n
w( x, y ) = N i wi ,
i =1
n
x ( x, y ) = N i xi ,
i =1
n
y ( x, y ) = N i yi .
i =1
Three independent fields.

Deflection w(x,y) is linear for Q4, and quadratic for Q8.
130
Discrete Kirchhoff Element:

Triangular plate element (not available in ANSYS).
Start with a 6-node triangular element,

z
3
6
4
1
DOF at corner nodes: w,
w w
, , x , y ;
x y
DOF at mid side nodes: x , y .

Total DOF = 21.
Then, impose conditions xz = yz = 0 , etc., at selected
nodes to reduce the DOF (using relations in (15)). Obtain:
z
w w
At each node: w, x =
.
, y =
x
y
Total DOF = 9 (DKT Element).

Incompatible w(x,y); convergence is faster (w is cubic
along each edge) and it is efficient.
131
Test Problem:
z
P
C
y
L
L/t = 10, = 0.3
ANSYS 4-node quadrilateral plate element.
ANSYS Result for wc

Mesh
wc ( PL2/D)
22
0.00593
44
0.00598
88
0.00574
1616
0.00565
Exact Solution
0.00560
Question: Converges from above? Contradiction to what

we learnt about the nature of the FEA solution?
Reason: This is an incompatible element ( See comments
on p. 177).
132
III. Shells and Shell Elements

Shells Thin structures witch span over curved surfaces.
Example:
Sea shell, egg shell (the wonder of the nature);
Containers, pipes, tanks;
Car bodies;
Roofs, buildings (the Superdome), etc.
Forces in shells:
Membrane forces + Bending Moments
(cf. plates: bending only)
133
Example: A Cylindrical Container.
internal forces:
p
membrane stresses
dominate
Shell Theory:
Thin shell theory

Thick shell theory
Shell theories are the most complicated ones to formulate
and analyze in mechanics (Russians contributions).
Engineering Craftsmanship
Demand strong analytical skill
134
Shell Elements:
plane stress element
plate bending element
flat shell element
cf.: bar + simple beam element => general beam element.

DOF at each node:
v
u
Q4 or Q8 shell element.
135
Curved shell elements:
v
i
Based on shell theories;

Most general shell elements (flat shell and plate elements
are subsets);
Complicated in formulation.
136
Test Cases:
q
L/2
F
A
R
80o
L/2
F
Roof
Pinched Cylinder
F2
F
b
A
A
L
F1
F
Pinched Hemisphere
Twisted Strip (90o)
Check the Table, on page 188 of Cooks book, for values

of the displacement A under the various loading
conditions.
Difficulties in Application:
Non uniform thickness (turbo blades, vessels with

stiffeners, thin layered structures, etc.);
Should turn to 3-D theory and apply solid elements.
137
Chapter 6. Solid Elements for 3-D Problems
Chapter 6. Solid Elements for 3-D

Problems
I. 3-D Elasticity Theory
Stress State:
y
F
x
z
y,v
yx
yz
xy
zy
x
z
zx
xz
x, u
z, w
138
= { }= z
xy
yz
zx
or
[ ]
ij
(1)
[ ]
(2)
Strains:
x
y
z
= { }=
xy
yz
zx
or
ij
Stress-strain relation:
x
y
z
xy
yz
zx
v
v
0
0
0
1 v
v
v
1 v
0
0
0 x

v
v
v
1
0
0
0
1 2v
0
E
0
0 z
0
0
=
2
(1 + v )(1 2v )
xy
1 2v
0
0
0
0 yz
0
2
1
2
v
zx
0
0
0
0
0
or
= E
(3)
139
Displacement:
u ( x, y , z ) u1

u = v ( x, y , z ) = u 2
w( x , y , z ) u
3
( 4)
Strain-Displacement Relation:
w
u
v
x =
, y =
, z =
,
z
x
y
v u
w v
u w
+
+
xy = +
, yz =
, xz =
x y
y z
z x
(5)
or
ij =
1 ui u j
+ ,
2 x j xi
( i, j = 1, 2, 3)
1
ui , j + u j ,i )
(
2
( tensor notation)
or simply,
ij =
140
Equilibrium Equations:
x xy xz
+
+
+ fx = 0 ,
x
y
z
yx y yz
+
+
+ fy = 0 ,
x
y
z
zx zy z
+
+
+ fz = 0 ,
x
y
z
or
( 6)
ij , j + f i = 0
Boundary Conditions (BCs):
ui = ui ,
on u ( specified displacement )
ti = ti ,
on ( specified traction )
( 7)
( traction ti = ij n j )
p
n
( = u + )
u
Stress Analysis:
Solving equations in (3), (5) and (6) under the BCs in (7)
provides the stress, strain and displacement fields (15 equations
for 15 unknowns for 3-D problems). Analytical solutions are
difficult to find!
141
II. Finite Element Formulation

Displacement Field:
u=
N i ui
i =1
v=
N i vi
(8)
i =1
w=
N i wi
i =1
Nodal values
In matrix form:
N1
u

= 0
v
w
0
( 31)
or
N2
N1
N2
N1
N2
u1
v1
L
w1

L
(9)
u2
L
( 33N ) v2
w2
M ( 3N 1)
u=Nd
Using relations (5) and (8), we can derive the strain vector
=B d
(61) (63N)(3N1)
142
Stiffness Matrix:
k = B T E B dv
(10)
(3N) (3N6)(66)(63N)
Numerical quadratures are often needed to evaluate the
above integration.
Rigid-body motions for 3-D bodies (6 components):
3 translations, 3 rotations.
These rigid-body motions (causes of singularity of the
system of equations) must be removed from the FEA model to
ensure the quality of the analysis.
143
III. Typical 3-D Solid Elements

Tetrahedron:
linear (4 nodes)
quadratic (10 nodes)
Hexahedron (brick):
linear (8 nodes)
Penta:
linear (6 nodes)
Avoid using the linear (4-node) tetrahedron element in 3-D

stress analysis (Inaccurate! However, it is OK for static
deformation or vibration analysis).
144
Element Formulation:
Linear Hexahedron Element
3
4
8
1
5
6
x
mapping (xyz)
(-1 ,, 1)
(-1,1,-1) 4
3 (1,1,-1)
(-1,1,1) 8
7 (1,1,1)
o
(-1,-1,-1) 1
2 (1,-1,-1)
(-1,-1,1) 5
6 (1,-1,1)
Displacement field in the element:

8
u = N i ui ,
i =1
i =1
1i =1
v = N i vi , w = N i wi
(11)
145
Shape functions:
1
N 1 ( , , ) = (1 ) (1 ) (1 ) ,
8
1
N 2 ( , , ) = (1 + ) (1 ) (1 ) ,
8
1
N 3 ( , , ) = (1 + ) (1 + ) (1 ) ,
8
M
M
(12)
1
N 8 ( , , ) = (1 ) (1 + ) (1 + ) .
8
Note that we have the following relations for the shape
functions:
N i ( j , j , j ) = ij , i, j = 1,2,L, 8.
8
N i ( , , ) = 1.
i =1
Coordinate Transformation (Mapping):

8
i =1
i =1
i =1
x = N i xi , y = N i yi , z = N i zi .
(13)
The same shape functions are used as for the displacement field.
Isoparametric element.
146
Jacobian Matrix:
u

u
=

u

x

x
z

z
u
x
u

y
u
z
(14)
Jacobian matrix
u
u

x

u
1 u
=J ,
y

u
u
z

u
=
N i
u
,
etc
.
i
i =1
and
v
v

x

v
1 v
=J ,
y

v
v
z

(15)
also for w.
147
u
x
v

y w
z z
= = x u = L use (15) = B d
xy +
yz x y
w v
zx +
y z
u
w
+
z x
where d is the nodal displacement vector,

i.e.,
= Bd
(16)
(61) (624)(241)
148
Strain energy,
1
1
U = T dV = ( E ) T dV
2V
2V
1
= T E dV
2V
=
1 T T
d B E B dV d
2
(17)
Element stiffness matrix,
k = B T E B dV
(18)
(2424) (246)(66)(624)
In coordinates:
dV = (det J ) d d d
(19)
1 1 1
k = B T E B (det J ) d d d
( 20)
1 1 1
( Numerical integration)
3-D elements usually do not use rotational DOFs.
149
Treatment of distributed loads:
Distributed loads Nodal forces

pA/3
pA/12
Area =A
Nodal forces for 20-node

Hexahedron
Stresses:
= E = EBd
Principal stresses:
1 , 2 , 3 .
von Mises stress:
1
e = VM =
( 1 2 ) 2 + ( 2 3 ) 2 + ( 3 1 ) 2 .
2
Stresses are evaluated at selected points (including nodes)

on each element. Averaging (around a node, for example) may
be employed to smooth the field.
Examples:
150
Solids of Revolution (Axisymmetric Solids)
Baseball bat
shaft
Apply cylindrical coordinates:
( x, y, z) (r, , z)
z, w
r, u
z, w
r, u
r
rz
r
151
Displacement field:
u = u ( r , z ) , w = w( r , z )
(No v circumferential component )
Strains:
w
u
u
,
= ,
z =
,
z
r
r
w u
+
rz =
, ( r = z = 0)
r z
r =
r
d
( 21)
(r+u)d
rd
Stresses:
r

E

=
z (1 + v ) (1 2v )
rz
0
v
v
1 v
v 1 v
0
v
0
v 1 v
v
1 2v
0
0
0
r

( 22)
z
rz
152
Axisymmetric Elements
r, u
r, u
3
1
3-node element (ring)
k = B T E B rdr d dz
4-node element (ring)

( 23)
or
2 1 1
k=
B T E B r (det J ) d d d
0 1 1
1 1
= 2
B T E B r (det J ) d d
( 24)
1 1
153
Applications
Rotating Flywheel:
z
angular velocity (rad/s)

r
Body forces:
fr = r 2
( equivalent radial centrifugal/ inertial force)
fz = g
( gravitational force)
154
Cylinder Subject to Internal Pressure:

p
r0
q = ( p ) 2 r0
Press Fit:
r0
ri
ri +
ring ( Sleeve)
shaft
at r = ri :
uo ui =
MPC
i o
155
Belleville (Conical) Spring:

z
This is a geometrically nonlinear (large deformation)

problem and iteration method (incremental approach) needs to
be employed.
156
Chapter 7. Structural Vibration and Dynamics
Chapter 7. Structural Vibration and

Dynamics
Natural frequencies and modes
F(t)
Frequency response (F(t)=Fo sint)

Transient response (F(t) arbitrary)
I. Basic Equations
A. Single DOF System
k
f=f(t)
ku
c u&
m - mass
k - stiffness
c - damping
f ( t ) - force
f(t)
x, u
From Newtons law of motion (ma = F), we have
mu&& = f(t)k u cu& ,

i.e.
mu&&+cu& +k u = f(t) ,
(1)
2
2
where u is the displacement, u& = du / dt and u&& = d u / dt .
157
Free Vibration:
f(t) = 0 and no damping (c = 0)
Eq. (1) becomes
mu&&+k u = 0 .
(meaning: inertia force + stiffness force = 0)
(2)
Assume:
u(t) = U sin ( t) ,
where is the frequency of oscillation, U the amplitude.

Eq. (2) yields
U2 m sin( t)+kU sin( t)= 0
i.e.,
m+k U = 0.
For nontrivial solutions for U, we must have
m+k = 0,
which yields
=
k
.
m
(3)
This is the circular natural frequency of the single DOF

system (rad/s). The cyclic frequency (1/s = Hz) is
f =
,
2
(4)
158
u = U s in w t
U
t
U
T = 1 /f
U n d a m p e d F r e e V ib r a t io n
With non-zero damping c, where

0 < c < cc = 2m = 2 k m
(cc = critical damping)
(5)
we have the damped natural frequency:
d = 1 2 ,
where =
(6)
c
(damping ratio).
cc
For structural damping: 0 < 0.15 (usually 1~5%)
d .
(7)
Thus, we can ignore damping in normal mode analysis.

u
t
Damped Free Vibration

159
B. Multiple DOF System

Equation of Motion
Equation of motion for the whole structure is
&& + C u& + Ku = f (t ) ,
Mu
(8)
u nodal displacement vector,
in which:
M mass matrix,
C damping matrix,
K stiffness matrix,
f forcing vector.
Physical meaning of Eq. (8):

Inertia forces + Damping forces + Elastic forces
= Applied forces
Mass Matrices
Lumped mass matrix (1-D bar element):
AL 1 ,A,L 2
AL
m2 =
2 u1
2
u2
Element mass matrix is found to be
m1 =
AL
0
m= 2
AL
0
2
44244
1
3
diagonal matrix
160
In general, we have the consistent mass matrix given by
m=
N T NdV
(9)
where N is the same shape function matrix as used for the

displacement field.
This is obtained by considering the kinetic energy:
1 T
1
u& m u&
(cf. mv 2 )
2
2
1
1
T
= u& 2 dV = (u& ) u& dV
2 V
2 V
1
T
= (N u& ) (N u& )dV
2 V
1
= u& T N T N dV u&
V
2
1
42 43
Bar Element (linear shape function):
1
[1 ]ALd
m =
V

1 / 3 1 / 6 u&&1
= AL
1 / 6 1 / 3 u&&2
(10)
Element mass matrices:

local coordinates to global coordinates
assembly of the global structure mass matrix M.
161
Example
Simple Beam Element:
v1
, A, L
v2
m = NT NdV
V
54
13L v&&1
156 22L
2
13L 3L2 &&1

AL 22L 4 L
=
13L
156 22L v&&2
420 54
2
2 &&
13
3
22
4
L
L
L
L
(11)
Units in dynamic analysis (make sure they are consistent):

t (time)
L (length)
m (mass)
a (accel.)
f (force)
(density)
Choice I
s
m
kg
m/s2
N
kg/m3
Choice II
s
mm
Mg
mm/s2
N
Mg/mm3
162
II. Free Vibration

Study of the dynamic characteristics of a structure:
natural frequencies
normal modes (shapes)
Let f(t) = 0 and C = 0 (ignore damping) in the dynamic
equation (8) and obtain
&& + Ku = 0
Mu
(12)
Assume that displacements vary harmonically with time, that
is,
u ( t ) = u sin( t ),
u& ( t ) = u cos( t ),
&& ( t ) = 2 u sin( t ),
u
where u is the vector of nodal displacement amplitudes.

Eq. (12) yields,
[K
M u = 0
(13)
This is a generalized eigenvalue problem (EVP).

Solutions?
163
Trivial solution: u = 0 for any values of (not interesting).

Nontrivial solutions: u 0 only if
K 2M = 0
(14)
This is an n-th order polynomial of 2, from which we can

find n solutions (roots) or eigenvalues i.
i (i = 1, 2, , n) are the natural frequencies (or
characteristic frequencies) of the structure.
1 (the smallest one) is called the fundamental frequency.
For each i , Eq. (13) gives one solution (or eigen) vector
[K
2
i
M ui = 0 .
u i (i=1,2,,n) are the normal modes (or natural modes,

mode shapes, etc.).
Properties of Normal Modes
u iT K u
= 0,
u iT M u j = 0 ,
for i j,
(15)
if i j . That is, modes are orthogonal (or independent) to

each other with respect to K and M matrices.
164
Normalize the modes:
u iT M u i = 1,
u iT K u i = i2 .
(16)
Note:
Magnitudes of displacements (modes) or stresses in normal

mode analysis have no physical meaning.
For normal mode analysis, no support of the structure is
necessary.
i = 0 there are rigid body motions of the whole or
a part of the structure.
apply this to check the FEA model (check for
mechanism or free elements in the models).
Lower modes are more accurate than higher modes in the
FE calculations (less spatial variations in the lower modes
fewer elements/wave length are needed).
165
Example:
y
v2
, A, EI
1
2
L
v2 0
K M = ,
2 0
EI 12 6L
K= 3
,
2
L 6L 4L
12 156
EVP:
M=
22L
.
2
420 22L 4L
AL 156
6L + 22L
6L + 22L 4L2 4L2

2
4
in which = AL / 420 EI .
= 0,
Solving the EVP, we obtain,

1
#3
#2
#1
EI 2 v 2 1
, = 1.38 ,
1 = 3.533
4
AL
2 1
L
1
1
EI 2 v 2
, = 7.62 .
2 = 34 .81
4
AL
2 2
L
Exact solutions:
1
EI 2
1 = 3.516
,
4
AL
EI 2
2 = 22.03
.
4
AL
We can see that mode 1 is calculated much more accurately

than mode 2, with one beam element.
166
III. Damping
Two commonly used models for viscous damping.
A. Proportional Damping (Rayleigh Damping)
C = M + K
(17)
where the constants & are found from
1 =
1
2
,
21
2 =
2
2
,
2 2
Damping ratio
with 1 , 2 , 1 & 2 (damping ratio) being selected.
B. Modal Damping
Incorporate the viscous damping in modal equations.
167
IV. Modal Equations

Use the normal modes (modal matrix) to transform the
coupled system of dynamic equations to uncoupled system of
equations.
We have
[K
i M ui = 0 ,
2
i = 1,2,..., n
(18)
where the normal mode u i satisfies:
u iT K u
T
ui M u
j
j
= 0,
= 0,
for i j,
and
u iT M u i = 1 ,
T
2
u
K
u
=
i
i
i ,
for i = 1, 2, , n.
Form the modal matrix:
(nn )
[u 1
L u
(19)
We can verify that

12 0 L 0
M
0 22
T
K = =
(Spectral matrix),
M
O 0
2
L
0
0
n
T M = I.
(20)
Transformation for the displacement vector,
u = z1 u 1 + z 2 u 2 + L + z n u n = z ,
(21)
168
where
z1 ( t )
z (t )
z= 2
M
z n ( t )
are called principal coordinates.

Substitute (21) into the dynamic equation:
M &z& + C z& + K z = f ( t ).
Pre-multiply by T, and apply (20):
&z& + C z& + z = p ( t ),
where C = I +
p =
(22)
(for proportional damping),
f (t) .
Introduce modal damping:
2 1
0
=
0
2 2
L
2
O
L
. (23)
M
2 n n
0
169
Equation (22) becomes,

&z&i + 2 i i z& i + i2 z i = p i ( t ), i = 1,2,,n. (24)
Equations in (22) or (24) are called modal equations. These

equations are uncoupled, second-order differential equations,
which are much easier to solve than the original dynamic
equation (a coupled system).
To recover u from z, apply transformation (21) again, once z
is obtained from (24).
Notes:
Only the first few modes may be needed in constructing
the modal matrix (i.e., could be an nm rectangular
matrix with m<n). Thus, significant reduction in the size
of the system can be achieved.
Modal equations are best suited for problems in which
higher modes are not important (i.e., structural vibrations,
but not for structures under a shock load).
170
V. Frequency Response Analysis

(Harmonic Response Analysis)
&& + Cu& + Ku = F
Mu
t
1sin
23
(25)
Harmonicloading
Modal method: Apply the modal equations,
&z&i + 2 i i z&i + i2 zi = pi sin t , i=1,2,,m.

These are 1-D equations. Solutions are
zi
zi ( t ) =
pi i2
(1 ) + ( 2 ii )
2 2
i
sin( t i ),
(26)
(27)
where
/ i
2 i i
arctan
, phase angle
=
i
1 i2
i = i ,
ci
ci
, damping ratio
=
=
i c
m
2
c
i
Recover u from (21).

Direct Method: Solve Eq. (25) directly, that is, calculate the
i t
(complex notation), Eq. (25)
inverse. With u = u e
becomes
[K
+ i C 2 M u = F .
This equation is expensive to solve and matrix is illconditioned if is close to any i.
171
VI. Transient Response Analysis

(Dynamic Response/Time-History Analysis)
Structure response to arbitrary, time-dependent loading.
f(t)
u(t)
Compute responses by integrating through time:

u1
u n u n+1
u2
t0 t1 t2
t n t n+1
172
Equation of motion at instance t n , n = 0, 1, 2, 3, :

&& n + Cu& n + Ku n = f n .
Mu
Time increment: t=tn+1-tn, n=0, 1, 2, 3, .

There are two categories of methods for transient analysis.
A. Direct Methods (Direct Integration Methods)
Central Difference Method

Approximate using finite difference:
u&
&&
u
1
( u n + 1 u n 1 ),
2 t
1
=
( u n +1 2 u n + u
( t)2
=
n 1
Dynamic equation becomes,

1
( u n +1 2u n + u n 1 ) + C
( u n +1 u n 1 ) + Ku n = fn ,
M
2
2 t
( t )
which yields,
Au n +1 = F(t )
where
1
1
=
+
A
M
C,
2
t
2
(
)
F ( t ) = f n K 2 2 M u n 1 2 M 1 C u n 1 .
2t
( t )
( t )
un+1 is calculated from un & un-1, and solution is marching

from t 0 , t1 , L t n , t n + 1 , L , until convergent.
173
This method is unstable if t is too large.

Newmark Method:
Use approximations:
( t ) 2
[(1 2 )u&& n + 2 u&& n +1 ], ( u&& n +1 = L)
u n +1 u n + tu& n +
2
&& n + u
&& n +1 ],
u& n +1 u& n + t [(1 ) u
where & are chosen constants. These lead to
Au
= F (t)
n +1
where
1
M ,
2
t
( t)
&& n ).
F ( t ) = f ( f n + 1 , , , t , C , M , u n , u& n , u
A = K +
C +
This method is unconditionally stable if

2
e . g .,
1
.
2
1
=
,
2
1
4
which gives the constant average acceleration method.

Direct methods can be expensive! (the need to compute
A-1, often repeatedly for each time step).
174
B. Modal Method
First, do the transformation of the dynamic equations using
the modal matrix before the time marching:
u =
i =1
u i zi (t ) = z ,
i = 1,2,, m.
&z&i + 2 i i z& i + i z i = p i ( t ),
Then, solve the uncoupled equations using an integration

method. Can use, e.g., 10%, of the total modes (m= n/10).
Uncoupled system,
Fewer equations,
No inverse of matrices,
More efficient for large problems.
Comparisons of the Methods
Direct Methods
Modal Method
Small model
Large model
More accurate (with small t)
Higher modes ignored
Single loading
Multiple loading
Shock loading
Periodic loading
175
Cautions in Dynamic Analysis
Symmetry: It should not be used in the dynamic analysis

(normal modes, etc.) because symmetric structures can
have antisymmetric modes.
Mechanism, rigid body motion means = 0. Can use this
to check FEA models to see if they are properly connected
and/or supported.
Input for FEA: loading F(t) or F() can be very complicated in
real applications and often needs to be filtered first before used as
input for FEA.
Examples
Impact, drop tests, etc.
Crash Analysis for a Car (from LS-DYNA3D)
176
Chapter 8. Thermal Analysis

Two objectives:
Determine the temperature field (steady or unsteady state)
Stresses due to the temperature changes
I. Temperature Field
Fourier Heat Conduction Equation:
1-D Case:
T
f x = k
,
x
where,
fx = heat flux per unit area,
k = thermal conductivity,
T = T(x) = temperature.
3-D Case:
T x
fx
f y = T y ,
T z
f
(1)
(2)
where, fx, fy, fz = heat flux in x, y and z direction, respectively,

and in case of isotropy,
k 0 0
= 0 k 0 .
(3)
0 0 k
177
The Equation of Heat Flow is:

f
f
f
T
x + y + z + q v = c
t
x y z
(4)
in which,
qv = rate of internal heat generation per unit volume,
c = specific heat,
= mass density.
For steady state ( T t = 0 ) and isotropic materials, we can
obtain:
k 2 T = q v .
(5)
This a Poisson equation.

Boundary Conditions (BCs):
n
Sq
x
T = T,
ST
on S T ;
T
= Q,
on S q .
(6)
n
Note that at any point on the boundary S = S T U S q , only one
type of BC can be specified.
178
Finite Element Formulation for Heat Conduction:

KTT = q
(7)
where,
KT = conductivity matrix,
T = vector of nodal temperature,
q = vector of thermal loads.
The element conductivity matrix is given by:
k T = B T BdV .
(8)
This is obtained in a similar way as for the structural analysis,

e.g., by starting with the interpolation T = NTe (N is the
shape function matrix, Te the nodal temperature).
Note that there is only one DOF at each node for the thermal
problems.
Thermal Transient Analysis:
T
0.
t
Apply FDM (use time steps and integrate in time), as in the
transient structural analysis, to obtain the transient
temperature fields.
179
II. Thermal Stress Analysis
Solve Eq. (7) first to obtain the temperature (change)

fields.
Apply the temperature change T as initial strains (or
initial stresses) to the structure.
1-D Case:
At temperature T1
At temperature T2
o
Thermal Strain (Initial Strain):

o = T ,
(9)
in which,
= the coefficient of thermal expansion,
T = T2 T1 is the change of temperature.
Total strain,
= e + o
(10)
with e being the elastic strain due to mechanical load.

That is,
or
= E 1 + T ,
= E ( o ) .
(11)
(12)
180
Example: The above shown bar under thermal load T .

(a) If no constraint on the right-hand side, that is, the bar is
free to expand to the right, then
= o , e = 0, = 0 ,
from Eq. (12). No thermal stress!
(b) If there is a constraint on the right-hand side, that is, the
bar can not expand to the right, then
= 0,
e = o = T , = ET ,
from Eqs. (10) and (12). Thus, thermal stress exists!
2-D Cases:
Plane Stress,
x T

o = y = T .
0
xy o
(13)
Plane Strain,
x
(1 + )T

o = y = (1 + )T .

xy o
(14)
Here, is the Poissons ratio.
181
3-D Case:
x
T

T
y

T
o = z =
.
0
xy
0
yz

zx o 0
(15)
Observation: Temperature changes do not yield shear strains.

Total Strain:
= e + o .
(16)
Stress-Strain Relation:
= E e = E( o ) .
(17)
Thermal Stress Analysis Using the FEM:
Need to specify for the structure and T on the related

elements (which experience the temperature change).
Note that for linear thermoelasticity, same temperature
change will yield same stresses, even if the structure is at
two different temperatures.
Differences in the temperatures during the manufacturing
and working environment are the main cause of thermal
(residual) stresses.
182
Further Reading
Further Reading
1.
O. C. Zienkiewicz and R. L. Taylor, The Finite Element Method, 4th

ed (McGraw-Hill, New York, 1989).
2.
J. N. Reddy, An Introduction To The Finite Element Method,

Second Edition ed (McGraw-Hill, New York, 1993).
3.
R. D. Cook, Finite Element Modeling For Stress Analysis (John

Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1995).
4.
K. J. Bathe, Finite Element Procedures (Prentice Hall, Englewood

Cliffs, NJ, 1996).
5.
T. R. Chandrupatla and A. D. Belegundu, Introduction To Finite

Elements in Engineering, 3rd ed (Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle
River, NJ, 2002).
6.
R. D. Cook, D. S. Malkus, M. E. Plesha, and R. J. Witt, Concepts

and Applications of Finite Element Analysis, 4th ed (John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., New York, 2002).
7.
S. Moaveni, Finite Element Analysis - Theory and Application with

ANSYS, 2nd ed (Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, 2002).
183

FEM Lecture Notes

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

FEM Lecture Notes

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

FEM Lecture Notes

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Lecture Notes: Introduction to the Finite Element Method

Lecture Notes: Introduction to the

Finite Element Method

This document is downloaded from the course website:

1997-2003 by Yijun Liu, University of Cincinnati.

Lecture Notes: Introduction to the Finite Element Method

1997-2003 Yijun Liu, University of Cincinnati

Lecture Notes: Introduction to the Finite Element Method

Lecture Notes: Introduction to the Finite Element Method

VI. Convergence of FE Solutions ...................................................................... 116

1997-2003 Yijun Liu, University of Cincinnati

Lecture Notes: Introduction to the Finite Element Method

1997-2003 Yijun Liu, University of Cincinnati

Lecture Notes: Introduction to Finite Element Method

Area of one triangle: S i = 2 R 2 sin i

1997-2003 Yijun Liu, University of Cincinnati

Lecture Notes: Introduction to Finite Element Method

Why Finite Element Method?

Applications of FEM in Engineering

Lecture Notes: Introduction to Finite Element Method

A Brief History of the FEM

Can Drop Test (Click for more information and an animation)

1997-2003 Yijun Liu, University of Cincinnati

Lecture Notes: Introduction to Finite Element Method

FEM in Structural Analysis (The Procedure)

FEM model for a gear tooth (From Cooks book, p.2).

1997-2003 Yijun Liu, University of Cincinnati

Lecture Notes: Introduction to Finite Element Method

Available Commercial FEM Software Packages

1997-2003 Yijun Liu, University of Cincinnati

Lecture Notes: Introduction to Finite Element Method

Objectives of This FEM Course

FEA of an Unloader Trolley (Click for more info)

See more examples in:

Lecture Notes: Introduction to Finite Element Method

II. Review of Matrix Algebra

where x1, x2, ..., xn are the unknowns.

A is called a nn (square) matrix, and x and b are (column)

1997-2003 Yijun Liu, University of Cincinnati

Lecture Notes: Introduction to Finite Element Method

Row and Column Vectors

Matrix Addition and Subtraction

cij = aij + bij

with cij = aik bkj

where i = 1, 2, ..., l; j = 1, 2, ..., n.

1997-2003 Yijun Liu, University of Cincinnati

Lecture Notes: Introduction to Finite Element Method

Unit (Identity) Matrix

1997-2003 Yijun Liu, University of Cincinnati

Lecture Notes: Introduction to Finite Element Method

The cofactor matrix C of matrix A is defined by

Cij = ( 1)i + j Mij

We can show that ( AB ) 1 = B 1A 1 .

1997-2003 Yijun Liu, University of Cincinnati

Lecture Notes: Introduction to Finite Element Method

If det A = 0 (i.e., A is singular), then A-1 does not exist!

Thus, the main task in solving a linear system of equations is to

Lecture Notes: Introduction to Finite Element Method

Solution Techniques for Linear Systems of Equations

Gauss elimination methods