PROJECT REPORT

ON

BASICS OF PLC
BY
ROHIT KESHARI
(ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING)
OF

COCHIN UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF

ENGINEERING
(KERALA-688504)
UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF

MR. S.V.SUBRAMANIAN
(DGM,BG-II(ISG),BHEL)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I WISH TO EXPRESS MY GRATITUDE TO BHEL FOR
PROVIDING ME WITH ME FOR MY PROJECT AND ALL
REQUIREMENTS TO CARRY OUT THE PROJECT
SUCCESSFULLY.
I WISH TO EXPRESS MY GRATITUDE TO MR. B.K.R
PATNAIK
(HR,BHEL) FOR PROVIDING ME
WONDERFUL OPPORTUNITY TO WORK WITH THEM.
I WISH MY GRATITUDE TO MR. V.SUBRAMANIAM, MY
PROJECT GUIDE FOR PROVIDING USEFUL INFORMATION
FOR THE PROJECT DEVELOPMENT AND SUCCESSFUL
COMPLETION.
I AM VERY GRATEFUL TO MR. KEERTHAN FOR
PROVIDING THE IDEAS AND RESOURCES NECESSARY FOR
ME TO COMPLETE MY PROJECT.

BIBLIOGRAPHY AND REFERENCES

WEBSITES:
WWW.GOOGLE.COM
WWW.WIKIPEDIA.COM
PLC LADDER LOGIC PROGRAMMING
REFERENCE MANUAL:
HTTP://W1.SIEMENS.COM

HISTORY OF PLC :

First Programmable Logic Controllers were designed and developed by

Modicon as a relay replacer for GM and Landis.

These controllers eliminated the need for rewiring and adding

additional hardware for each new configuration of logic.

The new system drastically increased the functionality of the

controls while reducing the cabinet space that housed the logic.

The first PLC, model 084, was invented by Dick Morley in 1969.

The first commercial successful PLC, the 184, was introduced in 1973 which
was designed by Michael Greenberg.

What is a PLC?

A PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER is a solid state control system that

continuously monitors the status of devices connected as inputs. Based
upon a user written program, stored in memory, it controls the status of
devices connected as outputs.
A Programmable Logic Controller, or PLC for short, is simply a special
computer device used for industrial control systems. They are used in many
industries such as oil refineries, manufacturing lines, conveyor systems and
so on. Where ever there is a need to control devices the PLC provides a
flexible way to "softwire" the components together.
The basic units have a CPU (a computer processor) that is dedicated to run
one program that monitors a series of different inputs and logically
manipulates the outputs for the desired control. They are meant to be very
flexible in how they can be programmed while also providing the advantages
of high reliability (no program crashes or mechanical failures), compact and
economical over traditional control systems.
A Simple Example
Consider something as simple as a switch that turns on a light. In this
system with a flick of the switch the light would turn on or off. Beyond that
though there is no more control. If your boss came along and said I want
that light to turn on thirty seconds after the switch has been flipped, then
you would need to buy a timer and do some rewiring. So it is time, labor and
money for any little change.

A PLC Saves the Day

Now consider the same device with a PLC in the middle. The switch is fed as
an input into the PLC and the light is controlled by a PLC output.
Implementing a delay in this system is easy since all that needs to be
changed is the program in the PLC to use a delay timer.

This is a rather simple example but in a larger system with many switchs and
lights (and a host of other devices) all interacting with each other this kind of
flexibility is not only nice but imperitive. Hopefully a light bulb has now
turned on over your head.

How PLCs Work

A programmable logic controller is a specialized computer used to control
machines and processes. It therefore shares common terms with typical PCs
like central processing unit, memory, software and communications. Unlike a
personal computer though the PLC is designed to survive in a rugged
industrial atmosphere and to be very flexible in how it interfaces with inputs
and outputs to the real world.
The components that make a PLC work can be divided into three core areas.

The power supply and rack

The central processing unit (CPU)

The input/output (I/O) section

PLCs come in many shapes and sizes. They can be so small as to fit in your
shirt pocket while more involved controls systems require large PLC racks.
Smaller PLCs (a.k.a. bricks) are typically designed with fixed I/O points. For
our consideration, well look at the more modular rack based systems. Its
called modular because the rack can accept many different types of I/O
modules that simply slide into the rack and plug in.

The Power Supply and Rack

So lets start off by removing all our modules which leaves us with a naked
PLC with only the power supply and the rack.

The rack is the component that holds everything together. Depending on

the needs of the control system it can be ordered in different sizes to hold
more modules. Like a human spine the rack has a backplane at the rear
which allows the cards to communicate with the CPU. The power supply
plugs into the rack as well and supplies a regulated DC power to other
modules that plug into the rack. The most popular power supplies work with
120 VAC or 24 VDC sources.
The CPU
The brain of the whole PLC is the CPU module. This module typically lives in
the slot beside the power supply. Manufacturers offer different types of CPUs
based on the complexity needed for the system.
The CPU consists of a microprocessor, memory chip and other integrated
circuits to control logic, monitoring and communications. The CPU has
different operating modes. In programming mode it accepts the downloaded
logic from a PC. The CPU is then placed in run mode so that it can execute
the program and operate the process.

Since a PLC is a dedicated controller it will only process this one program
over and over again. One cycle through the program is called a scan time
and involves reading the inputs from the other modules, executing the logic
based on these inputs and then updated the outputs accordingly. The scan
time happens very quickly (in the range of 1/1000th of a second). The
memory in the CPU stores the program while also holding the status of the
I/O and providing a means to store values.

I/O System
The I/O system provides the physical connection between the equipment and
the PLC. Opening the doors on an I/O card reveals a terminal strip where the
devices connect.

There are many different kinds of I/O cards which serve to condition the type
of input or output so the CPU can use it for its logic. It's simply a matter of
determining what inputs and outputs are needed, filling the rack with the
appropriate cards and then addressing them correctly in the CPUs program.

Inputs :
Input devices can consist of digital or analog devices. A digital input card
handles discrete devices which give a signal that is either on or off such as a
pushbutton, limit switch, sensors or selector switches. An analog input card
converts a voltage or current (e.g. a signal that can be anywhere from 0 to
20mA) into a digitally equivalent number that can be understood by the
CPU. Examples of analog devices are pressure transducers, flow meters and
thermocouples for temperature readings

Outputs :

Output devices can also consist of digital or analog types. A digital output
card either turns a device on or off such as lights, LEDs, small motors, and
relays. An analog output card will convert a digital number sent by the CPU
to its real world voltage or current. Typical outputs signals can range from
0-10 VDC or 4-20mA and are used to drive mass flow controllers, pressure
regulators and position controls.

Programming a PLC
In these modern times a PC with specially dedicated software from the PLC
manufacturer is used to program a PLC. The most widely used form of
programming is called ladder logic. Ladder logic uses symbols, instead of
words, to emulate the real world relay logic control, which is a relic from
the PLC's history. These symbols are interconnected by lines to indicate the
flow of current through relay like contacts and coils. Over the years the
number of symbols has increased to provide a high level of functionality.
The completed program looks like a ladder but in actuality it represents an
electrical circuit. The left and right rails indicate the positive and ground of a
power supply. The rungs represent the wiring between the different
components which in the case of a PLC are all in the virtual world of the
CPU. So if you can understand how basic electrical circuits work then you
can understand ladder logic.
In this simplest of examples a digital input (like a button connected to the
first position on the card) when it is pressed turns on an output which
energizes an indicator light.

The completed program is downloaded from the PC to the PLC using a

special cable thats connected to the front of the CPU. The CPU is then put
into run mode so that it can start scanning the logic and controlling the
outputs.

The Birth of the PLC

The Original Challenge
The early history of the PLC is fascinating. Imagine if you will a fifty foot
long cabinet filled with relays whose function in life is to control a machine.

Wires run in and out of the system as the relays click and clack to the logic.
Now imagine there is a problem or a small design change and you have to
figure it all out on paper and then shut down the machine, move some wires,
add some relays, debug and do it all over again. Imagine the labor involved
in the simplest of changes. This is the problem that faced the engineers at
the Hydra-matic division of GM motors in the late 1960's.
Fortunately for them the prospect of computer control was rapidly becoming
a reality for large corporations as themselves. So in 1968 the GM engineers
developed a design criteria for a "standard machine controller". This early
model simply had to replace relays but it also had to be:

A solid-state system that was flexible like a computer but priced

competitively with a like kind relay logic system.

Easily maintained and programmed in line with the all ready accepted
relay ladder logic way of doing things.

It had to work in an industrial environment with all it's dirt, moisture,

electromagnetism and vibration.

It had to be modular in form to allow for easy exchange of components

and expandability.

The Race is On
This was a tall order in 1968 but four companies took on the challenge.
1. Information Instruments, Inc. (fully owned by Allen-Bradley a year
later).
2. Digital Equipment Corp. (DEC)
3. Century Detroit
4. Bedford Associates
Bedford Associates, run by Richard Morley, won the contract and quickly
formed a new company around the technology called MODICON
after Modular Digital Control. By June of 1969 they were selling the first
viable Programmable Controller the "084" (their 84th project) which sold
over one thousand units. These early experiences gave birth to their next
model the "184" in 1973 which set Modicon as the early leader in
programmable controllers.
Not to be outdone, the powerhouse Allen-Bradley (all ready known for it's
rheostats, relays and motor controls) purchased Information Instruments in
1969 and began development on this new technology. The early models
(PDQ-II and PMC) were deemed to be too large and complex. By 1971
OdoStruger and Ernst Dummermuth had begun to develop a new concept
known as the Bulletin 1774 PLC which would make them successful for years
to come. Allen-Bradley termed their new device the
"Programmable Logic Controller" (patent #3,942,158) over the then

accepted term "Programmable Controller". The PLC terminology became the

industry standard especially when PC became associated with personal
computers.

PLC compared with other control systems

Allen-Bradley PLC installed in a control panel

PLCs are well adapted to a range of automation tasks. These are typically
industrial processes in manufacturing where the cost of developing and
maintaining the automation system is high relative to the total cost of the
automation, and where changes to the system would be expected during its
operational life. PLCs contain input and output devices compatible with
industrial pilot devices and controls; little electrical design is required, and
the design problem centers on expressing the desired sequence of
operations. PLC applications are typically highly customized systems, so the
cost of a packaged PLC is low compared to the cost of a specific custom-built
controller design. On the other hand, in the case of mass-produced goods,
customized control systems are economical. This is due to the lower cost of
the components, which can be optimally chosen instead of a "generic"
solution, and where the non-recurring engineering charges are spread over
thousands or millions of units.
For high volume or very simple fixed automation tasks, different techniques
are used. For example, a consumer dishwasher would be controlled by an
electromechanical cam timer costing only a few dollars in production
quantities.
A microcontroller-based design would be appropriate where hundreds or
thousands of units will be produced and so the development cost (design of
power supplies, input/output hardware and necessary testing and
certification) can be spread over many sales, and where the end-user would

not need to alter the control. Automotive applications are an example;

millions of units are built each year, and very few end-users alter the
programming of these controllers. However, some specialty vehicles such as
transit buses economically use PLCs instead of custom-designed controls,
because the volumes are low and the development cost would be
uneconomical.[11]
Very complex process control, such as used in the chemical industry, may
require algorithms and performance beyond the capability of even highperformance PLCs. Very high-speed or precision controls may also require
customized solutions; for example, aircraft flight controls. Single-board
computers using semi-customized or fully proprietary hardware may be
chosen for very demanding control applications where the high development
and maintenance cost can be supported. "Soft PLCs" running on desktoptype computers can interface with industrial I/O hardware while executing
programs within a version of commercial operating systems adapted for
process control needs.[11]
Programmable controllers are widely used in motion control, positioning
control and torque control. Some manufacturers produce motion control units
to be integrated with PLC so that G-code (involving a CNC machine) can be
used to instruct machine movements.[citation needed]
PLCs may include logic for single-variable feedback analog control loop, a
"proportional, integral, derivative" or "PID controller". A PID loop could be
used to control the temperature of a manufacturing process, for example.
Historically PLCs were usually configured with only a few analog control
loops; where processes required hundreds or thousands of loops,
a distributed control system (DCS) would instead be used. As PLCs have
become more powerful, the boundary between DCS and PLC applications has
become less distinct.
PLCs have similar functionality as Remote Terminal Units. An RTU, however,
usually does not support control algorithms or control loops. As hardware
rapidly becomes more powerful and cheaper, RTUs, PLCs and DCSs are
increasingly beginning to overlap in responsibilities, and many vendors sell
RTUs with PLC-like features and vice versa. The industry has standardized on
the IEC 61131-3 functional block language for creating programs to run on
RTUs and PLCs, although nearly all vendors also offer proprietary alternatives
and associated development environments.
In recent years "Safety" PLCs have started to become popular, either as
standalone models or as functionality and safety-rated hardware added to
existing controller architectures (Allen Bradley Guardlogix, Siemens F-series
etc.). These differ from conventional PLC types as being suitable for use in
safety-critical applications for which PLCs have traditionally been
supplemented with hard-wired safety relays. For example, a Safety PLC
might be used to control access to a robot cell with trapped-key access, or
perhaps to manage the shutdown response to an emergency stop on a
conveyor production line. Such PLCs typically have a restricted regular

instruction set augmented with safety-specific instructions designed to

interface with emergency stops, light screens and so forth. The flexibility that
such systems offer has resulted in rapid growth of demand for these
controllers.

Discrete and analog signals:

Discrete signals behave as binary switches, yielding simply an On or Off
signal (1 or 0, True or False, respectively). Push buttons, Limit switches,
and photoelectric sensors are examples of devices providing a discrete
signal. Discrete signals are sent using either voltage or current, where a
specific range is designated as On and another as Of. For example, a PLC
might use 24 V DC I/O, with values above 22 V DC representing On, values
below 2VDC representing Of, and intermediate values undefined. Initially,
PLCs had only discrete I/O.
Analog signals are like volume controls, with a range of values between zero
and full-scale. These are typically interpreted as integer values (counts) by
the PLC, with various ranges of accuracy depending on the device and the
number of bits available to store the data. As PLCs typically use 16-bit signed
binary processors, the integer values are limited between -32,768 and
+32,767. Pressure, temperature, flow, and weight are often represented by
analog signals. Analog signals can use voltage or current with a magnitude
proportional to the value of the process signal. For example, an analog 0 10 V input or 4-20 mA would be converted into an integer value of 0 - 32767.
Current inputs are less sensitive to electrical noise (i.e. from welders or
electric motor starts) than voltage inputs.

Example
As an example, say a facility needs to store water in a tank. The water is
drawn from the tank by another system, as needed, and our example system
must manage the water level in the tank by controlling the valve that refills
the tank. Shown is a "ladder diagram" which shows the control system. A
ladder diagram is a method of drawing control circuits which pre-dates PLCs.
The ladder diagram resembles the schematic diagram of a system built with
electromechanical relays. Shown are:

Two inputs (from the low and high level switches) represented by
contacts of the float switches

An output to the fill valve, labelled as the fill valve which it controls

An "internal" contact, representing the output signal to the fill valve

which is created in the program.

A logical control scheme created by the interconnection of these items

in software

In ladder diagram, the contact symbols represent the state of bits in

processor memory, which corresponds to the state of physical inputs to the

system. If a discrete input is energized, the memory bit is a 1, and a

"normally open" contact controlled by that bit will pass a logic "true" signal
on to the next element of the ladder. Therefore, the contacts in the PLC
program that "read" or look at the physical switch contacts in this case must
be "opposite" or open in order to return a TRUE for the closed physical
switches. Internal status bits, corresponding to the state of discrete outputs,
are also available to the program.
In the example, the physical state of the float switch contacts must be
considered when choosing "normally open" or "normally closed" symbols in
the ladder diagram. The PLC has two discrete inputs from float switches (Low
Level and High Level). Both float switches (normally closed) open their
contacts when the water level in the tank is above the physical location of
the switch.
When the water level is below both switches, the float switch physical
contacts are both closed, and a true (logic 1) value is passed to the Fill Valve
output. Water begins to fill the tank. The internal "Fill Valve" contact latches
the circuit so that even when the "Low Level" contact opens (as the water
passes the lower switch), the fill valve remains on. Since the High Level is
also normally closed, water continues to flow as the water level remains
between the two switch levels. Once the water level rises enough so that the
"High Level" switch is off (opened), the PLC will shut the inlet to stop the
water from overflowing; this is an example of seal-in (latching) logic. The
output is sealed in until a high level condition breaks the circuit. After that
the fill valve remains off until the level drops so low that the Low Level switch
is activated, and the process repeats again.

| (N.C. physical
(N.C. physical
|
|
Switch)
Switch)
|
|
Low Level
High Level
Fill Valve
|
|------[ ]------|------[ ]----------------------(OUT)---------|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Fill Valve |
|
|------[ ]------|
|
|
|
|
|

A complete program may contain thousands of rungs, evaluated in

sequence. Typically the PLC processor will alternately scan all its inputs and
update outputs, then evaluate the ladder logic; input changes during a
program scan will not be effective until the next I/O update. A complete

program scan may take only a few milliseconds, much faster than changes in
the controlled process.
Programmable controllers vary in their capabilities for a "rung" of a ladder
diagram. Some only allow a single output bit. There are typically limits to the
number of series contacts in line, and the number of branches that can be
used. Each element of the rung is evaluated sequentially. If elements change
their state during evaluation of a rung, hard-to-diagnose faults can be
generated, although sometimes (as above) the technique is useful. Some
implementations forced evaluation from left-to-right as displayed and did not
allow reverse flow of a logic signal (in multi-branched rungs) to affect the
output.

LEADING BRANDS OF PLC :AMERICAN 1. Allen Bradley

2. Gould Modicon
3. Texas Instruments
4. General Electric
5. Westinghouse
6. Cutter Hammer
7. Square D
EUROPEAN 1. Siemens
2. Klockner&Mouller
3. Festo
4. Telemechanique
JAPANESE

1. Toshiba
2. Omron
3. Fanuc
4. Mitsubishi