Bacterial Pathogens in Chicken Meat-444

ISSN 2348-313X (Print)
International Journal of Life Sciences Research ISSN 2348-3148 (online)

Vol. 2, Issue 3, pp: (1-7), Month: July 2014 - September 2014, Available at: www.researchpublish.com
Bacterial Pathogens in Chicken Meat:

Review
1
Darshana B. Bhaisare, 2D. Thyagarajan, 3R. Richard Churchil, 4N. Punniamurthy

1
PhD Scholar, Central Avian Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh, India-243 122.
2
Directorate of Distance Education, Madhavaram Milk Colony, Tamil Nadu

Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Chennai, India-600 051.
Instructional Livestock Farm Complex, Veterinary College and Research Institute,

Orathanadu, Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu, India-614 625.
4
Veterinary University Training and Research Centre, Tamil Nadu

Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu, India.
Abstract: Chicken is a nutritious, healthy food which is low in fat and cholesterol compared to other meats but an
excellent source of protein. Meat must be of a high microbiological quality in order to ensure that the consumer
receives a product that is not spoilt or does not carry food-borne disease. Food borne diseases associated with the
consumption of poultry meat and its processed products are of public health significance worldwide. This paper
reviewed information on the sources of microbial contamination, contamination of poultry with major pathogenic
microorganisms, the consequences of this contamination to human health, prevalence of microbes in poultry meat
and products in the world and in India.
Keywords: poultry carcass, microbes, chicken meat, microbial contamination.
I. INTRODUCTION
The term chicken meat principally refers either whole carcasses or parts of the carcass or boned out meat of the species
Gallus gallus. The poultry has gained the acceptance by consumers and growing 10-15% annually. The chicken meat
contributes about 37% meat to total production and number one contributors. The growth is expected more in near future.
This might be due to popularity, price, easy availability, no religious taboos, highly digestible, tasty and low-calorie food
often recommended by nutritionists over other meats. The popularity of this product is due to sensory and dietary, as well
as economic considerations. The consumption of poultry products is increasing every year and consumers wants a safe
and quality product, without the presence of pathogenic microorganisms. Thus, it is essential that the poultry industry
achieves this goal. In most developed and some developing countries today, high-quality poultry meat is often less costly
than other types of meat. This is due mainly to the revolutionary industrialization of the poultry industry in the last 30
years, which has changed poultry meat from a rather limited product, only available to a limited group of consumers, into
a popular and inexpensive product within everyones budget. Special attention in poultry meat production is paid to the
fact that live animals are hosts to a large number of different microorganisms residing on their skin, feathers or in the
alimentary tract. During slaughter most of these microorganisms are eliminated, but subsequent contamination is possible
at any stage of the production process, from feather plucking, evisceration, and washing to storage by cooling or freezing
(Mead, 1989). Microorganisms from the environment, equipment and operators hands can contaminate meat. Hardly 5
per cent of the poultry meat produced in India is from organized processing units whereas, the rest is from the birds
slaughtered in unorganized sector (retail shops) where due to poor hygiene there is ample scope for contamination (Kumar
et al., 2001).
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II. PATHOGENS IN POULTRY MEAT
Poultry and poultry meat are often found contaminated with potentially pathogenic microorganisms such as Salmonella,
Campylobacter, S. aureus, E. coli and Listeria. In some occasions also Yersinia enterocolitica, Aeromonas and Cl.
perfringens have the potential to be important pathogens in poultry products. However, Salmonella, Campylobacter and
to a lesser extent Listeria, are considered to be the major food-borne pathogens in the poultry industry.
The meat surface do not normally, inherently contain pathogenic organisms but can acquire the organisms from faecal
matter or from cross contamination during slaughter. The organisms tend to remain on the surface or just under it. Meat is
an ideal medium for bacterial growth because of high moisture content, richness in nitrogenous compounds (essential
amino acids, proteins), good source of minerals, vitamins and other growth factors. Furthermore, its pH is favourable for
the growth of micro-organisms. The water activity (aw) of poultry meat is about 0.98 to 0.99 depending on if and how
long the meat has been stored in dry air. The pH of chicken breast muscle is 5.7 to 5.9, while that of leg muscle is 6.4 to
6.7. Both poultry muscle and skin are excellent substrates for supporting the growth of a wide variety of microorganisms
(ICMSF, 2005).
Contamination of poultry carcasses and parts with Salmonella organisms is well documented and data are available for
many parts of the world (Simmons et al., 2003). Most salmonella found on poultry meat are non-host-specific and are
considered capable of causing human food poisoning. Salmonellosis (gastroenteritis) is the most common disease in
human. Incubation period is generally 6 to 72 hours (Behravesh et al., 2008) and can be longer than 10 days. Symptoms
include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal cramps and fever of 100 to 102F (Pickering, 2006).
Campylobacter species are found in the intestinal and genital tracts of domestic animals and are widely distributed
geographically. The principal cause of human campylobacteriosis is mainly C. jejuni. Campylobacter coli and C. lari are
sometimes implicated. The disease conditions associated with infection are either intestinal, presenting as diarrhoea, or
genital, causing infertility or abortion. The majority of campylobacteriosis results in mild or acute but self-limiting
gastrointestinal disease. Infrequently complications, such as reactive arthritis and neurological disorders, may occur.
Moreover, 0.1% of cases develop into Guillain-Barre Syndrome (Allos, 1997), autoimmune disorder affecting the
peripheral nervous system that can result in respiratory and severe neurological dysfunction and even death. As little as
53-750 CFU/cm2 in fresh chicken meat could cause human infections (Rosenfield et al., 1985). The three most commonly
isolated species in broiler meat are C. jejuni, C. coli and C. lari (EFSA, 2010). Several incidences of Campylobacteriosis
have also been reported from almost all parts of India (Naik et al., 1998). Campylobacter infections are primarily because
of handling and consumption of raw or undercooked poultry and due to cross contamination (Stanley et al., 2003). Studies
on isolation of Campylobacter from poultry meat have been carried out from the regions Tamil Nadu and Calcutta using
conventional method (Varma et al., 2000). Incubation period is usually 2 to 5 days but can be from 1 to 11 days.
Staphylococcus aureus is one of the most common agents in bacterial food poisoning outbreaks and symptoms of
staphylococcal food intoxication generally occurs within one to six hours after the ingestion of food and the common
symptoms are nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps, and diarrhea (Adwan et al., 2005).
Epidemiological reports all over the world incriminate poultry meat as a source of outbreaks of human food-borne
disease. Since poultry meat is usually not consumed raw, these outbreaks are caused by undercooking or crosscontamination of ready-to-eat products with microbial contaminants from the raw poultry or others introduced during
preparation of the food. The aim of the poultry industry is to find ways to avoid contamination of live poultry and poultry
products with potential pathogens. Further they should be able to deliver live poultry free of pathogens to the processing
plant.
III. PREVALENCE IN WORLD

In Crotia, bacteriological analysis was performed on 66 samples of fresh, retail-cut chicken meat (21 samples of chicken
breasts without skin - fillet, and 19 samples of chicken breasts with skin) and 26 samples of frozen ground chicken meat
and found the presence of Salmonella spp (10.60%), S. aureus (30.30%), L. monocytogenes (3.03%), Enterobacteria spp
(34.84%) and sulphite-reducing clostridia (1.50%) (Kozacinski et al., 2006).
A total of 800 poultry meat samples from raw chicken (280), quail (248), turkey (212) and ostrich (60) were procured
from the Esfahan city of Iran and analyzed for the prevalence of Campylobacter spp. The highest prevalence (68.4%) of
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Campylobacter spp. was recorded in quail meat, followed by chicken meat (56.1%), turkey meat (27.4%) and ostrich
meat (11.7%). The overall prevalence of Campylobacter in studied samples was 47.1% (377 from 800). Out of which,
76.4% were identified as C. jejuni and 23.6% as C. coli. (Rahimi and Tajbakhsh, 2008).
In a research conducted at five poultry slaughterhouses in Medimurje country in Crotia which included a total of 75
poultry meat swabs, 15 of which carcass cooling water samples and 15 samples of poultry meat collected in retail shops.
Of which 10 samples of poultry meat were found positive for Campylobacter spp. (66.6%), out of these which C. jejuni
was isolated from six samples (40%), and C. coli from four sam6ples (26,6%) of poultry meat (Kornelija et al., 2009).
Bacteriological analysis was performed on 80 fresh chicken meat samples, marketed in Tabriz in Iran, results
demonstrated the presence of S. aureus (65%), Cl. perfringens (83%), Streptococcus (100%) and Coliforms (100%)
(Javadi and Saeid, 2011).
A study carried out on 40 random samples of cooked chicken products represented by chicken luncheon and Shawerma
(20 of each) in KSA were subjected to the microbiological investigations which revealed the presence of some
microbiological investigations, which revealed the presence of S. aureus, E.coli, mould, yeast in 10.0, 25.0, 50.0 and
65.0% in Luncheon and zero, 20.0, 65.0 and 70.0% in Shawerma, respectively (Sharaf and Sabra, 2012).
The microbial quality of 50 frozen chicken meat samples from grocery stores in Qena city, Egypt was assessed and the
mean values for total aerobic, total coliform, total faecal coliform and total E. coli counts for locally produced chicken
meat were 2.1 x103, 5.1 x10, 4.9x10 and 3.5 cfu/g for breast and 2.7x 10 3, 6.4x10, 6.4x10 and 1.5 x10 cfu/g for thigh
samples respectively (Daoud et al., 2012).
Samples collected from 50 raw frozen chickens meat in Egypt when bacteriologically processed, revealed the presence of
4% Salmonella spp. among which 58.33% and 41.66% were identified as S. enteritidis and S. typhimurium respectively
(Rabie et al., 2012).
IV. PREVALENCE IN INDIA

A total of 144 swab samples were collected from poultry carcass sites, viz. neck, breast, wing and leg during various unit
operations from an organized poultry slaughterhouse in Mumbai. The percent prevalence of indicator organisms viz.
Enterococci, fecal coliforms, Clostridium spp. and E. coli, was 24.41, 18.74, 13.88 and 14.57 respectively (Vaidya et al.,
2005).
Fourty numbers of hot dressed chicken carcasses from retail outlets of local poultry meat in Pune and Mumbai were
processed according to the FDA/CFSAN-BAM rinse method. Among this 95% of the samples were found to be positive
for Campylobacter with a MPN range between 102-104 cfu/kg of the sample (Bandekar et al., 2005).
Assessment of microbial contamination of chicken products have been carried out in Parbhani city in Maharashtra and the
organisms isolated from chicken curry were E. coli, Clostridium spp while Salmonella from tandoori chicken (Rindhe et
al., 2008).
A study to isolate and identify Salmonella spp. from chicken slaughtered under different processing conditions viz. wet
market, super market and modern processing units in Karnataka was carried out. A total of 450 (225 breast and 225 thigh
muscle) samples were tested by PCR and shown that prevalence of Salmonella spp. was higher in thigh meat (31.99 %)
compaired to breast muscles (24.88%) (Ruban et al., 2010).
A cross sectional study of different portions of raw meat samples from the local meat markets of North East India was
carried on a total of 110 samples. Results revealed the presence of 74 different bacteria viz. E. coli (98%), S. aureus
(20%), L. monocytogenes (15%) and S. typhi (20%) (Saikia and Joshi, 2010).
A study was conducted to determine the prevalence and plasmid patterns of S. enteritidis on chicken meat samples. Over a
period of 2 years from different outlets, prevalence of S. enteritidis was recorded 92 (15.91%) out of total 578 chicken
meat sample and examined of residential area of Namakkal city (Maripandi and Al-Salamah, 2010).
A study was undertaken to determine the microbial quality of chicken meat in Kolkata and found that the Staphylococcal
and E. coli counts were higher in chicken meat from urban markets than semi-urban markets (Sengupta et al., 2011).
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Contamination of chicken meat, by S. aureus sold at various retail markets of Namakkal of Tamil Nadu was assessed by
culture of meat samples and colonial count. Out of 210 meat samples collected, 6.67% of the meat samples were positive
by culture and the colony count was 1.03 0.08 log10 cfu/g (Arul kumar and Saravanan, 2011).
Out of 130 samples of poultry meat from Hyderabad when examined, 87 were positive for Salmonella spp. by PCR
methods whereas 77 were positive by cultural method (Ramya et al., 2012).
A study on the prevalence of common food borne pathogens (Salmonella, Staphylococcus and E. coli) in chicken meat
obtained from wet market in Bangalore under different processing conditions was carried out. Results revealed higher
prevalence of Salmonella in the range of 25 to 65 per cent and E. coli in the range of 42 to 88 per cent (Ruban et al.,
2012).
14.6% of S. typhimurium were isolated from total 82 samples of poultry related products in Namakkal district of TamilNadu (Prakash et al., 2012).
V. SOURCES OF CONTAMINATION
The possible sources of contamination of Campylobacter spp. in poultry meat before slaughter found to be examining
samples of feathers, cloaca swabs, litter swabs, transport coops, rinse water from coop washing equipment, and chicken
breast supports in the slaughter line just before stunning (Franchin et al., 2005). The samples were collected from eight
broiler houses and from eight different producers, from a poultry integration system in southern Brazil. The study was
carried out over a 12-month period, and each broiler house was sampled in three consecutive flocks, for a total of 24
flocks/broiler house. Campylobacter was found in 79.2% of the feather samples, followed by cloacal swabs (75.0%) and
transport coop (50.0%), litter (37.5%), breast support (33.3%) and coop rinse water (25.0%) samples.
Although chickens may excrete 104 to 108 Campylobacter cells per gram of feces, they are asymptomatic (Schoeni and
Doyle, 1992). It is believed that the source of bacterial contamination of poultry meat is essentially the intestine or gut
content which may come in contact with carcasses already in the broiler house and during transport and slaughter, either
directly or indirectly, through a vehicle such as transport and processing equipment.
High levels of bacterial cross-contamination may occur especially during defeathering and water chilling, with intestinal
contamination apparently being the only source. However, these levels may also increase during evisceration of the
carcasses, washing and processing due to contamination by personnel (Oosterom et al., 1983 and Wempe et al., 1989).
Although Campylobacter has been isolated from different body parts of the chicken such as cloaca (Carvalho et al.,
2000), carcasses, feathers and crops (Nielsen et al., 1997). Thermophilic Campylobacter were detected in 22 of 24
chicken batch samples destined to slaughter, corresponding to a 91.7% rate of contaminated batches. Machado and
Carvalho (2000) who detected Campylobacter spp. in about 57% and 42% of samples, respectively. Berrang et al. (2000)
found 5.4 log10 CFU/g in the feathers and 3.8 log10 CFU/g in the skin of 18 chicken samples examined at the end of the
bleeding tunnel, but before scalding. De Zutter (2000) studied 12 chicken batches of broiler flocks and the possibility of
cross-contamination during transit to slaughter, and found that two batches which were initially free of Campylobacter
spp. became infected with the organism when they reached the slaughter stage, indicating that infection occurred during
transportation.
Their presence in the litter, coops, feathers and breast support renders the chicken meat vulnerable to cross contamination,
thus increasing the risk of the presence of this pathogen in chicken meat and products.
VI. EFFECT OF PROCESSING PRACTICES ON MICROBIOLOGICAL QUALITY OF CHICKEN

MEAT
Rapid growth in consumer demand for poultry and poultry products over the last decade and increased international trade
in these foods have focused attention on objective measures of food safety and quality. There is no specific policy
regarding slaughter, dressing and sale of poultry meat in India. As a result roadside slaughter in most unhygienic manner
is prevalent in most of the cities, towns and villages of India. Although a very few modern poultry processing plants have
been established, majority of the consumers purchase meat from the roadside shops or small retailers where chickens are
being slaughtered and dressed in unhygienic condition in their presence (Das and Biswas, 2003). But with the changing
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busy lifestyle of modern urban population, it is now becoming a common practice for many consumers to purchase
branded meat and meat products from the refrigerated display cabinets of the super market which are mostly processed in
modern meat processing plants. Therefore there is a need to undertake a systematic study to evaluate quality differences in
meat obtained from different sources of processing of ready to cook chicken.
Kumar et al, (2012) carried out the work in Pondicherry (India) to find and compare the differences in quality of fresh
chicken obtained from different sources with different processing practices viz., market/road side chicken shop (MSC),
retail outlets (RSC) and semiautomatic processing plant (Scientifically Slaughtered Chicken)(SSC).Total Viable Count
(TVC), Psychrophilic Count (PPC), coli form count and Yeast and Mould Count (YMC) were determined following
procedures recommended by APHA (1984) presented in table 1.
TABLE I. Effect of Processing Practices on Microbiological Quality of Chicken Meat
Parameters
Sources of Samples
Microbiological (log cfu /g)
MSC
RSC
SSC
Total Viable Count
6.280.16a
6.230.10a
3.030.16 b
Psychrophilic Count
6.710.07 a
5.630.25b
2.820.11 c
Coliform count
5.120.34 a
4.970.33a
2.030.41 b
Yeast and Mould Count
2.520.07a
2.260.07 b
1.870.13b
Barbudhe et al, (2003) recorded high mesophilic (log7.24 cfu/g) and yeast and mould counts (log 6.86 cfu/g) in poultry
meat sold in Goa. Similarly high microbial counts of log 7.61, 5.85 and 7.10 cfu/g for Psychrophilic Count, Coliform and
YMC were reported in fresh chicken meat obtained from retail outlets of Pondicherry (Mukhopadhyay et al., 2004).
VII. CONCLUSION
It is concluded that contamination of poultry and poultry products should be prevented during handling, slaughter and
processing to protect the public from infections and diseases. From this review out of 2030 chicken meat samples
examined in different parts of India 759 was positive for pathogens. This review revealed that the Indian chicken meat
contains pathogenic bacteria like Salmonella spp. (33.16%), Campylobacter spp. (95%), Escherichia coli (70.22%),
Clostridium spp. (13.88%), Listeria monocytogenes (15%) and Staphylococcus aureus (11.25%).
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International Journal of Life Sciences Research ISSN 2348-3148 (online)