What is communication?

Communication is as essential as the food or water to living species of higher order.

Communicologists go a bit farther by saying that communication is the means of existence of all
living organisms. All living systems are structural and functional units, which maintain themselves
(grow, change and deteriorate) only through interactions with their environment. Man, as are other
forms of plants and animals life, is an instance of a living system. Interaction between living systems
and the environment are subsumed under two life processes:
1. The consumption and transformation of matter into energy, which may be termed as physiological
metabolism
2. The acquisition and transformation of environment data into information, which may be termed as
information metabolism or communication.
Thus, communication may be viewed as one of the two essential life processes of all living systems.
To be precise, the basic needs are those, which help growth, reproduction and survival of living
organisms. Deprived of communication, on cannot locate food and water and cannot protect itself
from destruction. Absence of communication cannot establish conjugal relationship between two
sexes. It is a unique phenomenon of existence. Take off all the sense organs of a living being-it will
perish.
An individual has in him the unconscious socio-personal motives like self-esteem, security, knowledge,
pleasure and rest and he communicates to and is communicated by his fellow beings continuously to fulfil
these motives. An ex-communicated individual finds hard to maintain his social entity and takes it as
severest punishment. A criminal put into solitary confinement can feel the impact of communication on
the body and mind. A child threatened by his parents of their refusal to talk to him would consider it as
strongest punishment. Thus, communication-involving interaction with physical, biological and social
environment is indispensable to ones existence and continuance.

It is an interesting exercise to ask members of a group to write, in a short paragraph, their meanings
for the term. Two things become apparent: most individuals have difficulty writing out their actual
meaning for the term communication, and there is a great variation in meanings.
Communication is not just an act. It is a process. The process of communication includes transmission
if information, ideas, emotions, skills, knowledge by using symbols, words, pictures, figures, graphs
or illustrations. The act of communication is referred to as transmission. It is the process of
transmission that is generally termed as communication.
Communication regulates and shapes all human behaviour. Therefore, it is important to have a clear
understanding of the concepts of communication what is communication. Why is it important to us?
How does it work? What are the elements in the process of communication? What are the different
types of communication that we are engaged in? These questions come to our mind when we study
this subject.

Meaning of Communication
The English word communication is derived from the Latin noun communis and the Latin verb
communicare that means to make common. Communication is a much-hyped word in the
contemporary world. It encompasses a multitude of experiences, actions and events, as well as a
whole variety of happenings and meanings, and technologies too. Meetings, conferences, or even a
procession thus can be a communication event. Newspapers, radio, video, and television are all
communication media and journalists, newsreaders; advertisers, public relation persons, and even
camera crew are communication professionals.
"Communications is the mechanism through which human relations exist and develop." This broad
definition, found in a book written by a sociologist, takes in about everything.
In contrast, some people limit their definitions of communication rather narrowly, saying,
"Communication is the process whereby one person tells another something through the written or
spoken word." This definition, from a book written by a journalist, seems reasonable for those in that
field.
Some definitions fall in between these two extremes. Carl Hovland, a well-known psychologist of a
few years ago, said communication is "the process by which an individual (the communicator)
transmits stimuli (usually verbal symbols) to modify the behavior of the other individuals
(communicates)."
This definition describes what many extension workers hope to achieve. You'll be trying to change
behavior.
Some object to this definition. Their objections center on the phrase "modify the behavior." They say
there are numerous occasions when they communicate, in their family and social lives for example,
with no intention of attempting to modify behavior. However, we most likely do modify others'
behavior even though that may not be our intention.
We could find many other definitions of communication. However, "meanings are in people and not
words" and it is not likely that we could get a group of any size to agree exactly on one meaning.
Besides, an exact definition of the word is not necessary. My goal is to illustrate that it is difficult for
many to formulate their own definition and that there is a wide range in meanings.

The communication process

To communicate effectively, we need to be familiar with the factors involved in the communication
process. If we are aware of them, these factors will help us plan, analyze situations, solve problems,
and in general do better in our work no matter what our job might be.
This leads to a discussion of the communication process. Let us look at it part by part as viewed by
several communication theorists. Communication is a concern to many people. Therefore, a lot of
thought, work, and discussion have gone into different communication situations. Today, such people
as psychologists, educators, medical doctors, sociologists, engineers and journalists represent only a
few of the professional groups whose members have developed ways of looking at and talking about
the communication process in their specialized fields.
Several theorists have discussed the communication process in ways that have important implications
for those involved in informal education programs such as extension work. Each of the "models" that
we review has a point of vital interest.

Communication models come in a variety of forms, ranging from catchy summations to diagrams to
mathematical formulas. One model of the communication process reviewed is also one of the oldest.

Communication in its simplest sense involve two or more persons who come together to share, to
dialogue and to commune, or just to be together for a festival or family gathering. Dreaming, talking
with someone, arguing in a discussion, speaking in public, reading a newspaper, watching TV etc.
are all different kinds of communication that we are engaged in every day. Communication is thus
not so much an act or even a process but rather social and cultural togetherness. Communication
can be with oneself, god, and nature and with the people in our environment. Interaction,
interchange, transaction, dialogue, sharing, communion, and commonness are ideas that crop up
in any attempt to define the term communication.
According to Denis McQuail, communication is a process, which increases, commonality-but also
requires elements of commonality for it to occur at all. A common language, for instance, does not
necessarily bring people together. There are other factors too at play such as a shared culture and a
common interest, which bring about a sense of commonality and more significantly, a sense of
community.
Denis McQuail sees human communication in linear terms as the sending of meaningful messages
from one person to another. These messages could be oral or written, visual or olfactory. He also
takes such things as laws, customs, practices, and ways of dressing, gestures, buildings, gardens,
military parades, and flags to be communication.
Thus, communication can be defined as the interchange of thoughts or ideas. Again
communication is viewed as a transmission of information, consisting of discriminative stimuli,
from a source to recipient. In everyday life, the communication is a system through which the
messages are sent, and feedback received. It is therefore, the process of transferring particular
information or message from an information source to desired, definite or a particular destination.
One of the main elements of communication messages is perception. The effectiveness of
communication is limited by the receivers range of perception. In addition, people perceive only
what they expect and understand. Lastly, communication makes a demand on the recipient, in terms
of his emotional preference or rejection. Thus, communication is not to be confused with information.
While information is logical, formal, and impersonal, communication is perception.
Communication is more than mere transferring or transmission of ideas or thoughts. It is not a
static act as some of the earlier definitions suggest but it is a dynamic process of action and interaction
towards a desired goal, as suggested by later definitions. Communication is, therefore, a process of
sharing or exchange of ideas, information, knowledge, attitude, or feeling among two or more persons
through certain signs and symbols.
What do we find in the above definition? It says that two or more persons are involved in the act, the one
who gives information (sender) and the one who receives it (receiver). What is being shared? An idea or
information, or an attitude (message) is being shared. And through what means? The information is shared
or exchanged through certain signs or symbols; it could be language, oral or written. While sharing and
exchanging ideas or information with others, we are actually interaction with people and establishing a
kind of relationship that helps us to achieve the task set before us.

Some other functional definitions of communication are:

The transfer or conveying of meaning (Oxford Dictionary)
One mind affecting another (Claude Shannon)
Transmission of stimuli (Colin Cherry)
One system influences another (Charles E. Osgood)
The mechanism through which human relations exist and develop (Wilbur Schramm)
Communication is the process of transmitting feelings, attitudes, facts, beliefs and ideas between
living beings. (Birvenu)
Communication is the exchange of meanings between individuals through a common system of
symbols. (I.A.Richards)
Communication is the sum of all the things one person does when he wants to create understanding
in the mind of another. It is a bridge of meaning. It involves a systematic and continuous process of
telling, listening, and understanding. (Louis Allen)

Importance of Communication

Communication is important both for an individual and also for the society. A persons need for
communication is as strong and as basic as the need to eat, sleep, and love. Communication is the
requirement of social existence and a resource in order to engage in the sharing of experiences,
through symbol mediated interaction. Isolation is in fact the severest punishment for human being.
Grown-ups, children, and old people all need to communicate. Society punishes criminals by locking
them up in solitary cells, thus starving them of the basic need, and indeed the fundamental right to
communicate. Communication thus involves active interaction with our environments -physical,
biological and social. Deprived of this interaction we would not be aware of whether we are safe or
in danger, whether hated or loved, or satisfied or hungry. However, most of us take this interaction
and this relationship for granted, unless we experience some deprivation of it. When that happens we
adapt ourselves to the environment so that we do not lose touch, in both the literal and figurative
senses. For, to lose touch is to suffer isolation.
The basic human need for communication can perhaps be traced to the process of mankinds evolution
from lower species. Animals, for instance, have to be in sensory communication with their physical
and biological surroundings to find food, protect themselves and reproduce their species. A loss of
sensation-the inability to hear a predator for instance can mean loss of life.
Thus, it is said that the biology of human beings and other living organisms is such that they have to
depend upon each other. This dependence give rise to a situation where it is the biological necessity
for the human beings to live in groups. Society is therefore, the outcome of the evolution of the human
race and man is a social animal not by option but by compulsion.
Essentially, the primary function of communication is to inform, educate, entertain and persuade
people.

Following are the basic functions of communication:

Education and Instruction- This function of education starts early in life, at home and in school and
continues throughout life. Communication provides knowledge, expertise, and skills for smooth
functioning by people in the society. It creates awareness and gives opportunity to people to actively
participate in public life.
Information- quality of our life will be poor without information. The more informed we are the
more powerful we become. Communication provides information about our surroundings.
Information regarding wars, danger, crisis, famine, etc. are important for the safety and wellbeing of
our life.
Entertainment- To break the routine life and divert our attention from the stressful life we lead today,
entertainment is an essential part of everybodys life. Communication provide endless entertainment to
people through films, television, radio, drama, music, literature, comedy, games, etc.
Discussion- debates and discussions clarify different viewpoints on issues of interest to the people.
Through communication, we find out reasons for varying viewpoints and impart new ideas to others.

Persuasion- it helps in reaching for a decision on public policy so that it is helpful to govern the
people. Though it is possible, that one can resort to persuasion for a bad motive. Thus, the receiver
must be careful about the source of persuasion.
Cultural Promotion- communication provides an opportunity for the promotion and preservation of
culture and traditions. It makes the people fulfil their creative urges.
Integration- it is through communication that a large number of people across countries come to
know about each others traditions and appreciate each others ways of life. It develops integration
and tolerance towards each other.

Features and scope of communication

Communication of message takes place through spoken or written words, pictures and in many other
forms. In oral communication, the transmitter is the voice box of the speaker. The receiver of the
message may be the human ear, which converts sound waves into a comprehensible form, which can
be recognized by the human brain; a television receiver decodes the electromagnetic waves into
recognizable visual representation. In the same manner, the reader, who can recognize and understand
that particular language, can understand the printed message.
The process of communication involves a procedure consisting of only a few steps. The information
source decides to communicate and encodes a message, transmits it through a channel to the receiver,
which is then decoded and acted upon. There are noises or distortions in between the whole process.
The main functions of communication are information, education, entertainment, enlightenment and
persuasion. Therefore, the communication process should be designed as such so as to gain the
attention of the receiver, use the signals, symbols, or codes that are easily understood by the receiver
and it must arouse needs in the receiver and suggest some ways out to satisfy these needs. Only then
it can create the desired response.
However, communication should not be confused with mass communication, while communication
is the activity of sharing, giving, imparting, receiving information, mass communication is a process
in which professional communicators use communication media to disseminate messages widely,
rapidly, simultaneously and continuously to arouse intended meanings in large and diverse audience
s in an attempt to influence them in a variety of ways.
Communication is a required skill at every level of organizational functioning. The effectiveness,
with which a person will be able to perform in almost any organization, whether social, governmental,
or commercial, will depend in large measure upon the ability to communicate effectively.

Communication through Arbitrary Symbols

The civilization is reflected in three priceless possessions of mankind, the first is the human ability to
think, the other is his innate capacity to communicate, and the third is his species specific competence
to acquire and use the arbitrary symbols system of language. The gifts of civilization and all the
branches of human knowledge have their origin from this ability to think in abstract and to
communicate these thoughts through symbols of the language.

Above all the other media of communication, language is the most significant because the human
knowledge and relationships are gathered, stored and imparted through it. The process of
communication permits us to use and reuse the experiences and knowledge from the past into the
present and make it ready for use in future with the help of the symbols of communication, which
stand for some abstract idea.
Human Interactions through communication
Communication is the means by which people relate to one another. The society in general or an
organization of any type cannot exist without the relations that are built and strengthened by
communication. Throughout our lives, we are involved in communication situations. When we talk
and work with our colleagues, friends, subordinates, superiors, experts, teachers, students, family
members and with the people in all walks of life, when we read and /or write the books, pamphlets,
periodicals, special journals, reports, letters, memos, newspaper, etc. when we listen to or deliver
speeches, when we listen to the radio or watch the TV and films, when we buy or sell the products or
services, when we manage our business and when we are involved in any other activity, we are
invariably involved in communication situation.
Communication Technology and Media
Human Behavior is dominated by communication in all aspects of life to such an extent that we can
aptly call him as a communicating creature. He has applied advanced science and technology of the
tremendous development of communication system. With the help of dramatic inventions like
printing press, telephone, telegraph, radar, telephoto, radio, television and many other deceive; we
have made our modern communication instantaneous and effective. The advanced technology of mass
and telecommunication has attracted the attention of the experts and specialists in many fields. The
artists, poets, writers, artisans, architects, etc. are exposed to different subjects of interest by this
technology and it helps them to conceive new creative thoughts and ideas. The technology, skills of
using media and some concepts of communication are useful to psychologists in order to investigate
certain problems of human behavior and therapy.
The political as well as social traditions, myths, customs, styles of living, morals, etc. are passed from
one generation to another or they are changed or destroyed with the help of communication media.
The success of any commercial man depends upon his reception and transmission of information
regarding the market, production, government laws, banking, innovations in modern technology, etc.
computers play a vital role in receiving, storing, translating, analyzing and imparting the information
for the mathematicians, chemists, physicists, engineers, etc.

Types of communication
One important aspect of communication is that it does not take place in isolation. Communication
occurs when at least two elements of a system are present. We often think of communication as an
interaction between two people. However, we participate in several communication contexts or levels
of communication.
The major forms of communication are:
Intrapersonal communication
Interpersonal communication
Transpersonal communication
Group communication
Mass communication
Non-verbal communication

The number of persons involved in the process of communication distinguishes these levels.
These different forms of communication also differ in the degree of proximity or closeness among
the participants in the communication process -both at physical and emotional levels. Another
differentiating feature is the nature of the feedback, which could be immediate of delayed.

Intrapersonal Communication
This is the most basic of the communication contexts or levels. It occurs when an individual sends
and receives messages internally. We spend most of our time thinking. And our thought process is
nothing but intrapersonal communication where one person is sending messages and the same person
receives them.
Here we use the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS) for generation,
transmission, and receiving of messages. We react to both external and internal stimuli this way. In
addition to our thought process, many times we also talk aloud with ourselves.
Intrapersonal communication involves our intellect as well as our physical and emotional sensations.
The way we communicate with ourselves reflects the various aspects the self -physical, emotional,
intellectual and social. It also reflects our habits, roles, attitudes, beliefs, and values.
Intrapersonal communication is not just a level of communication; it is in fact the very basis of all
communication. While participating in the higher levels of communication like interpersonal
communication, group communication, and mass communication, we also indulge intrapersonal
communication. And it takes place every moment that we are alive.
To understand intrapersonal communication, we need to understand ourselves. At the physical or
physiological level or what is called the physical self, we have our bodily parts, the various systems
that perform the bodily functions like digestion, breathing, circulation, elimination of bodily wastes,

etc. also there are the five senses that help us receive external stimuli. Then there is processing of
stimuli-both external and internal.
Next there is the emotional self which prompts our emotional responses-as in case of our responses
to stimuli like fright, flight and fight, etc. our intellectual self involves mental actions or behavior
like word and sentence formation, use of comparison, use of logic and reasoning, problem solving,
and decision making, etc.
Though we think that we know everything about ourselves, but there is more to the self-concept. This is
because we maintain separate private and public selves. These have been illustrated by the social scientists
Joseph Luft and Harrington Ingham. They created a model called the Johari Window. This model
compares various aspects of open (public) and closed (private) communication relationships.

Known to self

Not known to self

Known to
OPEN

BLIND

others

Not known to
others
HIDDEN

UNKNOWN

Diagram 3.2 The Johari Window

The open section in the diagram represents self-knowledge that you are aware of and are willing to
share with others. The hidden section represents what you are aware of but is not willing to share.
The blind section represents information, which you do not know but others know. The unknown
section represents what is unknown both to you and to others. These sections vary according to our
relationships with others. In a close relationship the open portion will be considerably larger than the
hidden area. When we communicate with a casual acquaintance, our hidden area will be the largest
area in the Johari Window.
This model can be used effectively to increase our self-awareness. This self-awareness or self concept is not inborn. It develops as we grow through our communication with others and from our
environment. Specifically, it develops from three contributory factors:
1. Our past experiences
2. The reference groups we identify with and
3. The roles we play in our lives.

Our interactions with these three factors have affected and continue to affect our self-concept. Our
past experience makes us what we are. It shapes the way we feel about ourselves and the way we
react to others. A child who is neglected and criticized at home may develop a negative self-concept.
Our experiences at home, family members, relatives, friends, school, college, work place, etc.
contribute immensely to the development of our self-concept.
Through our life cycle, from birth to death, we play a number of roles. These are ascribed (or allotted
roles) and achieved roles. We do not have any control over our ascribed roles. These include gender
role (that are biologically determined son, daughter, brother, sister, father, mother, etc) and social
roles (that are socially determined and defined by our environment). Social roles include being
friends, foes, teacher-taught, neighbors, etc.
The achieved roles are earned through individual accomplishments. A person becomes a champion
athlete or a leader or the president of a company by way of individual achievements. Both the ascribed
and the allotted roles help shape our self-concept.

The process of Intrapersonal communication

Intrapersonal communication starts with a stimulus. Our intrapersonal communication is the reaction
to certain actions or stimuli. These stimuli could be internal, originating from within us, or external,
coming from an outside source. These stimuli are picked up by the sensory organs (PNS) and then
sent to the brain. This process is called reception.
The sense organs pick- up a stimulus and send it to the central nervous system through the peripheral
nervous system. While we receive all stimuli directed to us, we pay attention to only a few. This is
because we practice selective perception. Only high intensity stimuli like loud sounds, bright
colors, sharp smells, etc. are perceived and the low intensity stimuli are over looked.
The next step is processing of the stimuli. It occurs at three levels. These levels are cognitive,
emotional, and physiological. Cognitive processing (thinking) is associated with the intellectual self
and includes the storage, retrieval, sorting, and assimilation of information.
Emotional processing (feeling) is associated with the emotional self. This does not have anything to
do with logic or reasoning. All our emotions and our attitudes, beliefs, and opinions interact to
determine our emotional response to any stimulus.
Physiological processing occurs at the physiological level and is associated with our psychological
self. This kind of response is reflected in our bodily behaviors like heart rate, brain activity, muscle
tension, blood pressure, and body temperature.
The next activity in intrapersonal communication is transmission. Here the sender (transmitter) and
receiver being the same person, transmission occurs through nerve impulses.
Intrapersonal communication also has feedback. Here it is called self-feedback. The next element of
intrapersonal communication is interference or noise. A sudden sound disturbing our thought process is
interference. Another form of interference occurs when we process some information at a wrong level.
For example, we are supposed to process bad news rationally i.e. through cognitive processing. But we
often react to such news through emotions. The opposite is also a case of interference.

Interpersonal Communication
This is the universal form of communication that takes place between two individuals. Since it is
person-to-person contact, it includes everyday exchange that may be formal or informal and can take
place anywhere by means of words, sounds, facial expression, gestures and postures.
In interpersonal communication there is face-to-face interaction between two persons, that is, both
are sending and receiving messages. This is an ideal and effective communication situation because
you can get immediate feedback. You can clarify and emphasize many points through your
expressions, gestures, and voices. In interpersonal communication, therefore, it is possible to
influence the other person and persuade him or her to accept your point of view. Since there is
proximity between sender and receiver, interpersonal communication has emotional appeal too. It can
motivate, encourage, and coordinate work more effectively then any other form of communication.
Also, in a crisis, through interpersonal channel, flow of information is tremendous e.g. news of
violence, famine or disaster.
Interpersonal messages consist of meanings derived from personal observations and experiences. The
process of translating thoughts into verbal and nonverbal messages increases the communicators
self-concept. In fact, effective interpersonal communication helps both participants strengthen
relationships through the sharing of meaning and emotions.

Functions of interpersonal communication

We use interpersonal communication for a variety of reasons. For example, interpersonal
communication helps us understand our world better. It helps us understand a situation in a better
way. We also use interpersonal communication to think and evaluate more effectively. Often it is
used to change behavior also. The three specific functions are:
1. Linking function
2. Mentation function and
3. Regulatory function.
The linking function connects a person with his or her environment. The mentation function helps us
conceptualize, remember, and plan. It is a mental or intellectual function. The regulatory function
serves to regulate our own and others behavior.
Through interpersonal communication we are nurtured as infants, physically, emotionally and
intellectually. Again through interpersonal communication we develop cultural, social, and
psychological links with the world. In fact, interpersonal communication is the very basis of our
survival and growth as it helps us to function more practically.

Variables affecting interpersonal relationships

Many variables affect the interpersonal relationships. These are self-disclosure, feedback,
nonverbal behavior, and interpersonal attraction. Our success or failure in handling these
variables, determine how satisfying our interpersonal relationships will be.
Self-disclosure lets others know what we are thinking, how we are feeling and what we care about.
Self-disclosure helps reduce anxiety, increase comfort, and intensify interpersonal attractions.
Feedback is the response of a receiver that reaches back the sender. It involves agreeing; asking
questions and responding through feeling statements.
Nonverbal behavior plays an important role in interpersonal communication. A smile, a hug, a pat,
a firm handshake, etc. can achieve much more than words in certain situations. Eye contact, gestures,
posture, facial expressions, etc. are also important elements of our nonverbal behavior.
Interpersonal attraction is the ability to draw others towards oneself. Some people are said to have
magnetic personalities. People are drawn to them. It is this special chemistry that causes love at first
sight.

Development of Interpersonal relationships

Research has proved that like individual personalities, interpersonal relationships also evolve over
time through our experiences, acquired knowledge, and environmental factors. The phases through
which interpersonal relationships develops are:
Initiating
Experimenting
Intensifying
Integrating and
Bonding
Initiating is the first phase during which we make conscious and unconscious judgments about
others. In fact, sometimes it takes us as little as 15 seconds to judge a person. Then communication
is started either verbally or nonverbally (through eye contact, being closer to the other person, etc.)
The next phase is experimenting. Here, we start small -talks (talking about general things rather that
about specific things), while attempting to find out common interests. During this stage we try to
determine whether continuing the relationship is worthwhile.
The third stage is intensifying. Here the awareness about each other is increased and both the persons
start participating more in conversation. Self-disclosure by both participants results in trust and
creates a rapport. Experiences, assumptions, and expectations are shared and we start becoming more
informal. Also there is increased nonverbal behavior with more touching, nodding, etc.

The next step is integrating. Here we try to meet the expectations of the person. We also start sharing
interests, attitudes, etc.
The final stage is bonding. Here serious commitments and sacrifices are made. One example of
commitment is to decide to remain as friends. Another is marriage. All these phases can take a few
seconds to develop (as in case of love at first sight) or may take days or weeks or more time.

Transpersonal communication
It involves conversing with spirits, divine and ancestors making it an important incident of the
monastic and religious life in prayer halls, ashrams and among tribal and aboriginal communities.
Etymologically, communicate comes from the Latin communicare, which means to share
something, to pool together. Communication is an inherent phenomenon that human beings enjoy
when they meet. In essence, Man is a communicating being and from the beginning of humanity,
pooling together life experiences was obtained through drawings, cave engravings; and gestures.
From birth, the human being is immersed in a communicating bath; he cannot develop without these
stimulations. Communication with the newborn baby largely takes place via touching and physical
contact. The recent experience regarding Romanian orphanages proved that the total lack of physical
contact brought on serious growth delays, even a large number of deaths of newborn babies.

Accompanied Inner Communication associates words with touching, by establishing contact and
cupping the accompanied persons hand. This communication is above all a welcome, allowing each
accompanied person to better structure himself and live his own life. Listening in Accompanied Inner
Communication is connecting the person to himself, to his inner self.
The words that emerge from this accompaniment are the reflection of a feeling and in no way at all
can be considered information
Accompanied Inner Communication is related to a transpersonal type of communication by the fact
that there is an expansion of the conscience during the session.
The accompaniment with Accompanied Inner Communication, allows the person accompanied to
progressively leave a sensation of being fragmented from repressed wounds, to consciously find a
feeling of unity.
Therefore, during an AIC session, the access to a state of transpersonal conscience permits the feeling
that reality is not lived like a duel.
Painful memories emerge from the unconscious and are integrated in a conscience that grows with
each session.
From an Asian interpretative viewpoint, the palm of the hand is an additional center for the hearts
energy.
We can interpret supporting the hand as a posture that connects the person accompanying and the
person being accompanied, heart to heart.

This way of accompanying contributes to establishing contact with what I refer to as the accompanied
persons center of truth and from this center, welcoming and integrating all of the hidden or
sometimes disassociated aspects of the personality.
The goal is to allow a unification process of ones being and expand ones conscience with recognition
and acceptation of all of the aspects of the persons being; reconciling opposites within the
conscience.
This is the way reconciliation occurs in the individual, ending the confrontation thus allowing inner
peace to take root, little by little.
Via the typed text, one of the objectives of AIC is to allow the accompanied person to become more
conscious of himself, releasing his attachment with the past and his fear of the future, thus learning
how to live the present moment consciously.
Another essential aspect of AIC is the accompaniment. This takes place on two levels:
He/ She is also there to provide a safe area that the accompanied person did not previously have;
leaving him feeling overwhelmed and alone. The goal is that the person can slowly integrate, bit by
bit, the unacknowledged aspects of his psychic whole.

Group Communication
Group communication is an extension of interpersonal communication where more than two
individuals are involved in exchange of ideas, skills, and interests. A group is a number of people
with a common goal who interact with one another to accomplish their goals, recognize one anothers
existence and see themselves as part of the group. Groups provide an opportunity for people to come
together to discuss and exchange views of common interest.
There could be many different groups for as many different reasons. For instance, casually formed
groups with friends over a drink, coffee break, games, dances or religious gatherings have a different
purpose than that of groups attending a meeting or seminar to help fight AIDS or interacting with
committee members to draft a proposal.
Communication in a group, small or big, serves many goals including collective decision-making,
self-expression, increasing ones effect, elevating ones status and relaxation. Group communication
is considered effective as it provides an opportunity for direct interaction among the members of the
group; it helps in bringing about changes in attitudes and beliefs. Group communication has
limitations too, as group interaction is time consuming and often inefficient, especially in an
emergency. Besides, imbalances in status, skills and goals, may distort the process and the outcome
sharply.
Groups have been classified as small groups and large groups. A small group comprises of three to
seven members. Small groups are informal and less structured. Larger groups adopt formal rules to
maintain order. There is more chance for individual participation in small groups. Also small groups
are easy to manage and are more efficient in accomplishing tasks and making decisions. Most researchers
define a small group as having at least three and no more than twelve or fifteen members.

A group needs to have at least three members; otherwise it would simply be a dyad. With three
members, coalitions can be formed and some kind of organization is present. Too large of a group
(more than twelve or fifteen members) inhibits the group members' ability to communicate with
everyone else in the group. Members must be able to communicate freely and openly with all of the
other members of the group. Groups will develop norms about discussion and group members will
develop roles, which will affect the group's interaction. A group must have a common purpose or goal
and they must work together to achieve that goal. The goal brings the group together and holds it
together through conflict and tension.

Types of small groups

There are two major types of small groups, primary and discussion groups.
The primary group is more informal in nature. Members get together daily or very regularly. The
primary group is less goal-oriented and often there is conversation on general topics and not
discussion on specific topic. Primary groups are not bound by any rules and are highly flexible.
Discussion groups are highly formal. These are characterized by face-to-face interactions where
group members respond, react, and adapt to the communication of other participants. A discussion
group has one or more leaders. Members of discussion groups have common characteristicsgeographic location, social class, economic level, life style, education level, etc. finally, members of
a discussion group have a common purpose or goal. The strength cohesiveness and longevity of the
group depends upon the type of goal. One important type of discussion groups is the problem-solving
group. Such groups are of four types depending upon the tasks they perform:
1. Fact finding group
2. Evaluation group
3. Policy making group and
4. Implementation group
This kind of division occurs only where the group is big and the problem is complicated.

Participation in small groups

Participants in small group communication have certain responsibilities these are:

Having an open mind towards the issue or topic being discussed and other members of the
groups
Having an objective mind and
Showing sensitivity towards others sentiments and moods.

These responsibilities fall under two categories:

1. Communicating and listening and
2. Feedback
Communication includes:
o
o
o
o

Speaking or interacting with others with accuracy, clarity, and conciseness.

Avoiding speaking when you have nothing to contribute
Addressing the group as a whole and
Relating your ideas to what others have said.

These practices help make the interaction more fruitful. Listening and feedback are equally important
as speaking. Some suggestions for effective listening include:
o Consciously concentrating
o Visibly responding to the speaker
o Creating an informal situation
o Listening to more than just words
Development of a small group
Individual members forming a group are different from each other as they have different personalities.
It takes time for the members to learn how to fit into the group and contribute in the best manner. In
fact, researchers have identified the following stages of small group development.
o Grouping or trying to find out how to work with others
o Grasping or understanding other members and the situation
o Grouping or getting together and development of bonding
o Group action or increased participation with each member playing constructive roles.

Mass communication
Outside the realm of interpersonal communication exists another form of communication, which
involves communication with mass audiences and hence the name mass communication; and the
channels through which this kind of communication takes place are referred to as mass media. Both
mass communication and mass media are generally considered synonymous for the sake of
convenience. Mass communication is unique and different from interpersonal communication as
evident from the following definition.
Any mechanical device that multiplies messages and takes it to a large number of people
simultaneously is called mass communication. The media through which messages are being
transmitted include radio, TV, newspapers, magazines, films, records, tape recorders, video cassette
recorders, etc. and require large organizations and electronic devices to put across the message. It is
clear from the definition that mass communication is a special kind of communication in which the

nature of the audience and the feedback is different from that of interpersonal communication. An
examination of these components will help in understanding the nature of mass communication itself.

Both mass communication and mass media are generally considered synonymous for the sake of
convenience. The media through which messages are being transmitted include radio, TV,
newspapers, magazines, films, records, tape recorders, video cassette recorders, internet, etc. and
require large organizations and electronic devices to put across the message. Mass communication is
a special kind of communication in which the nature of the audience and the feedback is different
from that of interpersonal communication.
Mass communication can also be defined as a process whereby mass produced messages are
transmitted to large, anonymous and heterogeneous masses of receivers. By mass produced
we mean putting the content or message of mass communication in a form suitable to be distributed
to large masses of people. Heterogeneous means that the individual members of the mass are from
a wide variety of classes of the society. Anonymous means the individuals in the mass do not know
each other. The source or sender of message in mass communication does not know the individual
members of the mass. Also the receivers in mass communication are physically separated from each
other and share no physical proximity. Finally, the individual members forming a mass are not united.
They have no social organization and no customs and traditions, no established sets of rules, no
structure or status role and no established leadership.

Nature of Mass Communication:

Audience
Whosoever is the recipient of mass media content constitutes its audience. For instance, individuals
reading newspapers, watching a film in a theatre, listening to radio or watching television, are situations
where audience is large, heterogeneous, and anonymous in character and physically separated from the
communicator both in terms of space and time. A large audience means that the receivers are masses of
people not assembled at a single place. It may come in different sizes depending upon the media through
which the message is sent. For TV network programmes, for example, there could be millions of viewers,
but only a few thousand readers for a book or a journal.
By anonymous, we mean that the receivers of the messages tend to be strangers to one another and to
the source of those messages. So with respect to the communicator, the message is addressed to
whom it may concern. Also, the audience tends to be heterogeneous rather than homogeneous in the
sense that messages are sent to people in all walks of life and person with unique characteristics.
Feedback
As compared to interpersonal communication, feedback in mass media is slow and weak. It is not
instantaneous or direct as in face-to-face exchange and is invariably delayed. Feedback in mass media
is rather a cumulative response, which the source gets after a considerable gap of time. It is often
expressed in quantitative terms: like circulation figures of newspapers and magazines, the popularity
of a movie at box office, success of a book on the basis of its sales, or the findings of public opinion
polls and on the basis of other feedback devices which are used to determine what is acceptable or
unacceptable to different audiences. In all such cases, considerable time and money are required to

process the feedback received from the audience. Therefore, delayed and expensive feedback is
ingrained in mass media.
Gate keeping
This is again a characteristic unique to mass communication. The enormous scope of mass
communication demands some control over the selection and editing of the messages that are
constantly transmitted to the mass audience. Both individuals and organizations do gate keeping.
Whether done by individuals or organizations, gate keeping involves setting certain standards and
limitations that serve as guidelines for both content development and delivery of a mass
communication message.

Functions of Mass Communication

The content of mass communication seem diverse in nature to audience as they expose themselves to
thousands of media stimuli throughout the day and round the clock. News, reviews, commentaries,
advertisements, etc. can saturate the audience. Thus, the audience members select the messages
according to their needs. The major functions of mass communication are that it informs, enriches,
educates and entertains.
Surveillance of environment: It is one of the most important major functions of mass
communication conceptualized by Laswell. Schramm observed that in this function media took on
watchmans role. Surveillance is the process of monitoring the behavior of people, objects or
processes within systems for conformity to expected or desired norms in trusted systems for security
or social control. Although the word surveillance literally means "watching over" the term is often
used for all forms of observation or monitoring, not just visual observation.
Surveillance of environment involves seeking out and then transmitting information about the society and
all other relevant elements. Mass communication keeps watch on socio-political-economic events of the
close and faraway localities and reaches the accounts to the audience through creative reporting.

The effect of surveillance of environment function can be counted on individuals and society. Effects
of news on individuals are:
1) Increase personal esteem: Personal esteem is built through the prestige that comes from knowing
the news. There is social gain from being the first with the news. Quite many individuals are aware
of this gain and so collect news from various media sources.
2) Provide social base for personal interchange: Individuals remain aware in advance about what
will be the subject of interaction with their friends, how and what parts of the mass media content
will be highly desirable during conversation with others and so on.
3) Gains in and feeling for knowledge: individuals remain knowledgeable about the information on
the environment and that encourage them to seek more knowledge and satisfy their curiosity.
Information: The quality of our life would be poorer without the bit of information we get from mass
media. In the western countries, information is now regarded as power. The more informed you are,
the more powerful you become. Those who have access to information can take advantage of it in

their own interest. Mass communication provides us enormous information about the environment in
which we live. Information such as news of war, danger, crisis, earthquake, famine, etc. is important
for that helps us in taking appropriate steps to safeguard our interests.
Entertainment: We all need entertainment to break the monotony of our hectic stressful life and
divert our attention from the troubles and tensions. Such diversion will have a positive impact on our
lives. Mass media provides a variety of entertainment to audiences through films, TV shows, drama,
dance, music, art, comedy, games, animation, etc.
Persuasion: Persuasion is an alternative term used to denote an act of influencing others. One of the
most important functions of mass communication is to persuade the other person. It is only through
persuasion that one can control and govern others. But it is also possible that one may resort to
persuasion with a bad motive. The receiver must be careful about the source of such persuasion. The
persuasive potential of mass communication is used heavily in both developing and developed
countries. Media are extensively used for socio-economic progress and for sales promotion of the
consumer goods.
Instruction: Mass communication helps to instruct, educate and socialize the members of the society.
Mass communication provides a fund of knowledge, expertise and skills that enable people to operate
as effective members of society.
It also creates awareness; give direction and opportunity to audience through positive impact of mass
media.
Correlation: This term was used by Lasswell and is an important function of mass communication.
The role of mass media in correlation function was termed as Forum by Schramm. The mass
communication in the role of forum is for the exchange of comments and criticism. The said function
of mass communication arouses interests through lead articles, editorials, special articles in case of
newspapers and magazines and news commentary, current affairs in case of radio and television. The
purpose is to improve the quality of usefulness of the information for the citizen. Forum implies a
platform where exchange of views takes place. This function of media thus enables the
audience/readers to widen their understanding about the environment and events happening all around
them.
Debate and discussion: It is through debate and discussion in media that the public can clarify
different viewpoints on issues of public interests and arrive at a general agreement on matters that
concern us all. Also the audience gets a chance to present their views through debate and discussions
in talk shows through different mass media.
Cultural Promotion: Media educate the people toward better living and preserving the traditions of
the society. Mass media provide an opportunity for culture to be preserved and promoted. It presents
different cultures, beliefs and customs from different countries and helps us promote ours to all part
of the world. Thus, individuals come to know one another, understand and appreciate others ways of
life and thereby develop tolerance towards one another.

Non-Verbal Communication
Verbal media can be used to communication almost any thought, feeling or idea, but the non-verbal
media has comparatively very limited range. Especially, it communicates feelings of likings and
disliking and reinforces the feelings expressed through verbal media. Occasionally, it contradicts
those feelings, which are expressed verbally by the communicator.
The following are the types of non-verbal communication:

Facial behavior
Kinesics or body movement
Posture and gestures
Personal appearance
Clothing
Proxemics
Paralanguage

Often we think that communication means only words. This is because mostly we use words while
communicating. Written communication occurs through printed or written words. And oral
communication occurs through words spoken out loud. But all communication does use words.
Sounds unbelievable! Albert Mehrabian, expert on body language and author of books like silent
messages, found out that the total impact of oral message is only about 7% verbal, 38% vocal and
55% nonverbal.
What constitutes nonverbal communication?
Everything from the simple shrug of the shoulder, the V-sign, the OK ring, the thumbs up gesture,
eye movements, facial expressions, body postures, gestures, gait, clothing to the tone of voice, the
accent. Nonverbal components of communication also involve the use of space, of touch and smell
and paralanguage.

Types of non-verbal communication

We use our body and its different parts to communicate a lot of things. This communication through
our body and its various parts is called body language. Often people consider body language to be
the only form of nonverbal communication. However, non-verbal communication includes body
language and much more. These include the way we dress up for different occasions, the way we
greet people, the way we use our hands while talking, the way we use space etc.
Facial expressions
Faces, it is said, is the mirror of the mind. It is the most obvious vehicle for nonverbal communication.
It is a constant source of information to the people around us. Our faces reveal how we are feeling
inside while we might be trying to present a different emotion. For example, while telling a lie, a
child tries to cover his or her mouth with both the hands. A teenager tries to cover her mouth with
one hand. These gestures are called the mouth guard gestures.
Also, the colors of ones face, the wrinkles, presence or absence of facial hair, etc. reveal a lot about
a persons personality. For example, people with dark tans supposedly spend a lot of time outdoors.
Hairstyles and make up provide insight into ones economic status, interest in fashion, etc.

Eye behavior
Eyes and their effect on human behavior are as important to poets and painters as to the students of
nonverbal communication. This is because one can communicate a lot just with the help of the eyes.
From winking, seeing, glaring, staring eyes can perform many functions. The size of the eye,
particularly the size of the pupil, is indicative of a persons mood when one is happy, the pupil dilates
or grows larger. When we are angry, our pupils constrict or grow smaller.
Eye contact is another important facet of eye behavior. When one maintains eye contact with the
audience, he or she is perceived as sincere, friendly, and relaxed. Those who dont maintain eye
contact while talking to others are perceived as nervous. In fact, effective orators and communicators
use periodic eye checks to find out if the audience members are being attentive or not. Another
important function of eyes is expressing intimacy. Eyes help us create connections with others. In
fact, eyes have been described as windows to the soul. We communicate important information and
feelings through the eyes in addition to oral communication. Eyes also help us encourage or
discourage others. For example, a simple glare may stop students from talking, while a warm glance
and an encouraging smile often win many friends.
Kinesics and body movement
Ray Birdwhistell, an expert in the field of nonverbal communication, coined the term kinesics for
the different body expressions. Kinesics means study of body movements. Five categories of
specific body expressions are:

Emblems

Illustrators

Regulators

Affect displays and

Body manipulators
Emblems are commonly recognized signs that are used very frequently. These include the OK ring,
touching the temple, putting a finger to the lips (asking for silence), the V-sign, the thumbs up sign,
etc.
Illustrators are signs that are directly related to the verbal messages. For example, spreading the palms
often illustrates the size or length while we talk about something. Illustrators help emphasize the
verbal message. Regulators include signs like gazes, nods, raised eyebrows, etc. these signs help us
regulate or control verbal communication.
Facial expression like angry stares, wide eyes (fear), trembling hard or knocking knees, indicate ones
internal emotional states. These are called affect displays.
Posture and Gait
The way we stand or sit and the way we walk (gait) are strong indicators of our physical and emotional
states. When we are aggressive we sit or stand straight and in an alert manner. When we are defensive
we usually sink into our chair or stand with our head, shoulders hanging. When confident we walk
with our chin raised, chest puffed, and arms swinging freely. Our legs are often little stiff and our
walk has a bounce when we are confident. A standing posture with hands on hips indicates an
aggressive frame of mind.

Personal appearance
Physical appearance is one of the most important factors that influence the effectiveness of our
interpersonal and group communication. In fact, ones personal appearance is very crucial as it makes
the all- important first impression. This is particularly important as advertisements shape our minds
day in and day out through all those beautiful people who endorse everything from hairpins to aero
planes. So we manipulate our personal appearance to look good. We try to accentuate or highlight
our best features while hiding and underplaying the others.
Clothing
Our clothes provide the visual clue to our personality. Clothes also indicate about ones age, interests, and
attitudes. Information about ones status can be judged from the clothes age, condition, and fashion.
Clothes are used as means of keeping up with the latest social changes. Also clothes are means of
decoration and self-expression. Clothing also indicates about a persons confidence, character, and
sociability. These are the reasons why its said that clothes make a person.
Touching
It is the most common form of physical contact between human and animals. In fact animals use
touching much more frequently and to great effects. Human beings use touching to emphasize a
point, interrupt, as a calming gesture, to reassure. Also, touching is very important to healthy
development of children.
Proxemics
This is an addition way of communicating by use of space. Often we place ourselves in certain
special relationships with other people and objects. The study of these special factors is called
proxemics. Intimate distance ranges from actual contact to about 18 inches. We allow only intimate
persons within this range. Of course, there is forced closeness as in the case of a crowded lift. Social
distance is maintained with people with whom we are meeting for the first time. This distance ranges
from 4feet to 12 feet.
Para language
Oral communication does not just occur through words uttered. The words are supplemented by a lot of
other factors, particularly related to the voice. The pitch, tempo, range, resonance, and quality of voice
add a lot of flesh and blood to the words. These vocal characteristics and vocal sounds constitute
paralanguage. Speaking without pitch variation makes the speech monotonous. Pitch is the raising
or lowering of our voice. Resonance on the other hand is the variation of volume from a quiet and
thin voice to loud, booming voice. Speaking too fast or too slow is a variation of tempo. Para
language gives us clues about age, sex, emotional states, personality, etc.
Smell and taste
We receive a lot of information about our environment through the sense of smell. Like a particular
fragrance announces the arrival of a particular person. Body odors also provide clues about a persons
hygienic state. We also send out a lot of information through smell. We use deodorants, body sprays,
hanky sprays, etc. To hide smell of onion or garlic we brush our teeth and gargle with mouthwash.
Like smell, taste is also a silent sense that receives and sends messages.
Environmental factors
Architectural arrangement of objects, interior decoration, colors, time, music, etc are the environmental

factors that provide a lot of nonverbal cues and clues. Dim lighting, quite atmosphere, and soft music
leads to greater intimacy and has a soothing affect. Similarly, colors also have wide-ranging associations.
For example, one turns pink when embarrassed and one sees red when angry.

Functions of Nonverbal communication

Non- verbal communication plays an important role in any communication situation. If often plays
a supplementary role to the verbal content delivered orally. Some other times, nonverbal symbols
communicate on their own. More specifically, nonverbal communication serves the following
functions:
o Repeating verbal messages
o Substituting verbal messages
o Complementing verbal messages
o Regulating or accenting verbal message and
o Deception.

The various elements of the communication process are:

Input. The sender has an intention to communicate with another person. This intention makes up
the content of the message.
Sender. The sender encodes the message, e.g. the idea of "piece of furniture to sit on" Thus he gives
expression to the content.
Channel. The message is sent via a channel, which can be made of a variety of materials. In acoustic
communication it consists of air, in written communication of paper or other writing materials.

Noise. The channel is subjected to various sources of noise. One example is telephone
communication, where numerous secondary sounds are audible. Even a solid channel such as paper
can be crushed or stained. Such phenomena are also noise in the communicative sense.
Receiver. The receiver decodes the incoming message, or expression. He "translates" it and thus
receives the
Output. This is the content decoded by the receiver.
Code. In the process, the relevance of a code becomes obvious: The codes of the sender and receiver
must have at least a certain set in common in order to make communication work.

Encoder
Sender

Decoder
Message

Channel

Decoder

Receiver

Encoder
Noise

Feedback
Diagram 2.0 Act of Communication
Communication is a dynamic process involving a series of actions and reactions with a view to
achieving a goal. How does it work? Think that you are in conversation with your friend. You are a
sender or communicator, formulate (encode) an idea or message as best as you can, and pass on the
message to your friend, who to the best of his ability receives or acts on the message (decode). He

responds by formulating his own message and communicates to you (feedback). If you think your
message is understood or well received by your friend, then you go ahead with the next idea that you
have in mind and the conversation goes on and on.
Communication is, therefore, a two way process, that is, the ability to receive is as important as the
ability to send. For successful communication, feedback is crucial because it tells how your message
is being interpreted. It can make or break the communication process.
In the above diagram, the communicator is the encoder, the message is symbol (verbal or non-verbal),
the channel is one of the transmission medium, the receiver is the decoder, feedback is the response
to the message, and noise is any interruption that breaks down the communication.
These, in fact, are the essential elements or ingredients, which facilitate the communication process.
Each element plays an important role in making the communication effective:
Communicator (sender or encoder) is the one who initiates the communication process. He may be an
editor, a reporter, a filmmaker, a teacher, a writer, a speaker, a leader, or anybody who takes the initiative
to start a dialogue. Before one speaks or writes, the message is conceptualized first and then encoded. An
effective communication depends on the communication skill, knowledge level, and attitude of the
communicator and how he desires to affect his receiver. An ability to think, to organize thoughts quickly,
and express himself effectively are some of the attributes of a good communicator.
Somebody who uses appropriate words, sentences, tone, etc. may be called a good communicator. He
does not fumble, does not look for words and all that he says is accompanied by appropriate gestures and
delivered at an acceptable pace. Another element, which is mentioned here, is knowledge level. We must
be able to find out the knowledge level of the persons on a particular topic before we start the dialogue.
Also, a person must never look down upon the people with whom he communicates. He must never think
that the receivers are inferior to him. The attitudes of a person should be mature and the minimum respect
due to the other person must be extended to him.

Encoding is the formulation of messages in the communicators mind, that is, the communicator not
only translates his purpose (ideas, thoughts or information) into a message but also decides on the
medium to communicate his planned message. He must choose the media (speaking, writing,
signaling or gesturing) that the receiver can comprehend well. For instance, an illiterate receiver will
fail to understand a written message, but can understand it well if told orally.
A message is what a communicator actually produces for transmission using spoken or written words,
photographs, paintings, films, posters, etc. a great deal of skill and effort is required to formulate a
message, the meaning of which should be understandable to the receiver. Actually the purpose of
communication is to influence the receiver and get favorable responses so that appropriate decisions
can be taken. The success of communication, therefore, depends on what we say and how we say it.
A message can enhance or distort effective communication. For instance, in an interview your
intention is to impress interviewer, but if you give answers whose meaning is not clear, the interviewer
may perceive that you are incompetent for the job.
A channel is the vehicle through which a message is carried from the communicator to the receiver.

The channels of communication are many-written, spoken, verbal, non-verbal, mass media like TV,
radio, newspapers, books, etc. choosing the appropriate channel, one most suitable for the message
as well as the receiver, is a complicated task.
Success and failure of communication depends on the selection of the right channel. For example, if
you have prepared a campaign on National Integration what media would you choose to reach the
intended audience? And even after selecting the media you have to decide if it is feasible cost wise,
taking into account the number of people and the kind of people who will be exposed to your message,
and certain other factors. Actually your intention or desire would be to reach out to the maximum
number of people but for efficient communication your attempt should be to minimize time and cost
in the total information exchange effort.
The receiver, at the other end of the communication, is the recipient of the message and must possess
the same orientation as the communicator. If the receiver does not have the ability to listen, to read,
to think, he will not be able to receive and decode the messages in the manner the communicator want
him to. For effective communication, the receiver is the most important link in the communication
process.
Decoding is the interpretation of the message by the receiver. Actually, the receiver looks for the
meaning in the message, which is common to both the receiver and the communicator.
Feedback is the response or acknowledgement of receiver to the communicators message. The
exchange is possible only if the receiver responds. Even through fluttering eyelids, raising an
eyebrow, making a face, organizing a point and asking for explanation, the message is shaped and
reshaped by the communicator and the receiver until the meaning becomes clear. In this way both
participants in communication interact and constantly exchange roles. In face-to -face communication
the receiver responds naturally, directly and immediately. This provides the communicator an
opportunity to improve and make his communication effective. Feedback, thus, provides an
opportunity to evaluate what is right or wrong about a particular communication. It helps to regulate
the conversation among two or more individuals and also stimulates and reinforces an idea that is
desired to be communicated.
Noise is an interruption that can creep in at any point of the communication process and make it
ineffective. Environment is one major cause that interferes with message reception: like noises from
the roadside, constant chattering of individuals outside the communication act, blaring loudspeaker,
faulty transmission, etc. noise can occur in other forms also; poor handwriting, heavy accent or soft
speech, communication in a poorly lit room, etc. in fact, these are barriers to effective communication.
For smooth and effective communication, it is necessary to eliminate or reduce noise as far as
possible.

Shannon breaks the process of communication down into eight discrete components:
1. An information source. Presumably a person who creates a message.
2. The message, which is both sent by the information source and received by the destination.
3. A transmitter. For Shannon's immediate purpose a telephone instrument that captures an audio

signal, converts it into an electronic signal, and amplifies it for transmission through the telephone
network. Transmission is readily generalized within Shannon's information theory to encompass a
wide range of transmitters. The simplest transmission system that associated with face-to-face
communication has at least two layers of transmission. The first, the mouth (sound) and body
(gesture), create and modulate a signal. The second layer, which might also be described as a channel,
is built of the air (sound) and light (gesture) that enable the transmission of those signals from one
person to another. A television broadcast would obviously include many more layers, with the
addition of cameras and microphones, editing and filtering systems, a national signal distribution
network (often satellite), and a local radio wave broadcast antenna.
4. The signal, which flows through a channel. There may be multiple parallel signals, as is the case
in face-to-face interaction where sound and gesture involve different signal systems that depend on
different channels and modes of transmission. There may be multiple serial signals, with sound and/or
gesture turned into electronic signals, radio waves, or words and pictures in a book.
5. A carrier or channel, which is represented by the small-unlabeled box in the middle of the model.
The most commonly used channels include air, light, electricity, radio waves, paper, and postal
systems. Note that there may be multiple channels associated with the multiple layers of transmission,
as described above.
6. Noise, in the form of secondary signals that obscure or confuse the signal carried. Given Shannon's
focus on telephone transmission, carriers, and reception, it should not be surprising that noise is
restricted to noise that obscures or obliterates some portion of the signal within the channel. This is a
fairly restrictive notion of noise, by current standards, and a somewhat misleading one. Today we
have at least some media, which are so noise free that compressed signals, are constructed with an
absolutely minimal amount information and little likelihood of signal loss. In the process, Shannon's
solution to noise, redundancy, has been largely replaced by a minimally redundant solution: error
detection and correction. Today we use noise more as a metaphor for problems associated with
effective listening.
7. A receiver. In Shannon's conception, the receiving telephone instrument. In face-to-face
communication a set of ears (sound) and eyes (gesture). In television, several layers of receiver,
including an antenna and a television set.
8. A destination. Presumably a person who consumes and processes the message.

BARRIERS OF COMMUNICATION
Introduction
Planning, preparation and practice of communication will be incomplete and unsuccessful unless one
identifies and understands the barriers of communication. These barriers are physical, sociological,
and psychological obstacles that interfere with the planning, organization, transmission, and
understanding of the message. There are a number of such obstacles that can occur in the process of
communication. The natural result of such obstacles or interfering factors is the misunderstanding of
the message.
These factors interfere with the self-confidence, self-disclosure, and self-consciousness of the
communication senders and receivers. The barriers of communication are dangers to any organization
if they are not removed on time. When the communicator transmits the idea in an unchanged and
undistorted form to the receiver and the receiver responds to it, then, the process of the communication
is supposed to have been perfect. But this process of perfect communication can never exist due to
the number of factors, which stand in its way as the barriers. The communicator has to identify and
understand the reasons for poor communication in order to communicate effectively. Understanding
the process of communication is the first step towards improving the abilities and skills of
communication, but understanding the factors that prevent us in transmitting the exact meaning is
very essential for effective communication.

Language Barrier
Lack of common language
Language uses oral or written symbols to transmit meanings from one person to another. Every human
language has its own vocal symbol system and its own grammatical structures. If the communicator
and the receiver belong to different language groups, their ignorance of each others language or the
lack of common language will be a barrier to communication between them. It is not possible for
them to communicate with each other unless they know some common language, which is properly,
understood by both of them. An English speaking boy and a Tamil speaking boy will not be able to
communicate without a good knowledge of each others language. If both of them know a common
language, says Hindi their knowledge of Hindi word, phrases, clauses, and sentence-structure should
be adequate to express their thoughts and feelings.
Semantic Barrier
Words are said to have no meaning but they represent arbitrary meaning associated with it. A word
may have a variety of meanings and the meaning attributed to a word by the communicator may not
be the same as that of the receivers attributed meanings of that word. A word can have different
meaning to different people at different occasions. It is found by the experts that people attributes
14,000 different meanings to 500 commonly used English words. Therefore, the sender and receiver
are many a time likely to attribute different meaning to the same word. Sometimes, they may use
different words to communicate the same meaning. There are many words in English such as light,
cheap, etc. which can be used with favorable as well as unfavorable connotations. A word can stand
for its positive or negative connotations. Sometimes, the receiver wrongly enters the intended
meaning of the senders word by attributing negative meaning to it.

 Poor vocabulary
Poor vocabulary makes our message more difficult and less effective. Our pen falters and tongue fumbles
when we probe into our brain for a suitable word or phrase. The words have different connotative and
denotative meanings. The communicator needs to know them clearly in order to use them with clarity and
precision. Words stand not only for their meanings but they are also charged with action and emotions.
When the communicator and the receiver understand these word-associations, they are capable of using
them as living entities. Poor vocabulary does not allow the communicator to write or speak effectively. If
does not allow the receiver to understand the message clearly. If the receiver does not understand the
words, he cannot properly comprehend the sentences.

Poor grammar and punctuation

Poor knowledge of grammar and punctuation is a barrier to verbal communication. A good vocabulary is
useless unless the communicator acquires the knowledge of how to use it in a sentence. More than ever
before, the people involved in written and oral communication today must have superior grammar skills
because an understanding of grammatical structures provide excellent basis for effective writing,
speaking, listening and reading skills. If the communicator is not able to choose the correct verb form that
agrees with a given noun or pronoun, if he is not able to select exact adjective or adverb, or to join the
words properly, he will not be able to communicate his ideas, thoughts and feelings fully and correctly.
In addition to a good grammar, knowledge of punctuation is essential for effective communication. Many
of us do not pay adequate attention to it. But it must be remembered that the faulty and improper
punctuation can change the intended meaning of the sentence. The absence or misplacement of a comma
can prove to be misleading to the reader.

Roundabout Verbiage
Roundabout Verbiage consists of the usage of overworked, troublesome, and exhausted words and
phrases, which usually cause a considerable amount of misunderstanding and confusion. It is a longwinded way of saying the meaningless padding. By avoiding such roundabout verbiage, we can add a
good deal of liveliness and simplicity of expression to our written as well as our oral communication.
For example, instead of saying in the majority of cases or in a number of instances, we can say
some or usually instead of saying commence we can use start or begin. By omitting such
words and phrases, we can save the message from hollow pomposity.

Physical Barriers
Noise
It interferes with the transmission of the signals. It also refers to the unwanted signals of messages,
which interferes and disturb the reception of the wanted signals. This disturbance is usually in the
form of sounds, but it need not be always the sounds. It can be in visual, audio-visual, written, physical
or psychological form also. There are many people who communicate with a little signal and much
noise. In fact, they communicate extraneous matters, which may diminish the interest in the receivers
or may even annoy them. Anyway, they tell the receiver something more than they are required to
communicate. Their extraneous distracting signal can be the result of their wandering minds-it can be
because they try to communicate something more about themselves.
Technical or physical noise refers to loud noise of the machines or blaring noise of the stereo and
such other noises, which makes it difficult for any listener to receive the wanted message. Visual
noise can be experienced when a committee member arrives late at the meeting hall and all the

committee members are distracted by his arrival. Poor telephone connection which interrupt
conversations, smudged typescripts and bad handwriting are some examples of the technical noise.

Time
The frequency of communication encounters affects the human relationships and the intensity of
human relations is affected by the amount of time that passes between these encounters. If the
employee does not communicate with their superiors for a long time, or if husband and wife stay
away from each other for a long time, it may create a communication gap between them, which may
affect their relationship. Time can act as a barrier to communication in some other ways also. A guest
who arrives at midnight will not be able to communicate well with the host who might feel
embarrassed or disturbed in his sleep. Time will not allow two communicators to talk to each other if
they work in different shifts. A phone call at midnight can irritate or embarrass the receiver. A
husband who keeps his wife waiting for a long time will not find it easy to communicate with her.
Distance
The distance between the communicator and the receiver can be a strong barrier to communication,
if the technical devices of communication such as telephone, telefax, etc are not available to link
them. Faulty sitting arrangement in the office can create a kind of communication gap, which can be
eliminated by adjusting the distance. Distance between the workbenches in the offices or in the
modern production departments and half partitions between them are the distance barriers, which
severely limit the communication among the employees. By minimizing the physical distance down
to the personal distance that ranges from 1.5 to 4 feet. The boss can minimize the status difference
between himself and his employees. A friend or a colleague who ceases to maintain the personal
distance, i.e. 1.5 to 4feet, and keeps himself always beyond the distances of 12 to 25 feet is a friend
who keeps communication gap.
Age
The age, maturity, educational background, and the eras in which a person grows up make a
generation, which inevitably comes in the way of human communication. The generation gap
becomes obvious in their use of vocabulary and style of speeches and the values of life to which they
stick or adhere. Considering his age and maturity, we tend to apply different standards of judgment
to judge the statements of the speaker. For example, in an organization older workers gradually form
their social group, which often remains apart from the younger workers. Their likings and interests
are different and they take less interest in sports, cocktail parties, and movies. Gradually, the older
workers feel socially isolated and insecure because of the widening gap of communication between
the older workers and the younger workers.

Sex
Men and women communicate with one another according to their sex. When they work together in
a group, men tend to be more assertive, acquisitive, self-confidence and aggressive than the women.
This may be because a five year boy is encouraged to hit back by his father, but the boys sister is told
that girls dont fight. Thus, sex stands as a barrier to a direct, honest, and appropriate expression of a
females thoughts, opinions, and beliefs. On the other hand, man is more assertive of his thoughts and
opinions. It is found that women are more likely than men to express their emotions and feelings about a
situation. But, it must be remembered that these are general tendencies of sex-typed communication
behavior and not the rules. The girls tend to be less aggressive because they receive negative results such
as rejection, criticism for such behavior. They are brought up with the feeling that aggressiveness is
unfeminine. A girl, who is brought up with such feminine conceptions about

her, may try to avoid a frank eye contact with the interviewer and may even speak in a voice that is
almost inaudible.

Social-psychological Barriers
Status barrier
Statue is a position or social rank of a person in a group. It depends on the persons abilities, amount
of pay, job-skills, seniority, type of work assigned, age, and etc. statue reflects the degree of power,
authority, importance and responsibility placed on an individual by the other people in the society.
The people at the lower status are usually afraid of communication unpleasant and unfavorable
information to the high-status people. They get scared of entering into the air-conditioned cabins with
runs on the floor and a number of telephones on the table. They become conspicuous of their own
status in relationship with the status of their superiors.
This status consciousness is harmful in the process of upward communication. People fear that the
unpleasant facts communicated to their superior might bring adverse effects on them, if the information
displeases the superiors. They are reluctant to communicate their problems, shortcomings, mistakes and
other unfavorable information to the higher-ups because of their fear that the superior might consider them
incompetent and unworthy to do their jobs. They do not show courage of offering suggestions and plans
of improving the organization and its procedures for the fear of being called arrogant by their superiors.
The high -ups too are strongly conscious of their status. In order to safeguard the dignity of their status,
they avoid accepting suggestions from the subordinates and presume that their higher status stands for
better knowledge and competence than any of their subordinates. These assumptions prove serious
barriers to communication between them.

Attitudes and values

The attitudes serve the personal needs of the people. They provide need satisfaction to the individuals.
When the message is unfavorable to the receiver, he cannot be easily persuaded by it. The people in terms
of their attitudes and values interpret the message. Their attitudes and values are different not merely
because they are physically different but also because they have different backgrounds. They deal with
the individuals and events according to their attitudes and assumptions. Their personal attitudes, values,
and opinions are the barriers to an effective communication.

The most agreeable information for anybody of us is the one, which is favorable and palatable to our
opinions, values, norms, and attitudes. The message, which runs contrary to our views and beliefs, is
not easily acceptable to us even when it is factual and true. We promptly accept the government policy
if it is favorable to our business, but we express our strong resentment towards it if it adversely affect
our business. Even the process of interpreting the message is consistent with the existing attitudes
and values. It is due to the fact that our thinking is colored and characterized by our attitudes and
values. Sometimes, these attitudes and values can have emotional basis. Such attitudes are extremely
difficult to change.

Different perception of reality

Francis Bacon has said, Man prefers to believe what he prefers to be true. The individual experiences
and their interpretations are never identical because their perceptions are different. If two friends see a
movie together, their interpretation, of the events and the characters in it will certainly be different. The
communication barrier arises as a result of different selective perceptions of the same object or idea by
two or more people. Our physical senses like hearing, sight, taste, touch and smell are our

contacts with the physical world. Some people have limited range and power of their senses, whereas
some people have very acute and strong senses. These physical differences are also responsible for
different perceptions of the existing things. Human needs are strong motivating factors, which can
very easily alter his perceptions. Poor children tend to estimate a coin of 50 paise to be physically
larger than the children coming from the rich families. We create our own reality through selective
perception, which hides certain things that are there and see certain more things than which are present
there.

Inference
Our everyday life is full of various activities based on inference. When we get up from bed at 8.00
a.m. we infer that mummy might have already started her housework. When we sit down at a table to
write, we infer that the chair will support our weight and ink will flow from the pen. Thus, the
statements, which are based on the facts and go beyond the facts, are inferences.
We may have good reason to expect that our inferences will be correct, but they may prove incorrect
due to some unpredicted probability. As inferences go beyond the facts in making certain statements,
they can give wrong signals too. We are to interpret symbols on the basis of assumptions, which
usually prove correct, but we must be aware of the probability that they may sometimes prove
incorrect. When we travel in the state transport bus, we infer that we may reach safely at our
destination, but this inference may not prove correct if the bus is caught in some accident. The
inferences drawn by the specialist are many a time reliable because they are based on verified facts,
but the inferences of the non -experts should be accepted after receiving more feedback from the
concerned people.
Abstracting
We use language to communicate our experiences and feelings, but we cannot communicate every
detail of it. We cannot communicate every detail of our experience to others. Also, we focus our
attention on some details and do not bother about the rest. We prepare a business report on our
observations of the various events in the market. While preparing it, we abstract the reality and report
only the valuable characteristics of the market. We observe partially and communicate partially
because our experience of the event is also partial. When we try to convert our experiences and
observations into words, we further abstract it by using selected words, which involve leaving out the
details. If we try to completely describe a simple object like a shoe we would require several
volumes for it, which would still be insufficient to describe the object.

Closed-Mindedness
A person may close his mind to communicate receptions, if he considers himself to be a person who
knows all about a particular subject. It is very difficult to communicate with a man who has
deeply rooted prejudiced mind. Such a man is not prepared to receive any message on a subject
about which he assumes to know everything. His mind is closed to new ideas, facts, and
suggestions. If an employee approaches his closes-minded boss with some suggestions to improve
the work of a business unit, the boss would retort the employee by saying that he knows better than
the latter regarding what should be done for the betterment of the organization. Perhaps, he may
further warn the employee that the latter should never try to teach him again. Thus, he completely
rejects the information and recommendations of the communicator even before he knows the real
facts. The reason behind his closed-mindedness is his deeply rooted prejudices.

 Distortion, filtering and editing

When a message is transmitted through translations, interpretations, explanations, and
simplifications, some part of it gets distorted or lost. The accuracy of the message is lost and the
transmission becomes imperfect as the message goes through the filters of translations and
simplifications. The upward communication also tends to be distorted and filtered. The negative
effects of the informal channel like grapevine are due to distortions and filtering. The message in
grapevine receives fresh additions with every repetition until it gets worst. Thus, often the original
information communicated through formal and informal channels gets lost or distorted to a large
extent and very little of it is retained.

Bad listening
Bad listening is one of the major communication problems. Misunderstanding and conflicts can be
reduced if people would listen the message with enough attention. Most people do not listen very well
due to various distractions, emotions, excitement, indifference, aggressiveness, and wandering
attention. One of the major reasons for bad listening is an individuals continual thinking about his
own problems and worries. The poor listeners always feel that the thought in his mind is more
interesting than what the speaker is saying. A college student involves himself in thinking about his
girlfriend rather than listening to the lecture of his professor.
Bad listening can also be due to some strong reason for worrying. An employee may get engrossed
in worrying about the sickness of his daughter rather than listening to the instructions given by his
manager. Some listeners mentally argue with the speaker before comprehending the complete
message. This usually leads to misunderstanding and conflict. Their impatience to talk out their
thoughts and their lack of interest in the message contents are strong barriers to communication.

Emotions
Negative emotions are obstacles in the communication. Emotions are our feelings about the world
around us. Usually, the positive emotions such as joy, love, or affection do not interfere with
communication, but the negative emotions act as strong barriers to effective communication.
Emotionally excited communicator is unable to organize his message properly. His excited or nervous
state of mind does not allow him to think clearly. He expresses his blurred thoughts with
gesticulations and keeps on repeating the same words. He cannot even grasp the message sent by the
communicator in its true sense. This is especially true when ones negative emotion is uncontrolled
and misdirected. It makes him blind for reason. Almost anybody who comes across such an irritated
person becomes a victim of his unfocused negative emotions. The perplexed, nervous, and excited
state of mind never allows smooth flow of communication.

Resistance to change
If we receive a message, which proposes a new idea, we tend to be inattentive to it. The new idea is
rejected consciously or sometimes unconsciously if it conflicts with our beliefs, morals, values, attitudes
and opinions of the receiver. The average adult human mind ignores the new idea, especially when he
feels insecurity and uncertainty about its aftermath. He feels that the things go along just fine with him
and he would be insecure if the changes are introduced. He is also suspicious about its success in future.
Because of its uncertainty, he hastily concludes in his mind that the proposal would not be successful. He
even further feels that the proposal would make things worse for him. The new idea is considered as a
drastic proposal, which is not needed. Thus, the average human mind, which resists change, does not
accept the new ideas from the communicator.

COMMUNICATION V/S MASS COMMUNICTION

COMMUNICATION

MASS COMMUNICATION

1.Communication in its simplest

1. Mass communication is defined as

sense involve two or more persons

a process whereby mass produced

who come together to share, to

messages are transmitted to large,

dialogue and to commune, or just to

anonymous and heterogeneous

be together for a festival or family

masses of receivers.

gathering.

2. Feedback is immediate. In this way

2. Feedback is delayed. Feedback

both participants in communication

in mass media is slow and

interact and constantly exchange

weak. Considerable time and money

roles. In face-to-face communication

are required to process the feedback

the receiver responds naturally,

received from the audience.

directly and immediately. This

Therefore, delayed and expensive

provides the communicator an

feedback is ingrained in mass media.

opportunity to improve and make his

communication effective.

3.The Channel of communication is

3.The channels of Mass

the vehicle through which a message

communication are the various Mass

is carried from the communicator to

Media like newspaper television,

the receiver. The channels of

radio, books, computers, films, etc.

communication are many-written,

spoken, verbal, non-verbal, mass

media like TV, radio, newspapers, etc.

4. The receiver, at the other end of the
communication, is the recipient of the
message and must possess the same
orientation as the communicator. If the
receiver does not have the ability to listen,
to read, to think, he will not be able to
receive and decode the messages in the
manner the communicator want him to.

4. The mass of receivers, are often called as

mass audience. Mass audience can be
defined as individuals united by a common
focus of interest (to be informed, educated
or entertained) engaging in identical
behavior towards common ends (listening,
viewing or reading). Yet the individuals
involved are unknown to one other
(anonymous).

5. Education
and
Instruction,
Information, entertainment, discussion,
persuasion,
cultural
promotion,
integration, etc. are the main functions of
communication process.

5. Entertainment is the main purpose of

most of the mass media like television,
radio, films, video recorder, though Mass
communication does perform the function
of giving out information and education
through newspapers, books, magazines,
etc.

6. An individual, group, or a large

number of people could receive
message during the process of
communication.

6. It is through Mass communication that

millions of audience is exposed to a
variety of messages each day.
The receiver of the message is a large
mass of people.