Afghanistan

i
Afghanistan
/fnstn/
(Pashto/Dari:
, Afnistn), ocially the Islamic
Republic of Afghanistan, is a landlocked country
located within South Asia and Central Asia.[3][7] It has
a population of approximately 32 million, making it
the 42nd most populous country in the world. It is
bordered by Pakistan in the south and east; Iran in the
west; Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan in the
north; and China in the far northeast. Its territory covers
652,000 km2 (252,000 sq mi), making it the 41st largest
country in the world.

specically in a historical sense, to land of the Pashtuns.

However, the modern Constitution of Afghanistan states
that "[t]he word Afghan shall apply to every citizen of
Afghanistan.[10]

2 History
Main article: History of Afghanistan
Excavations of prehistoric sites by Louis Dupree and
others suggest that humans were living in what is now
Afghanistan at least 50,000 years ago, and that farming communities in the area were among the earliest in
the world. An important site of early historical activities, many believe that Afghanistan compares to Egypt
in terms of the historical value of its archaeological
sites.[11][12]

Human habitation in Afghanistan dates back to the

Middle Paleolithic Era, and the countrys strategic location along the Silk Road connected it to the cultures
of the Middle East and other parts of Asia. Through
the ages the land has been home to various peoples
and witnessed numerous military campaigns, notably by
Alexander the Great, Muslim Arabs, Mongols, British,
Soviet Russians, and in the modern-era by Western powers. The land also served as the source from which the
Kushans, Hephthalites, Samanids, Saarids, Ghaznavids,
Ghorids, Khiljis, Mughals, Hotaks, Durranis, and others
have risen to form major empires.[8]

The country sits at a unique nexus point where numerous

civilizations have interacted and often fought. It has been
home to various peoples through the ages, among them
the ancient Iranian peoples who established the dominant
role of Indo-Iranian languages in the region. At multiThe political history of the modern state of Afghanistan
ple points, the land has been incorporated within large
began with the Hotak and Durrani dynasties in the 18th
regional empires, among them the Achaemenid Empire,
century. In the late 19th century, Afghanistan became
the Macedonian Empire, the Indian Maurya Empire, and
a buer state in the "Great Game" between British Inthe Islamic Empire.[13]
dia and the Russian Empire. Following the Third AngloAfghan War in 1919, King Amanullah unsuccessfully at- Many empires and kingdoms have also risen to power
tempted to modernize the country. It remained peaceful in Afghanistan, such as the Greco-Bactrians, Kushans,
during Zahir Shah's forty years of monarchy. A series of Hephthalites, Kabul Shahis, Saarids, Samanids,
coups in the 1970s was followed by a Soviet invasion and Ghaznavids, Ghurids, Khiljis, Kartids, Timurids,
a series of civil wars that devastated much of Afghanistan. Mughals, and nally the Hotak and Durrani dynasties
This was followed by the recent $100 billion nationwide that marked the political origins of the modern state.[14]
rebuilding process.[9]

2.1 Pre-Islamic period

Etymology

Main article: Pre-Islamic period of Afghanistan

Archaeological exploration done in the 20th century suggests that the geographical area of Afghanistan has been
closely connected by culture and trade with its neighbors to the east, west, and north. Artifacts typical of
the Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic, Bronze, and Iron
ages have been found in Afghanistan. Urban civilization
is believed to have begun as early as 3000 BCE, and the
early city of Mundigak (near Kandahar in the south of the
country) may have been a colony of the nearby Indus Valley Civilization. More recent ndings established that the
Indus Valley Civilisation stretched up towards modern-

Main article: Name of Afghanistan

The name Afghnistn (Persian: , [avnestn])
is believed to be as old as the ethnonym Afghan, which is
documented in the 10th-century geography book Hudud
ul-'alam. The root name "Afghan" was used historically
in reference to a member of the ethnic Pashtuns, and the
sux "-stan" means place of in Persian. Therefore,
Afghanistan translates to land of the Afghans or, more
1

2 HISTORY
After 2000 BCE, successive waves of semi-nomadic
people from Central Asia began moving south into
Afghanistan; among them were many Indo-Europeanspeaking Indo-Iranians. These tribes later migrated further into South Asia, Western Asia, and toward Europe
via the area north of the Caspian Sea. The region at the
time was referred to Ariana.[17][11][18]

The religion Zoroastrianism is believed by some to have

originated in what is now Afghanistan between 1800 and
800 BCE, as its founder Zoroaster is thought to have lived
and died in Balkh. Ancient Eastern Iranian languages
may have been spoken in the region around the time of the
rise of Zoroastrianism. By the middle of the 6th century
BCE, the Achaemenids overthrew the Medes and incorporated Arachosia, Aria, and Bactria within its eastern
boundaries. An inscription on the tombstone of Darius
Bilingual (Greek and Aramaic) edict by Emperor Ashoka from
I of Persia mentions the Kabul Valley in a list of the 29
the 3rd century BCE discovered in the southern city of Kandahar
countries that he had conquered.[19]
day Afghanistan, making the ancient civilisation today
part of Pakistan, Afghanistan and India. In more detail, it extended from what today is northwest Pakistan
to northwest India and northeast Afghanistan. An Indus
Valley site has been found on the Oxus River at Shortugai
in northern Afghanistan.[15][16] Apart from Shortughai is
Mundigak another notable site. There are several smaller
IVC colonies to be found in Afghanistan as well.

Alexander the Great and his Macedonian forces arrived

to Afghanistan in 330 BCE after defeating Darius III of
Persia a year earlier in the Battle of Gaugamela. Following Alexanders brief occupation, the successor state
of the Seleucid Empire controlled the region until 305
BCE, when they gave much of it to the Maurya Empire
as part of an alliance treaty. The Mauryans controlled the
area south of the Hindu Kush until they were overthrown
in about 185 BCE. Their decline began 60 years after
Ashoka's rule ended, leading to the Hellenistic reconquest
by the Greco-Bactrians. Much of it soon broke away from
them and became part of the Indo-Greek Kingdom. They
were defeated and expelled by the Indo-Scythians in the
late 2nd century BCE.[20][21]
During the rst century BCE, the Parthian Empire subjugated the region, but lost it to their Indo-Parthian
vassals. In the mid-to-late rst century CE the vast
Kushan Empire, centered in Afghanistan, became great
patrons of Buddhist culture, making Buddhism ourish
throughout the region. The Kushans were overthrown by
the Sassanids in the 3rd century CE, though the IndoSassanids continued to rule at least parts of the region.
They were followed by the Kidarite who, in turn, were
replaced by the Hephthalites. By the 6th century CE, the
successors to the Kushans and Hepthalites established a
small dynasty called Kabul Shahi. Much of the northeastern and southern areas of the country remained dominated by Buddhist culture.[22]

2.2 Islamization and Mongol invasion

Main articles: Islamic conquest of Afghanistan and
Mongol invasion of Central Asia
Arab Muslims brought Islam to Herat and Zaranj in 642
CE and began spreading eastward; some of the native inhabitants they encountered accepted it while others reOne of the Buddhas of Bamiyan. Buddhism was widespread volted. The land was collectively recognized by the Arabs
before the Islamic conquest of Afghanistan.
as al-Hind due to its cultural connection with Greater In-

2.3

Hotak dynasty and Durrani Empire

3
Afghanistan formed the frontier between Khorasan and
Hindustan.[28][29][30]

2.3 Hotak dynasty and Durrani Empire

Main articles: Hotak dynasty and Durrani Empire
In 1709, Mirwais Hotak, a local Ghilzai tribal leader,

The Friday Mosque of Herat is one of the oldest mosques in

Afghanistan.

dia. Before Islam was introduced, people of the region

were mostly Buddhists and Zoroastrians, but there were
also Surya and Nana worshipers, Jews, and others. The
Zunbils and Kabul Shahi were rst conquered in 870 CE
by the Saarid Muslims of Zaranj. Later, the Samanids
extended their Islamic inuence south of the Hindu Kush.
It is reported that Muslims and non-Muslims still lived
side by side in Kabul before the Ghaznavids rose to power
in the 10th century.[23][24][25]
By the 11th century, Mahmud of Ghazni defeated the remaining Hindu rulers and eectively Islamized the wider
region, with the exception of Karistan. Afghanistan became one of the main centers in the Muslim world dur- Ahmad Shah Durrani, founder of the last Afghan empire and
viewed as Father of the Nation
ing this Islamic Golden Age. The Ghaznavid dynasty was
overthrown by the Ghurids, who expanded and advanced successfully rebelled against the Safavids. He defeated
the already powerful Islamic empire.
Gurgin Khan and made Afghanistan independent.[31]
In 1219 AD, Genghis Khan and his Mongol army over- Mirwais died of a natural cause in 1715 and was sucran the region. His troops are said to have annihi- ceeded by his brother Abdul Aziz, who was soon killed
lated the Khorasanian cities of Herat and Balkh as well by Mirwais son Mahmud for treason. Mahmud led the
as Bamyan.[26] The destruction caused by the Mon- Afghan army in 1722 to the Persian capital of Isfahan,
gols forced many locals to return to an agrarian rural captured the city after the Battle of Gulnabad and prosociety.[27] Mongol rule continued with the Ilkhanate in claimed himself King of Persia.[31] The Afghan dynasty
the northwest while the Khilji dynasty administered the was ousted from Persia by Nader Shah after the 1729
Afghan tribal areas south of the Hindu Kush until the in- Battle of Damghan.
vasion of Timur, who established the Timurid Empire in In 1738, Nader Shah and his forces captured Kanda1370.
har, the last Hotak stronghold, from Shah Hussain HoIn the early 16th century, Babur arrived from Fergana and
captured Kabul from the Arghun dynasty. In 1526, he invaded Delhi in India to replace the Lodi dynasty with the
Mughal Empire. Between the 16th and 18th century, the
Khanate of Bukhara, Safavids, and Mughals ruled parts of
the territory. Before the 19th century, the northwestern
area of Afghanistan was referred to by the regional name
Khorasan. Two of the four capitals of Khorasan (Herat
and Balkh) are now located in Afghanistan, while the regions of Kandahar, Zabulistan, Ghazni, Kabulistan, and

tak, at which point the incarcerated 16-year-old Ahmad

Shah Durrani was freed and made the commander of an
Afghan regiment. Soon after the Persian and Afghan
forces invaded India. By 1747, the Afghans chose Durrani as their head of state.[32] Durrani and his Afghan
army conquered much of present-day Afghanistan, Pakistan, the Khorasan and Kohistan provinces of Iran, and
Delhi in India.[33] He defeated the Indian Maratha Empire, and one of his biggest victories was the 1761 Battle
of Panipat.

2 HISTORY

In October 1772, Durrani died of a natural cause and was

buried at a site now adjacent to the Shrine of the Cloak
in Kandahar. He was succeeded by his son, Timur Shah,
who transferred the capital of Afghanistan from Kandahar to Kabul in 1776. After Timurs death in 1793, the
Durrani throne passed down to his son Zaman Shah, followed by Mahmud Shah, Shuja Shah and others.[34]

ment in which the ethnic Pashtun and Baloch territories

were divided by the Durand Line. This was a standard
divide and rule policy of the British and would lead to
strained relations, especially with the later new state of
Pakistan.

The Afghan Empire was under threat in the early 19th

century by the Persians in the west and the Britishbacked Sikhs in the east. Fateh Khan, leader of the
Barakzai tribe, had installed 21 of his brothers in positions of power throughout the empire. After his death,
they rebelled and divided up the provinces of the empire between themselves. During this turbulent period,
Afghanistan had many temporary rulers until Dost Mohammad Khan declared himself emir in 1826.[35] The
Punjab region was lost to Ranjit Singh, who invaded
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and in 1834 captured the city of
Peshawar.[36] In 1837, during the Battle of Jamrud near
the Khyber Pass, Akbar Khan and the Afghan army killed
Sikh Commander Hari Singh Nalwa. By this time the
British were advancing from the east and the rst major
conict during the Great Game was initiated.[37]

2.4

Western inuence

Further information: European inuence in Afghanistan

and Reforms of Amnullh Khn and civil war
Following the 1842 defeat of the British-Indian forces

Zahir Shah, the last king of Afghanistan, who reigned from 1933
to 1973.

After the Third Anglo-Afghan War and the signing of

the Treaty of Rawalpindi in 1919, King Amanullah Khan
declared Afghanistan a sovereign and fully independent
state. He moved to end his countrys traditional isolation
by establishing diplomatic relations with the international
community and, following a 192728 tour of Europe and
Turkey, introduced several reforms intended to modernize his nation. A key force behind these reforms was
Mahmud Tarzi, an ardent supporter of the education of
British and allied forces at Kandahar after the 1880 Battle of women. He fought for Article 68 of Afghanistans 1923
Kandahar, during the Second Anglo-Afghan War. The large deconstitution, which made elementary education compulfensive wall around the city was removed in the early 1930s by
sory. The institution of slavery was abolished in 1923.[38]
the order of King Nadir.

and victory of the Afghans, the British established

diplomatic relations with the Afghan government and
withdrew all forces from the country. They returned during the Second Anglo-Afghan War in the late 1870s for
about two years to assist Abdur Rahman Khan defeat
Ayub Khan. The United Kingdom began to exercise a
great deal of inuence after this and even controlled the
states foreign policy. In 1893, Mortimer Durand made
Amir Abdur Rahman Khan sign a controversial agree-

Some of the reforms that were actually put in place,

such as the abolition of the traditional burqa for women
and the opening of a number of co-educational schools,
quickly alienated many tribal and religious leaders. Faced
with overwhelming armed opposition, Amanullah Khan
was forced to abdicate in January 1929 after Kabul
fell to rebel forces led by Habibullah Kalakani. Prince
Mohammed Nadir Shah, Amanullahs cousin, in turn defeated and killed Kalakani in November 1929, and was
declared King Nadir Shah. He abandoned the reforms

2.6

Civil war

of Amanullah Khan in favor of a more gradual approach these rebels with covert training centers, while the Soviet
to modernisation but was assassinated in 1933 by Abdul Union sent thousands of military advisers to support the
Khaliq, a Hazara school student.
PDPA government.[40] Meanwhile, increasing friction
Mohammed Zahir Shah, Nadir Shahs 19-year-old son, between the competing factions of the PDPA the
succeeded to the throne and reigned from 1933 to 1973. dominant Khalq and the more moderate Parcham
Until 1946, Zahir Shah ruled with the assistance of his resulted in the dismissal of Parchami cabinet members
uncle, who held the post of Prime Minister and con- and the arrest of Parchami military ocers under the
tinued the policies of Nadir Shah. Another of Zahir pretext of a Parchami coup.
Shahs uncles, Shah Mahmud Khan, became Prime Minister in 1946 and began an experiment allowing greater
political freedom, but reversed the policy when it went
further than he expected. He was replaced in 1953 by
Mohammed Daoud Khan, the kings cousin and brotherin-law. Daoud Khan sought a closer relationship with
the Soviet Union and a more distant one towards Pakistan. Afghanistan remained neutral and was neither a
participant in World War II nor aligned with either power
bloc in the Cold War. However, it was a beneciary
of the latter rivalry as both the Soviet Union and the
United States vied for inuence by building Afghanistans
main highways, airports, and other vital infrastructure.
In 1973, while King Zahir Shah was on an ocial overseas visit, Daoud Khan launched a bloodless coup and became the rst President of Afghanistan. In the meantime,
Zulkar Ali Bhutto got neighboring Pakistan involved in
Afghanistan. Some experts suggest that Bhutto paved the
way for the April 1978 Saur Revolution.[39]

2.5

Marxist revolution and Soviet war

Main articles:
Saur Revolution, Soviet war in
Afghanistan, Democratic Republic of Afghanistan
and History of Afghanistan (19781992)
In April 1978, the communist Peoples Democratic Party

In September 1979, Nur Muhammad Taraki was assassinated in a coup within the PDPA orchestrated by fellow Khalq member Hazullah Amin, who assumed the
presidency. Distrusted by the Soviets, Amin was assassinated by Soviet special forces in December 1979. A
Soviet-organized government, led by Parchams Babrak
Karmal but inclusive of both factions, lled the vacuum.
Soviet troops were deployed to stabilize Afghanistan under Karmal in more substantial numbers, although the Soviet government did not expect to do most of the ghting
in Afghanistan. As a result, however, the Soviets were
now directly involved in what had been a domestic war
in Afghanistan.[41] The PDPA prohibited usury, declared
equality of the sexes,[42] and introducing women to political life.[42]
The United States has been supporting anti-Soviet Afghan
mujahideen and foreign "Afghan Arab" ghters through
Pakistans ISI as early as mid-1979 (see CIA activities in
Afghanistan).[43] Billions in cash and weapons, which included over two thousand FIM-92 Stinger surface-to-air
missiles, were provided by the United States and Saudi
Arabia to Pakistan.[44][45]
The Soviet war in Afghanistan resulted in the deaths of
over 1 million Afghans, mostly civilians,[46][47][48] and the
creation of about 6 million refugees who ed Afghanistan,
mainly to Pakistan and Iran.[49] Faced with mounting international pressure and numerous casualties, the Soviets
withdrew in 1989 but continued to support Afghan President Mohammad Najibullah until 1992.[50]

2.6 Civil war

Main articles: Civil war in Afghanistan (198992) and
Civil war in Afghanistan (199296)

Outside the Arg Presidential Palace in Kabul, a day after the April
1978 Marxist revolution in which President Daoud Khan was
assassinated along with his entire family.

of Afghanistan (PDPA) seized power in Afghanistan

in the Saur Revolution. Within months, opponents of
the communist government launched an uprising in
eastern Afghanistan that quickly expanded into a civil
war waged by guerrilla mujahideen against government
forces countrywide. The Pakistani government provided

From 1989 until 1992, Najibullahs government tried to

solve the ongoing civil war with economic and military
aid, but without Soviet troops on the ground. Najibullah
tried to build support for his government by portraying
his government as Islamic, and in the 1990 constitution
the country ocially became an Islamic state and all references of communism were removed. Nevertheless, Najibullah did not win any signicant support, and with the
dissolution of the Soviet Union in December 1991, he
was left without foreign aid. This, coupled with the internal collapse of his government, led to his ousting from
power in April 1992. After the fall of Najibullahs government in 1992, the post-communist Islamic State of

2 HISTORY

Afghanistan was established by the Peshawar Accord, a 2.7 Taliban Emirate and Northern Alpeace and power-sharing agreement under which all the
liance
Afghan parties were united in April 1992, except for the
Pakistani supported Hezb-e Islami of Gulbuddin Hek- Main articles: Civil war in Afghanistan (19962001)
matyar. Hekmatyar started a bombardment campaign and Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan
against the capital city Kabul, which marked the beginning of a new phase in the war.[51]
The Talibans early victories in late 1994 were followed
Saudi Arabia and Iran supported dierent Afghan by a series of defeats that resulted in heavy losses. The
militias[52][53][54] and instability quickly developed.[55] Taliban attempted to capture Kabul in early 1995 but
The conict between the two militias soon escalated into were repelled by forces under Massoud. In Septema full-scale war.
ber 1996, as the Taliban, with military support from
Pakistan[61] and nancial support from Saudi Arabia, prepared for another major oensive, Massoud ordered a
full retreat from Kabul.[62] The Taliban seized Kabul in
the same month and established the Islamic Emirate of
Afghanistan. They imposed a strict form of Sharia, similar to that found in Saudi Arabia. According to Physicians
for Human Rights (PHR), no other regime in the world
has methodically and violently forced half of its population into virtual house arrest, prohibiting them on pain of
physical punishment.[63]

A section of Kabul during the civil war in 1993

Due to the sudden initiation of the war, working government departments, police units, and a system of justice
and accountability for the newly created Islamic State of
Afghanistan did not have time to form. Atrocities were
committed by individuals of the dierent armed factions
while Kabul descended into lawlessness and chaos.[53][56]
Because of the chaos, some leaders increasingly had
only nominal control over their (sub-)commanders.[57]
For civilians there was little security from murder, rape,
and extortion.[57] An estimated 25,000 people died during the most intense period of bombardment by Hekmatyars Hezb-i Islami and the Junbish-i Milli forces
of Abdul Rashid Dostum, who had created an alliance
with Hekmatyar in 1994.[56] Half a million people ed
Afghanistan.[57]

After the fall of Kabul to the Taliban, Massoud and

Dostum formed the Northern Alliance. The Taliban defeated Dostums forces during the Battles of
Mazar-i-Sharif (199798). Pakistans Chief of Army
Sta, Pervez Musharraf, began sending thousands of
Pakistanis to help the Taliban defeat the Northern
Alliance.[60][61][64][65][66][67] From 1996 to 2001, the alQaeda network of Osama bin Laden and Ayman alZawahiri was also operating inside Afghanistan.[68] This
and the fact that around one million Afghans were internally displaced made the United States worry.[64][69]
From 1990 to September 2001, around 400,000 Afghans
have died in the internal mini wars.[70]

On 9 September 2001, Massoud was assassinated by

two Arab suicide attackers in Panjshir province of
Afghanistan. Two days later, the September 11 attacks
were carried out in the United States. The US government
suspected Osama bin Laden as the perpetrator of the attacks, and demanded that the Taliban hand him over.[71]
After refusing to comply, the October 2001 Operation
Enduring Freedom was launched. During the initial invasion, US and UK forces bombed al-Qaeda training
Southern and eastern Afghanistan were under the control camps. The United States began working with the Northof local commanders such as Gul Agha Sherzai and oth- ern Alliance to remove the Taliban from power.[72]
ers. In 1994, the Taliban (a movement originating from
Jamiat Ulema-e-Islam-run religious schools for Afghan
refugees in Pakistan) also developed in Afghanistan as a 2.8 Recent history (2002present)
political-religious force.[58] The Taliban rst took control
of southern Afghanistan in 1994 and forced the surrender Further information: War in Afghanistan (2001
of dozens of local Pashtun leaders.[57]
present), Taliban insurgency and Civilian casualties in the
In late 1994, forces of Ahmad Shah Massoud held on
to Kabul.[59] Rabbanis government took steps to reopen
courts, restore law and order, and initiate a nationwide
political process with the goal of national consolidation
and democratic elections. Massoud invited Taliban leaders to join the process but they refused.[60]

war in Afghanistan (2001present)

In December 2001, after the Taliban government was
toppled and the new Afghan government under President
Hamid Karzai was formed, the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) was established by the UN Security Council to help assist the Karzai administration and

7
icas longest war) ocially ended on December 28, 2014.
However, thousands of US-led NATO troops have remained in the country to train and advise Afghan government forces.[87] The 2001present war has resulted in
over 90,000 direct war-related deaths, which includes insurgents, Afghan civilians and government forces. Over
100,000 have been injured.[88]

3 Geography
Main article: Geography of Afghanistan
A landlocked mountainous country with plains in the
Collage showing recent major events in Afghanistan

provide basic security.[73][74] Taliban forces also began

regrouping inside Pakistan, while more coalition troops
entered Afghanistan and began rebuilding the war-torn
country.[75][76]
Shortly after their fall from power, the Taliban began an
insurgency to regain control of Afghanistan. Over the
next decade, ISAF and Afghan troops led many oensives against the Taliban but failed to fully defeat them.
Afghanistan remains one of the poorest countries in the
world due to a lack of foreign investment, government
Topography
corruption, and the Taliban insurgency.[77][78]
Meanwhile, the Afghan government was able to build
some democratic structures, and the country changed its
name to the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan. Attempts
were made, often with the support of foreign donor countries, to improve the countrys economy, healthcare, education, transport, and agriculture. ISAF forces also began to train the Afghan National Security Forces. In the
decade following 2002, over ve million Afghans were
repatriated, including some who were forcefully deported
from Western countries.[79][80]

north and southwest, Afghanistan is located within South

Asia[7][89] and Central Asia.[90] It is part of the US-coined
Greater Middle East Muslim world, which lies between
latitudes 29 N and 39 N, and longitudes 60 E and
75 E. The countrys highest point is Noshaq, at 7,492
m (24,580 ft) above sea level. It has a continental climate
with harsh winters in the central highlands, the glaciated
northeast (around Nuristan), and the Wakhan Corridor,
where the average temperature in January is below 15
C (5 F), and hot summers in the low-lying areas of the
Sistan Basin of the southwest, the Jalalabad basin in the
east, and the Turkestan plains along the Amu River in the
north, where temperatures average over 35 C (95 F) in
July.

By 2009, a Taliban-led shadow government began to

form in parts of the country.[81] In 2010, President Karzai
attempted to hold peace negotiations with the Taliban
leaders, but the rebel group refused to attend until mid
2015 when Taliban supreme leader nally decided to Despite having numerous rivers and reservoirs, large parts
back the peace talks.[82]
of the country are dry. The endorheic Sistan Basin is one
After the May 2011 death of Osama bin Laden of the driest regions in the world.[91] Aside from the usual
in Pakistan, many prominent Afghan gures were rainfall, Afghanistan receives snow during the winter in
assassinated.[83] AfghanistanPakistan border skir- the Hindu Kush and Pamir Mountains, and the melting
mishes intensied and many large scale attacks by the snow in the spring season enters the rivers, lakes, and
Pakistan-based Haqqani Network also took place across streams.[92][93] However, two-thirds of the countrys waAfghanistan. The United States blamed rogue elements ter ows into the neighboring countries of Iran, Pakistan,
within the Pakistani government for the increased and Turkmenistan. The state needs more than US$2 bilattacks.[84][85]
lion to rehabilitate its irrigation systems so that the water
[94]
Following the 2014 presidential election President Karzai is properly managed.
left power and Ashraf Ghani became President in The northeastern Hindu Kush mountain range, in and
September 2014.[86] The US war in Afghanistan (Amer- around the Badakhshan Province of Afghanistan, is in

4 DEMOGRAPHICS
Jalalabad, Lashkar Gah, Taloqan, Khost, Sheberghan,
and Ghazni. Urban areas are experiencing rapid population growth following the return of over 5 million
expatriates. According to the Population Reference Bureau, the Afghan population is estimated to increase to 82
million by 2050.[104]

4.1 Ethnic groups

Main article: Ethnic groups in Afghanistan
Afghanistan is a multiethnic society, and its historical
Landscapes of Afghanistan, from left to right: 1. Band-e Amir
National Park; 2. Salang Pass in Parwan Province; 3. Korangal
Valley in Kunar Province; and 4. Kajaki Dam in Helmand
Province

a geologically active area where earthquakes may occur almost every year.[95] They can be deadly and destructive sometimes, causing landslides in some parts or
avalanches during the winter.[96] The last strong earthquakes were in 1998, which killed about 6,000 people in
Badakhshan near Tajikistan.[97] This was followed by the
2002 Hindu Kush earthquakes in which over 150 people were killed and over 1,000 injured. A 2010 earthquake left 11 Afghans dead, over 70 injured, and more
than 2,000 houses destroyed.
The countrys natural resources include: coal, copper,
iron ore, lithium, uranium, rare earth elements, chromite,
gold, zinc, talc, barites, sulfur, lead, marble, precious and
semi-precious stones, natural gas, and petroleum, among
other things.[98][99] In 2010, US and Afghan government
ocials estimated that untapped mineral deposits located
in 2007 by the US Geological Survey are worth between
$900 bn and $3 trillion.[100]

Ethnolinguistic groups of Afghanistan

status as a crossroads has contributed signicantly to its

diverse ethnic makeup. The population of the country is
divided into a wide variety of ethnolinguistic groups. Because a systematic census has not been held in the nation
in decades, exact gures about the size and composition
At 652,230 km2 (251,830 sq mi),[101] Afghanistan is of the various ethnic groups are unavailable. An approxthe worlds 41st largest country,[102] slightly bigger than imate distribution of the ethnic groups is shown in the
France and smaller than Burma, about the size of Texas chart below:
in the United States. It borders Pakistan in the south
and east; Iran in the west; Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and
4.2 Languages
Tajikistan in the north; and China in the far east.
Main article: Languages of Afghanistan

Demographics

Main articles: Demographics of Afghanistan and Afghan

diaspora
As of 2015, the population of Afghanistan is around
32,564,342,[3] which includes the roughly 2.7 million
Afghan refugees still living in Pakistan and Iran. In 1979,
the population was reported to be about 15.5 million.[103]

Pashto and Dari are the ocial languages of Afghanistan;

bilingualism is very common.[1] Both are Indo-European
languages from the Iranian languages sub-family. Dari
(Afghan Persian) has long been the prestige language and
a lingua franca for inter-ethnic communication. It is
the native tongue of the Tajiks, Hazaras, Aimaks, and
Kizilbash.[111] Pashto is the native tongue of the Pashtuns, although many Pashtuns often use Dari and some
non-Pashtuns are uent in Pashto.

The only city with over a million residents is its capi- Other languages, including Uzbek, Arabic, Turkmen,
tal, Kabul. Other large cities in the country are, in or- Balochi, Pashayi, and Nuristani languages (Ashkunu,
der of population size, Kandahar, Herat, Mazar-i-Sharif, Kamkata-viri, Vasi-vari, Tregami, and Kalasha-ala),

5.1

Elections and parties

are the native tongues of minority groups across the

country and have ocial status in the regions where
they are widely spoken. Minor languages also include Pamiri (Shughni, Munji, Ishkashimi, and Wakhi),
Brahui, Hindko, and Kyrgyz. A small percentage of
Afghans are also uent in Urdu, English, and other languages.

4.3

Religions

Main article: Religion in Afghanistan

Over 99% of the Afghan population is Muslim; up to 90%
are from the Sunni branch, 719% are Shia.[3][20][112]

9
A January 2010 report published by the United Nations
Oce on Drugs and Crime revealed that bribery consumed an amount equal to 23% of the GDP of the
nation.[119] A number of government ministries are believed to be rife with corruption, and while President
Karzai vowed to tackle the problem in late 2009 by stating
that individuals who are involved in corruption will have
no place in the government,[120] top government ocials
were stealing and misusing hundreds of millions of dollars through the Kabul Bank. According to Transparency
International's 2014 corruption perceptions index results,
Afghanistan was ranked as the fourth most corrupt country in the world.[121]

5.1 Elections and parties

Until the 1890s, the region around Nuristan was known

as Karistan (land of the kars (unbelievers)) because Main articles: Elections in Afghanistan and List of politof its non-Muslim inhabitants, the Nuristanis, an ethni- ical parties in Afghanistan
cally distinct people whose religious practices included The 2004 Afghan presidential election was relatively
animism, polytheism, and shamanism.[113] Thousands of
Afghan Sikhs and Hindus are also found in the major
cities.[114][115] There was a small Jewish community in
Afghanistan who had emigrated to Israel and the United
States by the end of the twentieth century; only one Jew,
Zablon Simintov, remained by 2005.[116]

Governance

Main articles: Politics of Afghanistan, Presidency of

Hamid Karzai and Constitution of Afghanistan
Afghanistan is an Islamic republic consisting of three
From left to right: Abdullah Abdullah, John Kerry and Ashraf
Ghani during the 2014 presidential election

peaceful, in which Hamid Karzai won in the rst round

with 55.4% of the votes. However, the 2009 presidential
election was characterized by lack of security, low voter
turnout, and widespread electoral fraud.[122] The vote,
along with elections for 420 provincial council seats, took
place in August 2009, but remained unresolved during a
lengthy period of vote counting and fraud investigation.

The National Assembly of Afghanistan in 2006

branches, the executive, legislative, and judicial. The nation is led by President Ashraf Ghani with Abdul Rashid
Dostum and Sarwar Danish as vice presidents. Abdullah
Abdullah serves as the chief executive ocer (CEO). The
National Assembly is the legislature, a bicameral body
having two chambers, the House of the People and the
House of Elders. The Supreme Court is led by Chief
Justice Said Yusuf Halem, the former Deputy Minister
of Justice for Legal Aairs.[117][118]

Two months later, under international pressure, a second

round run-o vote between Karzai and remaining challenger Abdullah was announced, but a few days later Abdullah announced that he would not participate in the 7
November run-o because his demands for changes in
the electoral commission had not been met. The next day,
ocials of the election commission cancelled the run-o
and declared Hamid Karzai as President for another veyear term.[122]
In the 2005 parliamentary election, among the elected ofcials were former mujahideen, Islamic fundamentalists,
warlords, communists, reformists, and several Taliban
associates.[123] In the same period, Afghanistan reached
to the 30th highest nation in terms of female represen-

10

5 GOVERNANCE

tation in parliament.[124] The last parliamentary election

was held in September 2010, but due to disputes and investigation of fraud, the swearing-in ceremony took place
in late January 2011. The 2014 presidential election
ended with Ashraf Ghani winning by 56.44% votes.

1. Badakhshan
2. Badghis
3. Baghlan
4. Balkh

5.2

Administrative divisions

5. Bamyan

Main articles: Provinces of Afghanistan and Districts of

Afghanistan

6. Daykundi

Afghanistan is administratively divided into 34 provinces

(wilayats), with each province having its own capital and
a provincial administration. The provinces are further
divided into about 398 smaller provincial districts, each
of which normally covers a city or a number of villages.
Each district is represented by a district governor.

8. Faryab

The provincial governors are appointed by the President

of Afghanistan and the district governors are selected by
the provincial governors. The provincial governors are
representatives of the central government in Kabul and
are responsible for all administrative and formal issues
within their provinces. There are also provincial councils that are elected through direct and general elections
for a period of four years.[125] The functions of provincial
councils are to take part in provincial development planning and to participate in the monitoring and appraisal of
other provincial governance institutions.
According to article 140 of the constitution and the presidential decree on electoral law, mayors of cities should
be elected through free and direct elections for a four-year
term. However, due to huge election costs, mayoral and
municipal elections have never been held. Instead, mayors have been appointed by the government. In the capital
city of Kabul, the mayor is appointed by the President of
Afghanistan.
The following is a list of all the 34 provinces in alphabetical order:

7. Farah

9. Ghazni
10. Ghor
11. Helmand
12. Herat
13. Jowzjan
14. Kabul
15. Kandahar
16. Kapisa
17. Khost
18. Kunar
19. Kunduz
20. Laghman
21. Logar
22. Nangarhar
23. Nimruz
24. Nuristan
25. Oruzgan
26. Paktia
27. Paktika
28. Panjshir
29. Parwan
30. Samangan
31. Sar-e Pol
32. Takhar

Afghanistan is divided into 34 provinces, and every province is

further divided into a number of districts

33. Wardak
34. Zabul

5.4

Law enforcement

11

5.4 Law enforcement

Main articles: Crime in Afghanistan, Law enforcement
in Afghanistan and Alcohol in Afghanistan
The National Directorate of Security (NDS) is the na-

Soldiers of the Afghan National Army, including the ANA Commando Battalion standing in the front

5.3

Foreign relations and military

Afghan National Police (ANP) in Kunar Province

tions domestic intelligence agency, which operates similar to that of the United States Department of Homeland
Security (DHS) and has between 15,000 to 30,000 employees. The nation also has about 126,000 national police ocers, with plans to recruit more so that the total
number can reach 160,000.[127] The Afghan National Police (ANP) is under the Ministry of the Interior and serves
as a single law enforcement agency all across the country. The Afghan National Civil Order Police is the main
branch of the ANP, which is divided into ve Brigades,
each commanded by a Brigadier General. These brigades
are stationed in Kabul, Gardez, Kandahar, Herat, and
Mazar-i-Sharif. Every province has an appointed provincial Chief of Police who is responsible for law enforcement throughout the province.

Main articles: Foreign relations of Afghanistan and

Afghan Armed Forces
The Afghan Ministry of Foreign Aairs is in charge of
maintaining the foreign relations of Afghanistan. The
state has been a member of the United Nations since
1946. It enjoys strong economic relations with a number of NATO and allied states, particularly the United
States, United Kingdom, Germany and Turkey. In 2012,
the United States designated Afghanistan as a major nonNATO ally and created the U.S.Afghanistan Strategic
Partnership Agreement. Afghanistan also has friendly
diplomatic relations with neighboring Pakistan, Iran,
Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and China, and
with regional states such as India, Bangladesh, Nepal,
Kazakhstan, Russia, the UAE, Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Egypt, The police receive most of their training from Western
Japan, and South Korea. It continues to develop diplo- forces under the NATO Training Mission-Afghanistan.
matic relations with other countries around the world.
According to a 2009 news report, a large proportion of
were illiterate and accused of demandThe United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan police ocers
[128]
ing
bribes.
Jack Kem, deputy to the commander of
(UNAMA) was established in 2002 under United NaNATO
Training
Mission Afghanistan and Combined Setions Security Council Resolution 1401 in order to help
curity
Transition
Command Afghanistan, stated that the
the country recover from decades of war. Today, a
literacy
rate
in
the
ANP would rise to over 50% by Jannumber of NATO member states deploy about 38,000
uary
2012.
What
began as a voluntary literacy protroops in Afghanistan as part of the International Secugram
became
mandatory
for basic police training in early
[126]
Its main purpose is to
rity Assistance Force (ISAF).
[127]
Approximately
17% of them tested positive
2011.
train the Afghan National Security Forces (ANSF). The
for
illegal
drug
use.
In
2009,
President Karzai created
Afghan Armed Forces are under the Ministry of Defense,
two
anti-corruption
units
within
the Interior Ministry.[129]
which includes the Afghan National Army (ANA) and
the Afghan Air Force (AAF). The ANA is divided into Former Interior Minister Hanif Atmar said that security
7 major Corps, with the 201st Selab (Flood) in Kabul ocials from the US (FBI), Britain (Scotland Yard), and
followed by the 203rd in Gardez, 205th Atul (Hero) the European Union will train prosecutors in the unit.
in Kandahar, 207th in Herat, 209th in Mazar-i-Sharif,
and the 215th in Lashkar Gah. The ANA also has a
commando brigade, which was established in 2007. The
Afghan Defense University (ADU) houses various educational establishments for the Afghan Armed Forces, including the National Military Academy of Afghanistan.

All parts of Afghanistan are considered dangerous due to

militant activities. Hundreds of Afghan police are killed
in the line of duty each year. Kidnapping and robberies
are also reported. The Afghan Border Police (ABP) are
responsible for protecting the nations airports and borders, especially the disputed Durand Line border, which

12

6 ECONOMY

is often used by members of criminal organizations and

terrorists for their illegal activities. A report in 2011 suggested that up to 3 million people were involved in the
illegal drug business in Afghanistan. Attacks on government employees may be ordered by powerful maa
groups who reside inside and outside the country. Drugs
from Afghanistan are exported to neighboring countries
and then to other countries. The Afghan Ministry of
Counter Narcotics is tasked to deal with these issues by
bringing to justice major drug trackers.[130]

Economy

The Afghan economy has been growing at about 10%

per year in the last decade, which is due to the infusion of over $50 billion in international aid and remittances from Afghan expats.[3] It is also due to improvements made to the transportation system and agricultural production, which is the backbone of the nations economy.[132] The country is known for producing some of the nest pomegranates, grapes, apricots,
melons, and several other fresh and dry fruits, including nuts.[133] Many sources indicate that as much as 11%
or more of Afghanistans economy is derived from the
cultivation and sale of opium, and Afghanistan is widely
considered the worlds largest producer of opium despite
Afghan government and international eorts to eradicate
the crop.[134]

Main article: Economy of Afghanistan

Afghanistan is an impoverished least developed coun- While the nations current account decit is largely nanced with donor money, only a small portion is provided directly to the government budget. The rest
is provided to non-budgetary expenditure and donordesignated projects through the United Nations system
and non-governmental organizations. The Afghan Ministry of Finance is focusing on improved revenue collection and public sector expenditure discipline. For example, government revenues increased 31% to $1.7 billion
from March 2010 to March 2011.

Workers processing pomegranates (anaar), which Afghanistan is

famous for in Asia

Afghanistan, Trends in the Human Development Index, 1970

2010

Da Afghanistan Bank serves as the central bank of the

nation and the Afghani (AFN) is the national currency,
with an exchange rate of about 47 Afghanis to 1 US
dollar. Since 2003, over 16 new banks have opened in
the country, including Afghanistan International Bank,
Kabul Bank, Azizi Bank, Pashtany Bank, Standard Chartered Bank, and First Micro Finance Bank.
Afghan women at a textile factory in Kabul

try, one of the worlds poorest because of decades of war

and lack of foreign investment. As of 2014, the nations
GDP stands at about $60.58 billion with an exchange rate
of $20.31 billion, and the GDP per capita is $1,900. The
countrys exports totaled $2.7 billion in 2012. Its unemployment rate was reported in 2008 at about 35%.[3] According to a 2009 report, about 42% of the population
lives on less than $1 a day.[131] The nation has less than
$1.5 billion in external debt.[3]

One of the main drivers for the current economic recovery is the return of over 5 million expatriates, who
brought with them fresh energy, entrepreneurship and
wealth-creating skills as well as much needed funds to
start up businesses. For the rst time since the 1970s,
Afghans have involved themselves in construction, one
of the largest industries in the country.[135] Some of
the major national construction projects include the $35
billion New Kabul City next to the capital, the Ghazi
Amanullah Khan City near Jalalabad, and the Aino Mena
in Kandahar.[136][137][138] Similar development projects

13
have also begun in Herat, Mazar-e-Sharif, and other that this will become the backbone of the Afghan econcities.[139]
omy and a Pentagon memo stated that Afghanistan could
[153]
In a 2011
In addition, a number of companies and small factories become the Saudi Arabia of lithium.
news
story,
the
CSM
reported,
The
United
States and
began operating in dierent parts of the country, which
other
Western
nations
that
have
borne
the
brunt
of the
not only provide revenues to the government but also crecost
of
the
Afghan
war
have
been
conspicuously
absent
ate new jobs. Improvements to the business environment
mineral dehave resulted in more than $1.5 billion in telecom invest- from the bidding process on Afghanistans [154]
posits,
leaving
it
mostly
to
regional
powers.
[140]
ment and created more than 100,000 jobs since 2003.
Afghan rugs are becoming popular again, allowing many
carpet dealers around the country to hire more workers.

7 Transport

Afghanistan is a member of SAARC, ECO, and OIC. It

holds an observer status in SCO. Foreign Minister Zalmai
Rassoul told the media in 2011 that his nations goal is Main article: Transport in Afghanistan
to achieve an Afghan economy whose growth is based
on trade, private enterprise and investment.[141] Experts
believe that this will revolutionize the economy of the
region. Opium production in Afghanistan soared to a 7.1 Air
record in 2007 with about 3 million people reported to
be involved in the business,[142] but then declined signi- Main article: List of airports in Afghanistan
cantly in the years following.[143] The government started Air transport in Afghanistan is provided by the national
programs to help reduce poppy cultivation, and by 2010
it was reported that 24 out of the 34 provinces were free
from poppy growing. In June 2012, India advocated for
private investments in the resource rich country and the
creation of a suitable environment therefor.[144]

6.1

Mining

Main article: Mining in Afghanistan

Michael E. O'Hanlon of the Brookings Institution estimated that if Afghanistan generates about $10 bn per year
from its mineral deposits, its gross national product would
double and provide long-term funding for Afghan security forces and other critical needs.[145] The United States
Geological Survey (USGS) estimated in 2006 that northern Afghanistan has an average 2.9 billion (bn) barrels
(bbl) of crude oil, 15.7 trillion cubic feet (440 bn m3 ) of
natural gas, and 562 million bbl of natural gas liquids.[146]
In 2011, Afghanistan signed an oil exploration contract
with China National Petroleum Corporation (CNPC) for
the development of three oil elds along the Amu Darya
river in the north.[147]

An Ariana Afghan Airlines (AAA) Airbus A310 in 2006

carrier, Ariana Afghan Airlines (AAA), and by private

companies such as Afghan Jet International, East Horizon Airlines, Kam Air, Pamir Airways, and Sa Airways. Airlines from a number of countries also provide
ights in and out of the country. These include Air India, Emirates, Gulf Air, Iran Aseman Airlines, Pakistan
International Airlines, and Turkish Airlines.

The country has four international airports: Herat International Airport, Hamid Karzai International Airport
The country has signicant amounts of lithium, cop- (formerly Kabul International Airport), Kandahar Interper, gold, coal, iron ore, and other minerals.[98][99][148] national Airport, and Mazar-e Sharif International AirThe Khanashin carbonatite in Helmand Province contains port. There are also around a dozen domestic airports
1,000,000 metric tons (1,100,000 short tons) of rare earth with ights to Kabul or Herat.
elements.[149] In 2007, a 30-year lease was granted for the
Aynak copper mine to the China Metallurgical Group for
7.2 Rail
$3 billion,[150] making it the biggest foreign investment
[151]
and private business venture in Afghanistans history.
The state-run Steel Authority of India won the mining Main article: Rail transport in Afghanistan
rights to develop the huge Hajigak iron ore deposit in central Afghanistan.[152] Government ocials estimate that As of 2014, the country has only two rail links, one
30% of the countrys untapped mineral deposits are worth a 75 km line from Kheyrabad to the Uzbekistan borbetween $900 bn and $3 trillion.[100] One ocial asserted der and the other a 10 km long line from Toraghundi

14

9 HEALTH

to the Turkmenistan border. Both lines are used for 9 Health

freight only and there is no passenger service as of yet.
There are various proposals for the construction of additional rail lines in the country.[155] In 2013, the pres- Main article: Health in Afghanistan
According to the Human Development Index,
idents of Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan
attended the groundbreaking ceremony for a 225 km
line between Turkmenistan-Andkhvoy-Mazar-i-SharifKheyrabad. The line will link at Kheyrabad with the
existing line to the Uzbekistan border.[156] Plans exist
for a rail line from Kabul to the eastern border town
of Torkham, where it will connect with Pakistan Railways.[157] There are also plans to nish a rail line between
Khaf, Iran and Herat, Afghanistan.[158]

7.3

Roads

Further information: Highway 1 (Afghanistan)

Traveling by bus in Afghanistan remains dangerous due
to careless and intoxicated bus drivers as well as militant
activities. The buses are usually older model MercedesBenz and owned by private companies. Serious trac
accidents are common on Afghan roads and highways,
particularly on the KabulKandahar and the Kabul
Jalalabad Road.[159]
Newer automobiles have recently become more widely
available after the rebuilding of roads and highways.
They are imported from the United Arab Emirates
through Pakistan and Iran. As of 2012, vehicles more
than 10 years old are banned from being imported into
the country. The development of the nations road network is a major boost for the economy due to trade with
neighboring countries. Postal services in Afghanistan are
provided by the publicly owned Afghan Post and private
companies such as FedEx, DHL, and others.

Communication

Main article: Communications in Afghanistan

Telecommunication services in the country are provided
by Afghan Wireless, Etisalat, Roshan, MTN Group, and
Afghan Telecom. In 2006, the Afghan Ministry of Communications signed a $64.5 million agreement with ZTE
for the establishment of a countrywide optical ber cable network. As of 2011, Afghanistan had around 17
million GSM phone subscribers and over 1 million internet users, but only had about 75,000 xed telephone lines
and a little over 190,000 CDMA subscribers.[160] 3G services are provided by Etisalat and MTN Group. In 2014,
Afghanistan leased a space satellite from Eutelsat, called
AFGHANSAT 1.[161]

Opening ceremony at a public health institute in Kandahar.

Afghanistan is the 15th least developed country in

the world. The average life expectancy is estimated to
be around 60 years for both sexes.[162] The country has
one of the highest maternal mortality rate in the world
as well as the highest infant mortality rate in the world
(deaths of babies under one year), estimated in 2015 to
be 115.08 deaths/1,000 live births.[3] The Ministry of
Public Health plans to cut the infant mortality rate to
400 for every 100,000 live births before 2020.[163] The
country currently has more than 3,000 midwives, with
an additional 300 to 400 being trained each year.[164]
A number of hospitals and clinics have been built over
the last decade, with the most advanced treatments being available in Kabul. The French Medical Institute for
Children and Indira Gandhi Childrens Hospital in Kabul
are the leading childrens hospitals in the country. Some
of the other main hospitals in Kabul include the 350bed Jamhuriat Hospital and the Jinnah Hospital, which
is still under construction. There are also a number of
well-equipped military-controlled hospitals in dierent
regions of the country.
It was reported in 2006 that nearly 60% of the population lives within a two-hour walk of the nearest health
facility, up from 9% in 2002.[165] The latest surveys
show that 57% of Afghans say they have good or very
good access to clinics or hospitals.[164] The nation has
one of the highest incidences of people with disabilities,
with around a million people aected.[166] About 80,000
people are missing limbs; most of these were injured
by landmines.[167][168] Non-governmental charities such
as Save the Children and Mahbobas Promise assist orphans in association with governmental structures.[169]
Demographic and Health Surveys is working with the
Indian Institute of Health Management Research and
others to conduct a survey in Afghanistan focusing on
maternal death, among other things.[170]

15

10

Education

Main article: Education in Afghanistan

Education in the country includes K12 and higher education, which is supervised by the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Higher Education.[171] The nations education system was destroyed due to the decades
of war, but it began reviving after the Karzai administration came to power in late 2001. More than 5,000 schools
were built or renovated in the last decade, with more than
100,000 teachers being trained and recruited.[172] More
than seven million male and female students are enrolled
in schools,[172] with about 100,000 being enrolled in different universities around the country; at least 35% of
these students are female. As of 2013, there are 16,000
schools across Afghanistan. Education Minister Ghulam
Farooq Wardak stated that another 8,000 schools are required to be constructed for the remaining 3 million children who are deprived of education.[173]

low but is now rising because more students go to

schools.[174] In 2010, the United States began establishing a number of Lincoln learning centers in Afghanistan.
They are set up to serve as programming platforms offering English language classes, library facilities, programming venues, Internet connectivity, and educational
and other counseling services. A goal of the program is
to reach at least 4,000 Afghan citizens per month per
location.[175][176] The Afghan National Security Forces
are provided with mandatory literacy courses.[174] In addition to this, Baghch-e-Simsim (based on the American
Sesame Street) was launched in late 2011 to help young
Afghan children learn.
In 2009 and 2010, a 5,000 OLPC One Laptop
Per Child schools deployment took place in Kandahar with funding from an anonymous foundation.[177]
The OLPC team seeks local support to undertake larger
deployment.[178][179]

11 Culture
Main article: Culture of Afghanistan

American University of Afghanistan (AUAF) in Kabul

Kabul University reopened in 2002 to both male and

female students.
In 2006, the American University of Afghanistan was established in Kabul, with
the aim of providing a world-class, English-language,
co-educational learning environment in Afghanistan.
The capital of Kabul serves as the learning center of
Afghanistan, with many of the best educational institutions being based there. Major universities outside of
Kabul include Kandahar University in the south, Herat
University in the northwest, Balkh University in the north,
Nangarhar University and Khost University in the east.
The National Military Academy of Afghanistan, modeled
after the United States Military Academy at West Point,
is a four-year military development institution dedicated
to graduating ocers for the Afghan Armed Forces.
The $200 million Afghan Defense University is under
construction near Qargha in Kabul. The United States
is building six faculties of education and ve provincial teacher training colleges around the country, two
large secondary schools in Kabul, and one school in
Jalalabad.[172]

The Afghan culture has been around for over two millennia, tracing back to at least the time of the Achaemenid
Empire in 500 BCE.[180][181] It is mostly a nomadic
and tribal society, with dierent regions of the country
having their own traditions, reecting the multi-cultural
and multi-lingual character of the nation. In the southern and eastern region the people live according to the
Pashtun culture by following Pashtunwali, which is an
ancient way of life that is still preserved.[182] The remainder of the country is culturally Persian and Turkic.
Some non-Pashtuns who live in proximity with Pashtuns have adopted Pashtunwali[183] in a process called
Pashtunization (or Afghanization), while some Pashtuns
have been Persianized. Millions of Afghans who have
been living in Pakistan and Iran over the last 30 years
have been inuenced by the cultures of those neighboring nations.

Afghans display pride in their culture, nation, ancestry,

and above all, their religion and independence. Like other
highlanders, they are regarded with mingled apprehension and condescension, for their high regard for personal honor, for their tribe loyalty and for their readiness to use force to settle disputes.[184] As tribal warfare and internecine feuding has been one of their chief
occupations since time immemorial, this individualistic
trait has made it dicult for foreigners to conquer them.
Tony Heathcote considers the tribal system to be the
best way of organizing large groups of people in a country that is geographically dicult, and in a society that,
from a materialistic point of view, has an uncomplicated
lifestyle.[184] There are an estimated 60 major Pashtun
The literacy rate of the entire population has been very tribes,[185] and the Afghan nomads are estimated at about

16

11

CULTURE

Although literacy is low, classic Persian and Pashto poetry

plays an important role in the Afghan culture. Poetry has
always been one of the major educational pillars in the
region, to the level that it has integrated itself into culture.
Some notable poets include Rumi, Rabi'a Balkhi, Sanai,
Jami, Khushal Khan Khattak, Rahman Baba, Khalilullah
Khalili, and Parween Pazhwak.[192]

11.1 Media and entertainment

Main article: Media of Afghanistan
The Afghan mass media began in the early 20th cen-

Men wearing traditional Afghan dress in the southern city of

Kandahar

23 million.[186]
The nation has a complex history that has survived either in its current cultures or in the form of various languages and monuments. However, many of its historic
monuments have been damaged in recent wars.[187] The
two famous Buddhas of Bamiyan were destroyed by the
Taliban, who regarded them as idolatrous. Despite that,
archaeologists are still nding Buddhist relics in dierent
parts of the country, some of them dating back to the
2nd century.[188][189][190] This indicates that Buddhism
was widespread in Afghanistan. Other historical places
include the cities of Herat, Kandahar, Ghazni, Mazari-Sharif, and Zarang. The Minaret of Jam in the Hari
River valley is a UNESCO World Heritage site. A cloak
reputedly worn by Islams prophet Muhammad is kept inside the Shrine of the Cloak in Kandahar, a city founded
by Alexander and the rst capital of Afghanistan. The
citadel of Alexander in the western city of Herat has been
renovated in recent years and is a popular attraction for
tourists. In the north of the country is the Shrine of
Hazrat Ali, believed by many to be the location where
Ali was buried. The Afghan Ministry of Information
and Culture is renovating 42 historic sites in Ghazni until 2013, when the province will be declared as the capital of Islamic civilization.[191] The National Museum of
Afghanistan is located in Kabul.

Farhad Darya performing at the Serena Hotel in Kabul.

tury, with the rst newspaper published in 1906. By

the 1920s, Radio Kabul was broadcasting local radio services. Afghanistan National Television was launched in
1974 but was closed in 1996 when the media was tightly
controlled by the Taliban.[193] Since 2002, press restrictions have been gradually relaxed and private media diversied. Freedom of expression and the press is promoted in the 2004 constitution and censorship is banned,
although defaming individuals or producing material contrary to the principles of Islam is prohibited. In 2008,
Reporters Without Borders ranked the media environment as 156 out of 173 countries, with the 1st being
the most free. Around 400 publications were registered,
at least 15 local Afghan television channels, and 60 radio stations.[194] Foreign radio stations, such as Voice
of America, BBC World Service, and Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty (RFE/RL) broadcast into the country.
The city of Kabul has been home to many musicians
who were masters of both traditional and modern Afghan
music. Traditional music is especially popular during
the Nowruz (New Year) and National Independence Day
celebrations. Ahmad Zahir, Nashenas, Ustad Sarahang,
Sarban, Ubaidullah Jan, Farhad Darya, and Naghma are
some of the notable Afghan musicians, but there are
many others.[195] Most Afghans are accustomed to watching Bollywood lms from India and listening to its lmi
hit songs. Many major Bollywood lm stars have roots
in Afghanistan, including Salman Khan, Saif Ali Khan,

17
Shah Rukh Khan (SRK), Aamir Khan, Feroz Khan, Hound (a type of running dog) originated in Afghanistan
Kader Khan, Naseeruddin Shah, and Celina Jaitley. In and was originally used in hunting.
addition, several Bollywood lms, such as Dharmatma,
Khuda Gawah, Escape from Taliban, and Kabul Express
have been shot inside Afghanistan.
12 See also

11.2

Sports

Main article: Sport in Afghanistan

The Afghanistan national football team has been com-

Outline of Afghanistan
Index of Afghanistan-related articles
Bibliography of Afghanistan
Afghanistanism
International rankings of Afghanistan
Environmental issues in Afghanistan
List of power stations in Afghanistan

13 Notes
14 References
The Afghanistan national football team (in red uniforms) before
its rst win over India (in blue) during the 2011 SAFF Championship.

peting in international football since 1941. The national

team plays its home games at the Ghazi Stadium in
Kabul, while football in Afghanistan is governed by the
Afghanistan Football Federation. The national team has
never competed or qualied for the FIFA World Cup, but
has recently won an international football trophy in the
SAFF Championship. The country also has a national
team in the sport of futsal, a 5-a-side variation of football.
The other most popular sport in Afghanistan is cricket.
The Afghan national cricket team, which was formed in
the last decade, participated in the 2009 ICC World Cup
Qualier, 2010 ICC World Cricket League Division One
and the 2010 ICC World Twenty20. It won the ACC
Twenty20 Cup in 2007, 2009, 2011 and 2013. The team
eventually made it to play in the 2015 Cricket World Cup.
The Afghanistan Cricket Board (ACB) is the ocial governing body of the sport and is headquartered in Kabul.
The Ghazi Amanullah Khan International Cricket Stadium serves as the nations main cricket stadium, followed
by the Kabul National Cricket Stadium. Several other stadiums are under construction.[196] Domestically, cricket
is played between teams from dierent provinces.
Other popular sports in Afghanistan include basketball,
volleyball, taekwondo, and bodybuilding.[197] Buzkashi is
a traditional sport, mainly among the northern Afghans.
It is similar to polo, played by horsemen in two teams,
each trying to grab and hold a goat carcass. The Afghan

[1] Article Sixteen of the 2004 Constitution of Afghanistan.

2004. Archived from the original on 2013-10-28. Retrieved 13 June 2012. From among the languages of
Pashto, Dari, Uzbeki, Turkmani, Baluchi, Pashai, Nuristani, Pamiri (alsana), Arab and other languages spoken in
the country, Pashto and Dari are the ocial languages
of the state.
[2] Central Statistics Organization of Afghanistan: Statistical
Yearbook 20122013: Area and administrative Population
[3] Afghanistan. The World Factbook. CIA. Retrieved 5
September 2015.
[4] Afghanistan. International Monetary Fund. Retrieved
26 April 2014.
[5] Gini Index. World Bank. Archived from the original on
2014-05-11. Retrieved 2 March 2011.
[6] 2014 Human Development Report Summary (PDF).
United Nations Development Programme. 2014. p. 18.
Retrieved 27 July 2014.
[7]

U.S. maps. Pubs.usgs.gov. Archived from the

original on 2013-12-25. Retrieved 19 May 2012.
South Asia: Data, Projects, and Research. Retrieved 2 March 2015.
MAPS SHOWING GEOLOGY, OIL AND GAS
FIELDS AND GEOLOGICAL PROVINCES OF
SOUTH ASIA (Includes Afghanistan)". Retrieved
2 March 2015.
University of Washington Jackson School of International Studies: The South Asia Center. Retrieved 2 March 2015.

18

14
Syracruse University: The South Asia Center.
Retrieved 2 March 2015.
Center for South Asian studies.
March 2015.

Retrieved 2

[8] Grin, Luke (14 January 2002). The Pre-Islamic Period. Afghanistan Country Study. Illinois Institute of
Technology. Archived from the original on 3 November
2001. Retrieved 14 October 2010.
[9] Pentagon cant account for $1 billion in Afghan reconstruction aid. mcclatchydc.com. April 23, 2015. Retrieved September 8, 2015.
[10] Constitution of Afghanistan. 2004. Retrieved 2013-0216.
[11] Afghanistan John Ford Shroder, University of Nebraska. Webcitation.org. Archived from the original on
2013-07-26. Retrieved 19 May 2012.
[12] Afghanistan: A Treasure Trove for Archaeologists.
Time Magazine. 26 February 2009. Archived from the
original on 2013-07-26. Retrieved 13 July 2011.
[13] The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia: Language, Material Culture and Ethnicity by George Erdosy, p.321
[14] The History of Afghanistan by Meredith L. Runion, p.4449
[15] The Ancient Indus: Urbanism, Economy, and Society.
pp.1
[16] Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark (1998). Ancient cities of the Indus Valley Civilisation. pp.96
[17] Bryant, Edwin F. (2001) The quest for the origins of Vedic
culture: the Indo-Aryan migration debate Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-513777-4.
[18] Afghanistan: ancient Ariana (1950), Information Bureau,
p3.
[19] Chronological History of Afghanistan the cradle of
Gandharan civilisation. Gandhara.com.au. 15 February
1989. Archived from the original on 2013-07-27. Retrieved 19 May 2012.
[20] Country Prole: Afghanistan (PDF). Library of
Congress Country Studies on Afghanistan. August 2008.
Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-04-08. Retrieved 10 October 2010.
[21] The History of Afghanistan by Meredith L. Runion, p.44

REFERENCES

[25] A.The Hindu Kings of Kbul (p.3)". Sir H. M. Elliot. London: Packard Humanities Institute. 18671877.
Archived from the original on 2013-07-26. Retrieved 18
September 2010.
[26] Central Asian world cities. Faculty.washington.edu. 29
September 2007. Archived from the original on 2013-0723. Retrieved 6 May 2012.
[27] Page, Susan (18 February 2009). Obamas war: Deploying 17,000 raises stakes in Afghanistan. Usatoday.com.
Retrieved 19 May 2012.
[28] Khurasan. The Encyclopaedia of Islam. Brill. 2009.
p. 55. Archived from the original on 2014-02-09. In preIslamic and early Islamic times, the term Khurassan frequently had a much wider denotation, covering also parts
of what are now Soviet Central Asia and Afghanistan
[29] Ibn Battuta (2004). Travels in Asia and Africa, 1325
1354 (reprint, illustrated ed.). Routledge. p. 416. ISBN
978-0-415-34473-9. Archived from the original on 201404-05.
[30] Muhammad Qasim Hindu Shah (1560). Chapter 200:
Translation of the Introduction to Firishtas History. The
History of India 6. Sir H. M. Elliot. London: Packard
Humanities Institute. p. 8. Archived from the original on
2013-07-26. Retrieved 22 August 2010.
[31] Edward G. Browne. A Literary History of Persia, Volume 4: Modern Times (15001924), Chapter IV. An
Outline Of The History Of Persia During The Last Two
Centuries (A.D. 17221922)". Packard Humanities Institute. Archived from the original on 2013-07-26. Retrieved 9 September 2010.
[32] Ahmad Shah Durrani. Encyclopdia Britannica Online.
Archived from the original on 2014-04-04. Retrieved 9
September 2010.
[33] Friedrich Engels (1857). Afghanistan. Andy Blunden.
The New American Cyclopaedia, Vol. I. Archived from
the original on 2014-04-27. Retrieved 25 August 2010.
[34] The Oxford Dictionary of Islam by John L. Esposito, p.71
[35] Tanner, Stephen (2009). Afghanistan: A Military History from Alexander the Great to the War against the Taliban. Da Capo Press. p. 126. ISBN 978-0-306-81826-4.
Archived from the original on 2014-01-23.

[22] Afghan and Afghanistan. Abdul Hai Habibi. alamahabibi.com. 1969. Retrieved November 17, 2015.

[36] Nalwa, Vanit (2009). Hari Singh Nalwa, champion of the

Khalsaji (17911837). p. 198. ISBN 978-81-7304-7855. Archived from the original on 2014-01-22.

[23] A.The Hindu Kings of Kbul. Sir H. M. Elliot.

London: Packard Humanities Institute. 18671877.
Archived from the original on 2014-04-08. Retrieved 18
September 2010.

[37] Chahryar, Adle (2003). History of Civilizations of Central

Asia: Development in contrast: from the sixteenth to the
mid-nineteenth century. UNESCO. p. 296. ISBN 97892-3-103876-1.

[24] ?amd-Allah Mustaw of Qazwin (1340). The Geographical Part of the NUZHAT-AL-QULUB. Translated by
Guy Le Strange. Packard Humanities Institute. Archived
from the original on 2013-07-26. Retrieved 19 August
2011.

[38] Encyclopedia Americana. Volume 25. Americana Corporation. 1976. p. 24.

[39] Bowersox, Gary W. (2004). The Gem Hunter: The Adventures of an American in Afghanistan. United States:

19

GeoVision, Inc.,. p. 100. ISBN 0-9747323-1-1. Retrieved 2010-08-22. To launch this plan, Bhutto recruited and trained a group of Afghans in the Bala-Hesar
of Peshawar, in Pakistans North-west Frontier Province.
Among these young men were Massoud, Gulbuddin Hekmatyar, and other members of Jawanan-e Musulman.
Massouds mission to Bhutto was to create unrest in northern Afghanistan. It served Massouds interests, which
were apparently opposition to the Soviets and independence for Afghanistan. Later, after Massoud and Hekmatyar had a terrible falling-out over Massouds opposition
to terrorist tactics and methods, Massoud overthrew from
Jawanan-e Musulman. He joined Rabani's newly created
Afghan political party, Jamiat-i-Islami, in exile in Pakistan.
[40] Hussain, Rizwan (2005). Pakistan And The Emergence Of
Islamic Militancy In Afghanistan. Ashgate Publishing. pp.
108109. ISBN 978-0-7546-4434-7.
[41] Kalinovsky, Artemy M. (2011). A Long Goodbye: The
Soviet Withdrawal from Afghanistan. Harvard University
Press. pp. 2528. ISBN 978-0-674-05866-8.
[42] Afghanistan. Library of Congress Country Studies. Retrieved 14 November 2010.

[53] Blood-Stained Hands, Past Atrocities in Kabul and

Afghanistans Legacy of Impunity. Human Rights
Watch. Archived from the original on 2009-12-12.
[54] GUTMAN, Roy (2008): How We Missed the Story:
Osama Bin Laden, the Taliban and the Hijacking of
Afghanistan, Endowment of the United States Institute of
Peace, 1st ed., Washington D.C.
[55] The September 11 Sourcebooks Volume VII: The Taliban File. gwu.edu. 2003. Archived from the original on
2013-10-31. Retrieved 16 December 2013.
[56] Casting Shadows: War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity: 19782001 (PDF). Afghanistan Justice Project.
2005. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-10-04.
Retrieved 16 December 2013.
[57] II. BACKGROUND. Human Rights Watch. Archived
from the original on 2008-11-02. Retrieved 16 December
2013.
[58] Matinuddin, Kamal, The Taliban Phenomenon,
Afghanistan 19941997, Oxford University Press,
(1999), pp. 2526

[43] Meher, Jagmohan (2004). Americas Afghanistan War:

The Success that Failed. Gyan Books. pp. 6869, 94.
ISBN 978-81-7835-262-6.

[59] Amnesty International. Document Afghanistan: further information on fear for safety and new concern: Deliberate and arbitrary killings: Civilians in Kabul. 16
November 1995 Accessed at: Amnesty.org Archived July
26, 2013 at the Wayback Machine

[44] Story of US, CIA and Taliban. The Brunei Times. 2009.
Archived from the original on 2013-12-05. Retrieved 16
December 2013.

[60] Marcela Grad. Massoud: An Intimate Portrait of the Legendary Afghan Leader (1 March 2009 ed.). Webster University Press. p. 310.

[45] The Cost of an Afghan 'Victory'". The Nation. 1999.

Archived from the original on 2014-03-02. Retrieved 16
December 2013.

[61] Documents Detail Years of Pakistani Support for Taliban, Extremists. George Washington University. 2007.
Archived from the original on 2013-12-03. Retrieved 16
December 2013.

[46] Soldiers of God: Cold War (Part 1/5)". CNN. 1998.

Archived from the original on 2013-07-29. Retrieved 11
October 2011.

[62] Coll, Ghost Wars (New York: Penguin, 2005), 14.

[47] UNICEF, Land-mines: A deadly inheritance Archived

August 5, 2013 at the Wayback Machine

[63] The Talibans War on Women. A Health and Human

Rights Crisis in Afghanistan (PDF). Physicians for Human Rights. 1998. Archived from the original (PDF) on
14 June 2007.

[48] Landmines in Afghanistan: A Decades Old Danger.

Defenseindustrydaily.com. 1 February 2010. Archived
from the original on 2014-01-11. Retrieved 6 May 2012.

[64] Inside the Taliban. National Geographic.

Archived from the original on 2013-07-29.

[49] Refugee Admissions Program for Near East and South

Asia. Bureau of Population, Refugees, and Migration.
Archived from the original on 2014-04-13. Retrieved 29
December 2013.
[50] Afghanistan: History Columbia Encyclopedia". Infoplease.com. 11 September 2001. Archived from the original on 2012-08-10. Retrieved 19 May 2012.
[51] Afghanistan Country Study Guide Volume 1 Strategic Information and Developments by INB, p.73
[52] Amin Saikal. Modern Afghanistan: A History of Struggle and Survival (2006 1st ed.). I.B. Tauris & Co Ltd.,
London New York. p. 352. ISBN 978-1-85043-437-5.

2007.

[65] Ahmed Shah Massoud. History Commons. 2010.

Archived from the original on 2014-01-25. Retrieved 16
December 2013.
[66] Maley, William (2009). The Afghanistan wars. Palgrave
Macmillan. p. 288. ISBN 978-0-230-21313-5.
[67] Rashid, Ahmed (11 September 2001). Afghanistan resistance leader feared dead in blast. The Telegraph (London). Archived from the original on 2013-11-08.
[68] Brigade 055. CNN. Archived from the original on
2013-07-29.
[69] Inside the Taliban. National Geographic. 2007.
Archived from the original on 29 September 2008.

20

14

[70] "Life under Taliban cuts two ways". CSM. 20 September

2001 Archived December 30, 2013 at the Wayback Machine
[71] Rory McCarthy in Islamabad (17 October 2001). New
oer on Bin Laden. London: Guardian. Archived from
the original on 2013-06-28. Retrieved 17 July 2012.
[72] Tyler, Patrick (8 October 2001). A Nation challenged:
The attack; U.S. and Britain strike Afghanistan, aiming at
bases and terrorist camps; Bush warns 'Taliban will pay a
price'". New York Times. Archived from the original on
2014-04-11. Retrieved 28 February 2010.
[73] United
Nations
Security
Council
1386.S/RES/1386(2001) 31 May 2001.
21 September 2007. (UNSCR 1386)

Resolution
Retrieved

[74] United
States
Mission
to
Afghanistan.
Nato.usmission.gov. Archived from the original on
21 October 2010. Retrieved 14 November 2010.
[75] Fossler,
Julie.
USAID
Afghanistan.
Archived from the original
Afghanistan.usaid.gov.
on 17 October 2010. Retrieved 14 November 2010.
[76] Canadas Engagement in Afghanistan: Backgrounder.
Afghanistan.gc.ca. 9 July 2010. Archived from the original on 2010-11-19. Retrieved 14 November 2010.
[77] Pakistan Accused of Helping Taliban. ABC News. 31
July 2008. Archived from the original on 2013-12-21.
Retrieved 28 September 2010.
[78] Crilly, Rob; Spillius, Alex (26 July 2010). Wikileaks:
Pakistan accused of helping Taliban in Afghanistan attacks. The Telegraph (London). Archived from the original on 2014-01-29. Retrieved 28 September 2010.
[79] Germany begins deportations of Afghan refugees.
wsws.org. 25 June 2005. Archived from the original on
2012-10-02. Retrieved 2 October 2011.
[80] Living in Fear of Deportation. DW-World.De. 22 January 2006. Archived from the original on 2012-01-29.
Retrieved 2 October 2011.
[81] Witte, Gri (8 December 2009). Taliban shadow ofcials oer concrete alternative. The Washington Post.
Retrieved 30 March 2010.
[82] Afghan Taliban leader backs peace talks with Kabul ofcials. Yahoo News. 15 July 2015.

REFERENCES

[87] U.S. formally ends the war in Afghanistan. CBS News.

Retrieved 12 April 2015.
[88] Afghan Civilians. Brown University. 2015. Retrieved
3 September 2015.
[89] Composition of macro geographical (continental) regions, geographical sub-regions, and selected economic
and other groupings. UNdata. 26 April 2011. Archived
from the original on 13 July 2011. Retrieved 13 July 2011.
[90] Afghanistan. Encyclopdia Britannica. Archived from
the original on 25 February 2010. Retrieved 17 March
2010.
[91] History of Environmental Change in the Sistan Basin
19762005 (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on
7 August 2007. Retrieved 20 July 2007.
[92] Snow in Afghanistan: Natural Hazards. NASA. 3
February 2006. Archived from the original on 2013-1230. Retrieved 6 May 2012.
[93] Snow may end Afghan drought, but bitter winter looms.
Reuters. 18 January 2012. Archived from the original on
2013-12-30.
[94] Afghanistans woeful water management delights neighbors. Csmonitor.com. 15 June 2010. Archived from the
original on 14 November 2010. Retrieved 14 November
2010.
[95] Crone, Anthony J. (April 2007). Earthquakes Pose a Serious Hazard in Afghanistan (PDF) (Technical report). US
Geological Survey. Fact Sheet FS 20073027. Archived
from the original (PDF) on 2013-07-27. Retrieved 14 October 2011.
[96] Earthquake Hazards. USGS Projects in Afghanistan. US
Geological Survey. 1 August 2011. Archived from the
original on 2013-12-30. Retrieved 13 October 2011.
[97] "'Seven dead' as earthquake rocks Afghanistan. BBC
News. 19 April 2010. Archived from the original on
2013-12-31. Retrieved 13 October 2011.
[98] Peters, Steven G. (October 2007). Preliminary Assessment of Non-Fuel Mineral Resources of Afghanistan, 2007
(PDF) (Technical report). USGS Afghanistan Project/US
Geological Survey/Afghanistan Geological Survey. Fact
Sheet 20073063. Archived from the original (PDF) on
2013-07-27. Retrieved 13 October 2011.

[99]
[83] President Karzai Address to the Nation on Afghanistans
Peace Eorts. The Embassy of Afghanistan in Washington, DC. Archived from the original on 12 October 2011.
[100]
Retrieved 10 October 2011.

Minerals in Afghanistan (PDF). British Geological Survey. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-07-26.
Retrieved 4 December 2010.
Afghans say US team found huge potential mineral
wealth. BBC News. 14 June 2010. Archived from the
original on 2013-08-09. Retrieved 13 October 2011.

[84] U.S. blames Pakistan agency in Kabul attack. Reuters.

22 September 2011. Archived from the original on 25
[101] Land area (sq. km)". World Development Indicators.
September 2011. Retrieved 22 September 2011.
World Bank. 2011. Archived from the original on 2013[85] Panetta: U.S. will pursue Pakistan-based militants. USA
10-29. Retrieved 13 October 2011.
Today. September 2011. Retrieved 21 September 2011.
[102] CIA Factbook Area: 41. CIA. 26 November 1991.
[86] Afghan president Ashraf Ghani inaugurated after bitter
Archived from the original on 2014-01-31. Retrieved 4
campaign. The Guardian. Retrieved 12 April 2015.
February 2012.

21

[103] "United Nations and Afghanistan". UN News Centre. Re- [118] Database. afghan-bios.info.
trieved 29 December 2013. Archived October 31, 2013
[119] Corruption widespread in Afghanistan, UNODC survey
at the Wayback Machine
says. UNODC.org. 19 January 2010. Archived from the
original on 2014-04-16. Retrieved 14 November 2010.
[104] Afghanistan Population Reference Bureau.
Population Reference Bureau.
Archived from the
[120] Karzai vows to tackle corruption. CBC.ca. 9 Novemoriginal on 2013-12-02. Retrieved 29 December 2009.
ber 2009. Archived from the original on 2013-12-30. Retrieved 14 November 2010.
[105] Estimated population of Afghanistan 2012-13. Central
Statistics Oce. Retrieved September 30, 2015.
[121] Corruption Perceptions Index 2014 Results.
Transparency International. Retrieved 5 September
[106] Ethnic groups. The World Factbook. CIA. Archived
2015.
from the original on 2015-07-11. Retrieved 18 September 2010. Pashtun, Tajik, Hazara, Uzbek, other (in[122] Cooper, Helene (2 November 2009). Karzai Gets New
cludes smaller numbers of Baloch, Turkmen, Nuristani,
Term as Afghan Runo is Scrapped. Nytimes.com.
Pamiri, Arab, Gujar, Brahui, Qizilbash, Aimaq, Pashai,
Archived from the original on 2011-05-11. Retrieved 4
and Kyrghyz) note: current statistical data on the sensiFebruary 2012.
tive subject of ethnicity in Afghanistan is not available,
and ethnicity data from small samples of respondents to [123] RAWA Photo Gallery: They are Responsible for
opinion polls are not a reliable alternative; Afghanistans
Afghanistans Tragedy. RAWA. Archived from the orig2004 constitution recognizes 14 ethnic groups: Pashinal on 19 October 2010. Retrieved 11 October 2010.
tun, Tajik, Hazara, Uzbek, Baloch, Turkmen, Nuristani, Pamiri, Arab, Gujar, Brahui, Qizilbash, Aimaq, and [124] Women in Parliaments: World Classication. Ipu.org.
30 November 2009. Archived from the original on 2014Pashai (2015) line feed character in |quote= at position
03-28. Retrieved 29 December 2009.
162 (help)
[107] Afghanistan. The World Factbook/Central Intelligence [125] Explaining Elections, Independent Election Commission
of Afghanistan. Iec.org.af. 9 October 2004. Archived
Agency. University of Missouri. 15 October 1991.
from the original on 27 August 2010. Retrieved 4 FebruArchived from the original on 27 April 2011. Retrieved
ary 2012.
20 March 2011.
[126] Mounting death toll for Afghan troops: US general. Ya[108] Ethnic divisions. The World Factbook/CIA. University
hoo News. 5 November 2014.
of Missouri. 22 January 1993. Retrieved 16 October
2010.
[127] Pellerindate, Cheryl (23 May 2011). Afghan Security
Forces Grow in Numbers, Quality. American Forces
[109] Ethnic Groups. Library of Congress Country Studies.
Press Service. United States Department of Defense.
1997. Retrieved 8 October 2010.
Archived from the original on 2014-04-14. Retrieved 10
July 2011.
[110] Ethnic groups:". The World Factbook/CIA. University of
Missouri. 2003. Retrieved 18 September 2010.
[128] For U.S., Vast Challenge To Expand Afghan Forces.
NPR. Archived from the original on 2013-12-30. Re[111] Languages of Afghanistan. Encyclopdia Britannica.
trieved 19 May 2012.
Archived from the original on 2013-11-12.
[112] Chapter 1: Religious Aliation. The Worlds Muslims: [129] 16 November 2009 (16 November 2009). Afghanistan
to Form Major Anti-Corruption Unit. voanews.com.
Unity and Diversity. Pew Research Center's Religion &
Archived from the original on 20 November 2009. RePublic Life Project. August 9, 2012. Retrieved 4 Septemtrieved 29 December 2009.
ber 2013.
[113] Klimberg, Max (1 October 2004). NURISTAN. [130] Ministry of Counter Narcotics Archived March 28, 2014
at the Wayback Machine
Encyclopdia Iranica (online ed.).
United States:
Columbia University. Archived from the original on [131] Afghanistan: Food still unaordable for millions. IRIN.
2013-07-26.
12 March 2009. Archived from the original on 27 August
2010. Retrieved 11 October 2010.
[114] Lavina Melwani, New York.
Hindus Abandon
Afghanistan. Hinduism Today. Archived from the origi- [132] Agriculture. USAID. Archived from the original on
nal on 2007-01-11. Retrieved 19 May 2012.
2013-09-29. Retrieved 20 October 2010.
[115] Majumder, Sanjoy (25 September 2003). Sikhs struggle [133] Exporting Afghanistan, by P.J. Tobia. 17 November
in Afghanistan. BBC News. Archived from the original
2009.
on 2009-02-22. Retrieved 19 May 2012.
[134] http://www.unodc.org/pdf/publications/afg_opium_
[116] N.C. Aizenman (27 January 2005). Afghan Jew Beeconomy_www.pdf
comes Countrys One and Only. Washingtonpost.com.
[135] Gall, Carlotta (7 July 2010). Afghan Companies Say
Retrieved 19 May 2012.
U.S. Did Not Pay Them. New York Times. Archived
[117] The Supreme Court Chief Justice Biography. supremefrom the original on 2013-04-02. Retrieved 30 Septemcourt.gov.af.
ber 2011.

22

14

REFERENCES

[136] the Kabul New City Ocial Website. DCDA. Archived [152] "Indian Group Wins Rights to Mine in Afghanistans Hajifrom the original on 2013-12-30. Retrieved 4 February
gak". Businessweek. 6 December 2011 Archived October
2012.
10, 2013 at the Wayback Machine
[137] Ghazi Amanullah Khan City. najeebzarab.af. 2009. [153] Risen, James (17 June 2010). U.S. Identies Vast
Archived from the original on 2013-04-29. Retrieved 15
Riches of Minerals in Afghanistan. The New York Times.
August 2011.
Archived from the original on 15 November 2010. Retrieved 14 November 2010.
[138] Case study: Aino Mina. Designmena.com. Archived
from the original on 2014-01-06. Retrieved 4 February [154] "China wins $700 million Afghan oil and gas deal. Why
2012.
didn't the US bid?". CSMonitor.com. 28 December 2011
Archived December 31, 2013 at the Wayback Machine
[139] A Humane Afghan City? by Ann Marlowe in Forbes 2
September 2009. Archived December 31, 2013 at the [155] Maps,
Railways of Afghanistan,
http://www.
Wayback Machine
andrewgrantham.co.uk/afghanistan/tag/map/
[140] Economic Growth. USAID. Archived from the original [156] Three presidents launch construction of international
on 2013-09-29. Retrieved 25 September 2011.
rail link, 06 Jun 2013, http://www.railwaygazette.
com/news/infrastructure/single-view/view/
[141] Afghanistan, neighbors unveil 'Silk Road' plan. Reuters.
three-presidents-launch-construction-of-international-rail-link.
22 September 2011. Archived from the original on 27
html?sword_list[]=afghan&no_cache=1
September 2011. Retrieved 24 September 2011.
[142] Declan Walsh (30 August 2007). UN horried by [157] Tolo News Construction on Kabul-Torkham Railway
to Start Soon, Ministry of Mines Says, Tamim Shaheer.
surge in opium trade in Helmand. Guardian (London).
18
October 2011. Archived November 9, 2013 at the
Archived from the original on 2008-01-15. Retrieved 19
Wayback Machine
May 2012.
[143] Afghan opium production in signicant decline. [158] Khaf-Herat railway, http://www.raillynews.com/2013/
khaf-herat-railway/
UNDOC. Archived from the original on 2014-04-16.
[144] CEOs should replace generals in Afghanistan: India. 28 [159] Afghan bus crash kills 45. theguardian.com. 26 April
2013. Retrieved 2014-11-04.
June 2012.
[145] O'Hanlon, Michael E. Deposits Could Aid Ailing [160] Statistics. Ministry of Communications (Afghanistan).
2006. Archived from the original on 2014-03-29. ReAfghanistan, The Brookings Institution, 16 June 2010.
trieved 17 January 2012.
Archived September 23, 2011 at the Wayback Machine
[146] Klett, T.R. (March 2006). Assessment of Undiscov- [161] Khetab, Muhammad Hassan (10 May 2014).
Afghanistans maiden satellite launched. Pajhwok
ered Petroleum Resources of Northern Afghanistan, 2006
Afghan News. Retrieved 2014-05-10.
(PDF) (Technical report). USGS-Afghanistan Ministry
of Mines & Industry Joint Oil & Gas Resource Assessment Team. Fact Sheet 20063031. Archived from the [162] Afghanistan. World Health Organization (WHO).
Archived from the original on 2013-10-26. Retrieved 6
original (PDF) on 2013-07-27. Retrieved 13 October
July
2013. Life expectancy at birth m/f (years) 59/61
2011.
[147] Afghanistan signs '$7 bn' oil deal with China. 28 De- [163] Tan Ee Lyn (6 May 2008). Afghan medical college struggles to rise from the ashes. Reuters. Archived from the
cember 2011. Archived from the original on 2013-12-30.
original on 21 January 2010. Retrieved 29 December
Retrieved 29 December 2013.
2009.
[148] Afghanistans Mineral Fortune. Institute for Environmental Diplomacy and Security Report. 2011. Archived [164] Peter, Tom A. (17 December 2011). Childbirth and maternal health improve in Afghanistan. Christian Science
from the original on 2013-12-12. Retrieved 16 December
Monitor.
Archived from the original on 2013-12-31. Re2013.
trieved 12 January 2012.
[149] Tucker, Ronald D. (2011). Rare Earth Element Mineralogy, Geochemistry, and Preliminary Resource Assess- [165] Health. United States Agency for International Development (USAID). Archived from the original on 2013ment of the Khanneshin Carbonatite Complex, Helmand
09-29. Retrieved 20 October 2010.
Province, Afghanistan (PDF) (Technical report). USGS.
Open-File Report 20111207. Archived from the original
[166] Anne-Marie DiNardo, LPA/PIPOS (31 March 2006).
(PDF) on 2013-07-27. Retrieved 13 October 2011.
Empowering Afghanistans Disabled Population 31
March 2006. Usaid.gov. Archived from the original on
[150] "China, Not U.S., Likely to Benet from Afghanistans
8 May 2004. Retrieved 19 May 2012.
Mineral Riches". Daily Finance. 14 June 2010 Archived
December 31, 2013 at the Wayback Machine
[167] Richard
Norton-Taylor
(13
February
2008).
[151] China Willing to Spend Big on Afghan Commerce. The
Afghanistans refugee crisis 'ignored'".
Guardian
New York Times. 29 December 2009. Archived from the
(London). Archived from the original on 2010-12-15.
original on 2011-07-31.
Retrieved 19 May 2012.

23

[168] "Afghanistan: People living with disabilities call for in- [186] "Afghanistan: Kuchi nomads seek a better deal". IRIN
tegration Archived September 20, 2011 at the Wayback
Asia. 18 February 2008. Archived September 10, 2011
Machine
at the Wayback Machine
[169] Virginia Haussegger Mahoobas Promise ABC TV 7.30 [187] G.V. Brandolini. Afghanistan cultural heritage. Orizzonte
terra, Bergamo. 2007. p. 64.
Report. 2009. ABC.net.au. Retrieved 15 July 2009.
Archived July 26, 2013 at the Wayback Machine
[188] 42 Buddhist relics discovered in Logar. Maqsood Azizi.
Pajhwok Afghan News. 18 August 2010. Archived from
[170] Afghanistan. Measuredhs.com. Archived from the
the original on 2012-02-01. Retrieved 23 August 2010.
original on 2013-12-30. Retrieved 14 November 2010.
(bad URL - does not match page title)
[171] Afghanistans Ministry of Higher Education. Archived
from the original on 31 May 2011. Retrieved 23 June [189] Afghan archaeologists nd Buddhist site as war rages.
Sayed Salahuddin. News Daily. 17 August 2010.
2011.
Archived from the original on 18 August 2010. Retrieved
16 August 2010.
[172] Education. United States Agency for International Development (USAID). Retrieved 11 August 2011.
[190] Buddhist remains found in Afghanistan. Press TV. 17
August 2010. Archived from the original on 20 August
[173] Wardak seeks $3b in aid for school buildings. Pajhwok
2010. Retrieved 16 August 2010.
Afghan News. 18 May 2013. Archived from the original
on 2013-12-30. Retrieved 13 August 2013.

[191] Survey of historical sites in Ghazni launched. Pajhwok

Afghan News. 27 August 2011. Archived from the origi[174] Rising literacy in Afghanistan ensures transition.
nal
on 2013-11-05. Retrieved 27 August 2011.
Army.mil. Archived from the original on 2013-12-09.
Retrieved 4 February 2012.
[192] Classical Dari and Pashto Poets. Afghan-web.com.
Archived from the original on 2013-10-06. Retrieved 4
[175] Management and Establishment of Lincoln Learning
February 2012.
Centers in Afghanistan (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-07-26. Retrieved 19 May 2012.
[193] Dartnell, M. Y. Insurgency Online: Web Activism and
Global Conict. University of Toronto Press, 2006. ISBN
[176] Ghazni governor signs memorandum for Lincoln Learn978-0-8020-8553-5.
ing Center War On Terror News.
Waronterrornews.typepad.com. 22 September 2010. Archived [194] Afghanistan Press Report 2008, Freedom House.
from the original on 2013-12-31. Retrieved 4 February
Archived June 23, 2011 at the Wayback Machine
2012.
[195] Artist Biographies. Afghanland.com. Archived from
the original on 2013-08-09. Retrieved 17 October 2011.
[177] Interview with Carol Ruth Silver. 2011.
[196] Javed Hamim Kakar (11 October 2010). All provinces to
have cricket grounds: minister. Pajhwok Afghan News.
pajhwok.com. Archived from the original on 2013-12-30.
[179] Lima Ahmad, Kenneth Adams, Mike Dawson, Carol Ruth
Retrieved 14 September 2011.
Silver. Brieng Note One Laptop Per Child (OLPC)
in Afghanistan (PDF). Retrieved 2 October 2014.
[197] Sports.
Pajhwok Afghan News.
pajhwok.com.
Archived from the original on 2014-02-09. Retrieved 14
[180] Country Prole: Afghanistan (PDF). Library of
September 2011.
Congress Country Studies on Afghanistan. August 2008.
Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-04-08. Re[198] Dictionary.com. The American Heritage Dictionary of
trieved 16 August 2010.
the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Miin
Company, 2004. Reference.com (Retrieved 13 Novem[181] Barbara Robson, Juliene Lipson, Farid Younos, Mariam
ber 2007).
Mehdi. The Afghans Their History and Culture.
[178] OLPC Afghanistan. laptop.org.

United States: Center for Applied Linguistics. 30 June

[199] Dictionary.com. WordNet 3.0. Princeton University.
2002. Archived from the original on 5 January 2007. ReReference.com (Retrieved 13 November 2007).
trieved 25 September 2010.
[182] US Library of Congress: Afghanistan Ethnic Groups
(Pashtun)
[183] Banting, Erinn (2003). Afghanistan: The land. Crabtree
Publishing Company. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-7787-9335-9.
Archived from the original on 2013-12-31.
[184] Heathcote, Tony (1980, 2003) The Afghan Wars 1839
1919, Sellmount Staplehurst.
[185] "Pashtun (people)". Encyclopdia Britannica. Archived
October 30, 2013 at the Wayback Machine

15 Further reading
Books
Articles
Meek, James. Worse than a Defeat. London Review
of Books, Vol. 36, No. 24, December 2014, pages
310

24

16

16

External links

Oce of the President

Afghanistan entry at The World Factbook
Afghanistan web resources provided by GovPubs at
the University of ColoradoBoulder Libraries
Afghanistan at DMOZ
Wikimedia Atlas of Afghanistan
Research Guide to Afghanistan

EXTERNAL LINKS

25

17
17.1

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

Afghanistan Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghanistan?oldid=693985312 Contributors: Magnus Manske, Joao, TwoOneTwo,

General Wesc, Peter Winnberg, The Cunctator, Brion VIBBER, Bryan Derksen, The Anome, Koyaanis Qatsi, Jeronimo, Ap, Gareth
Owen, -- April, DanKeshet, Ed Poor, Andre Engels, Scipius, Danny, Christopher Mahan, Rmhermen, SwPawel~enwiki, William Avery,
SimonP, Vassili Nikolaev, Ryguasu, Arno, Youandme, Olivier, Edward, Patrick, JohnOwens, TeunSpaans, Michael Hardy, Fred Bauder,
DopeshJustin, Lear~enwiki, Karl, Liftarn, Gabbe, Chuck SMITH, Jketola, Mic, Ixfd64, Cyde, Mlpvolt, Mbessey, SebastianHelm, Chadloder, Goatasaur, Tregoweth, CesarB, Keichwa, Egil, Ahoerstemeier, KAMiKAZOW, Stan Shebs, Docu, TUF-KAT, TUF-KAT, Angela,
Jebba, Kingturtle, , LittleDan, Julesd, Usedbook, Glenn, Bogdangiusca, Cyan, Rossami, Vzbs34, Susurrus, Kwekubo, Andres,
Jiang, Dod1, Deisenbe, Evercat, GCarty, Rl, John K, Oliver Crow, Tobias Conradi, Schneelocke, Dwo, Feedmecereal, Mpt, Popsracer,
Alex S, Charles Matthews, RickK, Kbk, Daniel Quinlan, Fuzheado, WhisperToMe, Wik, Steinsky, Haukurth, CBDunkerson, Vancouverguy, Patrick0Moran, Tpbradbury, Maximus Rex, Imc, Morwen, Nv8200pa, Regulus, Joy, Fvw, Cuye, CBorges, Jerzy, Flockmeal, Bwmodular, Anjouli, UninvitedCompany, Owen, Denelson83, Jni, Branddobbe, Robbot, Vardion, ChrisO~enwiki, Fredrik, PBS, Chris 73,
RedWolf, Moncrief, Altenmann, Romanm, Modulatum, Samrolken, Postdlf, Merovingian, Egon, Sverdrup, Desmay, Hemanshu, Texture,
ThaGrind, Gidonb, Aleron235, CdaMVvWgS, Sunray, Bkell, Tell~enwiki, Hadal, Refdoc, Roozbeh, Seano1, Lupo, Kairos, Diberri, Guy
Peters, GreatWhiteNortherner, Dina, Carnildo, Radagast, Unfree, Paul3144, Centrx, Homsar2, Nichalp, Inter, Netoholic, Levin, Hagedis,
IRelayer, Wilfried Derksen, Curps, Gamaliel, David Johnson, Cantus, Rick Block, Niteowlneils, Beardo, Andris, Dsmdgold, Guanaco,
Per Honor et Gloria, BigHaz, Luis rib, Jason Quinn, Mboverload, Siroxo, Solipsist, Gzornenplatz, Avala, SWAdair, Bobblewik, Ragib,
Golbez, Sesel, Gyrofrog, Wmahan, Stevietheman, Chowbok, Gadum, Confuzion, Ben Arnold, Xmnemonic, Knutux, Sonjaaa, Quadell,
Antandrus, HorsePunchKid, Beland, Margana, Salasks, MistToys, Eregli bob, Schwael, Pembers, Mikko Paananen, Bumm13, Thincat,
PSzalapski, Kevin B12, Daniel11, M4-10, Soman, Asbestos, Neutrality, Urhixidur, Okapi~enwiki, Ojw, Aknorals, JohnArmagh, Sarcelles,
Syvanen, The Prince Manifest, Barnaby dawson, Bluemask, Mike Rosoft, Kingal86, D6, Jayjg, Monkeyman, Jrp, DanielCD, Pasquale,
Bornintheguz, Jpg, A-giau, Moverton, RTCearly, Discospinster, Patricknoddy, Rich Farmbrough, Rhobite, Guanabot, Kevinb, Frehorse,
Thematicunity, Rama, Florian Blaschke, Wikiacc, Smyth, Aris Katsaris, Klykken, SECProto, Xezbeth, Berkut, Dbachmann, Mani1, Paul
August, SpookyMulder, Bender235, Ngchen, Android79, Loren36, MisterSheik, Mr. Billion, Pjf, *drew, Zscout370, El C, Lycurgus,
Bletch, Kwamikagami, Edward Z. Yang, Aude, Shanes, Tom, Art LaPella, RoyBoy, Bastique, Bobo192, Martey, Reinyday, Walkiped, AugustinMa, Enric Naval, Viriditas, Archfalhwyl, Foobaz, Artw, Giraedata, Hawklord, La goutte de pluie, ACW, Thewayforward, BenM,
MPerel, Sam Korn, Pharos, Pearle, Bluebec, A2Kar, Peter Shearan, HasharBot~enwiki, Jgardner, Mindriot, Jumbuck, OneGuy, Jrme,
Alansohn, PaulHanson, Aarontology, Polarscribe, Walter Grlitz, Miranche, Guy Harris, Buaidh, Hai, Wiki-uk, Bamber Gascoigne,
Mr Adequate, Jeltz, Carbon Caryatid, Improv, Verdlanco, John Quiggin, Pauldavidgill, Howrealisreal, Riana, Lectonar, MarkGallagher,
SlimVirgin, Lightdarkness, Sligocki, Pippu d'Angelo, Cdc, Spangineer, Denniss, Hu, Snowolf, Velella, BanyanTree, DorisAntony, Tycho,
Cburnett, Vcelloho, Evil Monkey, Harej, Fdedio, Amorymeltzer, Pethr, Kusma, Sleigh, Zereshk, Nightstallion, Kazvorpal, Richard Weil,
Galaxiaad, Aryob, TShilo12, Bastin, Soltak, Stephen, Waza re, Bobrayner, Weyes, Marasmusine, Angr, Woohookitty, Henrik, Mr Tan,
JarlaxleArtemis, Derktar, Etacar11, PoccilScript, Rocastelo, Miaow Miaow, Raidentherv, Uncle G, Jacobolus, Adalis~enwiki, I720118382,
Troy34, Pol098, JeremyA, Je3000, MONGO, Sdgjake, Tabletop, Lapsed Pacist, Twthmoses, Poznix, Arzachel, SCEhardt, John Hill,
Plrk, Mb1000, Aliyevramin, Brendanconway, Jon Harald Sby, Prashanthns, Gimboid13, Afghanstar, Marudubshinki, Matilda, Ashmoo,
Graham87, Deltabeignet, Magister Mathematicae, BD2412, Nobot~enwiki, Padraic, Reisio, SouthernComfort, BorgHunter, Electionworld,
Mana Excalibur, Search4Lancer, Canderson7, Sjakkalle, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Tombseye, Commander, Astronaut, Vary, PinchasC, JHMM13,
Harro5, Benzamin, Vegaswikian, Ligulem, ElKevbo, DouglasGreen~enwiki, Brighterorange, Bryan H Bell, Ucucha, Sango123, DirkvdM,
Grokking~enwiki, Yamamoto Ichiro, Bcwright, Falphin, FlaBot, Sasanjan, VKokielov, Ian Pitchford, Ground Zero, Musical Linguist,
Talessman, Crazycomputers, Harmil, JPPINTO, Sosha, Nivix, Bky1701, Mark83, Mel Gibson, Spudtater, RexNL, Gurch, TeaDrinker,
Codex Sinaiticus, Taniquetil, EronMain, McDogm, Russavia, Idaltu, Butros, Walter Moar, Stormscape, CJLL Wright, Chobot, DaGizza,
Jared Preston, Citizen Premier, VolatileChemical, 334a, Bgwhite, Chwyatt, Gwernol, E Pluribus Anthony, Cornellrockey, YurikBot, Noclador, Wavelength, Borgx, RobotE, Crotalus horridus, Vuvar1, Hairy Dude, Deeptrivia, Osomec, Jimp, Phantomsteve, RussBot, Arado,
Jtkiefer, John Quincy Adding Machine, WAvegetarian, Anonymous editor, Lofty, Farhad Timuri, Pigman, Epolk, Garrysaint, Chaser,
Hydrargyrum, Noypi380, Dotancohen, Palmerop, Gaius Cornelius, CambridgeBayWeather, Alex Bakharev, Rsrikanth05, Pseudomonas,
Member, Kimchi.sg, Varnav, Jammoe, Gcapp1959, Evstaev, NawlinWiki, Teb728, Wiki alf, Bachrach44, Magicmonster, BGManofID,
Bruxism, Robertvan1, Grafen, Voyevoda, Siddiqui, Jaxl, Welsh, Korny O'Near, Valhallia, Mansour, Mikehillman, Ijomer, 192,168,15,21,
Pylambert, Lexicon, Mshecket, Shinmawa, CaliforniaAliBaba, Dputig07, PhilipC, Raven4x4x, Farmanesh, Mansour1, Misza13, Tony1,
Alex43223, Syrthiss, Aaron Schulz, Zirland, Falcon9x5, Heckstorm, Wikilo12, Knightablaze, Alexpinna, BOT-Superzerocool, PrimeCupEevee, Gadget850, Vinci71, Antonio Basto, RustySpear, Deepak~enwiki, Thegreyanomaly, Martinwilke1980, Szhaider, Smaines,
Nick123, Wknight94, Bob247, Igin, Kmusser, BlackJack, HeleneSylvie, Theodolite, Zzuuzz, Lindentree, Hstoels, Nikkimaria, Chase
me ladies, I'm the Cavalry, Saranghae honey, Theda, Closedmouth, Ketsuekigata, Fang Aili, KGasso, Clocke, JoanneB, Fram, Mhenriday,
JLaTondre, Tajik, RunOrDie, Ybbor, Kungfuadam, Jonathan.s.kt, Alexanderj, Hagie, GrinBot~enwiki, Zvika, Samuel Blanning, Nick-D,
One, Victor falk, MastaBaba, Parvez gsm, West Virginian, Luk, RaiderAspect, Scolaire, SmackBot, Pwt898, YellowMonkey, Roger Davies,
David Kernow, Sze cavalry01, Mr Smiley, Reedy, Herostratus, Cdogsimmons, Prodego, Royalguard11, Ma8thew, Olorin28, Hydrogen Iodide, Od Mishehu, Kimmelaar, Shervink, KocjoBot~enwiki, Jagged 85, Midway, Fractions, WookieInHeat, EncycloPetey, Kintetsubualo,
Aivazovsky, Zohab, Craigoliver, Flamarande, Alex earlier account, Xaosux, Dyslexic agnostic, Srkris, Unforgettableid, PeterSymonds,
Macintosh User, Gilliam, Brianski, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, Fluy the Cactus, Betacommand, Skizzik, Freedonia, Dspserpico, Polaron,
Carl.bunderson, Cs-wolves, Cowman109, BenAveling, Flexxx, Tyciol, Drlog, Chris the speller, Unquist, Master Jay, Jamie C, Bluebot,
Kurykh, TimBentley, Jibbajabba, Jthurman, Persian Poet Gal, Topkai22, Dzhatse, MalafayaBot, Ryan Paddy, MidgleyDJ, Thupport5591,
Bazonka, ImpuMozhi, Ryecatcher773, Vekoler, Miguel Andrade, Ctbolt, DHN-bot~enwiki, Colonies Chris, Hongooi, Tarikash, Oatmeal
batman, Deckchair, Rlevse, Tewk, Factoid Killer, Diyako, Suicidalhamster, Ahassan05~enwiki, Kotra, Khalil Sawant, Can't sleep, clown
will eat me, Kerecsen~enwiki, Smallbones, Keith Lehwald, Fotoguzzi, Vulcanstar6, OrphanBot, Akbar dawee a, MJCdetroit, Paul E Ester, Zaian, TheKMan, VMS Mosaic, Aldo.sauda, Greenshed, Jezpuh, Mipchunk, SundarBot, Huon, Arab Hafez, Rarelibra, Khoikhoi,
Emo22~enwiki, BostonMA, Cybercobra, Nibuod, Nakon, Al-Zaidi, Shamir1, Nepaheshgar, Only, Wisco, Jklin, DMacks, Drc79, Wizardman, Blockinblox, Kendrick7, Breaker-One~enwiki, Jimbo II, Nmpenguin, Evlekis, Kalambaki2, PhiJ, Bejnar, Kukini, Hello12345, Skinnyweed, Dkusic~enwiki, Ged UK, Cyberevil, SashatoBot, Theunknown42, Nishkid64, Afghan Historian, Harryboyles, Kashk, Egein, Kuru,
Khazar, John, Alamandrax, Euchiasmus, Scottpaw, Scientizzle, J 1982, Cronholm144, SilkTork, DivineIntervention, Gobonobo, Casimiri,
Aleator, Collin213, Mr.K., Woer$, Mgiganteus1, Green Giant, Mary Read, ManiF, Jaywubba1887, Joshua Scott, IronGargoyle, Abdullah
Tahir, Ckatz, MarkSutton, BillFlis, Stwalkerster, Shangrilaista, Kirbytime, Beetstra, Sevenless, Noah Salzman, Laogeodritt, SQGibbon,

26

17

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Grandpafootsoldier, Mr Stephen, Jpetersen46321, AxG, Orincorr, Xiaphias, Girmitya, Waggers, Don Alessandro, Nwwaew, Hadi1121,
Ryulong, KirrVlad, RadonX, Isenstein, Peter Horn, Skinsmoke, Jose77, Peyre, Vagary, Wwagner, Pejman47, Istanbuljohnm, Lucid, Keith264, Kieranmrhunt, Burto88, Levineps, DouglasCalvert, Seqsea, V6g3h7, Zeelkey, Abidjan, Sjames~enwiki, Emulateme, Fitzwilliam, Nedits, Aspuar, Nfutvol, Amakuru, Billgunyon, Octane, Spongefan, Blehfu, Supersquid, Masily box, Ewulp, AutomaticWriting, Gil Gamesh,
Maelor, Linkspamremover, Anger22, Slobot, EricMiles, FairuseBot, Tawkerbot2, Khosrow II, Sohaiblatif, Afghana~enwiki, Discosebastian, Orangutan, Heqs, Tugo, Roxi2, Switchercat, Syajnik, Ormi, J Milburn, JForget, Takesphotos, CmdrObot, Code E, Tanthalas39, Darkred, Skelta, Sir Vicious, Earthlyreason, Scohoust, Avanu, Makeemlighter, BeenAroundAWhile, Wheaties524@alltel.net, DSachan, GHe,
Kylu, Reahad, Dgw, Fork me, Mctaviix, ShelfSkewed, Saleemhali, Requestion, MarsRover, WeggeBot, Avillia, Tom Hillstrom, Macavitch,
C5mjohn, Rogerine~enwiki, MrFish, Skybon, NeutralWriter, Icarus of old, Beh-nam, Cabolitae, Cydebot, Pakhtosoft~enwiki, Pais, Future
Perfect at Sunrise, Reywas92, Hollinco, Sir Kenny, Andrew.batchelder, Steel, Aristophanes68, Mato, Michaelas10, Gogo Dodo, Travelbird,
Alanbly, R-41, WasPhantom, FCLasdf, Vampiric.Media, Acs4b, Ocean Wave, Tawkerbot4, JoSePh, Doug Weller, Rq88187, DumbBOT,
Alibob6, Optimist on the run, Jimip, Biblbroks, Kozuch, Renassault, Zer0faults, Daven200520, Gonzo fan2007, The Lizard Wizard,
Superbeatles, Omicronpersei8, Ebrahim, Zalgo, LemonZesty, EvocativeIntrigue, SummonerMarc, Rjm656s, CieloEstrellado, DJBullsh,
Mattisse, Klep, Malleus Fatuorum, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Edman274, Junckerg, NeutralPoint, DerDoc, Armanaziz, Shikab, Duckforce, Zezimassasin, Daniel, Kablammo, Ucanlookitup, Anshuk, Unknown Master, Adzz, Memty Bot, PerfectStorm, Ryanw315, Dpall, Crane7447,
Anupam, Berria, Sanjar khan, Vitalbits, Headbomb, Fuse101, James uk, Marek69, Sean7phil, John254, Zulkkur, Bobblehead, Patel24,
Markg729, BehnamFarid, AbdulQadir, Hcobb, Ojstone, CharlotteWebb, Therequiembellishere, Ricardoramirezj~enwiki, Ahavat, Hanschool618, Dawnseeker2000, SvenAERTS, AlefZet, Northumbrian, Escarbot, Oreo Priest, Afghancf, Martinvie, Hmrox, Trlkly, Tom
dl, AntiVandalBot, RobotG, Konman72, Majorly, Rob van Doorn, Luna Santin, Mvjs, Mehrdad barani, Obiwankenobi, Seaphoto, Opelio, Veriaamiri, Ybgursey, Quintote, Prolog, Dr. Blofeld, KP Botany, Doc Tropics, Activist, SlipperyN, Jj137, Larry Rosenfeld, Vanjagenije, Chuchunezumi, THEunique, MECU, Alphachimpbot, Jayjrn, Politicaljunkie23, Babakexorramdin, Storkk, Dmerrill, Valrith,
Canadian-Bacon, Crissidancer88, Kariteh, Erxnmedia, JAnDbot, Leroy65X, Deective, Kigali1, Thaimoss, Shockz0rz, Altairisfar, Spahbod, MER-C, Planetary, The Transhumanist, Nicholassharland, Ericoides, Matthew Fennell, Scythian1, Blood Red Sandman, Hodgetts,
STWREN, Andonic, Resher, Swordhunter0690, B cubed, Dricherby, Jamesedwardsmith, TheEditrix2, Joshua, LittleOldMe, SiobhanHansa, Mardavich, Meeples, Petrux, Magioladitis, Bakilas, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Xn4, AtticusX, Hullaballoo Wolfowitz, Weser, Wahidjon, JNW, JamesBWatson, Faizhaider, Julius Cser, Cranberryjuice, Jerseypolitics, Trentono, Arcaddmarketing, Mab999, Steven Walling,
Abountu, Zee18, Jer443932, Prestonmcconkie, SparrowsWing, Avicennasis, Zandweb~enwiki, Nat495, Inkan1969, Indon, Benzocane,
Mahitgar, Animum, Andaryas, Owenink, Nposs, MetsBot, User86654, Jawandapuck, Ciaccona, Lethaniol, Tenjikuronin, Noori2006,
Aaktan, Aero stud24, Spellmaster, Am86, Whynottonight, S Seagal, E104421, Glen, DerHexer, Edward321, LinaAfghan1, Baristarim,
JediLofty, Pax:Vobiscum, Patstuart, Mannerheimo, SquidSK, Jkaki00, Bmf 51, Blacksqr, Ineable3000, Jackson Peebles, MartinBot, ZeroFC, Shrub of power, Cmrdm, Dshelsel, Zcapa05, Pravda1987, Tekleni, Peter2212, Chartinael, Rettetast, Bissinger, Azalea pomp, R'n'B,
CommonsDelinker, Dongbu wrong, AlexiusHoratius, The Telephone Company, Johnpacklambert, Ombudswiki, Mitjay~enwiki, Smokizzy,
Lilac Soul, Mausy5043, Dataless?, J.delanoy, King Nisar, Pashtun786, Abecedare, MoiraMoira, PRTkand, Fowler&fowler, KazakhPol,
JamesR, Italisa, NisarKand, Adavidb, Freeman2006~enwiki, Peter Chastain, Artacoana, Holr, Naveregnide, Yonidebot, Jowe189, RoboRanks, Anoushirvan, StalinsLoveChild, Pardesi2006, Texaswr, Bad Night, LordAnubisBOT, Natobxl, Salchimel, Naniwako, Skier Dude,
DJ1AM, Lizzie Harrison, RenniePet, Plasticup, Rahmadzia, NewEnglandYankee, Ahuskay, Newtman, Euthymios, Kansas Bear, Flatterworld, FJPB, Tanaats, Largoplazo, KylieTastic, Pashtun, Cometstyles, Aminullah, Greatestrowerever, MShefa, Intothere, DeltaOperator,
Cameraguy12, Jevansen, DorganBot, Saeedh, Nayan Nev, Andy Marchbanks, Sssoul, McFizzle, S, Conte di Cavour, Idioma-bot, Che
edwardo, WWGB, Agamemnus, Xnuala, Kodvavi, Khayoon, Chinneeb, VolkovBot, CWii, Safemariner, Tim Doling, Je G., Fundamental metric tensor, Vlma111, AlnoktaBOT, Maile66, Chitrapa, WOSlinker, Maxtremus, Zakiahkhan, Philip Trueman, Xerxesisis, Binggan, TXiKiBoT, Pahari Sahib, Goldpowergr, Dojarca, Yaw pakhtoon, Thadius856AWB, Java7837, Caster23, Dchall1, Hissami, Afg4ever,
Someone else 90, Ahmadi~enwiki, Sean D Martin, Abdulalimazari, Joe72, Steven J. Anderson, John Carter, Dendodge, Sina7, Sirdar Agha,
Szlam, JhsBot, Don4of4, Pug pug, Sniperz11, Supertask, Allahbakhsh payenda, Bentley4, Vgranucci, Noor Aalam, Jukanaka, Djbeckett,
Saturn star, Mr.NorCal55, Tidying Up, Tri400, D4niel11, Lerdthenerd, Bulldoger, Scubster, Zalinda Zenobia, Synthebot, Historygypsy,
Falcon8765, Fideo, Bahamut0013, Temporaluser, !dea4u, Mae90, Eden Tate, Dmcq, Universaladdress, AlleborgoBot, Logan, Silverleaf81, DVoit, NHRHS2010, April Is Really Fooled, Hooth, Vodak, GoonerDP, SieBot, Rdudle, Anoshirawan, Kamminga, Calliopejen1,
Doors1352, Cokes360, Sheppa28, Work permit, Euryalus, ToePeu.bot, MrRiyadh, TwilightMarluxia, VVVBot, Gerakibot, Nativeafghan,
Alexbook, This, that and the other, Smsarmad, Yintan, Mangostar, GYellow, Muslim55, Tajik-Professor, Lazers in space, Rotselleri,
Uleddin, Morsti1, Ujjwol, Samzcool, Gotipe, Bjor0216, Tiptoety, Exert, Perspicacite, Neutralhomer, SailorMan1811, Serblood, Momo
san, Tajirk, Atari400, Carnun, Bob2042, Jackthefag, Birdazi, Benishomo, USA Ali baba, Hzh, Phil Bridger, ObserverToSee, Seanandgeorgia, AngelOfSadness, Vmrgrsergr, Crookedknight, Csloomis, KoKolicious, Politicalart, AsifTookhi, Bizmark-e, Zeelash, Babajee,
Hoogerdempsi, Lightmouse, Zimbobman, Slumbookawalk, Mordechai4, Thatbellagirl, Hourick, Dallyripple, Alex.muller, Sanya3, BenoniBot~enwiki, A Laughton, Bigshow786, Svick, EIranica, Belligero, Maelgwnbot, LloydKame, Oldgregg13, NestleOJ, Orbal, StaticGull,
Alefbe, Mirrori1, ShellyCat, Sinhala freedom, Ken123BOT, Verdadero, Dmitri1999, Laurentiu Popa, Khan1982, Gr8opinionater, Ghulam
Farook, ImageRemovalBot, Paul112, Namani to short, RS1900, Mr. Granger, Shidzu, MenoBot, Loren.wilton, Sfan00 IMG, Elassint,
ClueBot, Atletiker, Bisuketto, Amarbaines, GorillaWarfare, PipepBot, Wedineinheck, Memala, Kotniski, Foxj, The Thing That Should
Not Be, EoGuy, Jawbreaker28, Jamesmarshall90, Speedtrainspota, Afrique, Fightingfalcon2005, Czarko, Eegorr, Drmies, Control-altdelete, Neotone, Boing! said Zebedee, Kewaga, Shaliya waya, Piper Brodi, Niceguyedc, Uniposter, Stopsurng, Greeky-man, PH4crew,
Ficbot, Globalt1, Rockfang, Klrichar, Hurooz, NuclearVacuum, DragonBot, Excirial, Mqrasi, Dilbar Jan, Alexbot, M4gnum0n, Bamyaniboy, Jwkozak91, PixelBot, Kani Oanko, Wikitumnus, Naseer n nasrat, Winston365, Rhododendrites, Sun Creator, Enerelt, Kabulzamin,
Coinmanj, Arjayay, Jotterbot, Dn9ahx, Rize Again, GingizKhan, Takabeg, Mickey gfss2007, SchreiberBike, ChrisHodgesUK, Thehelpfulone, Bbriggs1, Chrono1084, Knezovjb, Thingg, Risico001, Aitias, Lot49a, Samantha555, HariRud, Ranjithsutari, Linuxae, Bistiks,
StevenDH, Kiftaan, Kubek15, IJA, SherAbdul8, Apparition11, KabuliTajik, Petercasier, Luxxi, Liberal Humanist, Nafsadh, Padmanii,
Tdslk, DumZiBoT, Nabihabibi, PremierOfYukon, BamyanMan, AntiFascism, Dupree3, Bearsona, Russiansoul, TN55, AgnosticPreachersKid, Plingsby, Kurdo777, Izloo, Spitre, Joseph031164, AbbasPeretz, StevenLeClark, Burningview, Robocop10, BRPXQZME, RussianRoket, ChineseGuy12, BEIJINGBOY2, RealAfghan112, Stickee, Lenster~enwiki, Aryantabib, Hazara898, Farsiwan22, Zamizest, Koreanegos face, Inferior-Parsibaan, Rkeerio, Avoided, Ariconte, Kwjbot, SilvonenBot, Vpletap, Andrensath, Vegas949, Mm40, HarlandQPitt,
WikiDao, Good Olfactory, Lemmey, Gggh, MatthewVanitas, DurraniPashtun, Jhendin, Kajabla, Addbot, PekhawarKhan, Narayansg, Jalalabadi, Agonzalezb, DoctorLeeOnWiki, Misaq Rabab, Noob McGoob, NatWill2, Jogezai, Evancurran, AkhtaBot, KabuliNewMusician,
Wingspeed, Clarinetina, Scince man, Razimpatel, SwatiAfridi, FourThousandTwelve, Arianaa30, Saeed1410, Tajik007, JamesBay, Mnmazur, CarsracBot, MauriceM3, Bazza1971, Lihaas, CyrusTheGreat2, Protoftruth85, Glass Sword, AndersBot, Favonian, Rajpoot91,
LinkFA-Bot, PashtoonBoy, Onlyonetime, Blaylockjam10, Bernie Kohl, Raayen, Numbo3-bot, Jogizai, NoNonsenseHumJock, Tide rolls,
Lightbot, AchamaenidPersian550, Charsada, Apteva, Teles, Hhaarty, Jarble, Ketabtoon, 3swordz, AbdaliPashtoon, Legobot, Luckas-bot,

17.2

Images

27

Yobot, Granpu, Ptbotgourou, Mauler90, Donfbreed, Yiplop stick stop, Rab777hp, Yngvadottir, Edwin Luciano, Nallimbot, Reenem,
Magog the Ogre, ZapThunderstrike, Bility, AnomieBOT, Momoricks, PonileExpress, Tavatar, Hadden, 1exec1, Tavrian, Jeni, Cptnono,
Keithbob, Scythian77, AdjustShift, PashtoonEditor, Daniel.nnan, Separesh, LlywelynII, Dmoloney, Mahmudmasri, Materialscientist,
Aiarmenta, Limideen, Alawadhi3000, Citation bot, Mechamind90, George kash, Draco of Utopia, Rvd4life, Dewan357, AbdurRakhman,
ArthurBot, Afghanvoice, EverettMcGill, B. Fairbairn, Taikah, Quebec99, LilHelpa, Acropolis now, Droadnaegel, Hfsulliv, MauritsBot,
Xqbot, NisarPakistani, Diedtc, Timir2, S h i v a (Visnu), Viola v, Independent4ever, Larawbar, Poetaris, Arl123wiki, AaronF2, Hosain Amani, DSisyphBot, Kesangh, TheWeakWilled, EgyptianWikipedian, Br77rino, BritishWatcher, Mlpearc, Srich32977, PakistaniNisar, Deftera, Ankuriaku, J04n, Banigul, Alumnum, Omnipaedista, Muxlim, RibotBOT, SassoBot, Pakhtunkhwa, Ashrf1979, Speednat,
HoyaPro, Brutaldeluxe, Raikot, GhalyBot, MerlLinkBot, Montyofarabia, Kouroush12, Wdenhelm, Shadowjams, WebCiteBOT, Basel
Maven, Us441, British Raja, Franklinville, Haldraper, Dan6hell66, Omidirani, EtemadiPakhtoon, George2001hi, Aliandhisbooks, FrescoBot, Hazaraboys, Skydeepblue, Tobby72, Scoobycentric, Giorgio V. Brandolini, Im a Socialist! What Are You, Massagetae, Lukecf,
MathFacts, Mohammad Shah, Haeinous, Trust Is All You Need, Oro2, NGSF, Jersey92, Bambuway, Iqinn, Airborne84, Louperibot,
Armigo~enwiki, Diremarc, Citation bot 1, KleeroyJ, Redrose64, AstaBOTh15, DrilBot, Hazaraboyz, WQUlrich, Pinethicket, I dream
of horses, HRoestBot, Notedgrant, Ruthiedee, LiquidOcelot24, Onthegogo, MJ94, Tinton5, Yahia.barie, King Zebu, Hoo man, Kenloyds,
RedBot, MastiBot, Gingermint, Fauncet, le ottante, Divinka, Secret Saturdays, Captainamerica666, Baumgaertner, Forward Unto Dawn,
Footwarrior, Aamsse, TRBP, Tea with toast, Cliniic, Plosschen, Cnwilliams, Tim1357, Flosssock1, Kgrad, Inuit18, FoxBot, TobeBot,
Trappist the monk, Lotje, Callanecc, GregKaye, Begoon, Abasin, Danieldis47, Theo10011, Jerd10, Diannaa, Ammodramus, Underlying lk, Rzuwig, Hari7478, Tbhotch, Newcorp, Persia2099, Reach Out to the Truth, Fry1989, SorenShadow, Jrkso, DARTH SIDIOUS
2, 4musicication, EasternAryan, AYousefzai, Technophant, Jansentilanus, Margaader, Trilarion, RjwilmsiBot, Chipmunkdavis, TjBot,
Dude2288, Karadenizlim25, Regancy42, AssociateAliate, AFGstyla20, Sa1919, Andychen86, Jimtaip, Florianwicher, Chola yadava,
Slon02, Plienas26, Ilgar Khankishiyev, DASHBot, Mr. Anon515, Whywhenwhohow, EmausBot, Tayyabrana, John of Reading, Dolescum, Nima1024, WikitanvirBot, MudskipperMarkII, Themastertree, Gfoley4, 478jjjz, Tallungs, Look2See1, Iureor, Ajraddatz, Anshuman.jrt, Dewritech, MikeyTMNT, GoingBatty, Sentinel R, Mesgul82, Ahmed shahi, Bull Market, Netsquall, Tommy2010, P. S. F. Freitas,
Pahlavannariman, Thecheesykid, Italia2006, Werieth, 30, Hellomynameisbobism, AvicBot, HiW-Bot, The Madras, ZroBot, John Cline,
Illegitimate Barrister, F, Iwanttoeditthissh, Mar4d, Empty Buer, Etalssrs, Userofsite1, Oriakhill1, Jaredn6, Asadjed, Undercompany,
H3llBot, Domasch, Pabloqp, SporkBot, Mentoz86, Mdmday, Gz33, Wayne Slam, Rjrya395, Neddy1234, Staszek Lem, Shaqi, Sorington,
JCAla, Joshua Doubek, IGeMiNix, Sassospicco, Toshio Yamaguchi, Seasonall, Measuredhs, L Kensington, Mr afghanistan, Angus.leslie,
Hazaraguy, Colerelm, Ashirzai, GinGongGangGing, Lagoo sab, Azabec, Parsa1993, Xiaoyu of Yuxi, Golfcourseairhorn, NorthernPashtun,
Bakrbinaziz, Evdawg715, Pun, Thewolfchild, Moocow121, Sbarsegyan, Gtrider1, ChuispastonBot, Cn7abc, LS C HIST, Vivian0204,
CiriloMechas, ClamDip, Porkypine101, Grampion76, Kaki joe, Flobot222, Sunshine4921, EdoBot, Pierpietro, Da hewad ratlunke,
Jarvtikkins, Sfn10000, Sven Manguard, Afranelli, David07905, DASHBotAV, Chandraguptamaurya, Imacool12345667, Imanq, Naveed
ngr, McCaster, Excel access, TheTimesAreAChanging, Ahmadfaisalsidiqi, Khestwol, Petrb, Will Beback Auto, ClueBot NG, Apthewizard, Jassy.111, Nymiak, Illyaway, W.Kaleem, Asadwaseer, CANDMRELOADED12, Dkrunyon, Neutralyz, Iamhere786, George yo wiki,
Duanedonecker, Deadpoolfankid, Piast93, BarrelProof, Joefromrandb, Imranahmadkhanahmad, Overlord917, Murteza2011, Kman665,
Waaynee, Omidstar, Bright Darkness, Turn685, Winston786, Korrawit, RJFF, Qjahid, Amr.rs, Frietjes, Delusion23, Twillisjr, Hazhk, Emedia10, , AlimNaz, CopperSquare, Joel B. Lewis, Widr, Thejustinj90, Lysozym, WikiPuppies, HotWinters, Kutsuit, She
has a bird brain, Seair21, North Atlanticist Usonian, MerlIwBot, Martin.abawi, Mightymights, Helpful Pixie Bot, SojerPL, Thisthat2011,
AnsarParacha, Asparux Xan Bulqar, BG19bot, Cheywoodward2, Mahengct, Furkhaocean, Seraj A. Salim, Hza a 9, PhnomPencil, HIDECCHI001, StevenJ81, TheGeneralUser, Canada10wi, Frze, AvocatoBot, Darkness Shines, Cliopudicam, Akbar Khan89, Mark Arsten,
Dupree fan, SugarRat, Compfreak7, Bobbymaestro, Ksmdr, Dainomite, Metalman59, Augustes, Gazaneh, Jorge Koli, Mranderson56, Surtalnar, Da enlightened one, Havantshire, Drewrau, Maurice Flesier, MRC37, Khushwanaseer, Winter Gaze, Spitre202, RGloucester, Dr.
Egalitarian, Littleboy58, BattyBot, Factsearch, Thebuck093, Liam987, Pratyya Ghosh, Mdann52, Polupolu890, Mrt3366, Galaga1981, Cyberbot II, TAzimi, Mikerrr, ChrisGualtieri, Arcandam, Khazar2, Haseebullah123, IceBrotherhood, Ekren, Stumink, JYBot, IjonTichyIjonTichy, AA193, BrightStarSky, ABDEVILLIERS0007, Dexbot, Bethmills, Dissident93, Zeeyanwiki, K7L, Sminthopsis84, Webclient101,
25 Cents FC, Samak, Mogism, Datu Dong, Nasir Ghobar, , Khatary1, ARIHANT SUB, Frosty, Akshinwari, Nadya Inoubli, Zyma, Google9999, Xwoodsterchinx, Mother nature 899, Fareed30, Royroydeb, Faizan, Jwoodward48wiki, Mohd Rfus, CsDix,
Abhay23may, Howicus, Melonkelon, HistoryofIran, Wanishahrukh, Jamal.gul, Androdin, Everymorning, Jakec, EvergreenFir, Dwscomet,
Hemmat87, 84singh84, LouisAragon, Akmal94, Sol1, 22 Male Cali, Nikhilmn2002, The Herald, Metalman60, Hippotippo, Ginsuloft,
Sam Sailor, Jianhui67, Limnalid, Jackmcbarn, Insegrievious, Blondeguynative, Agrso, Adjutor101, Shadowscale7544, Peterjacksonmail0,
Finlayevans, Amalave96, How Shuan Shi, Stamptrader, Milliona, Meteor sandwich yum, WorldsLibrarian, Gametimewithbrendan, Fremantle99, Examplar, Feysalafghan, Nasim007, Theahmadzai, Filedelinkerbot, Olga sdn, Rcrptmncr, Monopoly31121993, Alien from
Afghanistan, Mhhossein, StradBot, Pohyal98, Faraz.sayyed5, UsmanKhan, TheOcialAman, HMSLavender, Cirow, Vormeph, Unma.af,
Shayansoleymani, Kautilya3, Krzyhorse22, Lyndonbaines, Goldsmiths295, AryanaWattan, Thereball777, Johanna, Cartakes, Jahanfar90,
Kabuli-Don007, Jartgina, \\'arrior 786, Baboo1z, Mll mitch, Gaya3menon, Khalidafg, Human3015, Khalid Nezami, Kjamjamz, Orangesaft,
Depressed my entire life, KasparBot, Capankajsmilyo, IOHANNVSVERVS, Malik.223, NotAnOmbudsman, Antrangelos, EISIGMA4,
EISIGMA8, AFGHANLAND11 and Anonymous: 1351

17.2

Images

File:2011_Afghan_Youth_Voices_Festival.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ed/2011_Afghan_Youth_

Voices_Festival.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Afghan Youth Voices 011 Original artist: USAID Afghanistan
File:ANP_trucks_in_Kunar.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/ANP_trucks_in_Kunar.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors:
This Image was released by the United States Army with the ID 120529-A-XU607-013 <a class='external text' href='//commons.wikimedia.
org/w/index.php?title=Category:Files_created_by_the_United_States_Army_with_known_IDs,<span>,&,</span>,lefrom=120529-AXU607-013#mw-category-media'>(next)</a>.
This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information.

Original artist: Sgt. 1st Class Lawree Washingtonn (U.S. Armed Forces)
File:Aerial_view_of_a_section_of_Kandahar_in_2013.jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/
Aerial_view_of_a_section_of_Kandahar_in_2013.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.flickr.com/photos/usace-tas/
8712299609/ Original artist: Karla Marshall

28

17

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

File:Afghan_history_from_2008-2011.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/63/Afghan_history_from_

2008-2011.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: File:LAV3patrol.jpg (PD-USGov-Military-Army)
Original artist: Ocer
File:Afghan_parliament_in_2006.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/Afghan_parliament_in_2006.
jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://gemini.info.usaid.gov/photos/displayimage.php?pos=$-$472 Original artist: Ben
File:Afghan_pomegranate_processing.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/80/Afghan_pomegranate_
processing.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Flickr - Pomegranates Original artist: USAID Afghanistan
File:Afghan_soldiers.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ef/Afghan_soldiers.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors:
This Image was released by the United States Air Force with the ID 100428-F-0101M-003 <a class='external text'
href='//commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Files_created_by_the_United_States_Air_Force_with_known_
IDs,<span>,&,</span>,lefrom=100428-F-0101M-003#mw-category-media'>(next)</a>.
This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information.

Original artist: Sta Sgt. Markus Maier (U.S. armed forces)

File:Afghan_topo_en.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/45/Afghan_topo_en.jpg License: CC-BY-SA3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Afghan_women_at_a_textile_factory_in_Kabul.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/22/Afghan_
women_at_a_textile_factory_in_Kabul.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
This Image was released by the United States Air Force with the ID 120117-F-YC711-025 <a class='external text'
href='//commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Files_created_by_the_United_States_Air_Force_with_known_
IDs,<span>,&,</span>,lefrom=120117-F-YC711-025#mw-category-media'>(next)</a>.
This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information.

Original artist: Senior Airman Andrea Salazar (U.S. Armed Forces)

File:Afghanistan,_Trends_in_the_Human_Development_Index_1970-2010.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/5/5f/Afghanistan%2C_Trends_in_the_Human_Development_Index_1970-2010.png License: Public domain Contributors:
http://hdr.undp.org/en/data/trends/hybrid/ Original artist: UNDP
File:Afghanistan_(orthographic_projection).svg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/Afghanistan_
%28orthographic_projection%29.svg License: GFDL Contributors: (Original text: Based on File:India_(orthographic_projection).svg by
user:Ssolbergj I have created this work entirely by myself.) Original artist: Shahid Parvez. Based on a le by User:Ssolbergj
File:Afghanistan_-_Location_Map_(2013)_-_AFG_-_UNOCHA.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/
31/Afghanistan_-_Location_Map_%282013%29_-_AFG_-_UNOCHA.svg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Afghanistan Locator Map
(ReliefWeb), ESRI, UNCS, The Times Atlas of the World Original artist: UN Oce for the Coordination of Humanitarian Aairs (OCHA)
File:Afghanistan_provinces_numbered.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/44/Afghanistan_provinces_
numbered.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Ahmad_Faisal_-_football_-_A.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/Ahmad_Faisal_-_football_-_
A.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Ahmad Faisal Original artist: Ahmad Faisal
File:Ariana_Afghan_A310-300_F-GEMO.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8e/Ariana_Afghan_
A310-300_F-GEMO.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Arcturus
File:Asia_(orthographic_projection).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/80/Asia_%28orthographic_
projection%29.svg License: GFDL Contributors: Map by Ssolbergj
Aquarius.geomar.de
Original artist:Koyos + Ssolbergj (<a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Ssolbergj' title='User talk:Ssolbergj'>talk</a>)
File:AsokaKandahar.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/10/AsokaKandahar.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:BamyanBuddha_Smaller_1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/41/BamyanBuddha_Smaller_1.jpg
License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Phecda109
File:Central_Asian_Games_participating_countries.PNG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Central_
Asian_Games_participating_countries.PNG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: FilRB
File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
File:Day_after_Saur_revolution_in_Kabul_(773).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f1/Day_after_
Saur_revolution_in_Kabul_%28773%29.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Cleric77
File:Farhad_Darya{}s_Peace_Concert_in_2010-cropped.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d2/
Farhad_Darya%27s_Peace_Concert_in_2010-cropped.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: U.S. Embassy Kabul Afghanistan on
Flickr - Farhad Daryas Peace Concert Original artist: Daniel Wilkinson (U.S. Department of State), cropped by Ocer
File:Flag_of_Afghanistan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/Flag_of_Afghanistan.svg License: CC0
Contributors: http://openclipart.org/detail/24112/flag-of-afghanistan-by-anonymous-24112 Original artist:
File:Flag_of_Australia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/b9/Flag_of_Australia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: http://www.elibrary.az/docs/remz/pdf/remz_bayraq.pdf and http://www.meclis.gov.az/?/az/topcontent/21 Original
artist: SKopp and others
File:Flag_of_Bangladesh.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/Flag_of_Bangladesh.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: http://www.dcaa.com.bd/Modules/CountryProfile/BangladeshFlag.aspx Original artist: User:SKopp

17.2

Images

29

File:Flag_of_Bhutan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/Flag_of_Bhutan.svg License: Public domain

Contributors: Originally from the Open Clip Art website, then replaced with an improved version. Original artist: w:en:User:Nightstallion
(original uploader), the author of xrmap (improved version)
File:Flag_of_Europe.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Flag_of_Europe.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Original artist:User:Verdy p, User:-x-, User:Paddu, User:Nightstallion, User:Funakoshi, User:Jeltz, User:Dbenbenn, User:
Zscout370
File:Flag_of_India.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg License: Public domain Contributors:
? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Iran.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg License: Public domain Contributors: URL http://www.isiri.org/portal/files/std/1.htm and an English translation / interpretation at URL http://flagspot.net/flags/ir'.html
Original artist: Various
File:Flag_of_Japan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: own code, construction sheet Original artist: -x File:Flag_of_Kyrgyzstan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/Flag_of_Kyrgyzstan.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: Drawn by User:SKopp, construction sheet. Redo by: cs:User:-xfi- Original artist: Made by Andrew Duhan for the
Sodipodi SVG ag collection, and is public domain.
File:Flag_of_Maldives.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/Flag_of_Maldives.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: user:Nightstallion
File:Flag_of_Mauritius.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/77/Flag_of_Mauritius.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Zscout370
File:Flag_of_Myanmar.svg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Flag_of_Myanmar.svg License:
Open Clip Art Original artist:
Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:
CC0 Contributors:
Q4233718'><img
alt='wikidata:Q4233718'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.
svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png'
width='20'
height='11'
srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/
40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050' data-le-height='590' /></a>
File:Flag_of_Nepal.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9b/Flag_of_Nepal.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Constitution of The Kingdom of Nepal, Article 5, Schedule 1 [1] Original artist: Drawn by User:Pumbaa80, User:Achim1999
File:Flag_of_Pakistan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg License: Public domain Contributors: The drawing and the colors were based from agspot.net. Original artist: User:Zscout370
File:Flag_of_South_Africa.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/Flag_of_South_Africa.svg License:
Public domain Contributors: Per specications in the Constitution of South Africa, Schedule 1 - National ag Original artist: Flag design by Frederick Brownell, image by Wikimedia Commons users
File:Flag_of_South_Korea.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/09/Flag_of_South_Korea.svg License:
Public domain Contributors: Ordinance Act of the Law concerning the National Flag of the Republic of Korea, Construction and color
guidelines (Russian/English) This site is not exist now.(2012.06.05) Original artist: Various
File:Flag_of_Sri_Lanka.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/Flag_of_Sri_Lanka.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: SLS 693 - National ag of Sri Lanka Original artist: Zscout370
File:Flag_of_Tajikistan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d0/Flag_of_Tajikistan.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Turkey.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Turkish Flag Law (Trk Bayra Kanunu), Law nr. 2893 of 22 September 1983. Text (in Turkish) at the website of the
Turkish Historical Society (Trk Tarih Kurumu) Original artist: David Benbennick (original author)
File:Flag_of_Turkmenistan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Flag_of_Turkmenistan.svg License:
Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Uzbekistan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/Flag_of_Uzbekistan.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ozbekiston Respublikasining Davlat bayrogi. The ocially dened colours are Pantone
313C for blue and 361C for green (source: [1], [2]). Drawn by User:Zscout370.
File:Flag_of_the_People{}s_Republic_of_China.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Flag_of_the_
People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, http://www.protocol.gov.hk/flags/eng/n_flag/
design.html Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp, redrawn by User:Denelson83 and User:Zscout370
File:Flag_of_the_Turkish_Republic_of_Northern_Cyprus.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1e/Flag_
of_the_Turkish_Republic_of_Northern_Cyprus.svg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg License:
PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-bysa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Geography_of_Afghanistan.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/17/Geography_of_Afghanistan.jpg
License: Public domain Contributors: File:Afghanistan{}s Grand Canyon.jpg (PD-USGov-USAID)
Original artist: Ocer
File:Jama_Masjid_of_Herat_15_08.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a3/Jama_Masjid_of_Herat_15_
08.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: original negatives Original artist: Frantiek ihek

30

17

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

File:Kabul_during_civial_war_of_fundamentalists_1993-2.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ca/
Kabul_during_civial_war_of_fundamentalists_1993-2.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: http://www.rawa.org Original artist: RAWA
File:Kandahar-1881.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/12/Kandahar-1881.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: http://images.rgs.org/ (Image number: S0015822) Original artist: Benjamin Simpson (1831-1923)
File:National_Emblem_of_Afghanistan_03.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/National_Emblem_
of_Afghanistan_03.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Bahij Virtual Academy
File:National_anthem_of_Afghanistan.OGG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/National_anthem_of_
Afghanistan.OGG License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: http://www.nationalanthems.info/af.mp3 Original artist: http://www.
nationalanthems.info
File:Nowruz_in_northern_Afghanistan-2011.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f7/Nowruz_in_
northern_Afghanistan-2011.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: Mosque Grounds Original artist: Peretz Partensky from San
Francisco, USA
File:Office-book.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/Office-book.svg License: Public domain Contributors: This and myself. Original artist: Chris Down/Tango project
File:Opening_ceremony_of_the_Kandahar_Nursing_and_Midwifery_Institute.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Opening_ceremony_of_the_Kandahar_Nursing_and_Midwifery_Institute.jpg License:
Public domain
Contributors:
This Image was released by the United States Air Force with the ID 120509-F-PD696-774 <a class='external text'
href='//commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Files_created_by_the_United_States_Air_Force_with_known_
IDs,<span>,&,</span>,lefrom=120509-F-PD696-774#mw-category-media'>(next)</a>.
This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information.

Original artist: Sta Sgt. Timothy Chacon

File:Portal-puzzle.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
File:Portrait_miniature_of_Ahmad_Shah_Durrani.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/03/Portrait_
miniature_of_Ahmad_Shah_Durrani.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://expositions.bnf.fr/inde/grand/exp_037.htm Original
artist: Colonel Gentil
File:Saleha_Bayat_Building_at_AUAF_in_Kabul-2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/Saleha_
Bayat_Building_at_AUAF_in_Kabul-2.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: 100526 AUAF Graduation 004 Original artist: USAID
Afghanistan
File:Secretary_Kerry_meets_Abdullah_and_Ghani_2014.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/83/
Secretary_Kerry_meets_Abdullah_and_Ghani_2014.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors:
https://www.flickr.com/photos/
statephotos/14634789074/ Original artist: U.S. Department of State
File:Section_of_Kabul_in_October_2011.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Section_of_Kabul_in_
October_2011.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: _MG_3699.jpg Original artist: James Solly
File:Shuja_Shah_Durrani_of_Afghanistan_in_1839.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Shuja_
Shah_Durrani_of_Afghanistan_in_1839.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The British Library - Online Gallery Original artist:
James Rattray (1818-1854)
File:Speakerlink-new.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/Speakerlink-new.svg License: CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Kelvinsong
File:Steady2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/96/Steady2.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own
work Original artist: Tomchen1989
File:Symbol_book_class2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Symbol_book_class2.svg License: CC
BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Mad by Lokal_Prol by combining: Original artist: Lokal_Prol
File:Terrestrial_globe.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/6b/Terrestrial_globe.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Tribal_and_religious_leaders_in_southern_Afghanistan.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/
Tribal_and_religious_leaders_in_southern_Afghanistan.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
This Image was released by the United States Navy with the ID 100614-N-1928O-066 <a class='external text' href='//commons.wikimedia.
org/w/index.php?title=Category:Files_created_by_the_United_States_Navy_with_known_IDs,<span>,&,</span>,lefrom=100614-N1928O-066#mw-category-media'>(next)</a>.
This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information.

Original artist: Mark ODonald (Petty Ocer 1st Class of the U.S. Navy )
File:US_Army_ethnolinguistic_map_of_Afghanistan_--_circa_2001-09.jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/b/bb/US_Army_ethnolinguistic_map_of_Afghanistan_--_circa_2001-09.jpg License:
Public domain Conhttp://www.army.mil/cmh/brochures/Afghanistan/Operation%20Enduring%20Freedom.htm Original artist:
Untributors:
known<a
href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718'
title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img
alt='wikidata:Q4233718'
src='https:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png'
width='20'
height='11'
srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png
1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050'
data-le-height='590' /></a>
File:View_of_Herat_in_2009.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/View_of_Herat_in_2009.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: U.S Embassy Kabul Afghanistan Original artist: Employee of the U.S. State Department
File:Wikibooks-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Bastique, User:Ramac et al.

17.3

Content license

31

File:Wikinews-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0

Contributors: This is a cropped version of Image:Wikinews-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Simon 01:05, 2 August 2006 (UTC)
Updated by Time3000 17 April 2007 to use ocial Wikinews colours and appear correctly on dark backgrounds. Originally uploaded by
Simon.
File:Wikiquote-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Wikisource-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Original artist:Nicholas Moreau
File:Wikiversity-logo-Snorky.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Wikiversity-logo-en.svg License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Snorky
File:Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: AleXXw
File:Wiktionary-logo-en.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Wiktionary-logo-en.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: Vector version of Image:Wiktionary-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Fvasconcellos (talk contribs),
based on original logo tossed together by Brion Vibber
File:Zahir_Shah_of_Afghanistan_in_1930s-cropped.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ad/Zahir_
Shah_of_Afghanistan_in_1930s-cropped.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.unesco.ch/afghanistanmuseum/browser/
content/K1360_1395_National_Archive_01_36.html Original artist: Haji Amin Qodrat, Kabul

17.3 Content license

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0
User:Zscout370
File based on the specication given at [1].