APPLICATION NOTE

An In-Depth Examination of an Energy

Efficiency Technology

Thermal Energy
Storage Strategies
for Commercial
HVAC Systems

Summary ............................................. 1
How This Technology
Saves Energy ...................................... 2
Types of Demand and Energy
Efficiency Measures ........................... 3
Applicability ........................................ 7
Field Observations to Assess
Feasibility ............................................ 7
Cost and Service Life ....................... 11
Laws, Codes, and Regulations........ 13
Definitions of Key Terms ................. 13
References to More Information...... 14
Major Manufacturers ........................ 14
Copyright May 1997, Pacific Gas and Electric Company, all rights reserved.

Summary
Thermal energy storage (TES) systems
shift cooling energy use to non-peak
times. They chill storage media such as
water, ice, or a phase-change material
during periods of low cooling demand
for use later to meet air-conditioning
loads. Operating strategies are generally classified as either full storage or
partial storage, referring to the amount
of cooling load transferred from on-peak
to off-peak.
TES systems are applicable in most
commercial and industrial facilities, but
certain criteria must be met for economic feasibility. A system can be appropriate when maximum cooling load is
significantly higher than average load.
High demand charges, and a significant
differential between on-peak and offpeak rates, also help make TES systems economic. They may also be appropriate where more chiller capacity is
needed for an existing system, or where
back-up or redundant cooling capacity
is desirable.
Besides shifting load, TES systems may
also reduce energy consumption, depending on site-specific design, notably
where chillers can be operated at full
load during the night. Also, pumping
energy and fan energy can be reduced
by lowering the temperature of the water, and therefore the air temperature,
affecting the quantity of air circulation
required.
Capital costs tend to be higher than a
conventional direct-cooling system, but
other economic factors can reduce such
costs. In new construction, ductwork
Revised 4/25/97

could be smaller, allowing more usable

space. Or a TES system may enable
reduction in electrical capacity, reducing
the cost of electrical service for a new or
expanding facility.

How This Technology

Saves Energy
In a TES system, a storage medium is
chilled during periods of low cooling
demand, and the stored cooling is used
later to meet air-conditioning load or
process cooling loads.
The system consists of a storage medium in a tank, a packaged chiller or
built-up refrigeration system, and interconnecting piping, pumps, and controls.
The storage medium is generally water,
ice, or a phase-change1 material
(sometimes called a eutectic salt); it is
typically chilled to lower temperatures
than would be required for direct cooling
to keep the storage tank size within
economic limits. Figure 1 illustrates the
basic operation of a system that uses
chilled water.
Load shifting is typically the main reason to install a TES system. Cool storage systems can significantly cut operating costs by cooling with cheaper offpeak energy, and reducing or eliminating on-peak demand charges.
These systems have a reputation for
consuming more energy than nonstorage systems. This has often been true
where demand reduction was the primary design objective. Cool storage
1

Bold italicized words are defined in the section

title Definition of Key Terms.

does require the chiller to work harder

to cool the system down to the required
lower temperatures (for ice storage);
and energy is needed to pump fluids in
and out of storage.
But a number of design options can
make TES systems more energyefficient than nonstorage systems. Storage systems let chillers operate at full
load all night , versus operating at full or
part load during the day.
Depending on the system configuration,
the chiller may be smaller than would be
required for direct cooling, allowing
smaller auxiliaries such as coolingtower fans, condenser water pumps, or
condenser fans. Pumping energy can
be reduced by increasing the chilled
water temperature range; fan energy
can be cut with colder air distribution.
Storage systems can also make increased use of heat recovery and waterside economizer strategies.

Discharging

Building Load
Distribution
Warm
Pump
Storage
Cool

Primary Pump
Chiller
Charging

Figure 1: Thermal Energy Storage

System with Stratified Chilled Water
Storage (Source: ASHRAE)*

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Types of Demand and

Energy Efficiency Measures
TES systems can be characterized by
storage medium and storage technology. Storage media include chilled water, ice, and phase-change materials,
which differ in their operating characteristics and physical requirements for
storing energy. Storage technologies
include chilled water tanks, ice systems,
and phase-change materials.

Chilled Water Storage

These systems use the sensible heat
capacity of water (1 Btu per pound per
degree Fahrenheit) to store cooling.
Tank volume depends on the temperature difference between the water supplied from storage and the water returning from the load, and the degree of
separation between warm and cold water in the storage tank. Where most
conventional nonstorage HVAC systems
operate on temperature differentials of
10 to 12F, chilled water systems generally need a differential of at least 16F
to keep the storage tank size reasonable. A difference of 20F is the practical maximum for most building cooling
applications, although a few systems
exceed 30F.
Chilled water is generally stored at 39F
to 42F, temperatures directly compatible with most conventional water chillers
and distribution systems. Return temperatures of 58 to 60F or higher are
desirable to maximize the tank temperature difference and minimize tank
volume.

Tank volume is affected by the separation maintained between the stored cold
water and the warm return water. Natural stratification has emerged as the
preferred approach, because of its low
cost and superior performance. Colder
water remains at the bottom and
warmer, lighter water remains at the top.
Specially designed diffusers transfer
water into and out of a storage tank at a
low velocity to minimize mixing.
The figure of merit (FOM) is a measure
of a tanks ability to maintain such separation; it indicates the effective percentage of the total volume that will be
available to provide usable cooling.
Well-designed stratified tanks typically
have FOMs of 85 to 95 percent.
The practical minimum storage volume
for chilled water is approximately 10.7
cubic feet per ton-hour at a 20F temperature difference.
Chilled Water System Example
Application
Needing an additional 3,750 tons of
peak cooling capacity for a 250,000square-foot addition to its Dallas headquarters, Texas Instruments chose a
chilled water thermal storage system:
Adding chiller capacity would have cost
about $10 million, while the TES system
cost about $7 millionand a $200/kW
utility rebate reduced this to about $5.75
million. The new system also has cut
operating costs about $1.5 million per
year and allowed postponement of an
expansion of the facilitys high-voltage
substation.
The TES system uses a 5.2-milliongallon, thermally stratified chilled water
storage tank, built under a parking lot.

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This pre-stressed, cylindrical concrete

reservoir, 140 feet in diameter and 45
feet in height, has a design discharge
rate of 7,500 tonsdelivering 40F water at 12,000 gallons per minute (gpm)
which returns to the tank at 55F.
This system shifts 5.1 MW (35 percent)
of existing electric chiller load to offpeak hoursabout 8.5 percent of total
facility demand. Five existing chillers
with total capacity of 6,500 tons now
remain off during the day. Mechanical
cooling systems now operate more efficiently because they are more fully
loaded (0.85 kW/ton versus the previous 0.95 kW/ton) and produce 13 percent more annual ton-hours of cooling.

Building
Load

Chilled
Water
Pump

Ice Harvester
Chiller

Ice / Water
Mixture

Ice-water
Pump

Figure 2: Ice Harvesting

(Source: ASHRAE)*

a higher temperature rise at the load, up

to 25F. The following technologies are
used:

Ice Storage
Ice thermal storage uses the latent heat
of fusion of water (144 Btu per pound).
Storage volume is generally in the
range of 2.4 to 3.3 cubic feet per tonhour, depending on the specific icestorage technology.
Thermal energy is stored in ice at 32F,
the freezing point of water. The equipment must provide charging fluid at
temperatures of 15 to 26F, below the
normal operating range of conventional
cooling equipment for air-conditioning.
Depending on the storage technology,
special ice-making equipment is used or
standard chillers are selected for lowtemperature duty. The heat transfer fluid
may be the refrigerant itself or a secondary coolant such as glycol with water
or some other antifreeze solution.
The low temperature of ice can also
provide lower temperature air for cooling. The lower-temperature chilled water
supply available from ice storage allows

Ice harvesting. Ice is formed on an

evaporator surface and periodically released into a tank partially filled with
water. Cold water is pumped from the
tank to meet the cooling load. Return
water is then pumped over ice in the
tank. Refer to Figure 2.
External melt ice-on-coil. Ice is
formed on submerged pipes or tubes
through which a refrigerant or secondary fluid is circulated. Storage is discharged by circulating the water that
surrounds the pipes, melting the ice
from the outside.

Internal melt ice-on-coil. Ice is

formed on submerged pipes or tubes,
as in the external melt system. Cooling
is discharged by circulating warm coolant through the pipes, melting the ice
from the inside.

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 Encapsulated ice. Water inside

submerged plastic containers freezes
and thaws as cold or warm coolant is
circulated through the tank holding the
containers.

Ice slurry. Water in a water/glycol

solution is frozen into a slurry like the
ice in a Sno-Cone and pumped to a
storage tank. Slurries can be pumped
from the tank to heat exchangers or directly to cooling coils, resulting in high
energy transport rates.
The most common commercial technology today is internal melt ice-on-coil.
External melt and ice-harvesting systems are more common in industrial applications, and can also be applied in
commercial buildings. Encapsulated ice
systems are also suitable for many
commercial applications.
Ice Storage Example Application
The Seafirst Building in Bellevue,
Washington uses an ice storage system
and cold air distribution with smallerthan-typical ducting. An Electric Power
Research Institute comparison showed
that this increased gross construction
costs but reduced construction cost per
square foot by about $4, because reduced floor-to-floor heights allowed 21
stories within a height that would normally accommodate only 20thus
adding 13,000 square feet of rentable
space. Smaller mechanical rooms
added another 4,000 square feet. This
provides about $340,000 per year of
additional income.

Phase-Change Material Storage

Phase-change materials, or eutectic
salts, are available to melt and freeze at

selected temperatures. Most common is

a mixture that stores 41 Btu per pound
at its melting/freezing point of 47F.
This material is encapsulated in rectangular plastic containers, which are
stacked in a storage tank through which
water is circulated. The net storage volume of such a system is approximately
six cubic feet per ton-hour.
The 47F phase-change point of this
material allows the use of standard
chilling equipment. Discharge temperatures are higher than the supply temperatures of most conventional cooling
systems, so operating strategies may be
limited.
Phase-change materials are also available for lowering the storage temperatures of ice systems. Additives on the
market reduce freezing temperatures to
28 and 12F in ice storage tanks; they
reduce the latent heat capacity of water,
as well as lower the freezing point. The
material is highly corrosive, so care
must be used in applying it.

Operating and Control

Strategies
TES operating strategies are generally
classified as either full storage or partial storage, referring to the amount of
cooling load transferred from on-peak
periods. Strategies for operation at less
than design loads include chiller priority
and storage priority control.
The period during which a system must
reduce electric demand is generally
called on-peak, often but not necessarily synonymous with on-peak hours
defined by the electric utility. In some
facilities the period may actually be
shorter than the utility on-peak period.

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Load
Chiller On
Chiller Charging Storage
Chiller Meets Load Directly

Peak electric demand from cooling also

may not occur simultaneously with the
peak facility demand.

Tons

Cool storage systems are usually sized

to generate enough cooling in 24 hours
to meet all the loads occurring during
that period, but some applications use
longer cycles.

Storage Meets Load

Full Storage
24-hour Period

Full-storage, or load-shifting (shown in

Figure 3), shifts the entire on-peak
cooling load to off-peak hours and usually operates at full capacity to charge
storage during all non-peak hours. On-

Figure 4: Partial-storage LoadLeveling Operating Strategy

(Source: ASHRAE)*

meets the rest. Such operating strategies can be further subdivided into loadleveling and demand-limiting, Figures 4
and 5.

Load
Chiller On
Chiller Charging Storage
Chiller Meets Load Directly
Storage Meets Load

Tons

In a load-leveling system, the chiller

typically runs at full capacity for 24
hours on the design day. When the load
is less than the chiller output, the excess charges storage. When the load
exceeds chiller capacity, the additional
requirement is discharged from storage.

24-hour Period

Load
Chiller On
Chiller Charging Storage
Chiller Meets Load Directly

Figure 3: Full Storage Operating

Strategy (Source: ASHRAE)*

peak, all cooling loads are met from

storage, and the chiller does not run. A
full-storage system requires relatively
large chiller and storage capacities and
is most attractive where on-peak demand charges are high or the on-peak
period is short.

Tons

Storage Meets Load

Reduced On-peak
Demand

24-hour Period

Partial Storage
With this strategy chiller capacity is less
than design load. The chiller meets part
of the on-peak cooling load and storage

Figure 5: Partial-storage DemandLimiting Operating Strategy

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(Source: ASHRAE)*

Page 6

This approach minimizes required

chiller and storage capacities and is
particularly attractive where peak cooling load is much higher than average
load. In many systems, cooling loads
during off-design periods are small
enough that partial-storage systems
may be operated as full-storage systems. This can increase savings but
care must be taken to not deplete storage before the on-peak period is over.
A demand-limiting partial-storage system operates the chiller at reduced capacity on-peak. The chiller may be controlled to limit the facility demand at the
billing meter. This strategy falls between
load shifting and load leveling. Demand
savings and equipment costs are higher
than for load-leveling, and lower than
for load-shifting. Here too care must be
taken not to deplete storage before the
end of the on-peak period.
Additional variations on the full- and
partial-storage strategies are possible
by scheduling the operation of multiple
chillers.
Partial-storage systems use one of two
control strategies to divide the load
between chiller and storage. A chillerpriority strategy uses the chiller to directly meet as much of the load as possible. Cooling is supplied from storage
only when load exceeds chiller capacity.
Storage-priority meets as much of the
load as possible from stored cooling,
using the chiller only when daily load
exceeds total stored cooling capacity.
Some systems use combinations of
these strategies. For example, chiller
priority during off-peak daytime hours,
and storage priority during on-peak
hours.

Applicability
Thermal energy storage can be used in
virtually any building; the merits are
compelling in the right situations. The
main issues are the type of storage
system and the amount of cooling load
to be shifted. Before embarking on a
cool storage project, however, one
should consider the field observation
guidelines below. In addition, alternative
approaches should be considered for
each project.

Field Observations to
Assess Feasibility
This section discusses observations
and checks that can ensure a TES system is appropriate and is installed and
working properly.

Related to Applicability
The many successful TES systems operating today demonstrate that the
technology can provide significant
benefits. However, many cool storage
systems have failed to perform as predicted because they did not meet the
criteria for applicability cited below.
Cool storage systems are most suitable
where any of the following criteria apply:

The maximum cooling load of the

facility is significantly higher than the
average load. The higher the ratio of
peak load to average load, the greater
the potential.

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 The electric utility rate structure

The maximum cooling load of the

includes high demand charges,

ratchet charges, or a high differential
between on- and off-peak energy rates.
The economics are particularly attractive where the cost of on-peak demand
and energy is high.

facility is very close to the average

load. A TES system would offer little
opportunity to downsize chilling equipment.

On-peak demand charges are low

ing expanded. The cost of adding cool

storage capacity can be much less than
the cost of adding new chillers.

and there is little or no difference between the costs of on- and off-peak energy. There is little economic value for
customers to shift cooling to off-peak
periods.

An existing tank suitable for cool

The space available for storage is

storage use is available. In some retrofits, particularly in industrial applications, using existing tanks can reduce
the cost of installing cool storage.

limited, there is no space available, the

cost of making the space available is
high, or the value of the space for some
other use is high.

Electric power available at the site

The cooling load is too small to

is limited. Where expensive transformers or switchgear would otherwise

have to be added, the reduction in
electric demand through the use of cool
storage can mean significant savings.

justify the expense of a storage system. Typically, a peak load of 100 tons
or more has been necessary for cool
storage to be feasible.

An existing cooling system is be-

Backup or redundant cooling capacity is desirable. Cool storage can

provide short-term backup or reserve
cooling capacity for computer rooms
and other critical applications.

Cold air distribution can be used,

is necessary, or would be beneficial.
Cool storage technologies using ice
permit economical use of lowertemperature supply water and air. Engineers can downsize pumps, piping, air
handlers, and ductwork, and realize
substantial reductions in first cost.
If one or more of the following are true,
TES may not be an appropriate technology:

The design team lacks experience

or funding to conduct a thorough design process. The design team should
be capable of TES design, which differs
from standard HVAC system design. If
this is not the case, or if funding for design fees is limited, the chances for a
successful system are reduced.
Performance testing of a new thermal
storage plant is particularly important.
Each system should be tested for
charge capacity, discharge capacity,
and scheduling and control sequences.
The charge capacity test verifies that
the system can fully charge storage
within the available time. The discharge
capacity test verifies its ability to provide the required cooling, at or below

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the maximum usable supply temperature, for each hour over the design load
profile. Of primary concern is that stored
thermal energy is used at a rate consistent with the design. Especially in
chilled water systems, if oversized
pumps circulate water at higher than
design flow rates, a smaller supplyreturn temperature difference will reduce the capacity of the storage system.
A test of scheduling and control sequences confirms the proper operation
of valves, resetting of setpoints, and
starting and stopping of equipment, according to scheduled operating modes.
A TES system operates differently from
a nonstorage system, in that the inventory of stored cooling must be properly
managed. Operators of TES systems
must receive training in basic concepts
as well as the intended operating sequences and specific operating procedures for their systems. As operators
gain experience they can improve system performance and minimize operating costs by refining the design operating strategies and control setpoints.

Related to Energy Savings

In new construction, TES systems can
reduce overall energy consumption
even though there may be increased
use in the chiller: distribution of colder
chilled water can allow use of smaller
pumps and less fan horsepower to circulate a smaller quantity of air through
the cooling coils.
In retrofits it also is possible to reduce
energy consumption but generally less
so than in new construction. Here energy savings result from chillers operating at full load nearly all the time, po

tentially at higher efficiency. And operation is generally at night when lower

ambient temperatures make for cooler
condenser temperatures, reducing energy use.
However, TES systems do not always
save energy. A retrofit using ice storage
that fails to take advantage of the colder
water available from the ice system may
consume more energy than a direct
cooling system. Yet this system can
make economic senseconsuming
more off-peak, lower cost energy at
night can still significantly reduce expensive electrical demand and expensive on-peak electricity use.

Related to Implementation Cost

Most TES systems cost more up front
and (if cost-effective) pay off through
reduced electricity bills. But carefully
designed systems neednt cost more
or much morethan conventional
HVAC systems.
Sometimes cool storage systems can
cost less and save energy. The Texas
Instruments case study discussed earlier describes one of three chilled-water
storage installations in Dallas that have
reduced energy consumption by more
than 10 percent compared to nonstorage alternatives. The TI installation also
reduced capital costs millions of dollars
by deferring the need for added chiller
capacity. Other factors that may help
reduce cost of implementation include:

Smaller air flows will provide adequate cooling in new construction or

major retrofits, especially for ice storage. This can decrease the duct diameter, reducing not only the cost of the

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ductwork, fans, and pumps but also the

installation labor cost.

Smaller ducts may increase rentable space in new construction.

System sizing is critical. For example, a careful assessment of the

number of hours that peak load must be
met with stored cooling could show that
a considerably smaller storage system
may only minimally affect demand reduction.

Estimation of Energy Savings

Demand costs are the main consideration in determining the economics of a
TES system. Energy savings may be
achieved, particularly in new construction or major renovation projects, but
typically are a small percentage of operating cost savings. In fact, energy
consumption may increase and still allow for an economically viable project.
To determine economic feasibility, accurate cooling load data from the existing
chiller plant is always best. If data are
not available, not considered reliable or
incomplete, or if only a short time period
of data has been collected, an hourly
computer simulation model must be developed by a reputable energy analysis
professional. Available data, even for
only a short period, can be used to help
calibrate the simulated building model
and improve its accuracy.
Back-of-the-envelope calculations can
give a rough estimate of possible savings but must not be used for the final
economic analysis, or chiller or storage
tank sizing.

Standard Savings Calculation

The following equation can be used in
estimating demand savings from TES
systems. While energy consumption
may increase or decrease, the change
generally has only a minor impact on
project economics. The time period
when the energy is consumed has a
significant impact; i.e. on-peak demand
reduction or displacing expensive onpeak energy with less expensive offpeak energy use. In general, system
economics depend heavily on the demand savings and/or on-peak/off-peak
rate differential. Demand savings must
be calculated for each month of chiller
operation.
kWsavings = # tonsshifted
(kW/ton)chiller performance

Energy shifted to off-peak is more difficult to calculate without monitored field

data or a calibrated, hourly computer
simulation. A rough estimate can be
calculated as follows:
kWhshifted = # tonsshifted
(kW/ton)chiller performance
on-peak hours
load shape factor

The load shape factor is a needed multiplier because peak cooling load typically is not constant. This factor, used in
the above equation, is for the on-peak
period only (the time when cooling load
will be shifted) and for the peak cooling
load for that day. Typical load shape
factors are in the range of 60 to 90 percent for a variety of building types and
climates. Annual energy shifted is the
sum of daily energy shifted. At this
point, an estimate can be made using

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an average cooling load for each month

and the number of cooling days in the
month, then summing the monthly totals.

a specific application can be obtained

from contractors or vendors.

Typically, a TES system increases costs

compared to those for a direct cooling
system. But a much larger picture needs
to be looked at. Additional issues include:

Costs for chilled water tanks are based

on volume, so the cost per ton-hour depends on the chilled water temperature
range. Unit storage costs decrease as
tank size increases. The cost of chillers
or refrigeration equipment must be considered along with the cost of storage
capacity. Chilled water and phasechange material storage are compatible
with typical conventional HVAC temperatures, and can often be added to
existing systems with no chiller modifications. For ice-harvesting systems, low
storage cost is offset by a relatively high
cost for the ice-making equipment.

Floor Height: In new construction,

Typical Service Life

Cost and Service Life

Factors That Influence Service
Life and First Cost

can low-temperature air distribution

which uses smaller, less expensive
ductworkreduce floor-to-floor height?

Electrical Capacity: Can using

TES reduce the capacity and therefore
the cost of the electrical service to a
new project, or avoid increasing the
service in the case of a building expansion?
Useable Space: Can using TES,
with an underground storage tank, such
as under a parking lot, free up space in
an existing chiller plant or reduce the
size of a new structure?
Costs given in Table 1 are general
guidelines for initial economic evaluations of storage systems. They include
the cost of storage tanks and any required internal diffusers, headers, or
heat transfer surface. Costs will vary
depending on the size of the project and
site-specific considerations, among
other things. Accurate cost estimates for

In addition to all equipment in a traditional cooling system, a TES system

has a storage tank, pumps, piping and
possibly an interface heat exchanger.
The service life of each component
(except the actual storage tank) has
been estimated and can be found in
Reference 1. All TES-specific components are rated at a 20-year minimum
service life. Storage tanks, generally
concrete or steel, also have service
lives of at least 20 years.

Operation and Maintenance

Requirements
Factors that tend to increase maintenance costs for cool storage systems
compared to nonstorage systems include:

Annual tests to ensure solutions

contain proper coolant concentration,
levels of corrosion inhibitors, and other

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Chilled
Water

Ice
Harvester

External
Melt Ice

Internal
Melt Ice

Encapsulated
Ice

Phase-change
Material

Low-temperature
secondary
coolant

Standard water

Standard water

Pre-packaged or
Low-temperature Low-temperature
built-up icesecondary
coolant or built-up
making
refrigeration plant
coolant
equipment

$/ton

200-300,
or use existing

1,100-1,500 per
ice-making ton

200-500

200-500

200-500

200-300,
or use existing

$/kW

57-85

313-427

57-142

57-142

57-142

57-85

ft/ton-hr

11-21

3.0-3.3

2.8

2.4-2.8

2.4-2.8

6.0

Chiller Cost
Chiller Costa

Tank Volume
Storage Installed
Costb
Charging Temperature
Chiller Charging
Efficiency

$/ton-hr

30-100

20-30

50-70

50-70

50-70

100-150

$/kWh

8.50-28

5.70-8.50

14-20

14-20

14-20

48-43

39-42

15-24

15-25

22-26

22-26

40-42

0.60-0.70

0.95-1.3

0.85-1.4

0.85-1.2

0.85-1.2

0.60-0.70

5.9-5.0

3.7-2.7

4.1-2.5

4.1-2.9

4.1-2.9

5.9-5.0

1-4 above
charging
temperature

34-36

34-36

34-38

34-38

48-50

Water

Water

Water

Secondary
coolant

Open tank

Open tank

Open tank

Closed system

Secondary
coolant
Open or closed
system

Use existing
chillers; fire
protection duty

High
instantaneous
discharge rates

High
instantaneous
discharge rates

Modular tanks
good for small or
large installations

Storage capacity
Requires
increases with
clearance above
larger temperature
tank for ice
range.
maker.

Separate charge
and discharge
circuits. Charge
with coolant or
liquid refrigerant.

(oF)
kW/ton
COP

Discharge
Temperaturec (oF)
Discharge Fluid
Tank Interface
Strengths

Comments

Tank shape
flexible

Water
Open tank
Use existing
chillers

Notes:
a: Costs are for chiller or refrigeration plant only, and do not include installation. All costs, except ice harvesters, are per nominal ton.
Derating for actual operating conditions may be required.
b: Costs are for storage only, and include tank, internal diffusers, headers, and heat transfer surface.
c: Typical minimum temperatures, with appropriate sizing of storage capacity. Higher temperature can be obtained from each medium.

Table 1: Comparative Costs and Performance of Cool Storage Systems (Source: ASHRAE )*

additives for ice storage systems using

glycol or other secondary coolants.
Some glycol manufacturers provide free
laboratory analysis of samples. There
may also be an expense associated
with replacing glycol lost during maintenance procedures and through leaks.

Increased water treatment expense in chilled water storage and

some ice storage systems, which contain large volumes of chilled water in the
tanks.

Added maintenance for cool storage system components, such as additional pumps, heat exchangers, and
control valves.
Factors that tend to decrease maintenance costs for cool storage systems
include:

Smaller components, such as chillers, pumps, and cooling towers, for typical systems.

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 Glycol or other secondary cool-

Demand Charge: A tariff added to

ants in the system provide coil freeze

protection, and eliminate the need to
drain the cooling system in the winter,
or to use special controls to prevent coil
freeze-ups.

a customers electric bill that increases

in proportion to maximum kilowatts
used.

Cooling loads can be met from

storage while some equipment is taken
out of service for maintenance in some
storage systems.

Laws, Codes, and

Regulations
All equipment and components used for
a TES system should conform with the
same laws, codes, and regulations required for traditional cooling systems.
Large tanks may pose a problem. Zoning requirements, particularly height restrictions, should be checked early. If
height is an issue, it is possible to completely or partially bury it. It is also possible that a levee will be required
around the tank in case of a rupture.
If a fire-protection storage tank is required on site, as it would be at some
manufacturing facilities, it may be possible to use this tank to store chilled
water for the cooling system. If this is
available, it should be carefully checked
to ensure code compliance.

Definitions of Key Terms

Condenser:

The container in a
cooling system where gas changes
phase to liquid, releasing heat to the
surroundings.

DX (direct expansion): Refers to a

heat exchanger that contains the refrigerant inside its tubing rather than water,
antifreeze, or other fluid. Heat from the
surroundings is directly absorbed into
the refrigerant, which is pumped by
the compressor.

Figure of Merit (FOM): A measure

of a storage tanks ability to maintain
separation between warm and cool water.

Full Storage: Refers to a TES system that stores sufficient cooling to meet
an entire peak day cooling capacity, allowing chillers to be off during the onpeak period.

Off-Peak: A time period, defined by

the utility, when the cost of providing
power is relatively low, because the
system demand for power is low. The
off-peak period is often characterized by
lower costs to the customer for energy
costs, and either no or low demand
charges.

On-Peak: A time period, defined by

the utility, when the cost of providing
power is high because the system demand for power is high. The on-peak
period is typically characterized by
higher costs to the customer for energy
and/or demand charges.

Partial Storage: Refers to a TES

system that contains sufficient cool
storage to meet part of the cooling load
of a facility. Such systems are used in

PG&E Energy Efficiency Information Thermal Energy Storage

Page 13

conjunction with a chiller system to provide required cooling capacity.

Phase Change:

As a substance
changes between its solid, liquid, and
gaseous forms, it is said to change
phase. During transitions in phase
freezing, melting, condensing, boiling
the material releases or absorbs large
amounts of thermal energy without
changing temperature. The energy associated with this is called latent heat. A
material that can store thermal energy
as latent heat is called a phase-change
material.

4. E Source, State of the Art Technology Atlas: Commercial Space Cooling and Air Handling, Chapter 11,
1995.
5. International Thermal Storage Advisory Council (ITSAC), 3769 Eagle
Street, San Diego, CA 92103, Tel:
(619) 295-6267.

Major Manufacturers
Chicago Bridge & Iron Co.
1501 N. Division Street
Plainfield, IL 60544-8929
Tel (815) 439-6000
Fax (815) 439-6010
E-mail: www.chicago-bridge.com

Sensible Heat: Heat that can be

perceived by the human senses, as opposed to latent heat (see phase change
definition).

San Luis Tank & Piping Co.

825 26th Street
Paso Robles, CA 93447
Tel (805) 238-0888
Fax (805) 238-5123

References to More
Information
1. American Society of Heating Refrigeration, and Air-Conditioning Engineers, ASHRAE Handbook HVAC
Applications, June 1995.
2. American Society of Heating Refrigeration, and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Design Guide for Cool
Thermal Storage, 1994.
3. Electric Power Research Institute
(EPRI) HVAC & R Center (formerly
the Thermal Storage Air Conditioning Center), University of Wisconsin,
150 East Gilman Street, Suite 2200,
Madison, WI 537093, Tel: (800) 8583774, Fax: (608) 262-6209.

Cryogel
P.O. Box 910525
San Diego, CA 92191
Tel (619) 792-9003
Fax (619) 792-2743
E-mail: tes@cryogel.com
For more information on companies who
make TES components see Reference
4 above. In addition, you may contact
the International Thermal Storage Advisory Council (Reference 5) or the EPRI
HVAC & R Center (Reference 3).

*Reprinted with permission. Copyright, 1994 by

ASHRAE. All rights reserved.

PG&E Energy Efficiency Information Thermal Energy Storage

Page 14

November 6, 2009
GP #8

Cut the Tip off the ENERGYberg:

Thermal Ice Storage and the LEEDv3 Green Building Rating System

Peak Electrical Utility

Load Profile

Peak Electrical Load Flattened

using Thermal Ice Storage

Green Piece #8 specifically addresses Thermal Ice Storage and its LEED credit opportunities. In
addition to energy cost savings credits in Energy and Atmosphere, there are categories in Water Efficiency and
Indoor Environmental Quality for schools that may have the potential to earn additional credits.
Take the initiative and go for those hard to obtain credits that push the LEED rating from Gold to
Platinum! Ice thermal storage provides an energy efficient cooling system that is economically responsible to the
end-user and diminishes the demand on the utilitys electrical infrastructure. The benefits of ice storage include:
Reduced greenhouse gas emissions and source fuel required to generate electricity.
Lower energy costs made possible by shifting power usage to night time when rates are lower.
Smaller chillers required for partial ice storage systems-resulting in lower refrigerant charge on site.
Quiet building operation with a full ice storage system-towers and chillers turned off during the day.
Zero water consumption when Thermal Ice Storage is combined with air-cooled chillers.

Water Efficiency
Credit
Category

Title

WE Credit 4

Process Water Use

Reduction

LEED
NC

LEED
for
Schools

LEED
Core &
Shell

NA

1 Point

NA

EVAPCO Product
Contribution
EVAPCO Thermal Ice
Storage with Extra-Pak Ice
Coils and Air Cooled
Chillers.1

Energy & Atmosphere

EA Credit 1

Optimize Energy
Performance

1-19 Points

1-19 Points

EA Credit 4

Enhanced Refrigerant
Management

2 Points

1 Point

3-21 Points

2 Points

EVAPCO Thermal Ice

Storage with Extra-Pak Ice
Coils help earn credits in
this category by reducing
energy costs ice is made
during off-peak power rates.2
Partial ice storage systems
utilize 40% smaller chillers
compared to conventional
chilled water plants,
therefore holding a smaller
refrigerant charge.3

Indoor Environmental Quality-Schools Only

IEQ Prerequisite 3

Minimum Acoustical
Performance

N/A

Required

N/A

Design a full storage system

to provide chilled water
during school hours and
special events, allowing the
school to turn off their
chillers and cooling towers.4

IEQ Credit 9

Enhanced Acoustical
Performance

N/A

1 Point

N/A

Design a full storage system

to provide chilled water
during school hours and
special events, allowing the
school to turn off their
chillers and cooling towers.4

1-5 Points

Thermal Ice Storage

reduces carbon emissions,
peak demand and the need
for new power plants.5

Innovation in Design
ID Credit 1

Innovation in Design

1-5 Points

1-4 Points

Foot Notes:
1. EVAPCO Thermal Ice Storage Systems that utilize air cooled chillers to build ice will reduce
water and energy used for air conditioning schools. If the design consultant prefers to use aircooled chillers, Thermal Ice Storage will provide the end-user, not only with significant water
savings, but with incremental energy savings when compared to a conventional system design
with air cooled chillers. Energy is saved by operating the chiller at night to build ice when dry
bulb temperatures are typically 20F to 30F lower than during the day.
2. The primary benefit of thermal storage is its ability to substantially reduce total operating costs,
particularly for systems using electricity as the primary energy source. Thermal storage systems reduce
the demand for expensive on-peak electric power, substituting less expensive nighttime power to do the
same job. ASHRAE Handbook-2008 HVAC Systems and Equipment
To receive Energy & Atmosphere points in the Optimize Energy Performance credit category,
LEED guidelines specify increasing percentages of energy cost savings in the proposed building
design when compared to a baseline building. For an Optimize Energy credit, the HVAC system
design must show a 12% energy cost savings for new buildings and an 8% energy cost savings for
existing buildings, using the performance rating method in Appendix G of ASHRAE Standard
90.1-2007. This energy cost savings calculation must be supported using a computer simulation
model such as E-Quest, DOE-2, Visual DOE-4 or DOE Energy Plus.
For example, Figure 1 below is a current rate graph (September 2009) for Southern California
Edison (SCE) using the Real Time Pricing (RTP-2) schedule for customers with a demand greater
than 500kW. On days defined as Very Hot Summer Weekday (91F to 94 F day time
temperature), the average cost of electricity is 42.4 cents/kWh. However, on those same days
the average night time cost of electricity is 5.6 cents/kWh. a

7.5 to 1 energy cost

differential!

Data for Graph Courtesy of Southern California Edison

Figure 1- Typical Rate Structure Beneficial to Thermal Ice Storage

2 continued)

Thermal ice storage reduces peak electrical cost therefore reducing the overall electric cost for
the entire building. This electrical cost saving is recognized by the USGBC and the LEED rating
system. Energy and Atmosphere Credit 1 has up to 21 points available for energy cost saving
strategies based on the energy cost budget method as defined by ASHRAE 90.1.

Energy and Atmosphere, Optimize Energy Performance Credit 1

Figure 2

There are other tangible material cost and energy saving benefits of a Thermal
Ice Storage system. For example, an ice storage system design using chilled water
at 36F and an 18F delta t compared to a standard chiller system with a 45F
chilled water temperature and 10F delta t, will have smaller pumps, piping, air
handling cooling coils and ductwork!
4

3.

Ice storage systems may be sized for full or partial storage. A partial storage system is
defined as A cool storage sizing strategy in which only a portion of the on-peak cooling
load is met from thermal storage, with the rest being met by operating the chilling
equipment. (ASHRAE-2008 HVAC Systems and Equipment Chapter 50 Thermal
Storage).
A partial storage system will typically require a chiller that is 10-40% smaller in size than
a conventional chilled water system. Smaller chillers equate to lower refrigerant
charges, resulting in less impact to the environment from potential leakage during the
operating span of the equipment.

4. In another LEED for Schools strategy, using a full storage ice system sized for
complete on-peak cooling capacity would allow a school to run silent during the day or
special off hour event by melting ice without turning on noisy chillers and condenser
cooling equipment. The only components of the chilled water cooling plant that would
operate during the day are the small chilled water pumps.
Ice storage will enable HVAC system designers to use lower temperature air and water
to size smaller air handlers with reduced HP fan motors and slower duct velocities
resulting in lower sound levels, a requirement of IEQ Prerequisite 3 and IEQ Credit 9
shown below:
IEQ Prerequisite 3
Achieve a maximum background noise level from heating, ventilating and air
conditioning (HVAC) systems in classrooms and other core learning spaces of 45 dBA.
IEQ Credit 9:
Reduce background noise level to 40 dBA or less from heating, ventilating and air
conditioning (HVAC) systems in classrooms and other core learning spaces.
5. Thermal ice storage systems have received positive recognition and LEED points from
the USGBC for its ability to reduce green house gas emissions as a result of lower
energy use at the power plant. It has been well documented that power plants run
more efficiently and electricity is easier to distribute to the grid at night due to lower
ambient temperatures.
In order to receive the LEED Innovation Point, according to the USGBCs latest
Credit Interpretation Request dated 2/23/2005, the ice storage system must be sized to
shift 5% of the total building energy use. In addition, the designer must prove that there
is a reduction in air emissions compared to a standard chilled water system.

There are two studies available that quantify air emission reductions by shifting electrical
demand to off peak: one by the California Energy Commission (CEC) completed in
February 1996 (P500-95-005) and a Florida Light and Power (FPL) Study presented at
the 2008 ASHRAE Summer Meeting in Salt Lake City (Seminar 69).
The CEC study evaluated the two largest electricity suppliers in California: Pacific Gas &
Electric (PG&E) and Southern California Edison (SCE). The fuel source energy savings
depends on air conditioning usage patterns, the design and operating strategy for the
thermal storage system-Full or Partial and the source of the electricity supplied (i.e.
Hydro, Coal, Natural Gas or Nuclear).
In the study, Thermal Energy Storage systems in the regions served by PG&E and SCE
shifted 40-80% of the annual kWhs of electricity used for A/C from Day to Night.
The result was an 8 to 43% reduction in source fuel use. Since the fuel source was
reduced, it also has the added benefit of reducing greenhouses gas emissions.
In the FPL study, it was shown in their evaluation of its power and Thermal Energy
Storage (ice and chilled water) plants in their portfolio, that by shifting power to off
peak, it reduced CO2 output by .43 lbs per kWh shifted, based on 500 tons per peak
day per average installation
FPL was able to achieve this level of carbon reduction because Thermal Ice Storage
allowed them to shift from Oil and Gas fired power plants (34% efficient) to more
efficient Combined Cycle plants using natural gas (50% efficient).
The benefits to the environment and energy costs are significant with Thermal Ice
Storage. Incorporate Thermal Ice Storage ice into the chilled water plant design on your
next LEED project.
EVAPCO will present the benefits of ice storage at GreenBuild 2009 in Phoenix. Our Thermal
Ice Storage systems are designed for commercial HVAC, industrial cooling and district energy
projects using our Extra-Pak Ice Coils for internal or external melt applications.

EVAPCO Thermal Ice Storage Installation

To learn more about EVAPCOs Thermal Ice Storage systems go to

http://www.evapco.com/ice-video.asp to view the Thermal Ice Storage video and to download
our Bulletin 401F-Ice Coils. For information on how to incorporate Thermal Ice Storage into
your new or existing system design contact me at EVAPCO or send an e-mail to
ice@evapco.com.
Keep it Green!

Daryn S. Cline
Senior Manager,
Environmental Technologies

References:

1) Source: ASHRAE Handbook-HVAC Systems and Equipment-2008 Chapter 50 Thermal Storage

2) Source: Department of Energy E-Quest software-free energy evaluation download at: http://www.doe2.com/
3) Source: ANSI/ASHRAE 90.1-2007, Energy Standard for Buildings Except Low-Rise Residential Buildings
4) Source: USGBCs LEEDv3 http://www.usgbc.org/DisplayPage.aspx?CMSPageID=1970
5) Source: Southern California Edison RTP-2 Rate Structure
6) Source: Source Energy & Environmental Impacts of Thermal Energy Storage, California Energy Commission (CEC),
P500-95-005, Feb 1996.
7) Source: FPL Study 2008 ASHRAE Summer Meeting in Salt Lake City, UT, Seminar 69.
8) For large scale District Energy applications of Thermal Ice Storage, consult these documents published by the USGBC

District Energy and LEED NC/Schools:

http://www.usgbc.org/ShowFile.aspx?DocumentID=4176

Guidance on Combined Heat and Power:

http://www.usgbc.org/ShowFile.aspx?DocumentID=1354

LEED NC Guide for Multiple Buildings:

http://www.usgbc.org/ShowFile.aspx?DocumentID=1097