Todays summary

Multiple beam interferometers: Fabry-Perot resonators

Stokes relationships
Transmission and reflection coefficients for a dielectric slab
Optical resonance
Principles of lasers
Coherence: spatial / temporal

MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics

10/24/05 wk8-a-1

Fabry-Perot interferometers

MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics

10/24/05 wk8-a-2

Relation between r, r and t, t

at

ar
at

ar
a

glass air

air glass

r = r

Proof: algebraic from the Fresnel coefficients

or using the property of preservation of the
field properties upon time reversal

r 2 + tt = 1
Stokes relationships
MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics
10/24/05 wk8-a-3

Proof using time reversal

ar

ar
at

at
atr

art

att
ar2

air glass

air glass

a(r + r ) t = 0 r = r

a r 2 + tt = a r 2 + tt = 1

MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics

10/24/05 wk8-a-4

Fabry-Perot Interferometer
reflected
transmitted
incident

Resonance condition: reflected wave = 0

all reflected waves interfere destructively

L=

m
2n

wavelength in free space

refractive index

MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics

10/24/05 wk8-a-5

Calculation of the reflected wave

incoming a
reflected ar

transmitted atei

transmitted ateit

reflected atei2r

transmitted atei2rt
reflected atei3(r)2

transmitted atei3(rt)2

reflected atei4(r)3
transmitted atei4(r)3t
reflected atei5(r)4

air, n=1

glass, n

air, n=1

= 2

nL

MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics

10/24/05 wk8-a-6

Calculation of the reflected wave

)}

areflected = a r + tt r e i 2 1 + r 2 ei 2 + r 4 e i 4 + L
1

= a r + tt r e i 2
2 i 2
1 r e

Use Stokes relationships

areflected = a

r = r
r 2 + tt = 1

r 1 e i 2
1 r 2 e i 2

MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics

10/24/05 wk8-a-7

Transmission & reflection coefficients

areflected = a

(1 e ) r
i 2

1 r e
2

atransmitted = a

i 2

R r

tt
1 r 2 e i 2

2
reflection areflected
4 R sin 2

=
=
a
(1 R )2 + 4 R sin 2
coefficient

transmission atransmitted

=
a
coefficient

(1 R )2
(1 R )2 + 4 R sin 2

MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics

10/24/05 wk8-a-8

Transmission & reflection vs path

R=0.95

R=0.5

MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics

10/24/05 wk8-a-9

Fabry-Perot terminology
free
spectral
range
band
width
resonance
frequencies

MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics

10/24/05 wk8-a-10

mc
2nL

(m + 1)c

(m + 2)c

2nL

2nL

frequency

Fabry-Perot terminology
FWHM Bandwidth is
inversely proportional
to the finesse F
(or quality factor)
factor
of the cavity

FSR

FSR
F

1 R

FWHM =

FWHM

FWHM =

R
c
2nLF

(bandwidth ) = (free spectral range)

(finesse)

MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics

10/24/05 wk8-a-11

Spectroscopy using Fabry-Perot cavity

Goal: to measure the specimens absorption as function of
frequency
Experimental measurement principle:
light beam of
known spectrum

transparent
windows

spectrum of light beam

is modified by substance

container with
specimen to be measured

scanning (controls cavity

stage
length L)

partiallyreflecting
mirrors (FP cavity)

power
meter

MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics

10/24/05 wk8-a-12

Spectroscopy using Fabry-Perot cavity

Goal: to measure the specimens absorption as function of
frequency
Experimental measurement principle:
light beam of
known spectrum

transparent
windows

spectrum of light beam electro-optic (controls refr.

is modified by substance (EO) modulator index n)

partiallyreflecting
mirrors (FP cavity)

container with
specimen to be measured

power
meter

MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics

10/24/05 wk8-a-13

Spectroscopy using Fabry-Perot cavity

I()

FabryPerot
transmissivity
unknown
spectrum

1
sample measured:

I(1)
MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics
10/24/05 wk8-a-14

Spectroscopy using Fabry-Perot cavity

I()

FabryPerot
transmissivity
unknown
spectrum

2
sample measured:

I(2)
MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics
10/24/05 wk8-a-15

Spectroscopy using Fabry-Perot cavity

I()

FabryPerot
transmissivity
unknown
spectrum

3
sample measured:

I(3)
MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics
10/24/05 wk8-a-16

Spectroscopy using Fabry-Perot cavity

I()

unknown spectrum
width should not
exceed the FSR

FabryPerot
transmissivity
unknown
spectrum

3
sample measured:

I(3)
MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics
10/24/05 wk8-a-17

Spectroscopy using Fabry-Perot cavity

I()

spectral resolution
is determined by the
cavity bandwidth

FabryPerot
transmissivity
unknown
spectrum

3
sample measured:

I(3)
MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics
10/24/05 wk8-a-18

Lasers

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10/24/05 wk8-a-19

Atmospheric transmission

Absorption spectra

(m)
human vision
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10/24/05 wk8-a-20

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Semi-classical view of atom excitations

Energy
e- Ze+

Atom in ground state

Energy

Atom in excited state

MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics
10/24/05 wk8-a-21

Light generation
Energy

equilibrium: most atoms

in ground state

excited state

ground state

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10/24/05 wk8-a-22

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Light generation
Energy

excited state

A pump mechanism (e.g. thermal

excitation or gas discharge) ejects
some atoms to the excited state

ground state

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10/24/05 wk8-a-23

Light generation
Energy

excited state

h
h
The excited atoms radiatively
decay, emitting one photon each

ground state

MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics

10/24/05 wk8-a-24

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Light amplification: 3-level system

Energy

super-excited state
excited state

ground state
equilibrium: most atoms
in ground state; note the existence
of a third, super-excited state
MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics
10/24/05 wk8-a-25

Light amplification: 3-level system

Energy

super-excited state
excited state

Utilizing the super-excited state

ground state
as a short-lived pivot point, the
pump creates a population inversion
MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics
10/24/05 wk8-a-26

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Light amplification: 3-level system

Energy

super-excited state
excited state

When a photon enters, ...

ground state

MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics

10/24/05 wk8-a-27

Light amplification: 3-level system

Energy

super-excited state
excited state

h
h

When a photon enters, it knocks

an electron from the inverted population
down to the ground state, thus creating
a new photon. This amplification process
is called stimulated emission

ground state

MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics

10/24/05 wk8-a-28

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Light amplifier
Pin

Gain medium
(e.g. 3-level system
w population inversion)

Pout =gPin

MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics

10/24/05 wk8-a-29

Light amplifier w positive feedback

Pin

Gain medium
(e.g. 3-level system
w population inversion)

Pout =gPin

When the gain exceeds the roundtrip losses, the system goes
into oscillation
+

MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics

10/24/05 wk8-a-30

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Laser
initial photon

Gain medium
(e.g. 3-level system
w population inversion)

Partially
reflecting
mirror

Light
Amplification through
Stimulated
Emission of
Radiation
MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics
10/24/05 wk8-a-31

Laser
amplified once

initial photon

Gain medium
(e.g. 3-level system
w population inversion)

Light
Amplification through
Stimulated
Emission of
Radiation

Partially
reflecting
mirror

MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics

10/24/05 wk8-a-32

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Laser
amplified once
reflected

initial photon

Gain medium
(e.g. 3-level system
w population inversion)

Partially
reflecting
mirror

Light
Amplification through
Stimulated
Emission of
Radiation
MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics
10/24/05 wk8-a-33

Laser
amplified once
reflected

initial photon

Gain medium
(e.g. 3-level system
w population inversion) amplified twice

Light
Amplification through
Stimulated
Emission of
Radiation

Partially
reflecting
mirror

MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics

10/24/05 wk8-a-34

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Laser
amplified once
reflected

initial photon

Gain medium
(e.g. 3-level system
w population inversion) amplified twice

output
reflected

Partially
reflecting
mirror

Light
Amplification through
Stimulated
Emission of
Radiation
MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics
10/24/05 wk8-a-35

Laser
amplified once
reflected

initial photon

Gain medium
(e.g. 3-level system
w population inversion) amplified twice

output
reflected

amplified again

etc.

Light
Amplification through
Stimulated
Emission of
Radiation

Partially
reflecting
mirror

MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics

10/24/05 wk8-a-36

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Confocal laser cavities

tan =

diffraction
angle
nw0

waist w0
Beam profile:
2D Gaussian function
TE00 mode
MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics
10/24/05 wk8-a-37

Other transverse modes

TE11

TE10
(usually undesirable)

MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics

10/24/05 wk8-a-38

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Types of lasers
Continuous wave (cw)
Pulsed
Q-switched
mode-locked

Gas (Ar-ion, HeNe, CO2)

Solid state (Ruby, Nd:YAG, Ti:Sa)
Diode (semiconductor)
Vertical cavity surface-emitting lasers VCSEL (also sc)
Excimer (usually ultra-violet)

MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics

10/24/05 wk8-a-39

CW (continuous wave lasers)

Laser oscillation well approximated by a sinusoid
1/
t

Typical sources:
Argon-ion: 488nm (blue) or 514nm (green); power ~1-20W
Helium-Neon (HeNe): 633nm (red), also in green and yellow; ~1-100mW
doubled Nd:YaG: 532nm (green); ~1-10W
Quality of sinusoid maintained over a time duration known as
coherence time tc
Typical coherence times ~20nsec (HeNe), ~10sec (doubled Nd:YAG)
MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics
10/24/05 wk8-a-40

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Two types of incoherence

temporal
incoherence

spatial
incoherence

r1
r1

r2

point
source

d1

matched
paths

d2

Michelson interferometer

Young interferometer

poly-chromatic light
(=multi-color, broadband)

mono-chromatic light
(= single color, narrowband)

MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics

10/24/05 wk8-a-41

Two types of incoherence

temporal
incoherence

spatial
incoherence

r1
r1

r2

point
source

d1

d2

waves from unequal paths

do not interfere
MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics
10/24/05 wk8-a-42

matched
paths

waves with equal paths

but from different points
on the wavefront
do not interfere

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Coherent vs incoherent beams

a1 = a1 ei1

Mutually coherent: superposition field amplitude

is described by sum of complex amplitudes

a = a1 + a2 = a1 ei1 + a2 ei2
a 2 = a 2 e i 2
I1

I = a = a1 + a2

Mutually incoherent: superposition field intensity

is described by sum of intensities

I = I1 + I 2
I2

(the phases of the individual beams vary

randomly with respect to each other; hence,
we would need statistical formulation to
describe them properly statistical optics)

MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics

10/24/05 wk8-a-43

Coherence time and coherence length

l2

l1-l2 much shorter than

coherence length ctc
sharp interference fringes
Intensity

2I0

l1

l1
incoming
laser
beam

l1-l2 much longer than

coherence length ctc
no interference
Intensity

Michelson interferometer
I0
MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics
10/24/05 wk8-a-44

l1

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Coherent vs incoherent beams

a1 = a1 ei1

Coherent: superposition field amplitude

is described by sum of complex amplitudes

a = a1 + a2 = a1 ei1 + a2 ei2
a 2 = a 2 e i 2
I1

I = a = a1 + a2

Incoherent: superposition field intensity

is described by sum of intensities

I = I1 + I 2
I2

(the phases of the individual beams vary

randomly with respect to each other; hence,
we would need statistical formulation to
describe them properly statistical optics)

MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics

10/24/05 wk8-a-45

Mode-locked lasers

Typical sources: Ti:Sa lasers (major vendors: Coherent, Spectra Phys.)

Typical mean wavelengths: 700nm 1.4m (near IR)
can be doubled to visible wavelengths
or split to visible + mid IR wavelengths using OPOs or OPAs
(OPO=optical parametric oscillator;
OPA=optical parametric amplifier)
Typical pulse durations: ~psec to few fsec
(just a few optical cycles)
Typical pulse repetition rates (rep rates): 80-100MHz
Typical average power: 1-2W; peak power ~MW-GW
MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics
10/24/05 wk8-a-46

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Overview of light sources

Laser

non-Laser
Thermal: polychromatic,
spatially incoherent
(e.g. light bulb)
Gas discharge: monochromatic,
spatially incoherent
(e.g. Na lamp)
Light emitting diodes (LEDs):
monochromatic, spatially
incoherent

Continuous wave (or cw):

strictly monochromatic,
spatially coherent
(e.g. HeNe, Ar+, laser diodes)
Pulsed: quasi-monochromatic,
spatially coherent
(e.g. Q-switched, mode-locked)
~nsec

~psec to few fsec

pulse duration

mono/poly-chromatic = single/multi color

MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics
10/24/05 wk8-a-47

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