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Sets

This document introduces mathematical concepts that will be used throughout the book, including set theory, graph theory, strings, induction, binary operations on sets, and relations. It defines sets, subsets, operations on sets like union and intersection. It discusses properties of strings and different ways to describe sets. It also defines binary operations on sets like semigroups, monoids, groups, and rings. Finally, it introduces the concept of relations as collections of ordered pairs.

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35 views5 pages

Sets

This document introduces mathematical concepts that will be used throughout the book, including set theory, graph theory, strings, induction, binary operations on sets, and relations. It defines sets, subsets, operations on sets like union and intersection. It discusses properties of strings and different ways to describe sets. It also defines binary operations on sets like semigroups, monoids, groups, and rings. Finally, it introduces the concept of relations as collections of ordered pairs.

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Rajendranbehappy
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© © All Rights Reserved
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2

Mathematical
Preliminaries

In this chapter we introduce the concepts of set theory and graph theory. Also,
we define strings and discuss the properties of stlings and operations on strings.
In the final section we deal with the principle of induction, which will be used
for proving many theorems throughout the book.

2.1

SETS, RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS

2.1.1

SETS AND SUBSETS

A set is a well-defined collection of objects, for example, the set of all students
in a college. Similarly. the collection of all books in a college library is also a
set. The individual objects are called members or elements of the set.
We use the capital letters A, B, C, ... for denoting sets. The small letters
a, b, c, ... are used to denote the elements of any set. When a is an element
of the set A. we write a E A. "\Then a is not an element of A, we write a rl. A.

Various Ways of Describing a Set


(i) By listing its elements. We write all the elements of the set (without
repetition) and enclose them within braces. We can write the elements
in any order. For example, the set of all positive integers divisible by
15 and less than 100 can be wlitten as {IS. 30, 45. 60. 75. 90}.
(ii) By describing the properties of the elements of the set. For example. the
set {IS, 30. 45. 60. 75. 90} can be described as: {n I n is a positive
integer divisible by 15 and less than 100}. (The descliption of the
property is called predicate. In this case the set is said to be implicitly
specified.)
36

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Chapter 2: Mathematical Preliminaries

l;!

37

(iii) By recursion. We define the elements of the set by a computational


rule for calculating the elements. For example. the set of all natural
numbers leaving a remainder 1 when di vided by 3 can be described as
{alii a o

= 1,

an+l

ai!

+ 3}

When the computational rule is clear from the context, we simply specify
the set by some initial elements. The previous set can be written as {1. 4, 7,
10, " .}.The four elements given suggest that the computational rule is:
a ll +l = all + 3.

Subsets and Operations on Sets


A set A is said to be a subset of B (written as A ~ B) if every element of
A is also an element of B.
Two sets A and B are equal (we write A = B) if their members are the same.
In practice. to prove that A B. we prove A ~ Band B ~ A.
A set with no element is called an empty set, also called a null set or a void

set, and is denoted by 0.


We define some operations on sets.

I
=
= I

A u B = {x x E A or x E B}, called the union of A and B.


{x I x E A and x E B}, called the intersection of A and B.
A n B
A - B
{x x E A and x !l B}. called the complement of B in A.

N denotes U - A, where U is the universal set, the set of all elements


under consideration.
The set of all subsets of a set A is called the pmver set of A. It is denoted
by 2A .
Let A and B be two sets. Then A x B is defined as {(a, b) Ia E A and
b E B}. ((a. b) is called an ordered pair and is different from (b, a).)
DefInition 2.1 Let 5 be a set. A collection (AI' A 2,

... , All)

of subsets of 5 is

II

called a partition if Ai n Ai = 0 (i

;;,t.

j) and 5 =

Ai (i.e. Al

i=l
U

A 2 U ...

All)'

For example, if 5 = {l. 2. 3, ..., 1O}, then {{l. 3, S, 7. 9}, {2, 4, 6,


8, 1O}} is a partition of S.

2.1.2

SETS WITH ONE BINARY OPERATION

A binary operation "' on a set 5 is a rule which assigns. to every ordered pair
(a, b) of elements from S. a unique element denoted by a " b.
Addition, for example, is a binary operation on the set Z of all integers.
n hroughout this book. Z denotes the set of all integers.)
Union is a binary operation on :r\ where A is any non empty set. We give
belO\v five postulates on binary operations.
Postulate 1: Closure. If a and b are in S. then a" b is in S.

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38

Theory of computer Science

Postulate 2: Associativity. If a, b, c are in S, then (a * b) * c = a * (b * c).


Postulate 3: Identity element. There exists a unique element (called the
identity element) e in S such that for any element x in S,
x * e = e * x = x.
Postulate 4: Inverse. For every element x in S there exists a unique element x'
in S such that x '" x' = x' * x = e. The element x' is called the
inverse of x W.r.t. ".
Postulate 5: Commutativity. If a, b E S. then a * b = b * a.
It may be noted that a binary operation may satisfy none of the above five
postulates. For example, let S = {1. 2, 3, 4, ... }, and let the binary operation
be subtraction (i.e. a * b = a - b). The closure postulate is not satisfied since
2 - 3 = -1 eo S. Also, (2 - 3) - 4 =F 2 - (3 - 4), and so associativity is not
satisfied. As we cannot find a positive integer such that x - e = e - x =x, th t1
postulates 3 and 4 are not satisfied. Obviously, a - b =F b - a. Therefore,
commutativity is not satisfied.
Our interest lies in sets with a binary operation satisfying the postulates.

Defmitions (i) A set S with a binary operation * is called a semigroup if the


postulates 1 and 2 are satisfied.
(ii) A set S with a binary operation * is called a monoid if the postulates
1-3 are satisfied.
(iii) A set S with * is called a group if the postulates 1-4 are satisfied.
(iv) A semigroup (monoid or group) is called a commutative or an abelian
semigroup (monoid or group) if the postulate 5 is satisfied.
Figure 2.1 gives the relationship between semigroups, monoids, groups,
etc. where the numbers refer to the postulate number.

~ No operation
~tulates 1,2

r-----'----,

Semigroup

Fig. 2.1

Sets with one binary operation.

We interpret Fig. 2.1 as follows: A monoid satisfying postulate 4 is a group.


A group satisfying postulate 5 is an abelian group, etc.

Chapter 2: Mathematical Preliminaries

39

We give below a few examples of sets with one binary operation:


(i) Z with addition is an abelian group.
(ii) Z with multiplication is an abelian monoid. (It is not a group since it
does not satisfy the postulate 4.)
(iii) {I, 2. 3, ... } with addition is a commutative semigroup but not a
monoid. (The identity element can be only 0, but 0 is not in the set.)
(iv) The power set 24 of A(A -j; 0) with union is a commutative monoid.
(The identity element is 0.)
(v) The set of all 2 x 2 matrices under multiplication is a monoid but not
an abelian monoid.

2.1.3

SETS WITH

Two

BINARY OPERATIONS

Sometimes we come across sets with two binary operations defined on them
(for example, in the case of numbers we have addition and multiplication). Let
5 be a set with two binary operations * and o. We give below 11 postulates
in the following way:
(i) Postulates 1-5 refer to * postulates.
(ii) Postulates 6. 7. 8. 10 are simply the postulates L 2. 3, 5 for the binary
operation o.
(iii) Postulate 9: If 5 under 8 satisfies the postulates 1-5 then for every x
in S. with x -j; e, there exists a unique element x' in 5 such that x' 0 x =
x 0 x' = e' , where e' is the identity element corresponding to o.
(iv) Postulate 11: Distributivil\'. For a. b. c. in 5
a 0 (b

* c) = (a

b)

* (a

c)

A set with one or more binary operations is called an algebraic system.


For example, groups, monoids, semigroups are algebraic systems with one
binary operation,
We now define some algebraic systems with two binary operations.
Definitions (i) A set \vith two binary operations * and 0 is called a ring if
(a) it is an abelian group W.f.t. 8, and (b) 0 satisfies the closure, associativity
and distributivity postulates (i.e. postulates 6. 7 and 11).

(ii) A ring is called a commutative ring if the commutativity postulate is


satisfied for o.
(iii) A commutative ring with unity is a commutative ring that satisfies the
identity postulate (i,e. postulate 8) for o.
(iv) A field is a set with two binary operations * and 0 if it satisfies the
postulates 1-11.
We now give below a few examples of sets with two binary operations:
(i) Z with addition and multiplication (in place of * and 0) is a
commutative ring with identity. (The identity element W.f.t. addition is
O. and the identity element \V.r.t. multiplication is 1.)

40

Theory of Computer Science

Oi) The set of all rational numbers (i.e. fractions which are of the form
alb. where a is any integer and b is an integer different from zero)
is a field. (The identity element W.r.t. multiplication is 1. The inverse
of alb, alb ;f:; 0 is bla.)
(iii) The set of all 2 x 2 matrices with matrix addition and matrix
multiplication is a ring with identity, but not a field.
(iv) The power set 24 (A ;f:; 0) is also a set with two binary operations
u and n. The postulates satisfied by u and n are 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8,
10 and 11. The power set 2...1 is not a group or a ring or a field. But
it is an abelian monoid W.r.t. both the operations u and n.
Figure 2.2 illustrates the relation between the various algebraic systems we
have introduced. The interpretation is as given in Fig. 2.1. The numbers refer
to postulates. For example, an abelian group satisfying the postulates 6, 7 and
11 is a ring.
1-5

Ring

10

r--

Ring with identity

10

Field

Fig. 2.2

2.1.4

1-11

Sets with tvvo binary operations.

RELATIONS

The concept of a relation is a basic concept in computer science as well as in


real life. This concept arises \vhen we consider a pair of objects and compare
one \vith the other. For example, 'being the father of' gives a relation between
two persons. We can express the relation by ordered pairs (for instance, 'a is
the father of b' can be represented by the ordered pair (a, b)).
While executing a program, comparisons are made, and based on the result.
different tasks are performed. Thus in computer science the concept of relation
arises just as in the case of data structures.

Definition 2.2 A relation R in a set S is a collection of ordered pairs of


elements in S (i.e. a subset of S x S). When (x, y) is in R, we write xRy. When
t
(x, v) is not in R. we write xR )".

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