NOMENCLATURE

Environmental Manager

A wetted surface area of the tank, m2

C tank capacity, m3
F environmental factor

Understanding
Atmospheric
Storage Tanks

L latent heat of vaporization of stored

liquid at relieving pressure and
temperature, kJ/kg
M molecular weight of the stored liquid, kg/kmol
Qe tank emptying rate, m3/hr
Qf tank filling rate, m3/hr

T temperature of relieving vapor, K

Vcorr venting rate of free air corrected for
stored liquids other than hexane,
std m3/hr
Vhex venting rate of free air for reference
liquid, hexane, std m3/hr
Vf emergency venting rate, std m3/hr

Vib inbreathing, std m3/hr

Vob outbreathing, std m3/hr

Several sources of information are

available to help the engineer
specify storage tanks
for particular applications.
A sound basis for understanding
the various considerations
is given here
Siddhartha Mukherjee, What is the difference between
combustible and flammable?
Lurgi India Co. Ltd.

iquids are accumulated and

stored in tanks of various
shapes and sizes throughout
the chemical process industries (CPI). A small number of companies have made the design, fabrication and erection of these vessels their
specialty. Initially, however, it is the
process engineer who sizes and specifies tanks according to a specific applications needs. In order to develop
a data sheet for tank specifications, it
is important for a process engineer to
have a basic understanding of tanks
and the related requirements.
Tanks are used to store many kinds
of liquids. The focus here is on hydrocarbons, which deserve particular care
because of their flammable or combustible properties. Hydrocarbon liquids
can be classified per Table 1 [1]. The
National Fire Protection Association
74

TABLE 1. CLASSIFICATION OF LIQUIDS

Classification

Type of
Liquid

Characteristics

Class IA
Liquid

Flammable
Liquid

Liquids that have a flash point

below 22.8C, and boiling point
below 37.8C

Class IB
Liquid

Flammable
Liquid

Liquids that have a flash point

below 22.8C, and boiling point at
or above 37.8C

Class IC
Liquid

Flammable
Liquid

Liquids that have a flash point at

or above 22.8C but below 37.8C

Class II
Liquid

Combustible
Liquid

Liquids that have a flash point

above 37.8C and below 60C

Class IIIA
Liquid

Combustible
Liquid

Liquids that have a flash point at

or above 60C and below 93C

Class IIIB
Liquid

Combustible
Liquid

Liquids that have a flash point at

or above 93C

(NFPA) has published several volumes

on recommended practices for fire protection, wherein guidelines pertaining
to the storage of hydrocarbon liquids
are included.

Tank classifications

According to the NFPA [2], atmospheric storage tanks are defined as

those tanks that are designed to operate at pressures between atmospheric
and 6.9 kPa gage, as measured at the
top of the tank. Such tanks are built in
two basic designs the cone-roof design where the roof remains fixed, and
the floating-roof design where the roof
floats on top of the liquid and rises
and falls with the liquid level.
Fixed roof design. Fixed-roof tanks
consist of a cylindrical shell with a
permanently welded roof that can be
flat, conical or dome-shaped. Such

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM APRIL 2006

tanks are used to store materials with

a true vapor pressure of less than 10.3
kPa absolute [3].
External-floating roof design. In
floating-roof storage tanks, the roof is
made to rest on the stored liquid and is
free to move with the level of the liquid.
These tanks reduce evaporation losses
and control breathing losses while filling. They are preferred for storage of
petroleum products with a true vapor
pressure of 10.3 to 76.5 kPa absolute
[3]. There are principally three different types of external floating roofs and
an internal floating-roof tank. Figure 1
illustrates each of them.
The pan-type roof (Figure 1.a) is a
single-deck roof and has the following characteristics:
- Full contact with liquid surface
- Has a deck, hence any leak through
the deck will cause it to sink

FIGURE 1. Types of floating-roof tanks include a) pan

b) pontoon c) double-deck and d) internal

- Has no buoyancy other than that

provided by the deck
- Rain or snow may cause deformation
- Is the least expensive of the floating
roofs
The pontoon-type roof (Figure 1.b) is
a significant improvement over the
pan roof. It has the following characteristics:
- Increased buoyancy and stability
- Pontoons occupy about 20 40% of
roof area
The double-deck roof (Figure 1.c)
comprises upper and lower decks
separated by bulkheads and trusses.
These roofs have the following characteristics:
- The space between the decks is
separated into liquid-tight compartments
- Superior loading capacity
- Recommended for tank diameters
below 12 m and above 60 m
Internal-floating roof design.
These tanks (Figure 1.d) have an inside floating deck above which, there
is a permanently attached roof. Such
tanks are preferred in areas of heavy
snowfall where accumulation of snow
or water on the floating roof may affect buoyancy. In such tanks, the vapor
space is normally blanketed with an
inert gas.

Physical criteria

Tank capacity. Three different types

of tank capacity are defined nominal, gross and net capacity.

FIGURE 2. A typical P&ID

for a tank that is blanketed
with an inert-gas is shown
here. LI represents level indication, and PC,
pressure control

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CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM APRIL 2006

75

Environmental Manager
For fixed-roof tanks, the nominal justifiable to go for larger diameters
capacity is the geometric volume from in preference to height. As the tank
the bottom of the tank up to the curb height increases, wall thickness plays
angle, which is a metallic angle that is a more important role. Higher tanks
welded along the periphery at the top also put a greater load on the soil.
of the cylindrical portion of the tank. If the pressure becomes more than
In the case of floating-roof tanks, the the soil-allowable bearing pressure,
nominal capacity is defined as the pile-supported foundations become
volume from the underside of the roof necessary and are expensive. This
deck up to the maximum floating posi- concern is particularly applicable for
poor soils. In general, tanks that are
tion of the roof.
The gross capacity (sometimes re- higher than 15 m are not commonly
ferred to as the total capacity) is the used in industry.
volume from the bottom of the tank up
Tank-blanketing requirements
to its maximum, safe filling height.
The net capacity is the volume of In many instances, the vapor space of
the tank contents between the low- tanks is blanketed with an inert gas.
liquid level (LLL) and the high-liquid This may be needed when the liquids
level (HLL).
vapors are harmful to health or when
Tank dimensions. Various factors contact with air could lead to the forcan affect the choice of tank dimen- mation of hazardous compounds or
sions. In general, tank heights do product degradation.
not exceed one and a half times the
To achieve an inert atmosphere in
diameter. In cases where availabil- a tank, a blanketing valve senses the
ity of land is not a constraint, it is pressure
in the vapor
space
the tank
ColdWaveAd_ChemicalEngineering-0406.qxp
3/17/2006
2:23
PM of Page
1

and controls the flow of inert gas (usually nitrogen) into the vapor space to
maintain the tank pressure within the
desired limits. Blanketing pressures
are typically in the range of 200250
mm H2O.
When liquid is moved out of a tank
or if the temperature decreases, a tank
can experience vacuum conditions. In
this case, the blanketing valve provides primary vacuum relief to the
tank by opening to allow gas flow,
and then resealing when the pressure
has increased sufficiently. Secondary
vacuum relief is provided by pressure/
vacuum vents (described later in the
section on Pressure/vacuum vents).
Figure 2 illustrates a typical process
and instrumentation diagram (P&ID)
for a blanketed tank that contains a
hydrocarbon mixture.

Tank venting

Several conditions that subject a tank

to venting include the following:

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76

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM APRIL 2006

where Qe represents venting capacity due to liquid movement and

the second component represents

that due to thermal inbreathing. C
is the tank capacity. The total venting requirement due to both liquid

movement as well as thermal vent

ing is needed to ensure that the

venting arrangement is designed

for the worst-case scenario.

Outbreathing. Whereas venting

due to inbreathing is independent

of flash point, the requirements

for outbreathing differ with flash

point. For liquids with a flash

point above 37.8C or a normal

boiling point above 149C, the re

quired venting capacity for maxiFIGURE 3. An external floating-roof tank may include these types of accessories
mum liquid movement into a tank
should be equivalent to 0.170 std
Vib = Qe + 0.178C
Inbreathing due to liquid movement
m3/hr of air for each 0.159 m3/hr of
For tanks larger than 3,500 m3 capac- maximum filling rate. In other words,
out of the tank
Inbreathing due to contraction or ity:
for a filling rate of Qf m3/hr, the venting capacity should be 1.069Qf std
condensation of vapors caused by a
Vib = Qe + 3.20C0.651
m3/hr.
decrease in the atmospheric temperature (also called thermal inbreathing)
Outbreathing due to liquid movement into the tank
Outbreathing due to expansion or
vaporization of vapors caused by an
increase in the atmospheric temperature (also called thermal outbreathing)
Outbreathing resulting from exter
nal fire

Inbreathing. According to the American Petroleum Institute (API) [4], the

venting capacity for maximum liquid

movement out of a tank should be

equivalent to 0.159 std m3/hr of air

3
for each 0.159 m /hr of the maximum
emptying rate of liquids. This holds

for liquids of any flash point. In other

words, for an emptying rate of Qe m3/

hr, the venting capacity should be Qe

std m3/hr.
There are also requirements for
thermal inbreathing. The API [4] furnishes these requirements as a function of tank capacity in the form of
tables. This information can also be
expressed as an equation, wherein
the thermal venting is expressed as a
function of tank capacity.
The total venting capacity can be

expressed as a sum of liquid movement and thermal inbreathing.

For tanks up to 3,500 m3 capacity:

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CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM APRIL 2006

77

Environmental Manager
There are also requirements for
thermal outbreathing. The total venting capacity, expressed as a sum of liquid movement and thermal outbreathing can be expressed as follows.
For tanks up to 3,500 m3 capacity:
Vob = 1.069Qf + 0.107C

For tanks larger than 3,500 m3 capacity:

Vob = 1.069Qf + 1.92C0.651
For these liquids with a high flash
point, the thermal outbreathing is
roughly 60% of the thermal inbreathing
requirement. The reason for this is that
AC

V
HE isit
St MA us
an H at
d all
D4 9
1 .1

the roof and shell temperatures cannot

rise as rapidly as they can fall, for example, during a sudden rain shower.
Liquids with a lower flash point,
below 37.8C, or a normal boiling point
below 149C, have the following guidelines. The requirement of venting capacity for maximum liquid movement into
a tank should be equivalent to 0.340
std m3/hr of air for each 0.159 m3/hr of
maximum filling rate. In other words,
for a filling rate of Qf m3/hr, the venting
capacity should be 2.138Qf std m3/hr.
Of course, there are additional requirements for thermal outbreathing. The
total venting capacity, expressed as a
sum of liquid movement and thermal
outbreathing, can be expressed by the
following equations.
For tanks up to 3,500 m3 capacity:
Vob = 2.138Qf + 0.178C
and for tanks larger than 3,500 m3
capacity:
Vob = 2.138Qf + 3.20C0.651
Emergency Venting on Fire Exposure. When storage tanks are exposed
to fire, the venting rate may exceed
the inbreathing or outbreathing rate
that results from a combination of
thermal effects and liquid movement.
For tanks subjected to fire exposure,
the required venting capacities are
given in Table 2 [4], for the reference
liquid, hexane.
The environmental factor, F, is
taken as 1.0 for bare-metal tanks.
For insulated tanks, F varies between
0.025 and 0.30, depending upon the
insulation conductance. The details
are furnished in API 2000 [4].
The values in Table 2 are for hexane. For other liquids, the following
corrected venting rate is applied.

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78

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM APRIL 2006

where M is the molecular weight of the

stored liquid and L is the latent heat
of vaporization of the stored liquid.
Emergency vents can be in the form
of a gauge hatch that permits the cover
to lift under high venting loads, or a
manhole cover that lifts when exposed
to high venting loads (Figure 2).
Open vents. Tanks that store harmless or non-toxic liquids, such as firewater or service water, are vented to
the atmosphere. These tanks operate

at atmospheric pressure and the venting is called open venting. While being
filled, the tank breathes out through
the vent. When liquid is pumped out,
the tank breathes in through the vent.
To prevent rain or snow from entering,
the vent pipe is usually provided with
a weather hood, or alternatively, the
pipe itself is shaped in the form of a
goose neck.
According to API 2000 [4], open
vents without flame arrestors may be
used for venting under the following
circumstances:
For storage of petroleum or petroleum products with a flash point of
37.8C or above
For tanks holding petroleum or petroleum products at a temperature
below that of the flash point
For storage of any product in tanks
with a capacity of less than 9.46 m3
Flame arrestors need to be used with
open venting of tanks that store petroleum or petroleum products that have
a flash point below 37.8C.
Pressure/vacuum vents. Pressure/
vacuum vents are usually employed to
protect blanketed tanks. In situations
where the blanketing valve fails and
gets stuck in the open position, the tank
can be pressurized by the continuous
inflow of inert gas. A pressure vent will
open to protect the tank from rupture.
Conversely, in situations where a tank
is being emptied and the blanketing
valve fails, the tank can reach vacuum
conditions. A vacuum valve will open,
thus protecting the tank from collapse.
Pressure and vacuum vents may be
weight- or spring-loaded. Springs are
generally used at set pressures above
7 kPa gage or at vacuum below 7
kPa gage. The pressure setting of the
vent is kept slightly above the tank
blanketing pressure but below the
maximum pressure the tank can withstand. Similarly, the vacuum setting is
kept higher than the normal operating
vacuum, but at a vacuum level that is
below the maximum vacuum that the
tank can withstand.
Because these vents are designed to
remain closed until they must open in
order to protect the tanks, another advantage is that evaporation losses and
fugitive emissions can be minimized
by pressure and vacuum vents. This
is achieved by preventing the release

TABLE 2. EMERGENCY VENTING

Wetted surface
area, m2

Design pressure, kPa gage

Emergency venting rate, std m3/hr

Area < 18

All

Vf

= 58,791(AF/L)(T/M)0.5

18 < area < 93

All

Vf

= 208,888(A0.566F/L)(T/M)0.5

93 < area < 260

All

Vf

= 587,386(A0.338F/L)(T/M)0.5

Area > 260

> 6.9

Vf

= 40,248(A0.82F/L)(T/M)0.5

Area > 260

< 6.9

Vf

= 3,847,884(F/L)(T/M)0.5

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CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM APRIL 2006

79

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Environmental Manager

FIGURE 4. An internal floating-roof tank would typically include accessories

as
shown here

of vapors that would otherwise occur

during minor variations in temperature, pressure or level.
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Instrumentation

Providing proper instrumentation in

tanks is an important consideration,
especially for large tanks that are
subjected to frequent filling and emptying. The following guidelines may
be useful for selecting tank instrumentation.
Level. At least two level instruments
should be included one with local
indication and the other in the control
room. In many cases, two level instruments with both local and remote indications are used. High and low level
alarms are recommended.
Temperature. Both local indication
and remote indication with an alarm
in case of high storage temperatures
should be included.
Pressure and flow. In blanketed
tanks, it is advisable to install a flow
and a pressure indicator with alarms
to warn of problems in the blanketing
gas line.

Structural accessories

Ladders and others. Auxiliary items

such as ladders, staircases, handrails
and walkways, are particularly important for tank maintenance. Generally, tanks less than 6 m in height
are provided with a ladder that is not
caged. Tanks that are taller than 6 m
require a spiral stairway [5]. Float80

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM APRIL 2006

ing-roof tanks are normally provided

with a ladder that automatically
adjusts so that access to the roof is
always provided. This type of ladder
is illustrated in Figure 3 for a typical
external-floating tank.
Roof Drain. According to API Standard 650 [5], primary roof drains
should be of the hose, jointed or siphon
type. A check valve should be provided
near the roof end of the hose to prevent backflow of stored product in case
of a leak (Figure 3).
Manholes. Shell manholes are normally 600 mm in diameter. The minimum number of required manholes is
dependent on the tank diameter. Typical guidelines are as follows:
Tanks with a diameter of less than
12 m: 1 manhole
Tanks with diameters of 12-44 m:
2 manholes, spaced 180 deg. apart
Tanks with diameters of 45-59 m:
3 manholes, spaced 120 deg. apart
Tanks with a diameter over 60 m:
4 manholes, spaced 90 deg. apart
Guidelines for roof manholes are:
For tanks less than 12 m in diameter,
one roof manhole is enough
For tanks larger than 12 m, two roof
manholes are recommended
Bottom drains. Bottom drains, also
referred to as water draw-off sumps,
should be provided in all tanks for
draining water. They are also needed
for tanks that store petroleum products
in order to empty the tanks for cleaning. API Standard 650 [5] provides di-

TABLE 3. MINIMUM TANK SPACING1

Floating-roof
tanks

Fixed or horizontal tanks

Class I or II
liquids

Class IIIA
liquids

1/6 sum of adjacent tank diameters but not less

than 0.9 m

1/6 sum of adjacent tank diameters but not less

than 0.9 m

All Tanks not over 45 m in diameter:

1/6 sum of adjacent tank diameters but not less
than 0.9 m
Tanks larger than 45 m in diameter:
If remote impounding is provided

1/6 sum of adjacent tank diameters

1/4 sum of adjacent tank diameters

1/6 sum of adjacent tank diameters

If diking is provided

1/4 sum of adjacent tank diameters

1/3 sum of adjacent tank diameters

1/4 sum of adjacent tank diameters

1. Reprinted with permission from NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, Copyright 2003, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA 02169. This reprinted material is
not the complete and official position of the National Fire Protection Association on the referenced
subject which is represented only by the standard in its entirety.

mensional details of such drains.

Figures 3 and 4 show typical structural accessories for both external and
internal floating-roof tanks.

Spill control

Facilities should be provided in the

tankage area to prevent accidental

discharge of any Class I, II or IIIA

liquid from endangering adjoining
property. National Fire Codes [6]
describe the requirements in detail.
There are two types of facilities that
can be provided.
Remote impounding. In this case,
the adjoining property is protected by

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drainage of the discharge to a remote

impounding area. The following guidelines should be followed:
A slope of not less than 1% should be
provided for at least 15 m towards
the impounding area
The impounding area should have a
capacity that can, at minimum, hold
the contents of the largest tank that
may drain into it
Where it is not practical to have a
100% capacity remote impounding,
partial remote impounding should
be provided. The remainder of the
impounding volume should be provided by diking as discussed below
Impounding by diking. In cases where
the adjoining property is protected by
providing diked enclosures with roads
all around the enclosure, the following
guidelines should be followed:
The diked enclosure should be able
to contain the complete contents of
the largest tank in the tank farm in
case of any emergency. The capac-

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CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM APRIL 2006

81

TABLE 4. TANK DATA SHEET - AN EXAMPLE

01
02
03

Item number
Number required
Designation

04

Type

05
06
07
08
09
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
42
43
44
45
46
47

Type of roof
Nominal capacity
m3
Inside diameter
mm
Product stored
Corrosive components
Hazardous class
Operating temperature
C
Operating pressure
kPa(g)
Flash point
Liquid density at operating temperature
Viscosity at operating temperature
Inert gas blanketing required
Corrosion allowance
Roof
Bottoms
Filling rate
nor/max
Emptying rate
nor/max
Construction
Roof shape
Bottom shape
Bottom sump
Agitator
Insulation
Material (tank)
Material (internals)
Nozzle Table
Item

T - 101
Two
Heavy Naphtha Tank
Floating Roof Type
Net working capacity
Cylindrical height

m3
mm

Design temperature (min/max) C

Design pressure
kPa(g)
C
kg/m3
cP
Inert gas medium
Shell
mm
Internals
mm
m3/h
m3/hr

type (roof) thickness

type (shell) thickness

No. required

Single Deck Pontoon Type

461
385
7000
14000
Heavy Naphtha
None

size, mm

mm
mm

40
Atmospheric

No
1
2

15
755-770
0.49 - 0.51

5/70
Full of Water

2
20/22
50/55

none
none

Rating

refer type
flat
yes (as per API 620)
No
CS
CS

nil
nil

Designation

Notes :
1.
2.
3.
4.

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CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM APRIL 2006

83

Environmental Manager
ity of the diked area should be calculated after deducting the volume
of the tanks (other than the largest
tank) below the height of the dike
The height of the dike wall should be
a minimum of 1 m and not more than
1.8 m from that of the internal grade
The minimum distance between the
PBS_Ad_v2-half-che 2/8/06 9:01 AM
tank shell and the base of the inte-

rior dike wall should be 1.5 m

Layout and design

NFPA provides detailed guidelines

for layout and installation of aboveground storage tanks. Tanks storing
Class I, II or IIIA stable liquids should
be separated in accordance with Table
3 [6]. An exception to this is the case
Page 1
of crude-petroleum storage tanks

things change...

with individual capacities that do not

exceed 476 m3 and are in production
facilities in isolated locations. In such
cases, the tanks need not be separated
by more than 0.9 m.
After the process engineer has considered the basic tank requirements,
a tank data sheet can be generated. A
typical tank data sheet, such as that
shown in Table 4 (p. 83), illustrates all
process features of a tank including
the dimensions, type, capacity, operating and design conditions, physical
properties of the liquid stored, materials of construction, corrosion allowances and insulation. In addition, it
contains the details of all nozzles in
the tank, their designations, sizes and
ratings. A process sketch should also
be included as part of the data sheet.
The process engineer should also
specify instrumentation needs, such
as pressure, level and temperature
sensors.

Edited by Dorothy Lozowski

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CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM APRIL 2006

1. National Fire Protection Association, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, Vol. 2,
p. 30-10, Quincy, Mass., 1996
2. National Fire Protection Association, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, Vol. 2,
p. 30-8, Quincy, Mass., 1996
3. Amrouche, Y., et.al., General Rules for Aboveground Storage Tank Design and Operation,
Chem. Eng. Prog., pp. 54-58, December 2002.
4. American Petroleum Institute, Venting Atmospheric and Low-Pressure Storage Tanks,
API Standard 2000, October 1992.
5. American Petroleum Institute. Welded Steel
Tanks for Oil Storage, API Standard 650,
10th Edition, November 1998.
6. National Fire Protection Association, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, Vol. 2,
p. 30-15, Quincy, Mass., 1996

Author
Siddhartha Mukherjee is
deputy general manager-process at Lurgi India Company
Ltd. (A-30 Mohan Cooperative
Industrial Estate, Mathura
Road, New Delhi 110 044, India.
Phone:
+91-11-4259-5050;
Fax: +91-11-4259-5051; Email:
siddhartha_mukherjee@lurgi
.de). For the past six years, he
has been involved as a lead engineer in the design, precommissioning and commissioning of chemical and
petrochemical plants in India and elsewhere. He
has also been involved in inorganic and oleochemistry while at Lurgi. Prior to this, Mukherjee
worked as an environmental engineer with the
Development Consultants Ltd. (Calcutta), doing
various environmental assessment projects involving thermal power plants. Mukherjee earned
his B.Tech. and Ph.D. chemical engineering degrees from the Indian Institute of Technology,
Kharagpur. He holds lifetime memberships in
Indias Institution of Engineers and the Indian
Institute of Chemical Engineers.