LECTURE 4

Equations of airplane motion in trajectory coordinate system in particular

cases. Aerodynamic calculation of an aircraft. Zhukovsky method of thrusts.
1.

Vertical plane

For motion in a vertical plane coinciding with airplane symmetry plane the yaw
angle , bank angle and angular rate ' d are equal to 0 .The equations of motion
a
dt
for this case are as follows:
m

dV
P cos( ) X a G sin ,
dt

mV

d
P sin( ) Ya G cos .
dt

(4.1)
(4.2)

The example of such motion can be Nesterovs loop and other manoeuvres in a
vertical plane.
2. Horizontal plane
For airplane motion in a horizontal plane flight pass angle and angular velocity
d
are both equal to 0 and this equations look like this:
dt
m

dV
P cos( ) cos X a ,
dt

P sin( ) cos a cos( ) sin sin a

(4.3)

Ya cos a Z a sin a G

mV P sin( ) sin a cos( ) sin cos a

Ya sin a Z a cos a .

Steady-state motion of an aircraft

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Among plane motions of flight vehicles it is necessary to separate out and to pay
attention to the narrower class of steady-state motions.
Strictly speaking, the steady-state motion of a flight vehicle, at which all
parameters describing flight, remain constant, does not exist. Any motion of an aircraft is
unsteady, because first of all it is necessary to consider aircraft, as a body of variable
structure. Even in such simple case of motion, as horizontal trajectory flight with constant
speed, the motion will not be steady-state and flight weight of an aircraft will decrease
continuously because of fuel burn-out. To observe horizontal flight conditions with a
constant speed it is necessary to reduce the angle of attack gradually, it means that,
the angle of attack will decrease in the course of time .
It is interesting to study steady-state motion of a flight vehicle, however, from two
points of view.
Firstly, the steady-state motions help us to estimate flight vehicles maximum
capacity. The motion characteristics of such steady-state equilibrium modes of flight can
serve as a criteria of vehicle flight qualities evaluation .
Secondly, the process of research of those flight vehicles where kinematics
parameters of motion change slowly in the course of time, it is possible to use equations
of steady-state motion without great errors. Such kind of unsteady motion can be
researched by means of these equations and it is called quasisteady. Thus, small inertia
forces can be neglected when considering quasisteady flight vehicles motion.
Further, instead of term quasisteady motion we shall use term steady-state
motion .
We shall define steady-state motion as such motion of vehicle flight, when angle of
attack , yaw angle , angle of roll , altitude H and speed of flight remain constant
in the course of time.
Steady-state motion defined in such a way, strictly speaking, is possible only at the
aircraft flight in horizontal plane, where the aircraft weight does not vary in the course of
time. Actually as it was mentioned, due to the fuel burning out, the aircraft fuel weight
becomes a function of time t . If, however, aircraft motion is studied in horizontal plane
during the short time, it is possible to neglect the change of flight weight in the first
approximation and consider it equal to some mean weight for the given period. In this
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case the term the steady-state motion gains a certain sense.

During aircraft flight in a vertical plane the altitude of flight H , and all parameters
of atmosphere such as : density, pressure, sound speed etc are changed. That is why the
definition of steady-state motion mentioned here loses its sense. However, if aircraft
motion is studied in a vertical plane during a small period of time and for this period
altitude of flight has not changed essentially, it is possible to consider all parameters
describing atmosphere constant. In such case aircraft motion could be considered steadystate in a vertical plane with some degree of approximation.
Thus even if we take into account all the assumptions mentioned above, it isnt
possible to consider motion steady-state according to all the parameters describing this
motion, but only to one such parameter or to some combination of kinematics parameters
of motion. It is possible to speak, for example, about steady-state motion in relation to
speed of flight. Such motion will be at constant speed of flight, but the angle of attack,
owing to the change of flight weight, will be variable even at constant altitude of flight.
The curvilinear motion of airplane with constant speed in a horizontal plane and at
constant bank angle will be steady-state in relation to speed of flight and bank angle.
Angle of attack and flight direction will be different in the course of time.
The knowledge of steady-state motions gains special interest for aeroplanes, if
their kinematics parameters of motion during a significant part of flight vary
insignificantly.
Steady-state motions determined in such a way, can be straight-line and curvilinear.
At first we shall deal with straight-line steady-state motions, and then with curvilinear.
We shall work at problems dealing with aeroplanes containing aerodynamic lift force as a
main force necessary for flying in the air. Let's neglect earth surface curvature, and
consider gravity acceleration constant and independent of flight altitude .
For example, horizontal flight, climb; gliding can be classified as straight-line
steady-state motions.
Aerodynamic calculation of an aircraft. Zhukovsky method of thrusts.
Problem of aerodynamic calculation includes determination of kinematics
parameters of motion of mass centre of an aircraft depending on the external forces
acting on it. The maximum speed of horizontal steady flight at different altitudes, extreme
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possible altitude of horizontal flight, time of climb of an aircraft on various altitudes (if
motion at climb is considered as steady), the length of a path, covered by an aircraft for
certain period etc. refer to such kinematics parameters.
Let's consider the equations of straight steady flight motion at a climb without roll
and sliding (in vertical plane):
P cos( ) X a G sin ,

(4.4)

P sin( ) Ya G cos .

If assume, that the flight pass angle is insignificant ( 20...25 ), and the sum of
angle of attack and angle of incidence ( ) is rather small, it is possible to accept, that
value:
P cos( ) P , P sin( ) 0 , cos 1 .
In this case equations of motion will be:
P X a G sin ,

(4.5)

Ya G .

We can get flight speed or Mach number ( M ) from the second equation:
C ya

V 2
S GV
2

2G ;
SC ya

0.7 C ya PH M 2 S G M

or
G

0.7 C ya PH S

;.

(4.6)

It is clear that the required flight speed at the given value C ya at the first
approximation does not depend on engine thrust P sin( ) , if we neglect thrust
component force, and it depends only on C ya value. The necessary condition for steady
flight - equilibrium of moment forces which are acting on an aircraft is provided by the
pilot at the appropriate deflection of the elevator. Hence, the pilot controls an angle of
attack with the help of elevator. It means, that the value of flight speed is determined by a
position of an elevator, irrespective of thrust developed by the engine installed on the
aircraft.
From the first equation of a system (4.5) we have:
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sin

P X a P PR P
.

G
G
G

(4.7)

It follows (4.7), that in order to execute the flight on the trajectory inclined under a
certain angle to horizon, the pilot should provide the necessary thrust force with the help
of the engine lever (within the engine limits, installed on an aircraft).
Thus, the speed of flight at the first approximation depends on the value of a lift
coefficient C ya , and the declination of trajectory to horizon is determined by the value of
engine thrust P .
The thrust force generally depends, as it is known, on speed and altitude of flight
and on the throttle position. This relation can not be expressed by the simple analytical
relation and is set graphically as a grid of curves P ( M , H ) or P ( V , H ) for various
positions of the throttle. The maximum power of the engine will be used, obviously, at the
completely opened throttle.
On the basis of all methods of aerodynamic calculation the comparison of value of
any parameter, required for carrying out the chosen mode of flight (required value of
parameter), with the value of the same parameter which is provided by the engine
installed on an aircraft and the value of this parameter is called the available value of
parameter. Obviously, the equality of required and available values of the chosen
parameter is the condition of steady motion. As a parameter it is possible to choose, for
example, the force of a thrust, number of the engine revolutions, fuel consumption,
effective power developed by the engine etc.
It is easier to choose thrust as a parameter. This way was chosen by Zhukovski.
The method of aerodynamic calculation based on the comparison of values of the
required and available thrusts (method of thrusts), developed by the famous Russian
scientist Zhukovski, is the basic method of aerodynamic calculation. This method is
famous and called as Zhukovski method of thrusts. The method of comparison is graphic.
In the method of thrusts the condition of steady flight is the equality of values of
required and available thrusts.
Now the simplified method of thrusts has received broad application for
aerodynamic calculation. Drawing of the required and available thrust curves for
horizontal steady flight at various altitudes and theirs comparison is on the basis of this
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method.
For horizontal steady flight without roll and sliding ( 0 , a 0 ) we have the
following set of equations:
P cos( ) X a ,

(4.8)

P sin( ) Ya G .
At horizontal steady flight the sum of angle of attack and angle of incidence (

) is small, so:
P Xa ,

(4.9)

Ya G .

It follows from the first equation, which is the condition of the speed stability, that
the required thrust during horizontal steady flight is equal to drag. This thrust is called as
a required thrust PR X a . The second equation of a system (4.9) is the condition of the
altitude stability.
At steady horizontal flight the components g-load are equal:
n xa

P Xa
Y
0 , n ya a 1 .
G
G

(4.10)

So, the required thrust is determined by a drag force and for steady horizontal
flight can be determined with the use of equality (2.11).
Preq X a C xa qS
0

AC 2y qS
a

0.7 C xa PH M S
0

AG 2
2

. (4.11)

0.7 PH M S

If we divide the first equation of a system (5.6) by the second, we shall receive:
Preq
where K

C ya
C xa

G
,
K

(4.12)

- is determined from the polar of an aircraft on the value of the

lift coefficient necessary for execution of the horizontal steady flight. We can obtain this
value from the second equation, (4.9):
C ya hor . fl .

G
0 ,7 PH M 2 S

It is necessary to note, that the equality (4.11) is fair in range of angles of attack, in
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which the polar coincides the parabola, because this equality is obtained with the use of
analytical expression of the polar (equation of a parabola), and the equality (4.12) is fair
in whole range of angles of attack.
Using one of the given equations it is possible to calculate and to draw Preq ( V )
Preq ( M ) curves for the required thrust ( Preq ) for various altitudes.
These relations are called Zhukovsky curves. We can get from the characteristics
of the engine the values of available thrusts depending on speed and altitude of flight. In
Fig. 4.1 the combined schedule of required and available thrusts for fixed value of
altitude and the given weight of an
aircraft is shown. As a rule, for
subsonic aircraft these relations are
drawn as a function of speed, for
supersonic - as a function of Mach
number M . Because the recalculation
from Mach number to speed ( M to
V ) is always possible further we will

not pay attention to this difference.

Fig. 1

Characteristic points on a curve of required thrusts

1. Minimum theoretical speed of horizontal steady flight ( Vmin theor . ).
A is the tangency point of vertical straight line and curve Preq ( V ) corresponds
to theoretical value of minimum speed of horizontal steady flight Vmin theor . . This speed
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is realised at flight with C ya hor . fl . C y a max :

Vmin theor .

2G
G
;.
M min theor .
SC ya max
0.7 C y a max PH S

(4.13)

Minimum theoretical speed is the least speed of flight at which the lift still can
balance weight force of an aircraft at the given altitude.
Practically it is impossible to fly on Vmin theor . because any error in flying or
vertical burst of a wind increasing the angle of attack, can result to stall resulting from the
sharp decrease of lift force coefficient ( C ya ) at angles of attack which are more critical.
Therefore minimum speed Vmin perm . (point A of a fig. 4.1) is taken for practical speed,
to which C ya hor . fl . C ya
Vmin perm .

perm . corresponds:

2G

SC ya

perm .

M min perm .

G
0.7 C ya

perm . PH S

(4.14)
The value C ya

perm . of

an aircraft is determined at flight tests of an aircraft and

depends on flight Much number M . The warning signs at the approach to C ya

perm . are

the following: shaking of an aircraft, spontaneous pull-up and rolling, deterioration of

controllability etc., as well as the signals of the automatic control unit warning the pilot
about permissible angles of attack.
At large altitudes the thrust of turbojet drops and the curves Preq ( V ) and
Pavail .( V ) intersection can occur and in the field of small speed is below than points A
and A . In this case minimum speed of steady flight Vmin steady will be limited by the
available thrust.
2.

Optimal speed of horizontal steady flight (Vopt . or M opt . )

The second characteristic point is received by drawing a horizontal tangent to the

curve Preq ( V ) . In tangency point B (see Fig. 5.1) we have a minimum required thrust
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Preq .min , that corresponds to flight with K max ( Preq .min

G
K max

). In turn maximum

quality is realised at flight with C ya hor . fl . C y a opt . . The mode C ya opt . corresponds on
the polar, as we know, to the optimal angle of attack opt . . The speed corresponding to
Preq .min and opt . is called as optimal:
Vmin opt .

2G
,
SC ya opt .

(4.15)

or
M min opt .

G
0.7 C ya opt . PH S

(4.16)

The tangency point corresponds to the least value of fuel consumption per hour C
.
C hour spec Preq . spec Preq .min .

(4.17)

( spec - specific fuel consumption)

The fuel consumption per hour determines flight time and the flight with optimal
speed Vopt . corresponds to the mode of the maximum time in flight.
3. Cruising speed of horizontal steady flight (Vcruis . or M cruis . )
This characteristic point is received by drawing the tangent line from the point of
origin to the curve Preq ( V ) . The tangency point C corresponds to the cruising speed of
steady horizontal flight Vcruis . . In this point the Preq V ratio is minimum, and
consequently the value of fuel consumption per kilometre C km is minimum:
km

Preq
C hour spec Preq

spec
V
V
V

(4.18)

min

The fuel consumption per kilometre determines the flight distance and the
flight with cruising speed corresponds to the mode of the maximum distance of flight.

4. Maximum speed of horizontal steady flight (Vmax . or M max . )

If we combine a P ( V ) curve with a P ( V ) curve, the cross point D of these
curves (see fig. 4.1) will correspond to the mode of maximum speed (Mach number M )
of horizontal steady flight (Vmax . or M max . ).
However, sometimes Vmax . ( M max . ) value is limited by the maximum dynamic
head according to the condition of strength or kinetic heating temperature.
The limitation on dynamic head is introduced with the regard of the fact that its
increase leads to the increase of loadings acting on an aircraft surface. As a result of this
the weight of a structure will increase.
The limitation of maximum speed on kinetic heating is necessary because the
heating of the aircraft structure called by increase of flight speed, results in a drop of
strength and rigidity of the structure. The value of maximum permissible temperature of
the skin and other elements of framework are determined by their material.
For heavy aircraft limitation of maximum flight speed at small altitudes is also
introduced, on g-load n ya value, at flight in a restless air.
For aircraft with piston and turboprop engines the maximum speed is determined,
as a rule, on available thrust, and, in some cases, its limitation on dynamic head is
introduced.
For supersonic aircraft with turbojet maximum speeds at altitudes close to the
ceiling, are determined by available engine thrust, and at all other altitudes the limitations
of maximum speed are introduced: at average altitudes on Much number M from
conditions of permissible temperature of kinetic heating and at small altitudes - on
dynamic head from conditions of strength of the structure.
The maximum speed is calculated for average flight weight m m , or at in-depth
study for a number of computational values mcomp .

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