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Behavioural Learning Theories

TOPIC 2
Learning

TOPIC 2 Behavioural Learning Theories

TOPIC

Behavioural
Learning
Theories

LEARNING OUTCOMES
After completing this chapter you should be able to:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

10

Define what is behaviourism;

Explain classical conditioning;
Explain operant conditioning;
Give everyday examples of classical conditioning in daily life;
Identify the characteristics of Thorndikes theory of learning;
Describe the principles of operant conditioning; and
Discuss the application of operant conditioning in teaching and learning.

Behavioural Learning Theories

2.1

TOPIC 2

C L A S S I C A L C O N D I T I O N I N G B Y
I VA N PAV L O V

Ivan Pavlov was born in Russia and spent most of

his time studying physiology (study of the functions
of organisms and their parts such as the physiology
of the liver). He was noted for his work on the
physiology of digestion and was awarded the Nobel
Prize for work in this area.
However, he only became interested in psychology
in 1900 at the age of 50. In his classic experiment
with dogs, he measured the saliva secreted by the
animals when food was given (see Figure 2.1). The

Ivan Pavlov
1849-1936

Figure 2.1: Dog with tube inserted in its cheek.

When the dog salivates, the saliva is collected in the test tube and its quantity is recorded on the rotating drum
[source: Great Experiments in Psychology. p.5 by H.H. Garrett, 1951. New York: Appleton- Century-Crofts]

Step 1: Before Conditioning

He gave a hungry dog a bowl of food. The dog is hungry, the dog sees
the food and the dog salivates.

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This is a natural sequence of events, an unconscious, uncontrolled, and

unlearned relationship. Stimulus means something that is given to initiate
a response. So Unconditioned Stimulus and Unconditioned Response
simply means that the stimulus and the response are naturally connected.
They just came that way, hard wired into the brain of the organism.
Unconditioned means that this connection was already present in the dog
before Pavlov began his experiments. For example, when you see someone
eating something sour such as pickled fruit, you tend to swallow your saliva.
Thus, an unconditioned stimulus (pickled fruit) elicited an unconditioned
response (swallowing your saliva).
Step 2: During Conditioning
Next, Pavlov, presented the hungry dog with food and simultaneously rang
a bell, and the dog salivated.

This action (food and bell ringing) was done at several meals. Every time
the dog sees the food, the dog also hears the bell. Unconditioned means
unlearned, untaught, pre-existing, already-present-before-we-got-there.
Conditioning just means the opposite. Pavlov was trying to associate,
connect, bond or link something new with the old relationship. He wanted
this new thing (the bell) to elicit the same response.
Step 3: After Conditioning
This time Pavlov rang only the bell at mealtime, but he did not show any
food. Guess what the dog did. Right.

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TOPIC 2

The bell elicited the same response as the sight of the food gets. Over
repeated trials, the dog has LEARNED to associate the bell with the food.
The bell has the power to produce the same response as the food. In other
words, the dog has been conditioned to salivate when hearing the bell.

2.1.1

Conclusion

This is the essence of Classical Conditioning. You start with two things
that are already connected with each other (food and salivation). Then you
pair a third thing (bell) with the conditioned stimulus (food) over several
trials. Eventually, this third thing may become so strongly associated, that
it has acquired the power to produce the old behaviour. The organism is
conditioned to respond to the third thing or stimulus.
Pavlov extended his experiment by using bells of different tones. Surprisingly,
the dog still salivated when it heard the different tones. The dog responded
even though the tones of the bells were different or nearly the same. In other
words the dog is capable of generalisation, and able to generalise across
different tones. For example, when driving and you hear the sound of a
siren behind you and you immediately move to the side to give way. You
do not discriminate whether it is the sound of the fire-truck, the ambulance
or the police (which may be different) but you react in the same way. In
other words, you have generalised that any sound of the siren, you will
respond similarly.
Pavlov also found that when the tone of the bell that was closer to the
sound of the original bell, the dog salivated. When the tone of the bell was
very different from the sound of the original bell, the dog salivated less
frequently. In other words the dog is capable of discrimination, and able to
differentiate among the different tones. The dog is responds to one stimulus
and not to another stimulus. However, when Pavlov continued ringing the
bell and after many trials it was not followed by food, the dog gradually
did not salivate. In other words, extinction took place and the dog did not
salivate after sometime when it realised that food was not forthcoming.

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2.2

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING IN
D A I LY L I F E

The smell of fresh bread baking makes my mouth water. This is probably
the result of Classical conditioning. In the past the smell of the fresh bread
immediately preceded putting a piece in my mouth, which causes salivation.
Through the mechanism of Classical conditioning the smell itself comes
to elicit salivation.
After the bad car accident Jeffri had last year, he would cringe and break
into a sweat at the sound of squealing brakes. This is Classical conditioning.
The cringing, which is an unconditioned response to pain or fear, was
produced by the accident and its accompanying pain. That accident
was probably preceded by the sound of squealing brakes, which became
a conditioned stimulus for the conditioned response of cringing.
To treat alcoholics, we sometimes put a chemical in their drinks that
makes them sick. Eventually, the taste of alcohol becomes aversive. This is
Classical conditioning. The chemical that makes the drinker sick is being
paired with the taste of alcohol so that the alcohol itself becomes the
conditioned stimulus for being sick.
Classical conditioning works with advertising. For example, many product
ads prominently feature attractive young women. The young women
(Unconditioned Stimulus) naturally elicit a favorable, mildly aroused
feeling (Unconditioned Response) in most men.

ACTIVITY

14

Classical conditioning is a pervasive form of influence in our world.

Give examples of classical conditioning in daily life and in the
workplace.

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Behavioural Learning Theories

2.3

FAT H E R O F B E H AV I O U R I S M

John B. Watson was born in 1878 and grew up in

South Carolina in the United States. He entered
Furman University at the age of 16 and graduates
with a masters degree. Later, he studied at the
University of Chicago and earned his Ph.D. in
psychology in 1903. He began teaching psychology at
John Hopkins University in 1908. In 1913, he gave
a seminal lecture at Columbia University titled
Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It, which
essentially detailed the behaviourist position.

J.B. Watson (1878-1958)

According to Watson, psychology should be the

science of observable behavior. Introspection forms no essential part of its
methods, nor is the scientific value of its data. Watson remained at John
Hopkins University until 1920. He had an affair with Rosalie Rayner, his
graduate assistant. He divorced in first wife, and was asked by the university
to resign his position. Watson later married Rayner and the two remained
together until her death in 1935. After leaving his academic position, Watson
began working for an advertising agency where he remained until he retired
in 1945. He spent his last years living a reclusive life on a farm in Connecticut
and died in 1958. Watson who subscribed to classical conditional developed
by Ivan Pavlov, was dubbed The Father of Behaviourism and strongly
believed that human emotion (i.e. fear, rage and love) was the product of
both heredity and experience. Through the conditioning process, these three
basic emotions become attached to different things for different people. He
strongly believed that any human being can be conditioned to do anything
regardless of their attitudes, abilities or experiences. His extreme belief is
reflected in this famous (or infamous) statement he made in 1926:

Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified

world to bring them up in and Ill guarantee to take any one at
random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select
doctor, lawyer, merchant, chief, and yes, even beggarman and thief,
regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations,
and race of his ancestors (1926, 10).

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Watson set the stage for behaviorism, which soon rose to dominate psychology.
While behaviorism began to lose its hold after 1950, many of the concepts
and principles are still widely used today. Conditioning and behavior
modification are still widely used in therapy and behavioral training to
help clients change problematic behaviors and develop new skills.

2.4

WAT S O N S E X P E R I M E N T S W I T H
LITTLE ALBERT

To demonstrate how inborn emotional reflexes

become conditioned to neutral stimuli, Watson
and Rosalie Rayner (1920) performed an
experiment on an 11-month- old infant Albert
adopting Pavlovs approach (discussed earlier).
In the beginning of the experiment, the infant
was shown a white rat (see Figure 2.2).
Figure 2.2: Albert and the white rat.
He reached out and tried to touch the animal.
Later, whenever Albert reached out and tried
to touch the rat, Watson took a hammer and
struck a steel bar behind the infant, making a loud noise. Obviously, Albert
got a fright and jumped and fell forward. Again, he tried to touch the rat
and the bar was struck, making a loud noise. Albert jumped violently and
cried. A week later when Albert came into contact with the rat he was more
cautious and withdrew his hand. He had developed a strong fear of the
rat and began to cry. He tried to raise himself and crawled away rapidly.

Albert had LEARNED to fear the white rat because of its association with
the loud noise.

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TOPIC 2

It was also shown that Alberts fear generalised to a variety of other objects
such as a rabbit, fur coat, and even a Santa Claus mask. In other words,
any object that was furry brought fear to the infant. The experiment by
Watson showed that our emotional reactions can be rearranged through
classical conditioning. Watson demonstrated that an emotion such as fear
could be transferred to an organism that originally that not have such a
fear. The finding is significant because it implies that if fears are learned,
it should be possible to unlearn or extinguish them.
Unfortunately, Watson and Rayner never removed Alberts fears because
his mother removed him from the hospital where the experiment was being
conducted shortly after fear was instilled.

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a) Explain how a behaviour can be conditioned

b) What is meant by generalisation, discrimination and extinction in
classical conditioning?
c) What is behaviourism?

2.5

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING IN
THE CLASSROOM

It is the first day in school and suddenly Suzy hears her teacher Ms. Lim
yell Keep Quiet at the top of her voice. Suzy was startled and terrified
and started to cry. In the next few days, whenever Ms. Lim entered the
class she cried. She had associated the presence of Ms. Lim with fear. In
other words, she has been conditioned to respond by crying whenever
encountering Ms. Lim even though she had not yelled, Keep Quiet.
Stimulus Generalisation Suzy has learned to associate fear with Ms
Lim. Could that fear generalise to other teachers? Stimulus generalisation
occurs when the organism responds to stimuli that are similar or related.
If Suzy cried each time any teacher (other than Ms. Lim) entered the class,
than Suzy has generalised. For example, in Watsons experiments, Little
Albert avoided any thing that was furry indicating that the child has
generalised fear to stimuli that is similar or related to the white rat.
Stimulus Discrimination When other teachers enter the class, Suzy
does not cry but when she encounters Ms. Lim she cries. Apparently,
her classically conditioned response seems to be limited to one stimulus;
Ms. Lim. It appears that Suzy is showing signs of stimulus discrimination.
Extinction Suzy has associated Ms. Lim with the yelling of Keep Quiet
which terrified her. However, if the stimulus (yelling Keep Quiet) is not
applied and the response has not generated over a period of time, then the
probability of conditioned behaviour (crying) may decay. If Suzy had not
heard Ms. Lim yell Keep Quiet for some time, it is possible that crying
whenever Ms. Lim appears would gradually become extinct.

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2.6
C O N N E C T I O N I S M - E D WA R D L .
THORNDIKE
Edward Thorndike (1874 1949), whose doctoral thesis entitled Animal
Intelligence: An Experimental Study of the Associative Process in Animals
in 1898, formed the basis for his learning theories. To Thorndike the most
basic form of learning was trial-and-error learning which was based on his
experiments which involved putting a hungry animal in a puzzle box (see
Figure 2.3). The animal (he used cats) would attempt to escape to get at
the food outside the box. Pressing on the pedal would enable the animal
to escape. Before escaping, the animal would have to engage in a series
of complex responses. The animal would squeeze through an opening and
claw at anything it reaches. The animal had to perform in a certain way
before it was allowed to leave the box.
The animal claws all over the box
in an impulsive struggle to get
out of the confinement. In the
process presses the pedal and the
door opens. It gets out and eats
the food. The same cat was put
in the box over and over again.
Thorndike noted the time it took
the animal to solve the problem
as a function of the number of
trials or opportunities. The time
it took to solve the problem
systematically decreased as the
number of trials increased.

Figure 2.3: Thorndikes puzzle box the box.

In other words, the more opportunities the animal had, the faster it solved
the problem. The animal has made a connection between the proper
response and the food the cat received (Stimulus-Response or S-R
connection). Based on his experiments, Thorndike concluded that learning
is incremental. In other words, learning occurs in very small systematic
steps rather than in huge jumps.
Based on his experiments, Thorndike proposed the following theories of

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learning:
The Law of Readiness
The law of readiness states that when an organism is ready to act, it will
do so. When it is not ready to act, forcing it to act will be annoying. In
other words, when someone is ready to perform act, to do is satisfying
while not doing so is annoying.
The Law of Exercise
The law of exercise states that the strength of a connection between a stimulus
and a response is determined by how often the connection is established.
In other words, maintaining connection between the stimulus and response
strengthens the connection (Law of Use). The connection between the
stimulus and response is weakened when practice is discontinued (Law of
Disuse).
The Law of Effect
The law of effect states that the strength of a connection between a
stimulus and a response is influenced by the consequence of a response.
For example, if a response is followed by a satisfying state of affairs, the
strength of the connection is increased. If a response is followed by an
annoying state of affairs, the strength of the connection is decreased.

2.7
I M P L I C AT I O N S O F T H O R N D I K E S
THEORIES
Thorndike developed the idea of connectionism. He believed that
connections formed between a stimulus and a response (S-R) is the essence
of intellectual development. People of higher intellect formed more bonds
between stimuli and response and formed them more easily than people
of lower ability.
Complex ideas should be broken down into pre-requisite concepts.
Positive reinforcement should be applied as these concepts are learned so
that they can be applied to more complex, higher-level learning activities.
Transfer of learning.
o The degree of transfer between initial and later learning depends on the
match between elements across the two events.
o Transfer depends on the presence of identical elements in the original

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and new learning situations.

o Transfer is always specific and never general.
o Transfer from one school task to a highly similar task (near transfer), and
from school subject to non-school settings (far transfer), could be facilitated
by teaching knowledge and skills in school subjects that have elements
identical to activities encountered in the initial context.

a) How does Thorndike explain learning?

b) What are the implications of Thorndikes theories on teaching and
learning? Give specific examples.

2.8
O P E R A N T C O N D I T I O N I N G B Y B .F .
SKINNER
Burrhus Frederic Skinner was born in the small Pennsylvania town of
Susquehanna. He obtained his masters and doctorate in psychology from
Harvard University. He taught at the University of Minnesota and in 1945
moved to become the chairman of the psychology department at Indiana
University. In 1948, he was invited to teach and do research at Harvard
University where he remained for the rest of this life. He was an active
researcher and guided hundreds of doctoral candidates as well as writing
many books. His most famous book was Walden II, which is a fictional
account of a community run by his behaviourist principles.
B.F. Skinner, made his reputation by testing Watsons and Pavlovs theories
in the laboratory. He rejected the notion that organisms are passive and
have no control whether to act or not to act. He developed the theory of
operant conditioning, which states that we choose to behave in a certain way
because particular behaviour brings about certain consequences (Skinner,
1950). For example, if your girlfriend gives you a kiss when you give her
flowers, you are likely to give her flowers when you want a kiss. You
are acting in expectation of a certain reward. However, Skinner did not
agree that emotions or feelings play any part in determining behaviour.
Our behaviour is determined by the pleasant or unpleasant consequence
of that behaviour.

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2.8.1

Skinners Experiments

To demonstrate operant conditioning in the

laboratory, a hungry rat was placed in a box like
the one shown in Figure 2.4, which is called the
Skinners Box. Inside the box was a bar connected
to a pellet (food) dispenser. Left alone in the box
the rat moves about exploring. At some point in
the exploration, it presses the bar and a small food
pellet is released (Skinner, 1954). The rat eats and
soon presses the bar again. The food reinforces
bar-pressing, and the rate of pressing increases
dramatically.

2.8.2

Skinners Experiments

B.F.Skinner 1904-1990

To demonstrate operant conditioning in the laboratory, a hungry rat was

placed in a box like the one shown in Figure 2.4, which is called the
Skinners Box. Inside the box was a bar connected to a pellet (food)
dispenser. Left alone in the box the rat moves about exploring. At some
point in the exploration, it presses the bar and a small food pellet is
released (Skinner, 1954). The rat eats and soon presses the bar again.
The food reinforces bar-pressing, and the rate of pressing increases
dramatically.

Figure 2.4: Skinners box

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A behaviour reinforced by a pleasant consequence increases the

probability of that behaviour occurring in the future.

What happens if the rat is not given any more food pellets? Skinner,
disconnected the food dispenser. When the rat pressed the bar, no food
was released. The rate of bar- pressing was less frequent and finally it
diminished. That is, the operant response undergoes extinction with
nonreinforcement just as in classical conditioning.

A behaviour no longer followed by a pleasant consequence results

in a decreased probability of that behaviour occurring in the future.

Next, Skinner connected back the pellet dispenser. Pressing the bar again
provided the rat with food pellets. The behaviour of bar-pushing popped
right back. In fact, the rat took a lesser time to press the bar compared to
the first time it was put in the box. So, the rat has learned that if it pressed
the bar, food will be released.
Skinner varied the experiment by linking the release of food pellets with
light. For example, the food would only be presented when the bar is
pressed while the light is on but not when the light is off. Guess what
happened! The rat only pressed the bar when the light was on. The light
has served as a discriminative stimulus that controls response. The rat is
able to discriminate between pressing the bar with the light and pressing
the bar without light (Huitt and Hummel, 1998).
Based on this experiment, Skinner introduced the word operant. It simply
means that the behaviour operates on the environment the rats pressing
the bar produces or gains access to the food pellets. In classical conditioning,
the animal is passive; it merely waits for stimuli. In operant conditioning,
the animal is active; its own behaviour brings on important consequences
or results (Skinner, 1998). Thus, operant conditioning increases the
likelihood of a response by following its occurrence with reinforcer.

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2.8.3

Principles of Operant Conditioning

Thus, reinforcement can be defined as any event that increases the

probability of a response. Skinner distinguished between positive
reinforcement and negative reinforcement, as well as punishment.

Positive Reinforcement: A positive reinforcer is a stimulus that increases

the probability of a particular behaviour occurring in the future. For
example, water is a positive reinforcer for getting a thirsty organism to
behave in a particular way. The term reward is sometimes used as a
synonym for positive reinforcement (Huitt and Hummel, 1997.
Examples:
a) Amy completes her homework so that she can watch her favourite
programme on TV. There is high probability that she will always complete
her homework (behaviour) so that she can watch TV (reinforcer).
b) Factory workers who are efficient are given bonuses. There is a high
probability that factory workers will strive to be more efficient (behaviour)
so that they will be given bonuses (reinforcer).
Negative Reinforcement: A negative reinforcer is a stimulus when removed
increases the probability of a particular behaviour occurring in the future.
Refer to Skinners Box: Figure 2.4. An electric was introduced and the rat
jumped around. However, when it pressed the bar, the electric shock was
switched off. Guess what happened! The rat pressed the bar (behaviour)
more frequently to avoid the pain or discomfort from the electric shock.
Examples:
a) A mother lifts (behaviour) her crying baby because she cannot bear to
hear her child cry (reinforcer).

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b) When you enter a car, you put on the safety belt (behaviour) because you
want the sound of the buzzer (reinforcer) to stop.
Punishment: Punishment is not the same as negative reinforcement. The
objective of negative reinforcement is to increase the probability of a particular
behaviour occurring. Punishment has the opposite effect; it decreases the
probability of a behaviour occurring. For example, if the rat is given an
electric shock every time it presses the bar (behaviour), the frequency of
the behaviour occurring will be reduced and finally diminish.
Examples:
a) Farid refuses to help his mother wash the dishes and he is not allowed to
play football.
b) Any student who makes noise in class will have recess time reduced.

a) What is the difference between positive reinforcement and negative

reinforcement?
b) How is negative reinforcement different from punishment?

Reinforcement Theory in the Classroom

Saleha interrupts the class. Mrs. Ragu stops the class, tells Saleha
shes a naughty girl who broke Rule 15 and now must go to the
principles office. Ouch! That really hurt. Saleha returns and she no
longer interrupts. Mrs. Ragu then goes to the teachers lounge and
sings the praises of this really great theory. Do not forget that the
other kids in the class are watching this event with great interest.
Then Bala interrupts the class, Mrs. Ragu stops the class, tells Bala
hes a naughty boy who broke Rule 15 and now must go to the
principles office. Ouch! That hurt. Mrs. Ragu is convinced that when
Bala comes back to class, he will not interrupt. He surely will want to
avoid the wicked punishment. Well, guess what happens. Bala comes
back to class and continues interrupting the lesson, Mrs. Ragu whacks
him and Bala keeps on interrupting. Mrs. Ragu is totally confused

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and goes back to the teachers lounge complaining about the stupid
reinforcement theory.

The above is a common problem in many classrooms. The functional nature

of reinforcement theory has to be understood. It explains why the theory
sometimes appears to be incorrect. To understand if you have used positive
reinforcement (reward), you must observe its effect. If the consequence
increases the behavior you want to increase, you have introduced positive
reinforcement. If the consequence decreases the behavior you want to
decrease, then you have a punishment.
Most teachers have had the unfortunate experience of Mrs. Ragu.
They have persisted in giving a consequence of punishment
and the kid keeps doing the bad thing. If the behavior does
not increase or decrease the way you want it to, then you need to rethink
your rewards and punishments.
The main point of reinforcement theory is that consequences influence
behavior. Rewarding consequences increase behavior. Punishing
consequences decrease behavior. No consequences extinguish a behavior.
Finally, a consequence is known by its function (how it operates).

ACTIVITY

26

A five-year old child throws a temper tantrum in front of his Parents.

He embarrasses them and they give him rewards such as attention,
toys, candy, or whatever. Now when this child goes to school and
throws a temper tantrum, he is cruelly disappointed when the teacher
scolds and punishes him.
a) Explain the underlying principles of the above event.
b) What do you think the child may learn in the long run?

Behavioural Learning Theories

2.9

TOPIC 2

SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT

The reinforcement theory was taken a step further by introducing variation

in the typical operant conditioning situation (Huitt and Hummel, 1998). What
will happen when the schedule of reinforcement is varied according to time
or frequency? For example, instead of rewarding a particular behaviour every
time it occurs, the behaviour is rewarded every 2 minutes; i.e. reinforcement
is scheduled or predetermined. Many different reinforcement schedules have
been studied, but most common are as follows:
FIXED RATIO (FR): According to this schedule, reinforcement occurs after a
fixed number of responses (behaviour). The ratio 5:1 means that after every
5 times the response (behaviour) is exhibited it is reinforced (rewarded)
once. For example, say the rat presses the bar 3 times, it gets a goodie. Or 5
times or 20 times. It is like the piece rate method in the clothing industry.
You get paid so much for to many shirts.
VARIABLE RATIO (VR): This schedule is similar to the Fixed Ratio. The
difference is that the ratio is not fixed but variable. In other words, the
ratio is changed according to the responses. For example, you may start
with reinforcing every 3 times the response (behaviour) is exhibited; than
every 5 times the response (behaviour) is exhibited and so on.
FIXED INTERVAL (FI): According to this schedule, reinforcement (reward)
is given at the specified time. For example, if the time is fixed as 2 minutes;
the behaviour or response is reinforced (rewarded) after 2 minutes. No
further reinforcement will occur until 2 minutes has passed. Once it has
elapsed, the first response (behaviour) made will be reinforced.
VARIABLE INTERVAL (VI): This schedule is similar to the Fixed Internal.
The difference is that the interval is not fixed but variable. In other
words, the interval may be changed according to the responses. For
example, you may start with reinforcing every 20 seconds the response
(behaviour) is exhibited; than every 30 seconds the response (behaviour) is
exhibited and so on.

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2.10

S H A P I N G B E H AV I O U R

Using a schedule of reinforcement, complex behaviours of various organisms

can be shaped. Shaping is a method of successive approximation which
involves reinforcing behaviour that is vaguely similar to the behaviour
desired (Skinner, 1954). The procedure of shaping involves administering
rewards for response that are not the required terminal response but that
approximate what the experimenter desires.
An organism is reinforced every time it makes a move in the desired
direction until it has learned the desired response, and then not
reinforcing it again. By reinforcing only successively closer
approximations to the desired behaviour, it is possible to train an
organism to engage in behaviour so complex that would never
ordinarily appear in the organisms repertoire.

2.10.1

Shaping a Simple Behaviour

A three year old child was afraid to go down a slide. The father picked
him up and put him at the end of the slide and asked him if he was okay.
He was asked to jump and he did and was praised by the father. Next, the
father picked the child and put him a foot or so up the slide and asked
him if he was okay, and asked him to slide down. He did. So far so good!
The father did this again and again, each time moving him a little up the
slide. Eventually, he put the child at the top of the slide and he could
slide all the way down and jump off.
A great deal of human behaviour is modified directionally in small steps
by reinforcement. It has often been observed, for example, that as
previously reinforcing activities become habitual and less rewarding,
they tend to be modified. For example, a motorcyclist derives some
considerable reinforcement from the sensation of turning a sharp corner at
high speed but eventually the sensation diminishes and the excitement
becomes less. And perhaps, too, as the reinforcement begins to decrease,
his speed increases, imperceptibly but progressively.
This is a clear illustration of shaping effected through the outcomes of
behaviour (Lefrancois, 1982). In the classroom, peer approval or disapproval,

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sometimes communicated in a very subtle, nonverbal way, can drastically

alter a students behaviour. The classroom clown would probably not
continue to be a clown if no one paid any attention to her. Indeed,
he might never have been shaped into a clown had his audience not
reinforced him in the first place.

ACTIVITY

a) Identify the schedule of reinforcement represented by following

examples:
Joe gets his salary weekly..

Susie gives Zack a kiss when he rubs her back for an average

of 10 minutes.
Bill continues to play at a gambling machine.
Rosli gets a bonus after every ten items produced.
b) Give other examples from daily life where schedules of
reinforcement have been used to shape or modify behaviour.

2.11
A P P LY I N G O P E R A N T

CONDITIONING IN THE
CLASSROOM
Biehler and Snowman (1986) in their book Psychology Applied to Teaching,
suggested the following classroom practices based on the principles of
operant conditioning.
When students are dealing with factual material, do your best to give
FEEDBACK frequently, specifically and quickly.
o After giving a problem, go over the correct answer immediately
afterward.
o Have pupils team up and give each other feedback.
o Meet with students in small groups so that you can give each pupil
more individual feedback.
o When you assign reading or give a lecture or demonstration, have a
short self-corrected quiz or an informal Q&A session immediately
afterward.
When older students are dealing with complex and meaningful material,

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DELAYED FEEDBACK may be more appropriate.

o Hand back and discuss all exams even though they may have sat for
the exam two weeks ago.
o Give comments are papers written by students besides a grade or marks.
o After having submitted an assignment you could ask your students
the following: If you realised after you completed your work that you
had made a mistake, make a note of it and mention how you would
correct it if you were to do the assignment over again now. Then we
can see if your evaluation agrees with mine.
Use SEVERAL KINDS OF REINFORCERS so that each retains its
effectiveness.
o When a student gives a correct answer, makes a good point in class
discussion or doe something helpful, say things like: Good. Thats
right. Terrific. Great. Very interesting point. I hadnt thought of
that. That was big help.
o Walk over to stand near and smile encouragingly at a pupil who
seems to be working industriously.
Use awareness of EXTINCTION to reduce the frequency of undesirable
forms of behaviour.
o If a student exhibits undesirable behaviour to arouse attention, pay no
attention and continue with the lesson.
o If a student says something undesirable in class discussion, do not
comment, and immediately call on someone else.
Using different SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT, encourage persistent
and permanent learning.
o When students first try a new skill or type of learning, praise almost any
genuine attempt, even though it may be inaccurate. Then, as they become
more skilful, reserve your praise only for correct and accurate answers.
o Avoid a set pattern or predictable way of commenting on student work.
o Make favourable remarks at unpredictable intervals.
Use reinforcement to MOTIVATE students to learn material that is not
intrinsically interesting.
o Announce to students that if they complete the boring task, they will
be rewarded with something they like to do. e.g. read a book of their
choice, work on an art or craft project, work on homework for another
class.
o Make a contract with students on the amount of work to be completed
before they are entitled to the reward.
o Withhold reinforcement and calling attention to rewards that will
follow completion of a task. If that does not work, consider the

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TOPIC 2

possibility of taking away a privilege or resorting to punishment.

Use the principles of PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION. Skinner argued
that in a typical classroom situation, a teacher cannot supply reinforcement
quickly enough or often enough. He recommended the use of teaching
machines or programmed instruction.
o State clearly what is to learned i.e. the terminal behaviour (e.g. to be
able to compare X and Y).
o Break down the facts, concepts and principles and arrange them in a
sequence designed to lead the student to the desired end result.
o These series of small linear steps or frames are written to maximise
the likelihood that students will supply the correct answer for each
frame. When students do supply the correct answer for one step or
frame, they are reinforced by discovering they are right and motivated
to move on to the next.
Use programmed approaches to teaching describing terminal behaviour,
organising what is to be learned, and providing feedback.
o Describe the terminal behaviour using instructional objectives or learning
outcomes (e.g. using Blooms Taxonomy of Objectives as a guide).
o If appropriate, arrange the material to be learned into a series of steps
into an outline of points (e.g. when giving a lecture or demonstration
give students an organised list of points to be covered).
o Provide feedback (e.g. quizzes with feedback on correct answers).

ACTIVITY

Skinner believed that operant conditioning can even be used to teach

thinking (by conditioning the student to develop techniques of selfmanagement for example; paying attention and studying efficiently),
to foster creativity (by including greater amounts of behaviour and
reinforcing what is original), and to encourage perseverance (by
systematically widening the ratios of reinforcement).

Discuss.

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ACTIVITY

Read the following situations and state whether they are examples of
classical or operant conditioning.

Give reasons for your decision.

1. In order to punish my cat for sleeping on the sofa, I paired the sound
of a clicker with getting squirted with water. Now the sound of the
clicker causes the animal to get off the sofa.
2. When my son has gone for a week without arguing with his sister,
he gets to choose which favorite activity he wants to engage in on
Friday night
3. In a weight management class, participants earn points for every
healthy meal they eat and every period of exercise they complete.
Later these points result in refunds of their class fees.
4. When I first start teaching about a concept, Ill praise any answer that
is close to the right answer.
5. Each morning when I switch on the radio, my dogs bark and I give
them dog a slice of bread each. After a while, every time I switch on
the radio in the morning, my dogs bark.

REFERENCES
Biehler, D. and Snowman, G. (1986). Psychology of learning applied
to teaching. Newark: Wardsworth
Huitt, W., & Hummel, J. (1997). An introduction to operant
(instrumental) conditioning. Educational Psychology Interactive.
Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University.
http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/behsys/operant.html.
Huitt, W., & Hummel, J. (1998). An overview of the behavioral
perspective. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA:
Valdosta State University. http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/
behsys/behsys.html.
Skinner, B.F. (1950). Are theories of learning necessary? Psychological
Review, 57(4), 193-216.

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Skinner, B.F. (1954). The science of learning and the art of teaching.
Harvard Educational Review, 24(2), 86-97.
Watson, J. (1913). Psychology as the Behaviorist Views it.
Psychological Review, 20, 158-177.
Watson, J. B. and Rayner, R. (1920). Conditioned emotional reactions.
Journal of Experimental Psychology. 3(1). 1-14.

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