ME-222 MECHANICAS AND MANUFACTURING LAB-I

Table of Contents
1. Introduction to Lab Equipment and Safety Precautions (Verbal)
2. Time Period of a Simple Pendulum
To find time period of a simple pendulum.

3. Fundamental of Statics- Part (a)

a. To verify the validation of parallelogram law of forces
b. Resolving forces into their components

4. Fundamental of Statics- Part (b)

c. Investigation of equilibrium of moments
d. To find out Torque of non-parallel forces

5. Fundamental of Statics- Part (c)

To develop an understanding of levers and to find out mechanical advantage and leverage of all 3 three
classes of levers.

6. Center of gravity
To find the center of gravity of regular and irregular shapes.

7. Reaction Forces in Beams

To find out the support reactions of a simple supported beam.

8. Rolling Disc on an Inclined Plane

To determine experimentally the moment of inertia of different disc assemblies and compare the results
with the theoretical values obtained from the mass and the physical dimensions of disc assembly.

9. Friction on a Flat Plane

To determine the coefficient of friction between various materials and a steel plane.

10. Friction on an Inclined Plane

a. Find the angle of friction of various materials on a steel plane
b. Verify that the force required parallel to an inclined plane to move a body up the plane corresponds to
the friction coefficient (or angle) already found.

11. Winch
To find out Mechanical advantage, velocity ratio and efficiency of winch.

12. Worm and Wheel

To find out Mechanical advantage, velocity ratio and efficiency of wheel and worm gear.

13. Toggle Joint

To find out Mechanical advantage of toggle joint.

14. Slider Crank Mechanism

a. To analyze the variation of displacement of piston in relationship with crank angle & to calculate
velocity and acceleration of piston
b. To draw graph between crank angle & piston position.
c. Also draw displacement, velocity and acceleration graphs verses time.

15. Whitworth Quick Return Mechanism

a. To analyze the variation of displacement of oscillating rocker in relationship with crank
rotation & to calculate velocity and acceleration of rocker
b. To draw graph between crank angle & rocker position.
c. Also draw displacement, velocity and acceleration graphs verses time.
16. Experiments Practice/Viva-Voce

List of Figures
Figure No. 1
.....5
Simple pendulum
Figure No. 2
.6
Simple pendulum Apparatus
Figure No. 3
.8
Law Of Parallelogram Of Forces
Figure No. 4
.9
Finding the Equilibrant
Figure No. 5
10
Equipment Setup For Investigation Of Components Of A Force
Figure No. 6
11
Vector Components
Figure No. 7
13
Equipment Setup For Equilibrium Of Moments
Figure No. 8
.14
Torque
Figure No. 9
.15
Equipment Setup Torque Of Nonparallel Forces
Figure No. 10
.16
Class 1 lever
Figure No. 11
.17
Class 2 lever
Figure No. 12
.17
Class 3 lever
Figure No. 13
.19
Regular Shapes
Figure No. 14
.19
Irregular Shapes
Figure No. 15
.21
2

Beams
Figure No. 16
.22
Reaction Forces in Beams
Figure No. 17
.25
Spindle
Figure No. 18
.26
Rolling Disc On An Inclined Plane
Figure No. 19
.29
Friction Between Two Surfaces
Figure No. 20
.29
Friction On A Flat Plane Apparatus
Figure No. 21
.31
Frictional On An Inclined Plane
Figure No. 22
.35
Winch
Figure No. 23
.37
Worm And Wheel Arrangement
Figure No. 24
.38
Worm And Wheel Description
Figure No. 25
.38
Worm And Wheel Apparatus
Figure No. 26
.40
Toggle mechanism. (a) Simple structure. (b) Traditional configuration. (c) Typical application.
Figure No. 27
.41
Toggle Apparatus Description
Figure No. 28
.41
Toggle Apparatus
Figure No. 29
.44
Crank And Connecting Rod

Figure No. 30
.47
3

Crank and Connecting Rod Mechanism

Figure No. 31
.49
Witworth Quick Return Apparatus

EXPERIMENT # 1

Time Period of a Simple Pendulum

OBJECTIVE
To calculate the time period of simple pendulum and compare it with the theoretical values.
INTRODUCTION
A simple pendulum in its simplest form consists of heavy bob suspended at the end of light
extensible and flexible string. The other end of the string is fixed

Figure No. 1 Simple pendulum

L = Length of the string
M = Mass of the bob in kg
W = Weight of the bob in Newton
= Angle through which the string is displaced
When the bob is at A the pendulum is in equilibrium position. If the bob is brought to B or C and
released, it will start oscillating between the two positions B and C with A as mean position. It
has been observed that if the angle is very small then the bob will have simple harmonic
motion. Now the couple tending to restore the bob to the equilibrium position or restoring torque,
T = m g Sin * L
Sin is very small therefore, sin radians
T=mgL
5

We know that mass moment of inertia of the bob about an axis through the point of suspension,
I = Mass * (Length)2 = m L2
Angular acceleration of the string,
We know that, periodic time

From above eq we see that the periodic time of a simple pendulum depends only upon its length
and acceleration due to gravity. The mass of the bob has no effect on it.
APPARATUS

Figure No. 2 Simple pendulum Apparatus

PROCEDURE
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Take a long string and tight the bob on its one end.
Then tight the string with pin on wall mounted pendulum apparatus.
Deflect the bob from its original position by keeping string tight.
Take a stop watch to note the time.
Release the bob and instantly start the stop watch.
Note the time of 20 oscillations and calculate the time period by using the formula.
Repeat the procedure to 2-3 times and take the average time period.
Reduce the length of the string and repeat the same procedure.
6

9. Compare it with theoretical value.

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS
Mass of the bob = ____________________
Sr. #

Length
(m)

Time for 20 oscillations

(sec)

Time Period
(Theoratical)
(sec)

Time Period
(Practical)
(sec)

Error
(sec)

EXPERIMENT # 2

Fundamental of Statics Part (a)

EXPERIMENT a
OBJECTIVE
To verify the validation of parallelogram law of forces.
THEORY
In Figure 1, spaceships x and y are pulling on an asteroid with forces indicated by vectors Fx and
Fy. Since these forces are acting on the same point of the asteroid, they are called concurrent
forces. As with any vector quantity, each force is defined both by its direction, the direction of
the arrow, and by its magnitude, which is proportional to the length of the arrow. (The magnitude
of the force is independent of the length of the tow rope.)

Figure No. 3 Law Of Parallelogram Of Forces

The total force on the asteroid can be determined by adding vectors Fx and Fy. In the illustration,
the parallelogram method is used. The diagonal of the parallelogram defined by Fx and Fy is Fr,
the vector indicating the magnitude and direction of the total force acting on the asteroid. Fr is
called the resultant of Fx and Fy.
PROCEDURE
1.
2.
3.
4.

Setup the apparatus as shown in figure 4.

Use the holding pin to hold the force ring in place.
Add weights in the respective hangers and make sure that the ring is centralized.
Note down the forces and their respective angles.
8

5. Find out the resultant by using parallelogram law of forces. Compare the graphical
resultant with the experimental resultant.

Figure No. 4 Finding the Equilibrant

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS
Sr. #

F1
(N)

1
(Degree)

2
(Degree)

F2
(N)

Fr
(N)

r
(Degree)

EXPERIMENT b
OBJECTIVE
Resolving Forces into their components.
THEORY
When forces are resolved in their X and Y components then graphically and experimentally they
fgive the same result . for graphical method force on an angle is drawn and is then resolved into
its components but analytically the formula Fx=FCos and Fy=FSin are used respectively.
PROCEDURE
1. Set up the equipment as shown in Figure 5.
2. As shown, determine a force vector, F, by hanging a mass from the Force Ring over a
pulley.
3. Use the Holding Pin to hold the Force Ring in place.
4. Set up the Force Balance and a pulley so the string from the balance runs horizontally
from the bottom of the pulley to the Force Ring. Hang a second Mass Hanger directly
from the Force Ring.
5. Now pull the Force Balance toward or away from the pulley to adjust the horizontal, or
x-component of the force. Adjust the mass on the vertical Mass Hanger to adjust the
vertical or y-component of the force. Adjust the x and y components in this way until
the Holding Pin is centered in the Force Ring. (Notice that these x and y components are
actually the x and y components of the equilibrant of F, rather than of F itself.)

Figure No. 5 Equipment Setup For Investigation Of Components Of A Force

10

Figure No. 6 Vector Components

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS
Sr. #

F
(N)

(degree)

Fx = F Cos
(N)

11

Fy= F Sin
(N)

EXPERIMENT # 3

Fundamental of Statics Part (b)

EXPERIMENT c
OBJECTIVE
Investigation of the equilibrium of moments.
THEORY
The Law of Moments allows us to determine when an object is balanced. It has important
applications in aviation because pilots need to know if their aircraft will fly straight and level.
The law of moments says that an object such as a scale will be in equilibrium (will not tip in
either direction) when the Counterclockwise Moment is equal to the Clockwise Moment.
Following are some basic principles used in study of Equilibrium.
The Moment of a force is the turning effect about a pivot point. To develop a moment, the force
must act upon the body to attempt to rotate it. A moment is can occur when forces are equal and
opposite but not directly in line with each other.
The Moment of force acting about a point or axis is found by multiplying the Force (F) by the
perpendicular distance from the axis (d), called the lever arm.
Moment = Force x Perpendicular Distance
M=Fxd
(N m) = (N) x (m)
PROCEDURE
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Setup the apparatus as shown in figure 7.

Pass the rod from the pivot and screw it tightly.
Apply load on each side and note down its value
Measure the distance from center when rod is got balanced.
Verify that the clockwise moment is equal to anticlockwise moment.

12

Figure No. 7 Equipment Setup For Equilibrium Of Moments

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS
Sr.
#

F1
(N)

d1
(mm)

t1= (F1 x d1)

(N-mm)

13

F2
(N)

d2
(mm)

t2 = ( F2 x d2 )
(N-mm)

EXPERIMENT d
OBJECTIVE
To find out torque of nonparallel forces.
THEORY
In Experiment 3, you investigated torques applied to the balance beam, and discovered that when
the torques about the point of rotation are balanced, the beam remains balanced. However, all the
forces in that experiment were parallel to each other and perpendicular to the balance beam.
What happens when one or more of the forces is not perpendicular to the beam.
Fortunately, it turns out that the formula for torque that you determined in Experiment 3 ( = F d)
can be generalized to account for this more general case.
The generalized formula is:
= F d sin;
where F is the magnitude of the applied force, d is the distance from the pivot point to the point
at which the force is applied, and is the angle between F and d (see Figure 1).

Figure No. 8 Torque

In this experiment, you will investigate the validity of this definition for torque.
PROCEDURE
1.
2.
3.
4.

Set up the equipment as shown in Figure 9.

First balance the beam without any applied forces.
Then use a hanging mass and the force Balance to apply forces F1 and F2 as in Figure 2.
Attach the degree dial by masking tape on the board at the centre of application of force
F1.
5. Note down F1,F2,d1,d2 and then check the validity of formula =F.d with = F d sin

14

Figure No. 9 Equipment Setup Torque Of Nonparallel Forces

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS
Sr.
#

F1
(N)

(degree)

d1
(mm)

1 = F1 d1Sin
(N-mm)

15

F2
(N)

d2
(mm)

2 = F2 .d2
(N-mm)

EXPERIMENT # 4

Fundamental of Statics Part (c)

OBJECTIVE
To develop an understanding of levers and to find out mechanical advantage and leverage of all 3
classes of levers.
THEORY
A lever is a rigid rod or bar capable of turning about a fixed point called fulcrum. It is used as a
machine to lift a load by the application of a small effort. The ratio of the load lifted to the effort
applied is called the mechanical advantage. The perpendicular distance between the load point
and fulcrum is known as load arm and the perpendicular distance between the effort point and
fulcrum is called effort arm. The ratio of the effort arm to the load arm is called leverage.
The levers may be of first type, second type and third type. In the first type of levers, the fulcrum
is in between the load and effort. Since the effort arm is equal to load arm, therefore, the
mechanical advantage is equal to one. Such type of levers are commonly found in bell cranked
levers used in railway signaling arrangement, rocker arm in internal combustion engines, handle
of a hand pump, hand wheel of a punching press, beam of a balance, foot lever etc.
In the second type of levers, the load is in between the fulcrum and effort. In this case, the effort
arm is more than load arm, therefore, the mechanical advantage is more than one. The
application of such type of levers is found in levers of loaded safety valves.
In the third type of levers, the effort in between the fulcrum and load. Since the effort arm, in this
case, is less than the load arm, therefore, the mechanical advantage is less than one. A pair of
tongs, the treadle of a sewing machine etc. are examples of type of lever.

Figure No. 10 Class 1 lever

16

Figure No. 11 Class 2 lever

Figure No. 12 Class 3 lever

PROCEDURE
1. Set up the equipment as shown in Figure 1.
2. Measure length d1 which is the effort arm
3. Measure length d2 which is the load arm
4. Measure the load and effort applied.
17

5. Calculate the mechanical advantage and leverage.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS
Sr.
#

d1
(mm)

d2
(mm)

Load W
(N)

Effort P
(N)

18

Leverage = d1/d2

M.A = W/P

EXPERIMENT # 5

Center Of Gravity

OBJECTIVE
To find the Center of Gravity of Regular and Irregular shapes
THEORY
Locating the center of gravity of an object is very important in our daily lives. The earth pulls
down on each particle of an object with a gravitational force that we call weight.
Although individual particles throughout an object all contribute weight in this way, the net
effect is as if the total weight of the object were concentrated in a single point - the object's
center of gravity.
In general, determining the center of gravity (cg) is a complicated procedure because the mass
(and weight) may not be uniformly distributed throughout the object. The general case requires
the use of calculus. If the mass is uniformly distributed, the problem is greatly simplified. If the
object has a line (or plane) of symmetry, the cg lies on the line of symmetry. For a solid block of
uniform material, the center of gravity is simply at the average location of the physical
dimensions.
APPARATUS

Figure No. 13 Regular Shapes

Figure No. 14 Irregular Shapes

19

PROCEDURE
The Plumb Line Method
1. You have received different shapes of materials. The shapes of regular object, irregular
object and letter were cut out from the acrylic pieces.
2. Small holes at non-collinear points were punched on each sample.
3. The sample need to be suspended on the board supplied with the apparatus at the
suspending pin at the top center of the body
4. The sample should hang loosely from the support and it should not touch any surface.
5. A plumb bob was suspended from the support with the cord extending down in front of
the main body and suspending sample.
6. A line need to be drawn on the sample along the path of the cord.
7. The sample has to be removed and suspended again through another hole. The line has to
be drawn again.
8. The intersection of the two lines was marked as C (the center of gravity).
9. Repeat the above procedure for the other shapes to get the center of gravity.

20

EXPERIMENT # 6

Reaction of Simply Supported Beam

OBJECTIVE
To find out the support reactions of a simply supported beam.

THEORY
General Beams Theory
A bar subject to forces or couples that lie in a plane containing the longitudinal axis of the bar is
called a beam. The forces are understood to act perpendicular to the longitudinal axis.
Simple Beams
A beam that is freely supported at both ends is called a simple beam. The term "freely supported"
implies that the end supports are capable of exerting only forces upon the bar and are not capable
of exerting any moments. Thus there is no restraint offered to the angular rotation of the ends of
the bar at the supports as the bar deflects under the loads. Two simple beams are sketched in Fig.
1

Figure No. 15 Beams

It is to be observed that at least one of the supports must be capable of undergoing horizontal
movement so that no force will exist in the direction of the axis of the beam. It neither end were
free to move horizontally, then some axial force would arise in the beam as it deforms under load
The beam of Fig. 1(a) is said to be subject to a concentrated force; that of Fig. 1(b) is loaded by a
uniformly distributed load as well as a couple.
Statically Determinate Beams
The beams considered above, are ones in which the reactions of the supports may be determined
by use of the equations of static equilibrium. The values of these reactions are independent of the
deformations of the beam. Such beams are said to be statically determinate.

21

Statically Indeterminate Beams

If the number of reactions exerted upon the beam exceeds the number of equations of static
equilibrium, then the statics equations must be supplemented by equations based upon the
deformations of the beam. In this case the beam is said to be statically indeterminate.
Internal Forces and Moments in Beams
When a beam is loaded by forces and couples, internal stresses arise in the bar. In general, both
normal and shearing stresses will occur. In order to determine the magnitude of these stresses at
any section of the beam, it is necessary to know the resultant force and moment acting at that
section. These may be found by applying the equations of static equilibrium.
The transverse applied load on a beam can be in two forms, either concentrated or distributed. A
distributed load occupies a length of the beam surface. It is taken as being constant across the
beam width but it can be uniformly or non-uniformly distributed over part or the whole length of
the beam. Two simplified forms of support are used for the ease of analysis. These are termed
simply supported and built in or fixed. The number and type of supports can make a beam either
statically determinate or statically indeterminate. In -the former a solution can be obtained by
considering force and moment equilibrium. If the beam is statically indeterminate we also have
to consider the deflection of the beam in order to obtain a solution.
Both stresses and deflections during bending are related to the shear force and the bending
'moment. Thus it is essential to know how these quantities vary along a beam and where the
maximal and minimal are located.
APPARATUS

Figure No. 16 Reaction Forces in Beams

22

PROCEDURE
1. Assemble the apparatus as shown in previous figure.
2. Attach force gauges to their holders and tighten the screws.
3. Hang beam on force gauges with the help of thread.
4. Place hanger to the desired slot of beam.
5. Measure the distance of applied load from reference A with a measuring tape.
6. Make the force gauge display zero by revolving aluminum dial on the gauge.
7. Now add weight on hanger.
8. Compare the theoretical reaction forces with the reaction forces displayed on force gauge.

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS

Case

W1

W2

W3

RAth

RBth

RAexp

RBexp

(N)

(N)

(N)

(cm)

(cm)

(cm)

(cm)

(cm)

(N)

(N)

(N)

(N)

23

EXPERIMENT # 7

Rolling Disc on an Inclined Plane

OBJECTIVE
To determine experimentally the moment of inertia of different disc assemblies and compare the
results with the theoretical values obtained from the mass and the physical dimensions of disc
assembly.
THEORY
A disc with mass m and radius R, rolls from rest at top position and takes time t(s), to reach
bottom position.
Let the linear velocity of the disc centre at the bottom position = v (m/s)
Then, the angular velocity of the disc at this position = (rad/sec) = v/r (rad/sec)
Average linear velocity = v (m/s) = L/t (m/s)
Where L is the linear distance travelled

From conservation of energy,

Potential energy (at highest position) = Kinetic energy (at lowest position)
Therefore, moment of inertia of disc,

24

Where
m: Mass of disc assembly
r: Radius of spindle

Figure No. 17 Spindle

Volume of disc, VD = R2 l1
Volume of the spindle, VS = r2 (l2+ l3)
Theoretically value of I can be calculated from the mass and physical dimensions of disc
assembly; determine the volume of disc VD and the volume of the spindle VS, which may be
considered as a single cylinder.
Mass of the disc MD:

Mass of the spindle MS:

25

Theoretical moment of inertia of disc ID,

Theoretical moment of inertia of disc Is,

Thus, theoretical total moment of inertia of the disc assembly,

APPARATUS

Figure No. 18 Rolling Disc On An Inclined Plane

PROCEDURE
1. Refer to the technical data for physical dimensions and weights of discs.
2. Place the inclined plane apparatus on a level surface and ensure that the top surfaces of the
two rails are at the same level. Wipe off any grease and dirt, which may be on the tops of rails.
3. Set one end of the two flanking rails of apparatus at a level above that of the other end. Set a
distance of L(m) along the length of the plane (ex:!m) and at height h=100mm between the
extremities of the distance traversed by the centre of the disc.
4.Allow the spindle of the small disc assembly to rest on the two flanking rails and release it so
that it starts rolling unaided down the incline, ensuring that the disc not rub against the rails
during its motion. Note time t(sec) taken for the disc to traverse the distance L(m).
26

5. Carry out the procedures three times to get average time taken.
6. Repeat procedure for the other disc.
OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS
Large Disc

Small Disc

Diameter of disc, DD (mm)

Diameter of Spindle, DS
Thickness of disc, l1 (mm)
Length of spindle, l2 , l3 (mm)
Mass of disc, m (kg)

Time, t (sec)

635g

375g

Large Disc

t1
t2
t3
Average t

27

Small Disc

EXPERIMENT # 8

Friction on an Flat Plane

OBJECTIVE
The objective of this experiment is to determine the coefficient of friction between various
materials and a steel plane.
THEORY
Friction is the resistive force that impedes the motion of a body when one tries to slide the object
along a surface. The friction force acts parallel to the surfaces in contact, opposes the relative
velocity of the body with respect to the surface, and its magnitude depends on the nature of the
particular materials that are rubbing together, but not on other variables, such as the area of
contact. This will be varied experimentally, and is true only in the macroscopic sense, since on
the molecular level things are much more complicated. For the case where the surfaces are in
motion relative to each other, the force is called the force of kinetic friction, and is found to be
proportional to the normal force acting at the region of contact, and always in opposition to the
velocity of the body relative to the surface of contact;

Thus the magnitude of the friction force can be written as

where the constant of proportionality, k is the coefficient of kinetic friction.

If the two bodies in contact have no relative velocity, an even larger static frictional force must
be overcome in order to initiate slipping. This is of the same form

Only now Fe is the externally applied force that is attempting to cause to bodies to slip. This
static friction only acts to cancel out the external forces to prevent relative motion, and has a
maximum magnitude

where s is called the coefficient of static friction. As indicated above, for most surfaces we find
that
28

We can investigate kinetic friction by observing the motion of a block along a level surface
under the influence of an applied force. The block has a mass m0, and extra masses m can be
added to it. A second mass M, hanging at the end of a string passing over a pulley, applies a
constant force to the block with its added masses, causing the system to move. As the mass M
falls, the block slides toward the right, and its motion is retarded by the friction force pointing
toward the left. If the mass M is chosen so that its weight just balances the friction force, then the
masses move at constant speed. Under this condition, the equations describing the motion of the
masses are

When T, the string tension, is eliminated from these equations we get

Figure No. 19 Frictional Force Between Two Surfaces

APPARATUS

Figure No. 20 Friction On A Flat Plane Apparatus

29

PROCEDURE
1. Clamp the plane in the 0o position and use a spirit level to ensure the whole apparatus is level.
Place the sample tray on the horizontal steel channel at the end remote from the pulley.
2. Attach the towing cord and arrange it over the pulley with the load hanger suspended.
3. Add load to the hanger until the tray will continue to slide at roughly constant velocity after being
given a slight push to start it moving. Record this load in table.
4. You may find that you need to lightly tap the bench which the unit is on or the apparatus itself to
induce movement in the tray.
5. Also ensure that the hanger is not swaying before loading.

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS

Mass of hanger = ____________
Sr.
#

Mass of
Sample
Tray
(Kg)

Slide
Load (g)

Normal Force RN
(g) (mass of
hanger + Slide
Load)

Load on
hanger (g)

30

Sliding Force F(g)

(Hanger +load on
hanger)

Coefficient of
friction
= F/RN

EXPERIMENT # 9

Friction on an Inclined Plane

OBJECTIVE
The object of this experiment is first to finder the angle of friction of various materials on a steel
plane. The second object is to verify that the force required parallel to an inclined plane to move
a body up the plane corresponds to the friction coefficient (or angle) already found.
THEORY
Suppose motion of a block along an inclined surface under the influence of an applied force. The
block has a mass m0. A second mass M, hanging at the end of a string passing over a pulley,
applies a constant force to the block, causing the system to move. As the mass M falls, the block
slides upward, and its motion is retarded by the friction force.

Figure No. 21 Frictional On An Inclined Plane

To study static friction, we can use an inclined plane. As the angle of inclination is increased
from zero, the component of the block's weight pointing down the plane increases. Because of
the variable nature of static friction, the magnitude of the friction force keeps increasing as the
ramp is raised. At a certain critical angle, however, the friction force reaches its maximum value,
and any further increase in the angle will cause the block to begin sliding down the ramp. At that
critical angle, the forces on the block are described by

from which we find

Thus, by measuring the angle of inclination at which the block just begins to slide, we can determine the
coefficient of static friction.
31

PROCEDURE
1. Clamp the plane in the 10o inclination.
2. Place the sample tray on the horizontal steel channel at the end remote from the pulley.
3. Attach the towing cord and arrange it over the pulley with the load hanger suspended.
4. Add load to the hanger until the tray will continue to slide at roughly constant velocity after being
given a slight push to start sliding slowly up the plane. Record this load in table.
5. You may find that you need to lightly tap the bench which the unit is on or the apparatus itself to
induce movement in the tray.
6. Repeat the procedure with increased inclination.
7. Also ensure that the hanger is not swaying before loading.

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS

Mass of hanger = ____________
Mass of
Sample
Tray
(Kg)

Angle of
inclination
(degree)

Mass of
block +
added
mass W
(g)

Towing
Force
(hanger +
Weight on
hanger) P
(g)

32

Normal
Force
WCos

Sliding
Force
P-WSin

Friction
Coefficient
= P-Wsin
WCos

Friction
angle
tan-1

EXPERIMENT # 10

Winch

OBJECTIVE
To find the Mechanical Advantage, Velocity Ratio and Efficiency of Winch.
THEORY
Winches are lifting, hauling or holding devices in which a tensioned rope is wound round a
rotating drum. They are extensively used for transporting people or goods, and they can be found
especially in mines and in marine applications. Winches are the fundamental elements, for
example, in crane and mooring systems, for activating cable cars, lifts and as a matter of fact,
whenever a dynamic pull is required from a flexible rope. Throughout history winches have been
used and probably the earliest illustration of a directly coupled winch is the mechanism used at a
well-head for lifting water containers.
An indirect coupling would be to use a clutch or gear and the intermediate of both components.
Most systems are gear coupled when the power source is not capable of producing adequate
torque, but when it can be used, the direct coupling system is mechanically better. It eliminates
gearing, reduces the number of bearings and simplifies the overall design.

33

34

APPARATUS

Figure No. 22 Winch

PROCEDURE
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Firstly stabilize the single purchase crab machine and wrap the cord around the load drum
and the effort wheel.
Put some weight on the load drum and add some effort to the effort wheel via hanger.
Stop adding effort until both the load and effort got stabilized.
Write down the reading in the observation table.
After this apply the above procedure, four to five times with gradually increasing the load
as well as effort to the load drum and effort wheel respectively.
Write down all the readings in the given observation table.
Measure the Diameter of load drum and effort wheel.
Calculate M.A, V.R and Efficiency of machine.

35

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS

T1 = Number of teeth on the pinion
T2 = Number of teeth on the spur wheel
D = Diameter of the effort wheel
d = Diameter of the load drum
V.R = Distance moved by effort / Distance moved by load
= D / ( d / (T1/T2) )
M.A = Load / Effort
Efficiency = M.A / V.R

Sr. #

Load W
(N)

Effort P (N)

Mechanical
Advantage

36

Velocity Ratio

Efficiency

EXPERIMENT # 10

Worm and Wheel

OBJECTIVE
To find the mechanical advantage, velocity ratio, and efficiency of worm and worm wheel and
plot a graph of
1. Efficiency v/s load and;
2. Effort v/s load.
THEORY
A worm wheel is a simple lifting machine. The basic motion of the Lifting Machines is the rotary
motion. This is usually achieved by the use of pulleys and belts. However, in those machines
where a positive drive (i.e. no slip drive) is essential and no slip between belt and pulleys can be
accepted, a toothed belt and pulley is used. A gear is a wheel with accurately machined teeth
round its edge. One type of gear is the WORM and the WORM WHEEL.
The worm and worm wheel arrangement is widely used for performing mechanical jobs. As in
screw jack this arrangement also fundamentally provides some mechanical advantage & this is
used to lift the loads. The concept that rolling friction is less than sliding friction is used in this
experiment. At the point of release the string is in a state of pure rolling with respect to the
drums.
A worm gear, or worm wheel, is a type of gear that engages with a worm to greatly reduce
rotational speed or to allow higher torque to be transmitted. The image below shows a section of
a gear box with bronze worm gear being driven by a worm. A worm gear is an example of a
screw.

Figure No. 23 Worm And Wheel Arrangement

37

The arrangement of gears seen above is called a worm and worm wheel. The worm, which in this
example is brown in colour, only has one tooth but it is like a screw thread. The worm wheel,
coloured yellow, is like a normal gear wheel or spur gear. The worm always drives the worm
wheel round, it is never the opposite way round as the system tends to lock and jam.

Figure No. 24 Worm And Wheel Description

APPARATUS
The apparatus consists of a toothed wheel fixed with a drum on the wheel meshes with the
toothed wheel. The worm is fixed on a metallic spindle. The spindle carries a pulley from which
hangs for application of effort. Another string also passes on the drum for carrying the weight to
be lifted.

Figure No. 25 Worm And Wheel Apparatus

38

This lifting machine consists of the following parts:

1. Worm: It is a gear with just one tooth. The tooth is in the form of a screw thread.
2. Worm Wheel: This is like a normal gear wheel.
3. Load Drum: This is mounted on the worm wheel and rotates when load to be lifted is
applied to it.
4. Metallic Spindle: This is attached to the worm. It is attached to a pulley where the effort
is applied.
PROCEDURE
1. Measure the circumference of drum and pulley with the help of outside caliper.
2. Wrap the string round the pulley of the worm for effort and also wrap string round the
drum to carry the load.
3. Suspend some load to the string passing round the drum and go on adding weights.
4. Add weight to the effort hanger until it move down.
5. Repeat the experiment with different loads.
OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS
V.R. = D T/2d
M.A.= W/P
= M.A / V.R = (W/P) / (D*T/2*d)
Diameter of Drum fixed on wheel = d = _____________
Diameter of Pulley attached to worm =D = _____________
Number of teeth on worm wheel = ____________
Sr. #

Load
W
(N)

Effort
P
(N)

Mechanical
Advantage

39

Velocity Ratio

Efficiency

EXPERIMENT # 11

Toggle Joint

OBJECTIVE
To determine the Mechanical Advantage of a Toggle Joint.
THEORY
Toggle mechanism is combination of solid, usually metallic links (bars), connected by pin
(hinge) joints that are so arranged that a small force applied at one point can create a much larger
force at another point.
The basic action of a toggle mechanism is shown in illustration a. When = 90 the forces P and
Q are independent of each other. Again when = 0 the forces are isolated, force Q being
sustained entirely by the frame, and force P serving only to hold the link in position. At = 45
from the symmetry |P| = |Q|, the mechanism serves to transfer the direction of forces to achieve
equilibrium.
Because the simple configuration of illustration a requires low-friction sliders, it is impractical.
A more useful structure replaces the vertical slider with a second link pinned to the frame
(illustration b), in which case input P sets up forces in both links. A further modification
(illustration c) replaces the other slider with a link.

Figure No. 26 Toggle mechanism. (a) Simple structure. (b) Traditional configuration. (c)
Typical application.

40

APPARATUS
This apparatus is designed to evaluate forces within a toggle mechanism. Load is applied to the
two pairs of links by a hanger suspended from their connecting pivot. One end of the links is
pivoted to a base, and the other end is able to move sideways on low friction ball bearing wheels.
The moving links are restrained by a horizontal spring balance, which measures the horizontal
reaction directly. The angle of the toggle can be varied.

Figure No. 27 Toggle Apparatus Description

Figure No. 28 Toggle Apparatus

41

PROCEDURE
1. By means of a measuring tape, measure the vertical height (h) of the apparatus and the
horizontal length (D) with some loads attached (as a reference).
2. Now add a known weight to the hanger. This is the effort P.
3. Note down the reading from the spring balance. This is the load W. each division on the
spring balance equals to 0.5 kg.
4. The actual value of Mechanical Advantage is calculated by dividing load (W) by effort
(P) whereas the theoretical value is given by D/4h.
5. The experiment is repeated for different values of P.
OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS
D = ____________
P = ____________
H = ____________
W = ____________
S#

Load

Effort

Height

Length

Mechanical

%age

Advantage

errror

(kg)

(kg)

(mm)

(mm)

1
2
3

42

Experimental

Theoratical

(F/P)

(D/4h)

EXPERIMENT # 12

Slider Crank Mechanism

OBJECTIVE
a.
To analyze the variation of displacement of piston in relationship with crank angle & to
calculate velocity and acceleration of piston
b.
To draw graph between crank angle & piston displacement.
c.
Also draw displacement, velocity and acceleration graphs verses time.
THEORY
In order to simplify the study of mechanisms, it is necessary to understand some definitions and
the basic knowledge as follows:
MECHANISM is defined as combinations of rigid bodies formed and connected to each other
and transmit relative motion to each other such as crankshaft connecting rod and piston of an
engine.
MACHINE is defined as a combination of a mechanism or more to transmit force and motion
from the source of power to another resisting element, for example: an operation of an internal
combustion engine.
The motion of a mechanism, in which each point of the element moves in parallel planes, is
called "PLANE MOTION".

If each point moves in straight line and parallel to each other, the motion is known as
"TRANSLATION".
If each point moves with a constant distance from its axis, this motion is known as
"ROTATION".
The movement of a point of a mechanism may also be in translation, rotation or both.
However, there are some other types of movements which the position of moving points
may not be in the same plane for example: THREAD MOTION, HELICAL MOTION
etc.
When an element of a mechanism moves through all the possible positions and returns to its
original position, it is said to have completed a cycle of motion and the amount of time required
for this completed a cycle is called "PERIOD".
Crankshaft & connecting rod
The main driving shaft of an engine that receives reciprocating motion from the piston and
converts it to rotary motion, is called crank shaft. Together, the crankshaft and the connecting
rods transform the pistons' reciprocating motion into rotary motion.

43

Mathematical Relation for Piston Motion

I = rod length (distance between piston pin and crank pin)
r = crank radius (distance between crank pin and crank center, i.e. half stroke)
A = crank angle (from cylinder bore centerline at TDC)
x = piston pin position (upward from crank center along cylinder bore centerline)
v = piston pin velocity (upward from crank center along cylinder bore centerline)
a = piston pin acceleration (upward from crank center along cylinder bore centerline)
= crank angular velocity in rad/s

Figure No. 29 Crank And Connecting Rod

Angular velocity
The crankshaft angular velocity is related to the engine revolutions per minute (RPM):
= 2 N / 60
Triangle relation
As shown in the diagram, the crank pin, crank center and piston pin form triangle NOP.
By the cosine law it is seen that:

44

Equations with respect to angular position (Angle Domain)

The equations that follow describe the reciprocating motion of the piston with respect to
crank angle. Example graphs of these equations are shown below.
Position
Position with respect to crank angle (by rearranging the triangle relation):

Velocity
Velocity with respect to crank angle (take first derivative, using the chain rule):

Acceleration
Acceleration with respect to crank angle (take second derivative, using the chain rule and the
quotient rule):

45

Equations with respect to time (Time Domain)

Angular velocity derivatives
If angular velocity is constant, then A=t
And the following relations apply:
dA/dt =
d2A / dt2 = 0
Converting from Angle Domain to Time Domain
The equations that follow describe the reciprocating motion of the piston with respect to
time. If time domain is required instead of angle domain, first replace A with cot in the
equations, and then scale for angular velocity as follows:
Position
Position with respect to time is simply:
x
Velocity
Velocity with respect to time (using the chain rule):

Acceleration
Acceleration with respect to time (using the chain rule and product rule, and the angular
velocity derivatives):

46

APPARATUS

Figure No. 30 Crank and Connecting Rod Mechanism

This bench top unit demonstrates the conversion of smooth rotary motion into reciprocating
motion. A millimeter scale is fitted for the outlet stroke. Crank radius can both be adjusted &
have three positions.
Technical Specifications are given below
Crank radius (can be adjusted at three points)
R1 = 25mm, R2 = 37.5mm, R3 = 50mm
Connecting rod length
L = 140mm
PROCEDURE
1. Bring the wheel and the slider at reference points and mark these points.
2. For a given angle of rotation (fixed), note down the displacement of slider.
3. Plot a graph between the slider displacement and crank angle.
4. Assume that crank is rotating with a uniform speed.
5. Replace the crank angle with equal interval of time & draw slider displacement versus
time, find slope at each reading. Then draw velocity-time graph.
6. From Velocity -Time graph, take slope of velocity curve & draw acceleration graph.
7. Compare the results of each graph and draw them on a single graph with crank
angle along x-axis.
47

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS

Sr.
#

Crank
Rotation
(degree)

Time
(sec)

Slider Position
(mm)

Slider
Displacement
(mm)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13

48

Slider
velocity
(m/sec)

Slider
acceleration
(m/sec2)

EXPERIMENT # 13

Whitworth Quick Return Mechanism

OBJECTIVE
a.
To analyze the variation of displacement of oscillating rocker in relationship with crank
rotation & draw graph between rocker oscillation and crank rotation.
b.
To calculate velocity and acceleration of rocker
c.
Also draw displacement, velocity and acceleration graphs verses time.
THEORY
The Whitworth quick return mechanism converts rotary motion into reciprocating motion, but
unlike the crank and slider, the forward reciprocating motion is at a different rate than the
backward stroke. At the bottom of the drive arm, the peg only has to move through a few degrees
to sweep the arm from left to right, but it takes the remainder of the revolution to bring the arm
back. This mechanism is most commonly seen as the drive for a shaping machine.
APPARATUS
Whitworth's quick return is used to generate uneven reciprocating motion with slow feed and
quick return. This table model clearly demonstrates the transmission behaviour of such a layout.
The input angle is set by turning the crank. The output stroke is read on a ruler on the slider. The
transmission components are manufactured in aluminium. All axles are equipped with ball
bearings. Due to its low weight, the unit is easy to carry using the two handles.

Figure No. 31 Witworth Quick Return Apparatus

PROCEDURE:
1. Bring the crank and the rocker at reference points and mark these points.
2. For a given angle of rotation (fixed), note down the displacement of Rocker.
49

3. Plot a graph between the Rocker displacement and Crank rotation.

4. Assume that Crank is rotating with a uniform speed.
5. Replace the Crank angle with equal interval of time & draw Rocker displacement versus
time, find slope at each reading. Then draw velocity-time graph.
6. From Velocity -Time graph, take slope of velocity curve & draw acceleration graph.
7. Compare the results of each graph and draw them on a single graph with time along xaxis.
OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS
Sr.
#

Crank
Rotation
(degree)

Time
(sec)

Rocker Position
(mm)

Rocker
Displacement
(mm)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13

50

Rocker
velocity
(m/sec)

Rocker
acceleration
(m/sec2)