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Title: Diffusion
Aim: To observe the rate of diffusion in a substance called potassium
permanganate.
Apparatus: water
Potassium permanganate
Spatula

Beaker
Stop watch
Petri dish

Diagram:

Method: 1.a circle was drawn on a plain sheet of paper using a Petri dish.
2.4 circles were drawn with the same radius within the same
circle drawn.
3. A large beaker was placed over the circle.
4. The beaker was half filled with water and was allowed to stand
still.
5. A single crystal of potassium permanganate was placed in the
center of the beaker filled with water.
6. The potassium permanganate was observed.
7. Results were recorded using the table.
8. A graph of the result was drawn where the distance was placed
on the x axis and the time on the y axis.

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Observations: When the potassium permanganate was placed in the water

the potassium permanganate did not spread equally covering the circle.

2. When the potassium permanganate was placed in the

water the potassium permanganate rested at the bottom of the beaker.
Result:
Distance (cm)

Time(sec)

1cm

3s

2cm

7s

3cm

31s

4cm

110s

TABLE SHOWING RESULTS OBTAINING DURING THE PROCESS

OF DIFFUSION IN A SUBSTANCE.
Discussion: Diffusion is the movement of a dissolved substance from an
area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. Diffusion is
important because it is vital to life on earth and it is required to keep the air
mixture constant and ocean flowing. The word diffusion is from
a Latin word called (diffundere) which means to spread out, if a substance is
spreading out it is moving from an area of high concentration to an area of
low concentration. Diffusion can happen in liquid and gases. A diffusion
gradient occurs when there is a difference in the number of molecules
between the two regions. Substances can also defuse membranes if the
concentrations are different on both sides and the membrane is permeable to
those molecules. Diffusion is a slow process unless there is a large
concentrated gradient over a short distance. When the potassium
permanganate was in the beaker filled with water it was observed to see
what time and how long it took to cover the whole beaker.
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Conclusion: It was concluded that the dye covered the bottom of the beaker
containing water proving the fact that diffusion is the movement of particles
from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.
Title: Osmosis
Aim: To observe osmosis in a storage organ.
Apparatus: Potato
Beaker
Measuring cylinder
Spatula
Tile

Water
Sugar
Petri dish
knife

Diagram:

Method:

1. An Irish potato had been peeled then cut in half

2. The two halves had been scooped out through the middle
forming a potato cup, then the bottom of the potato cup was cut but did not
make a whole, it was to level the cup.
3. 20mls of water was placed into two Petri dishes each.
4. The potato cups were placed in each of the Petri dishes.
5. Some sugar crystals were placed in one of the potato cups.
6. The potato cups were observed for 45 minutes.
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Observations: When the sugar crystals were placed in the potato cup and
observed for 45 minutes water in the potato cup increased and the sugar
decreased. When the potato cup that had nothing in it was observed for 45
minutes the water in the Petri dish decreased and the potato cup had less
water than the potato that had the sugar crystals in it.
Discussion: Osmosis is a special kind of diffusion. It is the diffusion of
water molecules across the selectively permeable membrane. The semi
permeable membrane allows only certain ions or molecules through. Cell
membranes are all selectively permeable membranes. (Selectively
permeable) means water and some substances can pass through the
membrane but other substances do not. Jean-Antoine Nollet first
documented observation of osmosis in 1748. The word osmosis came from
the words endosmose and exosmose. Osmosis, unlike diffusion, requires a
force to work. This force is supplied by the solute's interaction with the
membrane. Osmosis is important because it influence the distribution of
nutrients in plants and animal life. The potato cup with the sugar crystals and
the potato cup with nothing in it were observed to see what would happen to
the sugar and water.
Conclusion: It was concluded that some of the water in the Petri dish
transported in the potato cup showing that osmosis is the movement of
solvent particles from an area of high concentration to an area of low
concentration through the semi permeable membrane.

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Title: Photosynthesis
Aim: To observe the presence of starch in a green leaf.
Apparatus:

Water
Leaf
Beaker
Test-tube
Test tube rack

Alcohol
Hotplate
Tile
Petri-dish

Diagram:

Method: 1. A small fresh green leaf we plucked from a suitable

dicotyledonous plant.
2. The leaf was dipped into a beaker filled with boiling water for
10 seconds.
3. The leaf was placed into a test tube no more than one third
filled with ethanol.
4. The leaf was placed in a beaker filled with boiling water.
5. When the leaf turned colorless, it was removed from inside the
test tube and was rinsed with water.
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6. The leaf was then placed in a Petri dish and a little of iodine
solution was poured over it. It was placed left for several minutes.
7. The iodine solution was then placed back into the beaker that
was provided.
8. The leaf was rinsed in water and the color was observed.
Observation: When the beaker with water was placed on the hot plate the
water bubbled up. After the time when the water was bubbling the test tube
was placed in the beaker with the leaf in it .The leaf had begin to get lighter
and lighter showing that chlorophyll was being extracted from the leaf. The
veins on the leaf had become more visible and when the leaf was extracted
from the test tube it began to wrinkle. When the iodine was put on the leaf, it
turned black showing that starch is present.
Discussion: Photosynthesis is the process through which plants use water
and carbon dioxide to create their food, grow and release excess oxygen into
the air. Photosynthesis is a process used by plants and other organisms to
convert light energy, normally from the Sun, into chemical energy that can
be later released to fuel the organisms' activities. Photosynthetic organisms
are photoautotrophs, which mean that they are able to synthesize food
directly from carbon dioxide and water using energy from light. However,
not all organisms that use light as a source of energy carry out
photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is very important because it gives the plant
supplies in order for it to make food and without plants we would not live.
Conclusion: It was concluded that Photosynthesis is a process used by
plants and other organism to convert light energy into chemical energy that
can be later used to fuel the organisms activities.

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Title: Food testing

Aim: To test for proteins, lipids, starch, reducing sugar and non reducing
sugar in food substances.
Apparatus: PROTIENS:
Test tube
Test tube rack
Food containing proteins
0.1M sodium hydrogen solution
0.1M copper sulphate solution Water
Dropper pipette
Eye protection
LIPIDS:
Ethanol
oil
Test tube
test tube rack
Water
eye protection
STARCH/ REDUCING AND NON- REDUCING SUGAR:
Test tube
test tube rack
Water bath for boiling
0.1Msodium hydroxide solution
0.1 hydrochloric acid
Benedict`s solution
Iodine in potassium iodide solution eye protection
Food containing carbohydrates
1% sucrose solution
1% starch suspension
1% glucose solution
Diagram:

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Method: PROTEINS:
1. A suspension of food was made by mixing the food with water.
2. 2 cm of dilute sodium hydroxide was added to 2 cm of the
suspension.
3. Dilute copper sulphate solution was added drop by drop in the
suspension.
4. It was then observed to see if the suspension turned a violet colour.
LIPIDS:
1. 2 cm of ethanol was placed into a test tube.
2. 5 drops of oil was placed into the test tube then was shook.
3. 2 cm of water was added onto an empty test tube.
4. The test tube which contained the ethanol and the oil was then
poured into the test tube which contained the 2 cm of water.
5. It was then observed to see if the solution turned a white emulsion.
STARCH:
1. Three drops of iodine in potassium iodide solution was added to
2cm of starch suspension.
2. It was then observed to see if the suspension turned blue back.
3. The suspension was then mixed with water and the test tubes were
labeled.
4. Three drops of iodine in potassium iodide solution was added to
each suspension.
REDUCING SUGAR:
1. 2 cm of Benedict`s solution was added to 2 cm of glucose solution.
2. It was then boiled using a water bath.
3. It was observed to see if the solution turned an orange or redbrown precipitate.
4. The food was then mixed with water and left for a few minutes.
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5. It was then tested with the Benedict`s solution above.

6. It was observed.
NON-REDUCING SUGAR:
1. 2 cm of Benedict`s solution was added to 2cm of the sucrose
solution.
2. The solution was then boiled for no longer than 2 minutes.
3. It was then observed to see if the solution stays blue.
Observation: It was observed that if the suspensions which were mixed
with dilute sodium hydroxide turned a violet color then the suspension had
proteins in it .If the test tubes which contained the food water oil and ethanol
turned a violet color then the test tubes had lipids in it. If the suspensions
which contained iodine in potassium iodide solution turned a black-blue
color the suspension had starch in it. If the test tubes which contained
Benedict`s solution and glucose solution and hot water in it turned an orange
or red-brown color then the test tubes contained reducing sugar. If the
solution which contained the Benedict`s solution and warm water stays blue
then the solution is a non-reducing sugar. It was also observed that all the
food tested had at least 1 nutrients found and milk had the most nutrients
found.

Results:

Food
Milk
Sugar
Orange
Sausage
Apple
Rice

starch

proteins

= YES
=NO
lipids

Reducing
sugar

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Tomato
Egg
Crackers
Peas
Cheese

DD

TABLE SHOWING THE DIFFERENT TYPE OF

NUTRIENTS FOUND IN DIFFERENT FOOD
Discussion: Food tests are used to determine the different types of nutrition
food contain. Food testing is when different types of food are examined
using chemicals and the solution color varies what particular nutrition a food
contains. Food testing is very important because without it people wouldnt
know what is contained in food not giving them nutritious facts to know
which food is healthy and which are not. In the experiment it was observed
that the way to know what aspect a food contains is by watching what color
is present in the solution given. When the different types of solutions were
given it was observed to see what color they would turn indicating the type
of nutrients it contained. Starch or amylum is a carbohydrate consisting of a
large number of glucose units joined by glycosidic bonds. It is produced by
most green plants as an energy store. It is the most common carbohydrate in
human diets and is contained in large amounts in such staple foods as
potatoes, wheat, corn, rice, and cassava. Pure starch is a white, tasteless and
odorless powder that is insoluble in cold water or alcohol. Proteins are
essential nutrients for the human body. They are one of the building blocks
of body tissue, and can also serve as a fuel source. As a fuel, proteins contain
4 kcal per gram, just like carbohydrates and unlike lipids, which contain 9
kcal per gram. The most important aspect and defining characteristic of
protein from a nutritional standpoint is its amino acid composition. Protein is
a nutrient needed by the human body for growth and function. Lipids are a
group of naturally occurring molecules that include fats, waxes, sterols, fatsoluble vitamins and others. The main function of lipid is to store energy.
Lipids have applications in the cosmetic and food industries as well as in
nanotechnology. Although the term lipid is sometimes used as a synonym for
fats, fats are a subgroup of lipids called triglycerides. Lipids may be broadly
defined as hydrophobic or amphiphilic small molecules. A reducing sugar
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is any sugar that either has an aldehyde group or is capable of forming one in
solution through isomerism. A sugar is classified as a reducing sugar only if
it has an open-chain form with an aldehyde group or a free hemiacetal
group. Sugars having acetal or ketal linkages are not reducing sugars
because they do not have free aldehyde chains. A non reducing sugar is a
carbohydrate that is not oxidized by a weak oxidizing agent in solution. The
characteristic of nonreducing sugars is that, in basic aqueous medium, they
do not generate any compounds containing an aldehyde group.
Conclusion: It was concluded that different food contained different types
of nutrients.

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Title: Phototropism
Aim: to discover how light can affect plant growth.
Apparatus:

Water
Shoe box
cup

kidney beans
napkin

Diagram:

Method: 1.Three kidney beans were placed in a small cup lined with wet
tissue paper and left for one day.
2. A whole was then cut out through the short side of a shoe box.
3. The cup was then placed inside the box as far as possible from
the whole and then left for 2 more days.
4. Each day the length would be measured
5. The lid of the box was then replaced and left for another 2 days
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6. A table was drawn to show the length of the seeds during the
days it was observed.
7 A statement was written to describe the process of the
seedlings at each stage.

Observation: When the plant was left in the sun the first day it did not
germinate. After it was placed in the box it began germinating faster than
before. It was also observed that the plant grew sideways. When the days
start to pass by only one of the plants would germinate the others would not.
When the plant was left in the box all of them bent towards where there was
sunlight. The leaves of the plant were small and yellow while the stem was
long. After the box lid had been taken off the plant slowed down in its
growing than before.
Results:
Beans
1st day
after 2 more After 2 more
days
days
1
0.5
1.5
15.5
2
0.5
1.5
3
3
0.5
1.5
3.3
TABLE SHOWIN PLANG GROUTH THROUGHOUT THE DAYS
Discussion: In the experiment done the plant bent towards the light
responding to stimuli showing the process of phototropism. In the
experiment only one plant germinated pass the length of 1.5 cm.
Phototropism is the plant's response to light. There are two kinds of
phototropism: positive and negative. Positive phototropism is the plant's
positive response to light: which means that it grows toward the light (such
as the stem growing toward the light). Negative phototropism is the plant's
negative response to light: which means that it grows away from the light
(like the roots growing away from the light). These responses are caused by
auxin. Auxin is a hormone that stimulates cell growth (more importantly, the
cells in the stem). Auxin is produced in the tips of the plant, and is
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transported downwards from the tips, the stem, and finally the roots. This
means that there is a higher concentration of auxin in the tips then in the
roots (more accurately, a concentration gradient). Auxin moves to the darker
side of the plant, causing the cells there to grow larger than corresponding
cells on the lighter side of the plant. The result is a plant whose stem bends
toward the light. This is known as phototropism. Phototropism is most often
observed in plants, but can also occur in other organisms such as fungi. The
cells on the plant that are farthest from the light have a chemical called
auxin that reacts when phototropism occurs. This causes the plant to have
elongated cells on the farthest side from the light. Phototropism is one of the
many plant tropisms or movements which respond to external stimuli. There
are several signaling molecules that help the plant determine where the light
source is, and this activates several genes, which change the hormone
gradients allowing the plant to grow towards the light. The very tip of the
plant known as the coleoptile is necessary in light sensing. The middle
portion of the coleoptile is the area where the shoot curvature occurs. The
Cholodny-Went hypothesis, developed in the early 20th century, predicts
that in the presence of asymmetric light, auxin will move towards the shaded
side and promote elongation of the cells on that side to cause the plant to
curve towards the light source
Reflection: Plants are very sensitive to their environment and have evolved
many forms of "tropisms". I learned a lot about phototropism, I learnt that
Phototropism is the growth of organisms in response to light, the plant
depends on the stem to direct it to sunlight and the main chemical in the
plant which is needed for phototropism is called auxin.
Conclusion: It was concluded that light from the sun can affect the plants
growth.

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Title: Geotropism
Aim: to discover how gravity affect plant roots.
Apparatus:

cups
seedlings

soil

Diagram:

Method:
1. Four cups where obtained then filled with soil
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2. Four small seedlings which already had shoots and roots where
then placed in each cup under the soil with the roots pointing
different directions.
3. One seedling was placed with its roots down then another with
its roots up then another with its rood left then one with its
roots right.
4. The four cups were then placed in a shaded place for a week.
5. During the week the experiment was observed.

Observation: At the end of the experiment all the roots of the seedling
ended up pointing downwards. The roots of seedling that was placed
pointing right first grew horizontally then after 2 days began growing
downwards while the stem of the seedling grew vertically upwards. The root
of the seedling placed to the left first grew horizontally then after 2 days
started growing downwards but the length of the root was longer than the
seedling placed pointing to the right and the stem also grew vertically
upwards. The root of the seedling pointing upwards didnt start to grow until
the third day, it slowly grew vertically upwards then on the fifth day it
curved and began growing downwards and the stem grew downwards then
curved upwards. The root of the seedling pointing downwards automatically
grew downwards continually while the stem grew to the left then after a day
grew upwards.
Discussion: At the end of the experiment all the roots grew downwards and
the stem upwards showing geotropism. Geotropism is a turning or growth
movement by a plant, fungus, or animal in response to gravity. It is a general
feature of all higher and many lower plants as well as other
organisms. Charles Darwin was one of the first to scientifically document
that roots show positive geotropism and stems show negative geotropism.
That is, roots grow in the direction of gravitational pull (downward)
and stems grow in the opposite direction ( upwards). This behavior can be
easily demonstrated with any potted plant. When laid onto its side, the
growing parts of the stem begin to display negative geotropism, growing
(biologists say, turning; see tropism) upwards. Herbaceous (non-woody)
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stems are capable of a small degree of actual bending, but most of the
redirected movement occurs as a consequence of root or stem growth in a
new direction Root growth occurs by division of stem cells in the
root meristem located in the tip of the root, and the subsequent expansion of
cells in a region just proximal to the tip known as the elongation zone.
Differential growth during tropisms mainly involves changes in cell
expansion versus changes in cell division, although a role for cell division in
tropic growth has not been formally ruled out. Gravity is sensed in the root
tip and this information must then be relayed to the elongation zone so as to
maintain growth direction and mount effective growth responses to changes
in orientation and continue to grow its roots in the same direction as gravity.
The differential sensitivity to auxin helps explain that stems and roots
respond in the opposite way to the gravity vector. In both roots and stems
auxin accumulates towards the gravity vector on the lower side. In roots, this
results in the inhibition of cell expansion on the lower side and the
concomitant curvature of the roots towards gravity (positive geotropism). In
stems, the auxin also accumulates on the lower side, however in this tissue it
increases cell expansion and results in the shoot curving up (statolithic
geotropism).Upward growth of plant parts, against gravity, is called
"negative geotropism", and downward growth of roots is called "positive
geotropism".
Reflection: In this experiment it was learnt that Geotropism is a turning or
growth movement in response to gravity in a plant. It was also learnt that
upward growth of plant parts, against gravity, is called "negative geotropism
and downward growth of roots is called "positive geotropism". Upward
growth of plant parts, against gravity, is called "negative geotropism", and
downward growth of roots is called "positive geotropism".
Conclusion: It was concluded that it is possible to discover how gravity
affect plant roots.

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Title: Reflex
Aim: to investigate the reflex action of the knee
Apparatus: table
A human
Diagram:

ruler

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Method:
1. The individual was first placed on the edge table with their
both feet hanging loosely.
2. The base of the kneecap was then located using the figure tips.
3. The front of the individuals leg was tapped firmly just
underneath the individuals kneecap, with the edge of a ruler.
4. The knee was then observed.

Observation: When the experiment was being carried out on the individual
he/she felt a shock and also felt the tendon muscle contracting as the edge of
the ruler came in contact with the knee. It was also observed that the
individual did not feel any pain as the ruler came in contact with the knee.
When the ruler was tapped firmly under the kneecap the leg kicked.
Discussion: A reflex action, differently known as a reflex, is an involuntary
and nearly instantaneous movement in response to a stimulus. Scientific use
of the term "reflex" refers to a behavior that is mediated via the reflex arc;
this does not apply to casual uses of the term "reflex". Newborn babies have
a number of other reflexes which are not seen in adults, referred to
as primitive reflexes. These automatic reactions to stimuli enable infants to
respond to the environment before any learning has taken place. They
include: Asymmetrical tonic neck reflex (ATNR), Palmomental reflex, Moro
reflex, also known as the startle reflex, Palmar grasp reflex, Rooting reflex,
Sucking reflex, Symmetrical tonic neck reflex (STNR), Tonic labyrinthine
reflex (TLR). Many of these reflexes are quite complex requiring a number
of synapses in a number of different nuclei in the CNS (e.g., the escape
reflex). Others of these involve just a couple of synapses to function (e.g.,
the withdrawal reflex). Processes such as breathing, digestion, and the
maintenance of the heartbeat can also be regarded as reflex actions,
according to some definitions of the term. In medicine, reflexes are often
used to assess the health of the nervous system. Doctors will typically grade
the activity of a reflex on a scale from 0 to 4. While 2+ is considered normal,
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some healthy individuals are hypo-reflexive and register all reflexes at 1+,
while others are hyper-reflexive and register all reflexes at 3+.
Reflection: In this experiment it was learnt that a reflex action is an
involuntary and nearly instantaneous movement in response to a stimulus.
Conclusion: It was concluded that it is possible to investigate the reflex
action of the knee

Title: Genetics
Aim: To discover how the sex off spring can be determined.
Apparatus: Beakers
Black beads

white beads

Diagram:

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Method:
1) 50 black beads were firs placed into a beaker that was
labeled A
2) 25 black beads and 25 white beads were then placed
into another beaker that was labeled beaker B
3) Beaker B was stirred so that the white and black beads
were mixed properly.
4) The beakers were placed side by side with two extra
beakers labeled C and D.
5) The eyes where then closed
6) While the eyes were closed one bead from beaker A
and from beaker B was picked.
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7) If both beads were black they were placed in beaker C

and if one was white and the other black they were
placed in beaker D.
8) The results were then recorded.
9) The process was then repeated nine more times.
Observation:
Selection number

Beaker C
(both black beads)

Beaker D
(white and black beads)

1
2

10

TABLE SHOWING THE RESULTS OBTAINED FROM THE

EXPERIMENT

Discussion: Genetics is the study of heredity. Heredity is a biological

process where a parent passes certain genes onto their children or offspring.
In the experiment the white beads represented the y chromosomes and the
black beads represented the x chromosomes. The two beakers which
contained the beads (beaker A and beaker B) represented the parents. The
eyes must be closed because in the body the chromosomes are randomly
selected and if the beads represent the chromosomes they are to be randomly
selected as well. The genetic diagram drawn showed predicted ratio of males
to female as 2:2 and it relates to the experiment by showing that there is
always going to be a ratio between the chromosomes. In the experiment 4
pairs of black beads were selected and 6 pairs of both white and black beads
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were selected. The ratio of boys to girls found in the ten offspring of the
experiment was 6:4. The ratio obtained in the experiment and the ratio
obtained from the genetic diagram shows that it is not possible to choose the
sex of the offspring. The experiment is differed from what really happened
because you can't see what really goes on in the body but in the experiment
you can.
Every child inherits genes from both of their biological parents and these
genes in turn express specific traits. Some of these traits may be physical for
example hair and eye color and skin color etc. On the other hand some genes
may also carry the risk of certain diseases and disorders that may pass on
from parents to their offspring. The genetic information lies within the cell
nucleus of each living cell in the body. The genes lie within the
chromosomes. Humans have 23 pairs of these small thread-like structures in
the nucleus of their cells. 23 or half of the total 46 comes from the mother
while the other 23 comes from the father. The chromosomes contain genes
just like pages of a book. Some chromosomes may carry thousands of
important genes while some may carry only a few. The chromosomes, and
therefore the genes, are made up of the chemical substance called DNA
(DeoxyriboNucleic Acid). The chromosomes are very long thin strands of
DNA, coiled up tightly.

xx xy

xx xy

Reflection: In this experiment it was learnt that the female contains only x
chromosomes while the male carries both x and y chromosomes.
Conclusion: based on the results obtained it was concluded that it is
possible to see how the sex of n offspring is determined.
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Title: planning and designing.

Aim: to turn an egg into a bouncy glowing ball.
Hypothesis: When an egg is soaked in vinegar, the shell will be dissolved.
When a highlighter is mixed with vinegar it gives a green glowing color
under a black light.
Apparatus: glass jar
Vinegar
Highlighter

egg
bowl
black light
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Diagram:

Procedure:
1. Extract ink from inside a lime green highlighter pen.
2. Place the ink in a bowl.
3. Fill the bowl half way with vinegar and stir it.
4. Place an egg carefully in a jar.
5. Pour the mixture of ink and vinegar inside the jar.
6. Pour more vinegar into the jar so that the egg is fully submerged in the
fluid.
7. Leave the jar for one week and observe it every day.
8. Turn on the black light over the egg in the dark.
9. Observe what happens.
Variable:
Controlled variable: vinegar, highlighter ink
Manipulated variable: egg
Expected results:
It is expected that when the egg is fully submerged in a mixture of vinegar
and highlighter ink the shell of the egg will dissolve in the solution leaving
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the outer membrane of the egg and giving the egg a green glowing color
when under a black light.
Procedure:
1. Lime green ink was first extracted from inside a highlighter pen.
2. The ink of the pen was then placed in a bowl.
3. The bowl was then filled half way with vinegar and then stirred.
4. An egg was carefully placed in a jar.
5. The mixture of ink and vinegar was then poured inside the jar.
6. More vinegar was poured into the jar so that the egg was fully
submerged in the fluid.
7. The experiment was then left under surveillance for a week
8. After the duration the egg was taken out of the solution and placed
under a black light in the dark.
9. It was then observed.
Results:
Egg
Day 1 Day2 Day3
Day 4 Day5 Day6 Day 7
texture hard
hard
soft
soft
soft
Soft
soft
Color
brown light
light
cream orange orange orange
brown brown
Table showing the color and texture of the egg during the 7 day period
Discussion:
An egg is the organic vessel containing the zygote in which an animal
embryo develops until it can survive on its own, at which point the animal
hatches. On the first day the egg begun to bubble up in the solution and foam
was being formed o top of the solution. On the second day the green ink in
the solution became clearer then the day before and the some of the brown
skin from the egg came and surfaced on top of the solution. On the third day
the color of the solution became even clearer and the size of the egg
increased showing the process of osmosis. The egg also became soft. On the
fourth day the color of the solution became clear and all of the brown skin
was dissolved leaving only the eggs membrane. On the fifth day the egg
became an orange-cream color. It also increased in size and the color became
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even more orange. On the sixth day the solution was completely clear and
had a horrible odor. The color of the egg became dark orange. On the
seventh day the egg was seen to be bigger and the color darker. When placed
under the black light in the dark the egg gave off a glowing green color.
Cells have an outer covering called the cell membrane. This membrane is
selectively permeable; it has tiny pores or holes that allow objects to move
across it. The cell membrane controls what moves in and out of the cell.
Food and oxygen move into cells across the cell membrane through the
process of diffusion. Diffusion is movement of a substance from an area of
high concentration to an area of low concentration. Osmosis is a special type
of diffusion; it is the diffusion of water across a selectively permeable
membrane. Osmosis occurs when water moves from an area where it is more
concentrated to an area where it is less concentrated. The egg membrane
shows the process of osmosis.
Vinegar has, among other things, a chemical called acetic acid (about 3% of
it is acetic acid). Egg shells contain calcium carbonate. Calcium carbonate in
the egg shell reacts with vinegar to form carbon dioxide (which was shown
as bubbles in the vinegar).

Limitations:
Sources of errors:
When the bouncy egg was being tested it was dropped from a high distance
and burst.
Before the experiment started the egg fell and cracked.
*Precaution:
The egg was handled with care.
Reflection:

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It was learnt that the shell of an egg dissolves with vinegar and that
highlighter ink in the vinegar can be absorbed into the egg through the
process of osmosis.
Conclusion:
After doing this experiment, it was found that the vinegar contains acetic
acid, which dissolves the carbon and calcium molecules in the eggshell. The
membrane, however is left undisturbed because it doesn't contain materials
that the acid can attack. The bubbles that were seen were carbon dioxide
being released.

Title: discontinuous Variation

Aim: to investigate the variation tongue rolling among students in a class.
Apparatus:
Diagram:

pen, paper, students

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Method:
1. A table with three rows was first drawn using a pen and a ruler.
2. The number of students where then found and placed in the
first table.
3. For the amount of students who were able to roll their tongue,
a tick was placed in the second row next to their number.
4. The amount of students who were not able to roll their tongue,
a tick was then placed in the third table next to their number.
Observation:
number of students

Students able to roll tongue

Students that are unable to roll

tongue

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10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18
19

20

21

22

23

24

Discussion: There are two types of variation

Continuous variation and Discontinued variation
In continuous variation, the differences are slight and merge or grade into
each other. For example height in humans, human foot length and human
skin color. In discontinuous variation, the differences are separate and clear
cut; they do not merge or grade into each other. Examples are tongue rolling
in humans and the presents or absence of horn in cattle.
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Variation is the term used to show that there are differences between
individuals of the same species. Individuals of the same species vary.
Differences or variation is seen in their physical appearance, such that no
two are alike. Even identical twins show subtle differences. These
differences are the result of the genotype and the environment. The genotype
of organisms is its genetic male up. The environment is the surroundings of
organisms. Identical twins have the same genetic makeup but their
environments are different (such that food they eat, their activities,
relationships and experiences) and so subtle differences develop between
them. Variation is the result of the genetic makeup and the influence of the
environment. There are two types of variation
Reflection: In this experiment it was learnt that Discontinuous variation is
when individuals can be clearly categorized into 2 or more very DISTINCT
groups (you are either one group or another, you do not fall somewhere in
between).
Conclusion: It was concluded that out of 24 students, 18 students can roll
their tongue and 6 cannot.

Title: Natural selection

Aim: to investigate natural selection.
Apparatus: match sticks
Beakers
student

colored marker pen

stop watch

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Diagram:

Method:
5. 240 match sticks were collected.
6. 60 match sticks were then colored blue, then another 60 brown
then another 60 yellow and lastly 60 green.
7. 30 matches of each color were then scattered onto a table.
8. A student was used as a predator and had 10 seconds to catch
as many prey as possible by picking up one matchstick at a
time and putting it into a beaker.
9. The remaining matchsticks were then counted.
10. Each of the remaining matchsticks was given a matchstick of
the same color.
11.Steps 8 to 10 were then repeated again.
12. The results obtained were then placed in a table.
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Observation:
Prey population

Number of prey
caught

Number of
survivors

30
Blue
30
Green
30
Orange
30
Purple

25

New prey population (after

each survivors is given one
offspring)
50

27

54

24

48

26

52

Prey population

Number of prey
caught

Number of
survivors

New prey population (after

each survivors is given one
offspring)
90

50
5
45
Blue
54
5
49
98
Green
48
5
43
86
Orange
52
7
45
90
purple
Tables showing results obtained when investigating natural selection

Discussion: Natural selection it the process in nature by which, according

to Darwin's theory of evolution, organisms that are better adapted to their
environment tend to survive longer and transmit more of their genetic
characteristics to succeeding generations than do those that are less well
adapted. The match sticks used in the experiment represented the pray. Each
colors in the represented a different type of specie. Over time based on the
results obtained the number of sticks for each color gradually increased even
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though there was a decreas due to the predators. The color green survived
the best because they were the hardest out of all the preys to be caught. The
color orange survived worst se to because they were the easiest pray to be
caught. The results obtained related to natural selection by showing that
forms of life having traits that better enable them to adapt to specific
environmental pressures as predators will tend to survive and reproduce in
greater numbers than others of their kind, thus ensuring the perpetuation of
those favorable traits in succeeding generations. Camouflage is the use of
any combination of materials, coloration, or illumination for concealment,
either by making animals or objects hard to see, or by disguising them as
something else. The characteristic being pursued in this experiment was
survival of the fittest. If the survivors had been given two offspring instead
of one the new pray population would have been twice as much than before.
Three flaws were met during the experiment. The first flaw was that the
number of tooth picks was incorrectly counted. The second flaw was that
when spreading out the toothpick on the table, some of the toothpick fell on
the ground without recognition. The third flaw was that during the 10
seconds, while picking up the toothpick and placing it into the beaker some
toothpicks fell out while being placed in the beaker.
Reflection: In this experiment it was learnt that natural selection is all about
survival of the fittest.
Conclusion: It was concluded that the green specie survived best while the
orange specie survived the worst.

Title: Ecology
Aim: to investigate a simple ecological study
Apparatus: book

pen
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Diagram:

Method:
1. The park was first chosen as the place to conduct the
experiment.
2. 5 areas around the park were chosen to conduct the virtual
population study.
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3. For each area the total number of species and number of

organisms were approximated and recorded.
Observation/results:
Species &
organisms

Almond Dead
sprouts leaves

Area 1
Area 2
Area 3
Area 4
Area 5

3
0
0
0
0

Density

( # of individual )

beetle

millipede

ants

flies

grass snail

tree

1
1
0
0
0

10
6
1
0
0
3.4

15
0
40
0
0
11

0
0
1
0
0

0.4

45
60
30000
0
0
6021

2
2
0
3
6

0.6

2
24
4
11
20
12.2

Broad
leaf
sprout
s
30
0
41
0
0
14.2

0.0098

0.199

0.232

0.0065

0.056

98.3

Tad
pole
0
0
0
81
200
56.2

2.6

0
1
0
0
1
0.4

0.2

5
Relative density of
species.
Density of species
100
Total density of all
hhhhspecies

Species &
organisms
Area 1
Area 2
Area 3
Area 4
Area 5
Density
# of individual
5

lizard

centipede

Dragon fly

0
0
1
0
0
0.2

0
0
1
0
0
0.2

0
0
0
5
0
1

0.042

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0.18 0.007

fishes

turtle

0
0
0
1
4
1

0
0
0
0
1
0.2

0.003

Spider
0
0
1
0
0
0.2

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Relative density of
species.
Density of species
100
Total density of all
hhhhspecies

0.003

0.003

0.016

0.92

0.016

0.003

Tables showing results obtained when investigating a ecology study

Discussion: Ecology is the branch of biology dealing with the relations and
interactions between organisms and their environment, including other
organisms. The subject matter of ecology is normally divided onto four
broad categories: physiological ecology, having to do with the response of
single species to environmental conditions such as temperature or light;
population ecology, usually focusing on the abundance and distribution of
individual species and the factors that cause such distribution; community
ecology, having to do with the number of species found at given location
and their interactions; and ecosystems ecology, having to do with the
structure and function of the entire suite of microbes, plants, and animals,
and their abiotic environment, and how the parts interact to generate the
whole. This branch of ecology often focuses on the energy and nutrient
flows of ecosystems, and when this approach is combined with computer
analysis and simulation we often call it systems ecology. Evolutionary
ecology, which may operate at any of these levels but most commonly at the
physiological or population level, is a rich and dynamic area of ecology
focusing on attempting to understand how natural selection developed the
structure and function of the organisms and ecosystems at any of these
levels. It happens on land air and sea.
Reflection: In this experiment it was learnt that ecology is the relationship
of organisms with each other and their environment.
Conclusion: It was concluded that the average density of the organisms
were found to be 360.33 and the average relative density was 100.2089

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Title: Volume of air

Aim: to determine the volume of air in a soil sample.
Apparatus: a sample of dry soil
Water

two measuring cylinders

a stirring rod

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Diagram:

Method:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Dry soil was first obtained.

The lumps in the soil were then crushed using a hand.
100 cm3 of the soil was placed in a measuring cylinder.
100cm3 of water was then placed into another measuring
cylinder.
5. The water in the measuring cylinder was poured into the
measuring cylinder containing the soil.
6. The mixture was stirred using a stirring rod until there were no
more bubbles being formed.
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7. The volume of the mixture of water and soil was then found
and recorded.
Observation:
When the water was being placed in the measuring cylinder containing soil,
the water stayed at the top of the soil. While the mixture was being stirred,
bubble began forming on top of the mixture. When the 100cm3 of water and
100 cm3 of soil was put together the volume was lower than 200 cm3.
Discussion:
About half of the total mass of soil is made of up vast, interconnecting
cavities, or holes. These holes are filled with both air and water. The amount
of air and the amount of water filling these spaces varies dramatically
throughout the year and from location to location, but averages about 50%
each. The air found in soil is very different from the air found in the
atmosphere. The air in soils is not exposed to moving air currents and is
much more moist, or humid, than atmospheric air. It also tends to be very
rich in carbon dioxide and poor in oxygen. Oxygen is removed by living
organisms, and carbon dioxide is left behind. This carbon dioxide leaks out
of the soil, slowly replenishing the atmosphere's carbon dioxide supplies.
In the experiment when the mixture of soil and water was being stirred the
air pockets in the soil were replaced with the water. The volume of the
mixture was 195cm3 showing that the 100 cm3 of soil was a mixture of air
and dirt and all the air came out when the 100 cm3 of water was added. The
volume of the air was calculated by subtracting the volume read on the
measuring cylinder from 200cm3 which was found to be 5cm3.
(200 cm3- 195cm3 = 5cm3).

Reflection: In this experiment it was learnt that the air in a soil sample can
be found by placing it in a measuring cylinder, adding water and then
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subtracting the volume read on the measuring cylinder from the expected
results.
Conclusion: It was concluded based off the observation and calculations
that the volume of the air in the soil sample was 5cm3.

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