Theoretical Question 1

A Swing with a Falling Weight

A rigid cylindrical rod of radius R is held horizontal above the ground. With a string of
negligible mass and length L ( L > 2R ), a pendulum bob of mass m is suspended from point
A at the top of the rod as shown in Figure 1a. The bob is raised until it is level with A and then
released from rest when the string is taut. Neglect any stretching of the string. Assume the
pendulum bob may be treated as a mass point and swings only in a plane perpendicular to the
axis of the rod. Accordingly, the pendulum bob is also referred to as the particle. The

acceleration of gravity is g .
x
L

s
Figure 1a

Let O be the origin of the coordinate system. When the particle is at point P, the string
is tangential to the cylindrical surface at Q. The length of the line segment QP is called s.
The unit tangent vector and the unit radial vector at Q are given by t and r , respectively.
The angular displacement of the radius OQ, as measured counterclockwise from the
vertical x-axis along OA, is taken to be positive.
When = 0 , the length s is equal to L and the gravitational potential energy U of the
particle is zero. As the particle moves, the instantaneous time rates of change of and s are
given by and s , respectively.
Unless otherwise stated, all the speeds and velocities are relative to the fixed point O.

Part A
In Part A, the string is taut as the particle moves. In terms of the quantities introduced
above (i.e., s, , s , , R, L, g, t and r ), find:
(a) The relation between and s .
(0.5 point)

(b)The velocity vQ of the moving point Q relativeto O.

(0.5 point)

(c) The particles velocity v relative to the moving point Q when it is at P

(d)The particles velocity v relative to O when it is at P.

(0.7 point)
(0.7 point)

(e) The t -component of the particles acceleration relative to O when it is at P.

(f) The particles gravitational potential energy U when it is at P.
(g)The speed v m of the particle at the lowest point of its trajectory.

(0.7 point)
(0.5 point)
(0.7 point)

Part B
In Part B, the ratio L to R has the following value:

L 9 2

=
+ cot = 3.534 + 3.352 = 6.886
R
8 3
16
(h)What is the speed v s of the particle when the string segment from Q to P is both straight
and shortest in length? (in terms of g and R)
(2.4 points)
(i) What is the speed v H of the particle at its highest point H when it has swung to the other
side of the rod? (in terms of g and R)

(1.9 points)

Part C
In Part C, instead of being suspended from A, the pendulum bob of mass m is
connected by a string over the top of the rod to a heavier weight of mass M, as shown in
Figure 1b. The weight can also be treated as a particle.
x

m
R

Figure 1b

Initially, the bob is held stationary at the same level as A so that, with the weight
hanging below O, the string is taut with a horizontal section of length L. The bob is then
released from rest and the weight starts falling. Assume that the bob remains in a vertical
plane and can swing past the falling weight without any interruption.
The kinetic friction between the string and the rod surface is negligible. But the static
friction is assumed to be large enough so that the weight will remain stationary once it has
come to a stop (i.e. zero velocity).
(j) Assume that the weight indeed comes to a stop after falling a distance D and
that (L D ) >> R . If the particle can then swing around the rod to = 2 while both
segments of the string free from the rod remain straight, the ratio = D /L must not be
smaller than a critical value c . Neglecting terms of the order R /L or higher, obtain an
estimate on c in terms of M /m.
(3.4 points)

Answer Sheet

Theoretical Question 1
A Swing with a Falling Weight

(a) The relation between and s is

(b) The velocity of the moving point Q relative to O is

vQ =

(c) When at P, the particles velocity relative to the moving point Q is

v =

(d) When at P, the particles velocity relative to O is

v =
(e) When at P, the t -component of the particles acceleration relative to O is

(f) When at P, the particles gravitational potential energy is

U=
(g) The particles speed when at the lowest point of its trajectory is
vm =

(h) When line segment QP is straight with the shortest length, the particles speed is
(Give expression and value in terms of g and R )
vs =

(i) At the highest point, the particles speed is (Give expression and value in terms of g and R)

vH =
(j) In terms of the mass ratio M /m, the critical value c of the ratio D /L is

c =

Theoretical Question 2
A Piezoelectric Crystal Resonator under an Alternating Voltage
Consider a uniform rod of unstressed length and cross-sectional area A (Figure 2a).
Its length changes by when equal and opposite forces of magnitude F are applied to its
ends faces normally. The stress T on the end faces is defined to be F/A. The fractional
change in its length, i.e., /, is called the strain S of the rod. In terms of stress and strain,
Hookes law may be expressed as
T =Y S

or

F
=Y

(1)

where Y is called the Youngs modulus of the rod material. Note that a compressive stress T
corresponds to F < 0 and a decrease in length (i.e., < 0). Such a stress is thus negative in
value and is related to the pressure p by T = p.
For a uniform rod of density , the speed of propagation of longitudinal waves (i.e.,
sound speed) along the rod is given by

u = Y/
z

(2)

A
F

Figure 2a

The effect of damping and dissipation can be ignored in answering the following
questions.

Part A: mechanical properties

A uniform rod of semi-infinite length, extending from x = 0 to (see Figure 2b), has a
density . It is initially stationary and unstressed. A piston then steadily exerts a small
pressure p on its left face at x = 0 for a very short time t, causing a pressure wave to
propagate with speed u to the right.
v
p

compressed

unstressed

unstressed
p

x=0
Figure 2b

wave motion

Figure 2c

(a) If the piston causes the rods left face to move at a constant velocity v (Figure 2b), what are

the strain S and pressure p at the left face during the time t? Answers must be given in
terms of , u, and v only.
(1.6 points)
(b)Consider a longitudinal wave traveling along the x direction in the rod. For a cross section
at x when the rod is unstressed (Figure 2c), let (x, t) be its displacement at time t and
assume
(3)
( x, t ) = 0 sin k ( x u t )
where 0 and k are constants. Determine the corresponding velocity v(x, t), strain S(x, t),
and pressure p(x, t) as a function of x and t.

(2.4 points)

Part B: electromechanical properties (including piezoelectric effect)

Consider a quartz crystal slab of length b, thickness h, and width w (Figure 2d). Its
length and thickness are along the x-axis and z-axis. Electrodes are formed by thin metallic
coatings at its top and bottom surfaces. Electrical leads that also serve as mounting support
(Figure 2e) are soldered to the electrodes centers, which may be assumed to be stationary for
longitudinal oscillations along the x direction.
b/2

quartz

V (t )
h

b/2

electrodes
x
Figure 2e

Figure 2d

The quartz crystal under consideration has a density of 2.65103 kg/m3 and Youngs
modulus Y of 7.871010 N/m2. The length b of the slab is 1.00 cm and the width w and height
h of the slab are such that h << w and w << b. With switch K left open, we assume only
longitudinal modes of standing wave oscillation in the x direction are excited in the quartz
slab.
For a standing wave of frequency f = / 2, the displacement (x, t) at time t of a cross
section of the slab with equilibrium position x may be written as

( x, t ) = 2 0 g ( x) cos t ,

(0 x b )

(4a)

where 0 is a positive constant and the spatial function g(x) is o f t h e f o r m

b
b

(4b)
g ( x ) = B1 sin k x + B2 cos k x
2
2

g(x) has the maximum value of one and k=/u. Keep in mind that the centers of the electrodes
are stationary and the left and right faces of the slab are free and must have zero stress (or

pressure).

(c) Determine the values of B 1 and B 2 in Eq. (4b) for a longitudinal standing wave in the
quartz slab.
(1.2 point)
(d)What are the two lowest frequencies at which longitudinal standing waves may be excited
in the quartz slab?
(1.2 point)
The piezoelectric effect is a special property of a quartz crystal. Compression or
dilatation of the crystal generates an electric voltage across the crystal, and conversely, an
external voltage applied across the crystal causes the crystal to expand or contract depending
on the polarity of the voltage. Therefore, mechanical and electrical oscillations can be coupled
and made to resonate through a quartz crystal.
To account for the piezoelectric effect, let the surface charge densities on the upper and
lower electrodes be and +, respectively, when the quartz slab is under an electric field E
in the z direction. Denote the slabs strain and stress in the x direction by S and T, respectively.
Then the piezoelectric effect of the quartz crystal can be described by the following set of
equations:
(5a)
S = (1 / Y )T + d p E

= d p T + T E

(5b)

where 1/Y = 1.2710 11 m2/N is the elastic compliance (i.e., inverse of Youngs modulus) at
constant electric field and T = 4.0610 11 F/m is the permittivity at constant stress, while d p
= 2.2510 12 m/V is the piezoelectric coefficient.
Let switch K in Fig. 2d be closed. The alternating voltage V(t) = V m cos t now acts
across the electrodes and a uniform electric field E(t) = V(t)/h in the z direction appears in the
quartz slab. When a steady state is reached, a longitudinal standing wave oscillation of
angular frequency appears in the slab in the x direction.
With E being uniform, the wavelength and the frequency f of a longitudinal standing
wave in the slab are still related by = u / f with u given by Eq. (2). But, as Eq. (5a) shows, T
= Y S is no longer valid, although the definitions of strain and stress remain unchanged and the
end faces of the slab remain free with zero stress.
(e) Taking Eqs. (5a) and (5b) into account, the surface charge density on the lower
electrode as a function of x and t is of the form,

where k = /u. Find the expressions for D 1 and D 2 .

V (t )
h

( x, t ) = D1 cos k x + D2

(2.2 points)

(f) The total surface charge Q(t) on the lower electrode is related to V(t) by
kb

2
1 C 0 V ( t )
Q (t ) = 1 + 2 tan
2
kb

Find the expression for C0 and the expression and numerical value of 2.

(6)
(1.4 points)

[Answer Sheet]

Theoretical Question 2

A Piezoelectric Crystal Resonator under an Alternating Voltage

Wherever requested, give each answer as analytical expressions followed by
numerical values and units. For example: area of a circle A = r 2 = 1.23 m2.
(a) The strain S and pressure p at the left face are (in terms of , u, and v)
S=
p=
(b) The velocity v(x, t), strain S(x, t), and pressure p(x, t) are
v(x, t) =
S(x, t) =
p(x, t) =
(c) The values of B1 and B2 are
B1 =
B2=
(d) The lowest two frequencies of standing waves are (expression and value)
The Lowest
The Second Lowest
(e) The expressions of D1 and D2 are
D1=
D 2=
(f) The constants 2 (expression and value) and C0 are (expression only)

2 =
C0 =

Theoretical Question 3
Part A
Neutrino Mass and Neutron Decay
A free neutron of mass mn decays at rest in the laboratory frame of reference into three
non-interacting particles: a proton, an electron, and an anti-neutrino. The rest mass of the
proton is mp, while the rest mass of the anti-neutrino mv is assumed to be nonzero and much
smaller than the rest mass of the electron me. Denote the speed of light in vacuum by c. The
measured values of mass are as follows:
mn939.56563 MeV/c2, mp 938.27231 MeV/c2, me0.5109907 MeV/c2
In the following, all energies and velocities are referred to the laboratory frame. Let E be the
total energy of the electron coming out of the decay.
(a) Find the maximum possible value Emax of E and the speed vm of the anti-neutrino when E
= Emax. Both answers must be expressed in terms of the rest masses of the particles and the
speed of light. Given that mv < 7.3 eV/c2, compute Emax and the ratio vm /c to 3 significant
digits.
(4.0 points)

Part B
Light Levitation
A transparent glass hemisphere with radius R and mass m has an index of refraction n. In
the medium outside the hemisphere, the index of refraction is equal to one. A parallel beam of
monochromatic laser light is incident uniformly and normally onto the central portion of its

planar surface, as shown in Figure 3. The acceleration of gravity g is vertically downwards.

The radius of the circular cross-section of the laser beam is much smaller than R . Both the
glass hemisphere and the laser beam are axially symmetric with respect to the z-axis.
The glass hemisphere does not absorb any laser light. Its surface has been coated with a
thin layer of transparent material so that reflections are negligible when light enters and leaves
the glass hemisphere. The optical path traversed by laser light passing through the
non-reflecting surface layer is also negligible.
(b) Neglecting terms of the order ( /R)3 or higher, find the laser power P needed to balance
the weight of the glass hemisphere.
(4.0 points)
Hint: cos 1 2 / 2 when is much smaller than one.
z
glass hemisphere
n

laser beam
Figure 3
2

10

[Answer Sheet]

Theoretical Question 3

Wherever requested, give each answer as analytical expressions followed by numerical

values and units. For example: area of a circle A = r 2 = 1.23 m2.

Neutrino Mass and Neutron Decay

(a) (Give expressions in terms of rest masses of the particles and the speed of light)
The maximum energy of the electron is (expression and value)

Emax =

The ratio of anti-neutrinos speed at E = Emax to c is (expression and value)

vm /c =

Light Levitation
(b) The laser power needed to balance the weight of the glass hemisphere is
P=

11

The 34th International Physics Olympiad

Taipei, Taiwan
Experimental Competition
Wednesday, August 6, 2003
Time Available : 5 hours
Please Read This First:
1. Use only the pen provided.
2. Use only the front side of the answer sheets and paper.
3. In your answers please use as little text as possible; express yourself primarily
in equations, numbers and figures. If the required result is a numerical
number, underline your final result with a wavy line.
4. Write on the blank sheets of paper the results of your measurements and
whatever else you consider is required for the solution of the question and that
you wish to be marked.
5. It is absolutely essential that you enter in the boxes at the top of each sheet of
paper used your Country and your student number [Student No.]. In addition,
on the blank sheets of paper used for each question, you should enter the
question number [Question No. : e.g. A-(1)], the progressive number of each
sheet [Page No.] and the total number of blank sheets that you have used and
wish to be marked for each question [Total No. of pages]. If you use some
blank sheets of paper for notes that you do not wish to be marked, put a large
cross through the whole sheet and do not include them in your numbering.
6. At the end of the exam please put your answer sheets and graphs in order.
7. Error bars on graphs are only needed in part A of the experiment.
8. Caution: Do not look directly into the laser beam. You can damage your
eyes!!

Apparatuses and materials

1. Available apparatuses and materials are listed in the following table:
Item

Apparatus & material

Quantity

Item

Apparatus & material

Quantity

Photodetector (PD)

Batteries

Polarizers with
Rotary mount

Battery box

90 TN-LC cell (yellow

wires) with rotary LC mount

K Optical bench

Function generator

L Partially transparent papers

Laser diode (LD)

M Ruler

Multimeters

Parallel LC cell
(orange wires)

O Scissors

Variable resistor

10

White tape *
(for marking on apparatus)

Graph papers

* Do not mark directly on apparatus. When needed, stick a piece of the white tape on the parts
and mark on the white tape.
HI
LO

ON
OFF

D
K

G
F

F
Fig. 1

2. Instructions for the multimeter:

DC/AC switch for selecting DC or AC measurement.
Use the V and the COM inlets for voltage and resistance measurements.
Use the mA and the COM inlets for small current measurements. The display then
shows the current in milliamperes.
Use the function dial to select the proper function and measuring range.

V is for

voltage measurement, A is for current measurement and is for resistance

measurement.

Voltage
range

Current
range

DC/AC
switch

Function
dial

Resistance
range

Current
Current
port (mA)
port (mA)

Voltage &
Resistance
Voltage &
port
Resistance
port

Common
Common
port
port

Fig. 2
3

3. Instructions for the Function Generator:

The power button may be pressed for ON and pressed again for OFF
Select the frequencies range, and press the proper button.
The frequency is shown on the digital display.
Use the coarse and the fine frequency adjusting knobs to tune the proper frequency.
Select the square-wave form by pressing the left most waveform button.
Use the amplitude-adjusting knob to vary the output voltage.

Frequency
display

Frequency
Coarse
Adjusting
knob

Power
On/Off
button

Frequency
Range
buttons

Frequency
Fine
Adjusting
knob

Output
Amplitude
Adjusting
knob
Fig.3

Waveform
buttons

Output
connector

Part A: Optical Properties of Laser Diode

I. Introduction
1. Laser Diode
The light source in this experiment is a laser diode which emits laser light with
wavelength 650 nm. When the current of the laser diode (LD) is greater than the threshold
current, the laser diode can emit monochromatic, partially polarized and coherent light.
When the current in the laser diode is less than the threshold, the emitted light intensity is
very small. At above the threshold current, the light intensity increases dramatically with
the current and keeps a linear relationship with the current. If the current increases further,
then the increasing rate of the intensity with respect to the current becomes smaller because
of the higher temperature of the laser diode. Therefore, the optimal operating current range
for the laser diode is the region where the intensity is linear with the current. In general, the
threshold current Ith is defined as the intersection point of the current axis with the
extrapolation line of the linear region.
Caution: Do not look directly into the laser beam. You can damage your eyes!!
2. Photodetector
The photodetector used in this experiment consists of a photodiode and a current
amplifier. When an external bias voltage is applied on the photodiode, the photocurrent is
generated by the light incident upon the diode. Under the condition of a constant
temperature and monochromatic incident light, the photocurrent is proportional to the light
intensity. On the other hand, the current amplifier is utilized to transfer the photocurrent
into an output voltage. There are two transfer ratios in our photodetector high and low
gains. In our experiment, only the low gain is used. However, because of the limitation of
the photodiode itself, the output voltage would go into saturation at about 8 Volts if the
light intensity is too high and the photodiode cannot operate properly any more. Hence the
appropriate operating range of the photodetector is when the output voltage is indeed
proportional to the light intensity. If the light intensity is too high so that the photodiode
reaches the saturation, the reading of the photodetector can not correctly represent the
incident light intensity.

II. Experiments and procedures

Characteristics of the laser diode & the photodetector
In order to make sure the experiments are done successfully, the optical alignment of
5

light rays between different parts of an experimental setup is crucial. Also the light source
and the detector should be operated at proper condition. Part A is related to these questions
and the question of the degree of polarization.
1. Mount the laser diode and photodetector in a horizontal line on the optical bench, as shown
in Fig. 4. Connect the variable resistor, battery set, ampere meter, voltage meter, laser
diode and photodetector according to Fig. 5. Adjust the variable resistor so that the current
passing through LD is around 25 mA and the laser diode emits laser light properly. Choose
the low gain for the photodetector. Align the laser diode and the photodetector to make the
laser light level at the small hole on the detector box and the reading of the photodetector
reaches a maximum value.
Caution: Do not let the black and the red leads of the battery contact with each other
to avoid short circuit.

LD

PD
~60cm

Fig. 4

Optical setup (LDlaser diode; PDphotodetector).

A
100

I
LD

3V

PD
V

Fig. 5

Equivalent circuit for the connection of the laser diode.

2. Use the output voltage of the photodetector to represent the laser light intensity J. Adjust
the variable resistor to make the current I of the laser diode varying from zero to a
maximum value and measure the J as I increases. Be sure to choose appropriate current
increment in the measurement.

Question A-(1) (1.5 point)

Measure, tabulate, and plot the J vs. I curve.
Question A-(2) (3.5 points)
Estimate the maximum current Im with uncertainty in the linear region of the
J vs. I curve. Mark the linear region on the J - I curve figure by using arrows () and
determine the threshold current Ith with uncertainty.
3. Choose the current of the laser diode as Ith + 2(Im Ith)/3 to make sure the laser diode and
photodetector are operated well.
4. To prepare for the part B experiment: Mount a polarizer on the optical bench close to the
laser diode as shown in Fig. 6. Make sure the laser beam passing through the center portion
of the polarizer. Adjust the polarizer so that the incident laser beam is perpendicular to the
plane of the polarizer. (Hint: You can insert a piece of partially transparent paper as a test
screen to check if the incident and reflected light spots coincide with each other.)

LD

Fig. 6

PD

Alignment of the polarizer (Ppolarizer).

5. Keep the current of the laser diode unchanged, mount a second piece of polarizer on the
optical bench and make sure proper alignment is accomplished, i.e., set up the source,
detector and polarizers in a straight line and make sure each polarizer plane is
perpendicular to the light beam.

Part B Optical Properties of Nematic Liquid Crystal :

Electro-optical switching characteristic of 90o TN LC cell
I. Introduction
1. Liquid Crystal
Liquid crystal (LC) is a state of matter that is intermediate between the crystalline
solid and the amorphous liquid. The nematic LCs are organic compounds consist of
long-shaped needle-like molecules. The orientation of the molecules can be easily aligned
and controlled by applying an electrical field. Uniform or well prescribed orientation of the
LC molecules is required in most LC devices. The structure of the LC cell used in this
experiment is shown in Fig 7. Rubbing the polyimide film can produce a well-aligned
preferred orientation for LC molecules on substrate surfaces, thus due to the molecular
interaction the whole slab of LC can achieve uniform molecular orientation. The local
molecular orientation is called the director of LC at that point.
The LC cell exhibits the so-called double refraction phenomenon with two principal
refractive indices. When light propagates along the direction of the director, all polarization
components travel with the same speed vo = c / n0 , where no is called the ordinary index of
refraction. This propagation direction (direction of the director) is called the optic axis of
the LC cell. When a light beam propagates in the direction perpendicular to the optic axis,
in general, there are two speeds of propagation. The electric field of the light polarized
perpendicular (or parallel) to the optic axis travels with the speed of vo = c / n0 (or
v e = c / ne , where ne is called the extraordinary index of refraction). The birefringence
(optical anisotropy) is defined as the difference between the extraordinary and the ordinary
indices of refraction n ne no .
PI alignment Film

Glass Substrate

Glass Substrate

ITO Electrode
Fig. 7

LC Layer

ITO Electrode

LC cell structure
8

2. 90o Twisted Nematic LC Cell

In the 90o twisted nematic (TN) cell shown in Fig. 8, the LC director of the back
surface is twisted 90o with respect to the front surface. The front local director is set
parallel to the transmission axis of the polarizer. An incident unpolarized light is converted
into a linearly polarized light by the front polarizer.

LC molecules

Light
Propagation
Direction

Polarizer PI

PI Analyzer

Fig. 8 90o TN LC cell

When a linearly polarized light traverses through a 90o TN cell, its polarization
follows the twist of the LC directors (polarized light sees ne only) so that the output beam
remains linearly polarized except for that its polarization axis is rotated by 90o (its called
the polarizing rotary effect by ne; similarly we can also find polarizing rotary effect by no).
Thus, for a normally black (NB) mode using a 90o TN cell, the analyzers (a second
polarizer) transmission axis is set to be parallel to the polarizers transmission axis, as
shown in Fig. 9. However, when the applied voltage V across the LC cell exceeds a critical
value Vc, the director of LC molecules tends to align along the direction of applied external
electrical field which is in the direction of the propagation of light. Hence, the polarization
guiding effect of the LC cell is gradually diminishing and the light leaks through the
analyzer. Its electro-optical switching slope is defined as (V90V10)/V10, where V10 and
V90 are the applied voltages enabling output light signal reaches up to 10% and 90% of its
maximum light intensity, respectively.

Polarizer

90o TN-LC

Analyzer

NB operation
E
Z

Fig. 9

NB mode operation of a 90o TN cell

II. Experiments and procedures

1. Setup a NB 90o TN LC mode between two polarizers with parallel transmission axes and
apply 100 Hz square wave voltage using a function generator onto the ITO portions of two
glass substrates and vary the applied voltage (Vrms) from 0 to 7.2 Volts.
* In the crucial turning points, take more data if necessary.
Question B-(1) (5.0 points)
Measure, tabulate, and plot the electro-optical switching curve (J vs. Vrms curve) of the
NB 90o TN LC, and find its switching slope , where is defined as (V90V10)/V10.

Question B-(2) (2.5 points)

Determine the critical voltage Vc of this NB 90o TN LC cell. Show explicitly with graph
how you determine the value Vc.
Hint:* When the external applied voltage exceeds the critical voltage, the light
transmission increases rapidly and abruptly.

10

Part C Optical Properties of Nematic Liquid Crystal :

Electro-optical switching characteristic of parallel aligned LC cell
I. Introduction
Homogeneous Parallel-aligned LC Cell
For a parallel-aligned LC cell, the directors in the front and back substrates are
parallel with each other, as shown in Fig. 10. When a linearly polarized light impinges on a
parallel-aligned cell with its polarization parallel to the LC director (rubbing direction), a
pure phase modulation is achieved because the light behaves only as an extraordinary ray.

LC molecule
Glass substrate (ITO+PI)
Fig. 10

Homogeneous parallel aligned LC

On the other hand, if a linearly polarized light is normally incident onto a parallel
aligned cell but with its polarization making = 45o relative to the direction of the
aligned LC directors (Fig. 11), then phase retardation occurs due to the different
propagating speed of the extraordinary and ordinary rays in the LC medium. In this

= 45o configuration, when the two polarizers are parallel, the normalized transmission
of a parallel aligned LC cell is given by
2
T || = cos

The phase retardation is expressed as

= 2 d n (V , ) /
where d is the LC layer thickness, is the wavelength of light in air, V is the root mean
square of applied AC voltage, and n, a function of and V, is the LC birefringence. It
should be also noted that, at V = 0, n (= neno) has its maximum value, so does . Also
n decreases as V increases.
In the general case, we have
T// = 1 sin 2 2 sin 2

11

T = sin 2 2 sin 2

where

//

and represent that the transmission axis of analyzer is parallel and

perpendicular to that of the polarizer, respectively.

II. Experiments and procedures

1. Replace NB 90o TN LC cell with parallel-aligned LC cell.
2. Set up = 45o configuration at V = 0 as shown in Fig. 11. Let the analyzers transmission
axis perpendicular to that of the polarizer, then rotate the parallel-aligned LC cell until the
intensity of the transmitted light reaches the maximum value ( T ). This procedure
establishes the = 45o configuration. Take down T value, then, measure the intensity of
the transmitted light ( T// ) of the same LC cell at the analyzers transmission axis parallel to
that of the polarizer (also at V = 0).
For T//

Homogeneous
Parallel Aligned
LC cell
Fig

L
P

Analyzer

For T

VAC
Polarizer
Fig. 11

Schematic diagram of experimental setup

(The arrow L is the alignment direction.)

Question C-(1) (2.5 points)

Assume that the wavelength of laser light 650 nm, LC layer thickness 7.7 m, and
approximate value of n 0. 25 are known. From the experimental data T and
Tobtained above, calculate the accurate value of the phase retardation and accurate
value of birefringence n of this LC cell at V=0.

12

3. Similar to the above experiment (1), in the = 45o configuration, apply 100 Hz square
wave voltage using a function generator onto the ITO portions of two glass substrates, vary
the applied voltage (Vrms) from 0 to 7 Volts and measure the electro-optical switching
curve (T) at the analyzers transmission axis parallel to the polarizers transmission axis.
(Hint: Measuring the T switching curve is helpful to increase the data accuracy of the
above T measurement; the data of T are not needed in the following questions. )
* In the crucial turning points, take more data if necessary (especially in the range of
0.5-4.0 Volts).
Question C-(2) (3.0 points)
Measure, tabulate, and plot the electro-optical switching curve for T of this parallel
aligned LC cell in the = 45o configuration.
Question C-(3) (2.0 points)
From the electro-optical switching data, find the value of the external applied voltage V.
Hint: * V is the applied voltage which enables the phase retardation of this anisotropic
LC cell become (or 180o).
* Remember that n is a function of applied voltage, and n decreases as V
increases.
* Interpolation is probably needed when you determine the accurate value of this V.

13

Solutions to Experimental Problems

Part A: Optical Properties of Laser Diode
Question A-(1) (Total 1.5 point)
Measure, tabulate, and plot the J vs. I curve.

a. Data (0.3 pts.) : Proper data table marked with variables and units.
Table A-(1): Data for J vs. I.
I (mA)

9.2

15.2

19.5

21.6

22.2

22.7

23.0

23.4

23.8

J (V)

0.00

0.01

0.02

0.03

0.05

0.06

0.09

0.12

0.30

I (mA)

24.2

24.6

25.0

25.4

25.8

26.2

26.6

27.0

27.4

J (V)

0.66

1.02

1.41

1.88

2.23

2.64

3.04

3.36

3.78

I (mA)

27.8

28.2

28.6

29.0

29.4

29.8

30.2

30.5

31.0

J (V)

4.12

4.48

4.79

5.13

5.44

5.72

6.05

6.25

6.55

I (mA)

31.4

31.8

32.2

32.6

33.0

33.4

33.8

34.2

34.6

J (V)

6.75

6.99

7.22

7.40

7.60

7.78

7.93

8.07

8.14

I (mA)

35.0

35.5

36.0

36.5

37.0

37.6

38.0

38.6

J (V)

8.18

8.20

8.22

8.24

8.24

8.25

8.26

8.27

Current error : 0.1 mA; Voltage error : 0.01 V

14

b. Plotting (0.3 pts.): Proper sizes of scales, and units for abscissa and ordinate that bear
relation to the accuracy and range of the experiment.
c. Curve (0.9 pts.): Proper data and adequate line shape
As shown in Fig. A-1. Start ~0 Threshold Linear Saturate.

6
Light Intensity (V)

Im Im

0
0

10

Fig. A-1

15

20
Current (mA)

25

30

Graph of light intensity J versus current I

15

35

40

Question A-(2) ( Total 3.5 points)

Estimate the maximum current Im with uncertainty in the linear region of the J - I. Mark
the linear region on the J - I curve figure by using arrows () and determine the threshold
current Ith with detailed error analysis.
a. Linear region marking (0.5 pts.) in Fig. A-1.
b. Least-square method or eye-balling with ruler and error analysis (1.5 pt.)
Least-square fitting

Eye-balling with ruler

Error bar in graph 0.0x mA (0.5 pts)

Error bar in graph 0.x mA (0.5 pts)

Least-square method (0.5 pts)

Expanded scale graph (0.5 pts)

Error analysis (0.5 pts)

draw three lines for error analysis(0.5 pts)

c. Im Im (0.5 pts.): Adequate value of Im (0.3 pts.) and error( Im ) (0.2 pts.) from the
linear region of J-I curve.
d. Adequate value of Ith with error (1.0 pts.)
Ith = (21~26) (0.01 or 0.2 for single value) mA
Adequate value of Ith (0.5 pts.) and error ( Ith ) (0.5 pts.)

16

32
31

y error bar

30

x error bar

29

I (mA)

28
27
26

25
24
23
22
0

0.5

1.5

Fig. A-2

2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
Light Intensity (V)
Straight lines and extrapolations

17

5.5

Appendix
A1-1
Least-Square Method
I = mJ +b b = Ith
For y = mx +b
x: J

y: I(mA)

xy

x2

y(x) = mx+b

(y-y(x))2

23.8

0.30

7.14

0.090

23.7937

3.969E-05

24.2

0.66

15.972

0.4356

24.17134

0.000821

24.6

1.02

25.092

1.0404

24.54898

0.00260

25.0

1.41

35.25

1.9881

24.95809

0.00176

25.4

1.88

47.752

3.5344

25.45112

0.00261

25.8

2.23

57.534

4.9729

25.81827

0.000334

26.2

2.64

69.168

6.9696

26.24836

0.00234

26.6

3.04

80.864

9.2416

26.66796

0.00462

27.0

3.36

90.72 11.2896

27.00364

1.325E-05

10

27.4

3.78 103.572 14.2884

27.44422

0.00196

11

27.8

4.12 114.536 16.9744

27.80088

7.744E-07

12

28.2

4.48 126.336 20.0704

28.17852

0.000461

13

28.6

4.79 136.994 22.9441

28.50371

0.00927

y =
340.6

x =
33.71

xy =
x2 =
910.93 113.840

(y-y(x))2 =
0.0268

= Nx 2 (x ) = 13(113.840) (33.71) 2 = 343.556

2

m=

1
(Nxy xy ) = 13(910.93) (33.71)(340.6) = 1.049
343.556

b=

1
(113.840)(340.6) (33.71)(910.93)
x 2 y xxy =
= 23.479

343.556

18

y =

( y y ( x ))
0.0268
=
= 0.049
N 2
13 2
2

dy
= ( y ) + x = (0.049)2 + (1.049 0.005)2 = 0.049
dx
2

m =

b =

N 2
13 0.049 2
=
= 0.0095

343.556

x 2 = 0.049

113.840
= 0.028
343.556

I th = 23.48 0.03 mA
A1-2
Eye-balling Method
I =mJ +b b = Ith
For y = mx+b
Line 1: y = 1.00 x + 23.66
Line 2: y = 1.05 x+ 23.48
Line3: y = 1.13 x + 23.31
Ith(av.) = 23.48
Ith(std.) = 0.18
I th = 23.5 0.2 mA

19

Part B: Optical Properties of Nematic Liquid Crystal

Electro-optical switching characteristic of 90o TN LC cell
Question B-(1) (5.0 points)
Measure, tabulate, and plot the electro-optical switching curve (J vs. Vrms curve) of the NB
90o TN LC, and find its switching slope , where is defined as (V90V10)/V10.
a. Proper data table marked with variables and units. (0.3 pts)
Applied voltage Light intensity Applied voltage Light intensity
(Volts)
(Volts)
(Volts)
(Volts)
0.00
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
1.00
1.10
1.20
1.24
1.30
1.34
1.38
1.45
1.48
1.55
1.59
1.64
1.71
1.78
1.81
1.85
1.90
1.96
2.03
2.08
2.15
2.21
2.28
2.33
2.39

0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.04
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.05
0.11
0.21
0.26
0.33
0.44
0.57
0.70
0.80
0.92
1.02
1.10
1.14
1.19

2.44
2.50
2.55
2.60
2.67
2.72
2.85
2.97
3.11
3.20
3.32
3.41
3.50
3.60
3.70
3.80
4.03
4.22
4.40
4.61
4.78
5.03
5.20
5.39
5.61
5.81
6.02
6.21
6.40
6.63
6.80
7.02
7.20

20

1.22
1.26
1.27
1.29
1.32
1.33
1.36
1.37
1.38
1.39
1.39
1.39
1.40
1.39
1.40
1.40
1.40
1.40
1.39
1.39
1.40
1.39
1.39
1.38
1.39
1.38
1.38
1.38
1.38
1.38
1.38
1.38
1.38

b. Properly choose the size of scales and units for abscissa and ordinate that bears the
relation to the accuracy and range of the experiment. (0.3 pts)
c. Correct measurement of the light intensity (J) as a function of the applied voltage (Vrms)
and adequate J - Vrms curve plot.

The intensity of the transmission light is smaller than 0.05 Volts in the normally
black mode. (0.4 pts)
There is a small optical bounce before the external applied voltage reaches the
critical voltage. (0.8 pts)
The intensity of the transmission light increases rapidly and abruptly when the
external applied voltage exceeds the critical voltage. (0.4 pts)
The intensity of the transmission light displays the plateau behavior as the external
applied voltage exceeds 3.0 Volts. (0.4 pts)

1.5

Light Intensity (Volts)

V90

Plateau

1.0

0.5

Optical
bounce
=0

VC
V10

0.0
0

2
3
4
5
Applied Voltage (Volts)

d. Adequate value of with error.

Find the maximum value of the light intensity in the region of the applied voltage
between 3.0 and 7.2 Volts (0.6 pts)

Determine the value of 90 % of the maximum light intensity. Obtain the value of the
applied voltage V90 by interpolation. (0.6 pts)
21

Determine the value of 10 % of the maximum light intensity. Obtain the value of the
applied voltageV10 by interpolation. (0.6 pts)
Correct value, (0.42 ~ 0.44) 0.02. (0.4+0.2 pts)

Question B-(2) (Total 2.5 points)

Determine the critical voltage Vc of this NB 90o TN LC cell.
graph how you determine the value Vc.

Show explicitly with

a. Adequate value of VC with error, VC VC.

Make the expanded scale plot and take more data points in the region of VC.
(0.8 pts)

Determine the value of VC when the intensity of the transmission light increases
rapidly and abruptly. (0.7 pts)

Correct VC VC value, (1.20 ~ 1.50) 0.01 Volts. (0.8+0.2 pts)

0.16
Light Intensity (Volts)

0.14
0.12
0.10
0.08
0.06

VC

0.04
0.02
0.00
1.2

1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6

Applied Voltage (Volts)

1.7

(The data shown in this graph do not correspond to the data shown on the previous
page. This graph only shows how to obtain Vc.)

22

Part C: Optical Properties of Nematic Liquid Crystal :

Electro-optical switching characteristic of parallel aligned LC cell

Question C-(1) (2.5 points)

Assume that the wavelength of laser light 650 nm, LC layer thickness 7.7 m, and
approximate value of n 0. 25 are known. From the experimental data T and T
obtained above, calculate the accurate value of the phase retardation and accurate
value of birefringence n of this LC cell at V=0.
a. Adequate value of and n with error.

Take and average the values of T. (0.3 pts)

Take and average the values of T. (0.3 pts)

Determine the value of order m. (0.9 pts)

Correct value, 15.7 ~ 18.2. (0.5 pts)

Correct n value, 0.20 ~ 0.24 (0.5 pts)
T// =

0.31 + 0.31 + 0.31

= 0.31 0.01 Volts
3

T =

1.04 + 1.03 + 1.04

= 1.04 0.01 Volts
3

T
= 1.83* = 4.14 + 2m
2
T //
2dn 2 7.7 0.25
=
= 18.61
=

0.65
Take m = 2(or 3)
= 16.70(5.32 )
tan

2dn

(or 2.14 + 2m )

= 0.22
2d

Accepted value for n = (0.20 ~ 0.24)

From =

*If tan

n =

= 1.83 , the value for will be either 4.68 or 6.68 , which is not

consistent with data figure of problem C-(2).

23

Question C-(2) (Total 3.0 points)

Measure, tabulate, and plot the electro-optical switching curve for T of this parallel
aligned LC cell in the = 45o configuration.
a. Proper data table marked with variables and units. (0.3 pts)
Applied voltage Light intensity Applied voltage Light intensity Applied voltage Light intensity
(Volts)
(Volts)
(Volts)
(Volts)
(Volts)
(Volts)
0.00
0.30
2.01
1.47
3.33
0.00
0.10
0.30
2.04
1.48
3.36
0.00
0.20
0.29
2.07
1.48
3.39
0.00
0.30
0.29
2.10
1.48
3.42
0.00
0.40
0.29
2.13
1.45
3.45
0.00
0.50
0.28
2.16
1.42
3.48
0.00
0.60
0.26
2.19
1.38
3.51
0.00
0.70
0.23
2.22
1.33
3.60
0.01
0.80
0.19
2.25
1.27
3.70
0.02
0.90
0.09
2.28
1.20
3.80
0.03
0.99
0.00
2.31
1.14
3.90
0.04
1.02
0.06
2.34
1.07
4.00
0.07
1.05
0.16
2.37
1.00
4.10
0.09
1.08
0.25
2.40
0.94
4.20
0.11
1.11
0.40
2.43
0.87
4.30
0.14
1.14
0.67
2.46
0.79
4.40
0.16
1.17
0.93
2.49
0.72
4.50
0.19
1.20
1.25
2.52
0.66
4.60
0.22
1.26
1.31
2.55
0.61
4.70
0.25
1.29
1.36
2.58
0.56
4.80
0.28
1.32
1.32
2.61
0.51
4.90
0.31
1.35
1.09
2.64
0.46
5.01
0.34
1.38
0.85
2.67
0.42
5.11
0.37
1.41
0.62
2.70
0.37
5.21
0.39
1.44
0.46
2.73
0.33
5.29
0.42
1.47
0.29
2.76
0.30
5.39
0.44
1.50
0.13
2.79
0.26
5.51
0.48
1.53
0.06
2.82
0.23
5.57
0.49
1.59
0.03
2.85
0.21
5.70
0.52
1.62
0.05
2.88
0.18
5.80
0.55
1.65
0.15
2.91
0.16
5.90
0.57
1.68
0.24
2.94
0.14
6.01
0.60
1.71
0.34
2.97
0.12
6.10
0.62
1.74
0.49
3.00
0.09
6.19
0.64
1.77
0.63
3.06
0.08
6.30
0.66
1.80
0.78
3.09
0.06
6.40
0.69
1.83
0.92
3.12
0.05
6.60
0.73
1.86
1.05
3.18
0.04
6.70
0.74
1.89
1.19
3.21
0.03
6.80
0.76
1.92
1.27
3.24
0.02
7.00
0.80
1.95
1.34
3.27
0.02
7.20
0.83
1.98
1.40
3.30
0.01
24

b. Properly choose the size of scales and units for abscissa and ordinate that bears the
relation to the accuracy and range of the experiment. (0.3 pts)
c. Correct measurement of the T as a function of the applied voltage (Vrms) and
adequate T-Vrms curve plot.

Three minima and two sharp maxima. (1.5 pts)

Maxima values within 15% from each other. (0.5 pts)
Minima are less than the values of 0.1 Volts. (0.4 pts)

Light Intensity (Volts)

1.5

1.0
Vm

0.5

0.0
0

2
3
4
5
Applied Voltage (Volts)

25

Question C-(3) (Total 2.0 points)

From the electro-optical switching data, find the value of the external applied voltage V.

a. Adequate value of V with error.

Make the expanded scale plot and take more data points in the region of V. (0.3 pts)

Indicate the correct minimum of V. (0.8 pts)

Obtain the value of V by interpolation or rounding. (0.5 pts)

Correct V value : (3.2 ~ 3.5) 0.01 Volts. (0.2+0.2 pts)

Light Intensity (Volts)

0.12
0.10
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.00
3.0

3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8

Applied Voltage (Volts)

26

4.0

Marking Scheme
Part A: Optical Properties of Laser Diode
No.

Contents

Sub Total
Scores Scores

A(1) Measure, tabulate, and plot the J vs. I curve.

1.5 pts.

Proper data table marked with variables and units.

0.3

Proper sizes of scales, and units for abscissa and ordinate that bear 0.3
relation to the accuracy and range of the experiment.

Proper data and adequate curve plotting (Fig. A-1)

0.9

A(2) Estimate the maximum current Im with uncertainty in the linear region
of the J vs. I curve. Mark the linear region on the J - I curve figure by

3.5 pts.

using arrows () and determine the threshold current Ith with

uncertainty.
a

Mark the linear region.

0.5

Least-square fit or eye-balling with ruler and error analysis

1.5

Obtain Im Im properly

0.5

Adequate value of Ith Ith

1.0

Part B: Optical Properties of Nematic Liquid Crystal

Electro-optical switching characteristic of 90o TN LC cell
No.

Contents

Sub Total
Scores Scores

B-(1) Measure, tabulate, and plot the electro-optical switching curve (J vs.
Vrms curve) of the NB 90o TN LC, and find its switching slope ,
where is defined as (V90V10)/V10.

5.0 pts.

Proper data table marked with variables and units.

0.3

Properly choose the size of scales and units for abscissa and ordinate 0.3
that bears the relation to the accuracy and range of the experiment.

Correct measurement of the light intensity (J) as a function of the

applied voltage (Vrms) and adequate J - Vrms curve plot.

The intensity of the transmission light reaches zero value in the 0.4
normally black mode.

There is a small optical bounce before the external applied voltage 0.8
reaches the critical voltage.

The intensity of the transmission light increases rapidly and 0.4

27

abruptly when the external applied voltage exceeds the critical

voltage.

The intensity of the transmission light displays the plateau 0.4

behavior as the external applied voltage exceeds 3.0 Volts.

Adequate value of with error, .

Correctly analyzing the maximum light intensity.

0.6

Correctly analyzing the value of V90.

0.6

Correctly analyzing the value of V10.

0.6

Correct value, (0.42 ~ 0.44) 0.02.

0.6

B-(2) Determine the critical voltage Vc of this NB 90o TN LC cell.

Show explicitly with graph how you determine the value Vc.

2.5 pts.

Adequate value of VC with error, VC VC.

Make the expanded scale plot and take more data points in the 0.8
region of VC.

Correctly analyzing the value of VC.

0.7

Correct VC VC value, (1.2 ~ 1.5) 0.01 Volts.

1.0

Part C: Optical Properties of Nematic Liquid Crystal :

Electro-optical switching characteristic of parallel aligned LC cell
No. Contents

Sub Total
Scores Scores

C-(1) Assume that the wavelength of laser light 650 nm, LC layer thickness
7.7 m, and approximate value of n 0. 25 are known. From the
experimental data T and T obtained above, calculate the accurate
value of the phase retardation and accurate value of birefringence
n

2.5 pts.

of this LC cell at V=0.

Adequate value of and n with error.

0.3

Correctly analyzing the values of T.

Correctly analyzing the values of T.

Correctly determining the value of order m.

0.9

Correct value, 17.7 ~ 18.2.

0.5

Correct n value, 0.23 ~ 0.25.

0.5

0.3

C-(2) Measure, tabulate, and plot the electro-optical switching curve for T
of this parallel aligned LC cell in the = 45o configuration.

3.0 pts.

Proper data table marked with variables and units.

Properly choose the size of scales and units for abscissa and ordinate 0.3
28

0.3

that bears the relation to the accuracy and range of the experiment.
c

Correct measurement of the T as a function of the applied voltage

(Vrms) and adequate T-Vrms curve plot.

Three minima and two sharp maxima.

1.5

Maxima values within 15 % from each other.

0.5

Minima are less than the values of 0.1 Volts.

0.4

C-(3) From the electro-optical switching data, find the value of the external
applied voltage V

2.0 pts.

Adequate value of V with error.

Make the expanded scale plot and take more data points in the 0.3
region of V.

Indicate the correct minimum of V.

0.8

Correctly analyzing the value of V.

0.5

Correct V Vvalue, (3.2 ~ 3.5 ) 0.1 Volts.

0.4

29

Solution to Theoretical Question 1

A Swing with a Falling Weight

Part A
(a) Since the length of the string L = s + R is constant, its rate of change must be zero.
Hence we have
(A1)
s + R = 0
(b) Relative to O, Q moves on a circle of radius R with angular velocity , so

(A2)
vQ = R t = s t
(c) Refer to Fig. A1. Relative to Q, the displacement of P in a time interval t

is r = ( s )( r) + ( s )t = [( s)( r) + s t]t . It follows

v = s r + s t

(A3)

Q
s+s
s
P

s+s

Figure A1

(d) The velocity of the particle relative to O is the sum of the two relative velocities given in
Eqs. (A2) and (A3) so that

(A4)
v = v + vQ = ( s r + s t ) + R t = s r

(e) Refer to Fig. A2. The ( t )-component of the velocity change v is given

by ( t) v = v = v t . Therefore, the t -component of the acceleration a = v / t

is given by t a = v . Since the speed v of the particle is s according to Eq. (A4),

we see that the t -component of the particles acceleration at P is given by

a t = v = ( s) = s 2
r

(A5)

O
12

v + v

Figure A2

Note that, from Fig. A2, the radial component of the acceleration may also be obtained as

a r = dv / dt = d ( s) / dt .

(f) Refer to Fig. A3. The gravitational potential energy of the particle is given by U = mgh .
It may be expressed in terms of s and as
U ( ) = mg[ R(1 cos ) + s sin ]

(A6)

x
A
R R cos

Q
h

R cos

s sin

O
Figure A3

P
(g) At the lowest point of its trajectory, the particles gravitational potential energy U must
assume its minimum value U m . By differentiating Eq. (A6) with respect to and using
Eq. (A1), the angle m corresponding to the minimum gravitational energy can be
obtained.
dU
ds

sin + s cos
= mg R sin +
d
d

= mg [R sin + ( R ) sin + s cos ]

= mgs cos

At = m ,

dU
d

= 0 . We have m =
m

. The lowest point of the particles trajectory is

shown in Fig. A4 where the length of the string segment of QP is s = L R /2.

x
A

s
Figure A4

From Fig. A4 or Eq. (A6), the minimum potential energy is then

U m = U ( / 2 ) = mg [ R + L (R / 2)]

(A7)

Initially, the total mechanical energy E is 0. Since E is conserved, the speed v m of the
particle at the lowest point of its trajectory must satisfy

13

E=0=

1 2
mv + U m
2 m

(A8)

From Eqs. (A7) and (A8), we obtain

v m = 2U m / m = 2 g[ R + ( L R / 2)]

(A9)

Part B
(h) From Eq. (A6), the total mechanical energy of the particle may be written as

1 2
1
mv + U ( ) = mv 2 mg[ R(1 cos ) + s sin ]
2
2
From Eq. (A4), the speed v is equal to s . Therefore, Eq. (B1) implies
E=0=

v 2 = ( s) 2 = 2 g[ R(1 cos ) + s sin ]

(B1)

(B2)

Let T be the tension in the string. Then, as Fig. B1 shows, the t -component of the net
force on the particle is T + mg sin . From Eq. (A5), the tangential acceleration of the
particle is ( s 2 ) . Thus, by Newtons second law, we have
(B3)
m( s 2 ) = T + mg sin
x
Q
s

T
P
mg sin

mg

Figure B1

According to the last two equations, the tension may be expressed as

mg
[2 R(1 cos ) + 3s sin ]
T = m( s 2 + g sin ) =
s
2mgR
3
L
[tan ( )]( sin )
=
2 2
s
R
2mgR
( y1 y 2 )(sin )
=
s
The functions y1 = tan( / 2) and y 2 = 3( L / R) / 2 are plotted in Fig B2.

14

(B4)

Figure B2

30
20

y1 = tan

10

y1 = tan

-10

y2 =

-20
-30

/2

L
3
( )
R
2

3/2

5/2

From Eq. (B4) and Fig. B2, we obtain the result shown in Table B1. The angle at
which .y 2 = y 1 is called s ( < s < 2 ) and is given by

L
3
( s ) = tan s
R
2
2

(B5)

2
L
= s tan s
3
2
R

(B6)

or, equivalently, by

Since the ratio L/R is known to be given by

L 9 2
1
=
+ cot = ( + ) tan ( + )
8 3
R
2
8
16
8 3

(B7)

one can readily see from the last two equations that s = 9 / 8 .
Table B1
sin

( y1 y 2 )

tension T

0 < <

positive

positive

positive

=
< <s

positive

negative

negative

positive

=s

zero

negative

zero

s < < 2

positive

negative

negative

Table B1 shows that the tension T must be positive (or the string must be taut and straight)
in the angular range 0< < s . Once reaches s , the tension T becomes zero and the
part of the string not in contact with the rod will not be straight afterwards. The shortest
possible value s min for the length s of the line segment QP therefore occurs at = s and
is given by

15

s min = L R s = R(

9 2
2R
+ cot ) =
cot = 3.352 R
8 3
16 8
3
16

(B8)

When = s , we have T = 0 and Eqs. (B2) and (B3) then leads to v 2s = gs min sin s .
Hence the speed v s is
2 gR

cot sin =
3
16
8

v s = gs min sin s =

4 gR

cos
3
16

(B9)

= 1.133 gR
(i) When s , the particle moves like a projectile under gravity. As shown in Fig. B3, it is
projected with an initial speed v s from the position P = ( x s , y s ) in a direction making
an angle = (3 / 2 s ) with the y-axis.
The speed v H of the particle at the highest point of its parabolic trajectory is equal to the
y-component of its initial velocity when projected. Thus,
4 gR

(B10)
cos sin = 0.4334 gR
3
16
8
The horizontal distance H traveled by the particle from point P to the point of maximum
height is
v H = v s sin( s ) =

v s2 sin 2( s ) v s2
9
=
sin
= 0.4535 R
H=
2g
2g
4
x

L
m

vs

R
y

(B11)

vH

P = ( xs , y s )

s min

s
Q

Figure B3

The coordinates of the particle when = s are given by

x s = R cos s s min sin s = R cos

y s = R sin s + s min cos s = R sin

+ s min sin

= 0.358R

(B12)

(B13)
= 3.478 R
8
8
Evidently, we have | y s | > ( R + H ) . Therefore the particle can indeed reach its maximum
height without striking the surface of the rod.

16

s min cos

Part C
(j) Assume the weight is initially lower than O by h as shown in Fig. C1.
x

m
R

O
h
M

Figure C1

When the weight has fallen a distance D and stopped, the law of conservation of total
mechanical energy as applied to the particle-weight pair as a system leads to
(C1)
Mgh = E Mg (h + D)
where E is the total mechanical energy of the particle when the weight has stopped. It
follows
(C2)
E = MgD
Let be the total length of the string. Then, its value at = 0 must be the same as at any
other angular displacement . Thus we must have

= L+

R + h = s + R( +

) + (h + D)

Noting that D = L and introducing = LD, we may write

= L D = (1 ) L

(C3)

(C4)

From the last two equations, we obtain

(C5)
s = L D R = R
After the weight has stopped, the total mechanical energy of the particle must be
conserved. According to Eq. (C2), we now have, instead of Eq. (B1), the following
equation:
E = MgD =

1 2
mv mg [R(1 cos ) + s sin ]
2

The square of the particles speed is accordingly given by

2 MgD
s

v 2 = ( s) 2 =
+ 2 gR (1 cos ) + sin
m
R

Since Eq. (B3) stills applies, the tension T of the string is given by
T + mg sin = m( s 2 )
From the last two equations, it follows

17

(C6)

(C7)

(C8)

T = m( s 2 + g sin )
2M

m D + 2 R(1 cos ) + 3s sin

mg
s

2mgR MD
3

+ (1 cos ) + sin

2R
s mR

where Eq. (C5) has been used to obtain the last equality.
We now introduce the function
3

f ( ) = 1 cos + sin
2R

From the fact = ( L D ) >> R , we may write

3
f ( ) 1 +
sin cos = 1 + A sin( )
2R
where we have introduced
3 2
2R
A = 1+ (
) , = tan 1

2R
3
From Eq. (C11), the minimum value of f() is seen to be given by

(C9)

(C10)

(C11)

(C12)

3
(C13)
f min = 1 A = 1 1 +

2 R
Since the tension T remains nonnegative as the particle swings around the rod, we have

from Eq. (C9) the inequality

M ( L )
MD
3
+ f min =
+1 1+
0
mR
mR
2R
2

(C14)

or
2

ML
M
3
M 3

+1
+ 1+

+

mR
mR
2R
mR 2 R

(C15)

From Eq. (C4), Eq. (C15) may be written as

ML
ML 3L
+

+1
(1 )
mR
mR 2 R
Neglecting terms of the order (R/L) or higher, the last inequality leads to

ML
2R
3L

+1
1
1
1
mR

3L
1
= 2R
=
ML 3L ML + 3L 2 M + 1 1 + 2 M
+

3m
3m
mR 2 R mR 2 R
The critical value for the ratio D/L is therefore
1
c =
2M
1+
3m
18

(C16)

(C17)

(C18)

Marking Scheme
Theoretical Question 1
A Swing with a Falling Weight
Total
Scores
Part A

Sub
Scores
(a)

4.3 pts.

0.5
(b)
0.5
(c)
0.7
(d)
0.7

(e)
0.7

(f)
0.5
(g)
0.7

Marking Scheme for Answers to the Problem

Relation between and s . ( s = R )
0.2 for s .
0.3 for proportionality constant (-R).

Velocity of Q relative to O. ( v = R t )
Q

0.2 for magnitude R .

0.3 for direction t .

Particles velocity at P relative to Q. ( v = s r + s t )

0.2+0.1 for magnitude and direction of r -component.
0.3+0.1 for magnitude and direction of t -component.

Particles velocity at P relative to O. ( v = v + vQ = s r )

0.3 for vector addition of v and vQ .

0.2+0.2 for magnitude and direction of v .

t -component of particles acceleration at P.

0.3 for relating a or a t to the velocity in a way that implies

| a t | = v 2 / s .

0.4 for a t = s 2 (0.1 for minus sign.)

Potential energy U.
0.2 for formula U = mgh .
0.3 for h = R(1 cos ) + s sin or U as a function of , s, and R.
Speed at lowest point vm.
0.2 for lowest point at = / 2 or U equals minimum Um.
0.2 for total mechanical energy E = mv m2 / 2 + U m = 0 .
0.3 for v m = 2U m / m = 2 g[ R + ( L R / 2)] .

Part B

(h)

Particles speed vs when QP is shortest.

4.3 pts.

2.4

0.4 for tension T becomes zero when QP is shortest.

0.3 for equation of motion T + mg sin = m( s 2 ) .
0.3 for E = 0 = m( s) 2 / 2 mg[ R(1 cos ) + s sin ] .

3
L
( s ) = tan s .
R
2
2
0.5 for s = 9 / 8 .
0.4 for

0.3+0.2

for v s = 4 gR / 3 cos / 16 = 1.133 gR

19

(i)
1.9

Part C

(j)

3.4 pts

3.4

The speed vH of the particle at its highest point.

0.4 for particle undergoes projectile motion when s .
0.3 for angle of projection = (3 / 2 s ) .
0.3 for v H is the y-component of its velocity at = s .
0.4 for noting particle does not strike the surface of the rod.
0.3+0.2 for
v H = 4 gR / 3 cos( / 16) sin( / 8) = 0.4334 gR .
The critical value c of the ratio D/L.
0.4 for particles energy E = MgD when the weight has stopped.
0.3 for s = L D R .
0.3 for E = MgD = mv 2 / 2 mg[ R(1 cos ) + s sin ] .
0.3 for T + mg sin = m( s 2 ) .

0.3 for concluding T must not be negative.

0.6 for an inequality leading to the determination of the range of D/L.
0.6 for solving the inequality to give the range of = D/L.
0.6 for c = (1 + 2 M / 3m) .

20

Solution to Theoretical Question 2

A Piezoelectric Crystal Resonator under an Alternating Voltage
Part A
(a) Refer to Figure A1. The left face of the rod moves a distance vt while the pressure wave
travels a distance ut with u = Y / . The strain at the left face is

S=

vt v
=
ut
u

(A1a)

From Hookes law, the pressure at the left face is

p = YS = Y

v
= uv
u

(A1b)

ut
p

Figure A1

t=0

t/2

vt
(b) The velocity v is related to the displacement as in a simple harmonic motion (or a
uniform circular motion, as shown in Figure A2) of angular frequency = ku . Therefore,
if ( x, t ) = 0 sin k ( x u t ) , then
(A2)
v( x, t ) = ku 0 cos k ( x u t ) .
The strain and pressure are related to velocity as in Problem (a). Hence,
S ( x, t ) = v( x, t ) / u = k 0 cos k ( x u t )

(A3)

p ( x, t ) = uv( x, t ) = k u 2 0 cos k ( x u t )

(A4)

= YS ( x, t ) = kY 0 cos k ( x u t )
--------------------------------------------------------------------------Alternatively, the answers may be obtained by differentiations:
v ( x, t ) =

= ku 0 cos k ( x u t ) ,
t

S ( x, t ) =

= k 0 cos k ( x u t ) ,
x

p ( x, t ) = Y

0
Figure A2

= kY 0 cos k ( x u t ) .
x

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------21

kx t

Part B
(c) Since the angular frequency and speed of propagation u are given, the wavelength is
given by = 2 / k with k = / u. The spatial variation of the displacement is therefore
described by
b
b

(B1)
g ( x ) = B1 sin k x + B2 cos k x
2
2

Since the centers of the electrodes are assumed to be stationary, g(b/2) = 0. This leads to
B 2 = 0. Given that the maximum of g(x) is 1, we have B 1 = 1 and
b

(B2)
g ( x ) = sin x
u
2
Thus, the displacement is

b
(B3)
( x, t ) = 2 0 sin x cos t
u
2
(d) Since the pressure p (or stress T ) must vanish at the end faces of the quartz slab (i.e., x = 0
and x = b), the answer to this problem can be obtained, by analogy, from the resonant
frequencies of sound waves in an open pipe of length b. However, given that the centers
of the electrodes are stationary, all even harmonics of the fundamental tone must be
excluded because they have antinodes, rather than nodes, of displacement at the bisection
plane of the slab.
Since the fundamental tone has a wavelength = 2b, the fundamental frequency is
given by f1 = u /(2b) . The speed of propagation u is given by
7.87 1010
(B4)
= 5.45 10 3 m/s
3

2.65 10
and, given that b =1.0010-2 m, the two lowest standing wave frequencies are
u
3u
(B5)
= 818 (kHz)
f1 =
= 273 (kHz) , f 3 = 3 f1 =
2b
2b
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------[Alternative solution to Problems (c) and (d)]:
u=

A longitudinal standing wave in the quartz slab has a displacement node at x = b/2. It
may be regarded as consisting of two waves traveling in opposite directions. Thus, its
displacement and velocity must have the following form
b
b

( x, t ) = m sin k x ut + sin k x + ut
2
2

(B6)
b

= 2 m sin k x cos t
2

b
b

v ( x, t ) = ku m cos k x ut cos k x + ut
2
2

(B7)
b

= 2 m sin k x sin t
2

where = k u and the first and second factors in the square brackets represent waves
22

traveling along the +x and x directions, respectively. Note that Eq. (B6) is identical to Eq.
(B3) if we set m = 0 .
For a wave traveling along the x direction, the velocity v must be replaced by v in
Eqs. (A1a) and (A1b) so that we have
v
and p = uv
(waves traveling along +x)
(B8)
S=
u
v
and p = uv
(waves traveling along x)
(B9)
S=
u
As in Problem (b), the strain and pressure are therefore given by
b
b

S ( x, t ) = k m cos k x ut cos k x + ut
2
2

(B10)
b

= 2k m cos k x cos t
2

b
b

p( x, t ) = u m cos k x ut + cos k x + ut
2
2

(B11)
b

= 2 u m cos k x cos t
2

Note that v, S, and p may also be obtained by differentiating as in Problem (b).

The stress T or pressure p must be zero at both ends (x = 0 and x = b) of the slab at all
times because they are free. From Eq. (B11), this is possible only if cos(kb / 2) = 0 or
2f

(B12)
kb = b =
b = n ,
n = 1, 3, 5,
u
f
In terms of wavelength , Eq. (B12) may be written as
2b
(B13)
= ,
n = 1, 3, 5, .
n
The frequency is given by
u nu
n Y
(B14)
f = =
=
,
n = 1, 3, 5, .
2b 2b
This is identical with the results given in Eqs. (B4) and (B5).
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(e) From Eqs. (5a) and (5b) in the Question, the piezoelectric effect leads to the equations
(B15)
T = Y (S d p E )
d p2
E
(B16)

Because x = b/2 must be a node of displacement for any longitudinal standing wave in the

= Yd p S + T 1 Y

slab, the displacement and strain S must have the form given in Eqs. (B6) and (B10), i.e.,
with = ku ,
b

(B17)
( x, t ) = m sin k x cos( t + )
2

23

(B18)
S ( x, t ) = k m cos k x cos( t + )
2

where a phase constant is now included in the time-dependent factors.

By assumption, the electric field E between the electrodes is uniform and depends only
on time:
V (t ) Vm cos t
(B19)
E ( x, t ) =
=
h
h
Substituting Eqs. (B18) and (B19) into Eq. (B15), we have
dp

(B20)
T = Y k m cos k x cos( t + )
Vm cos t
2
h

The stress T must be zero at both ends (x = 0 and x = b) of the slab at all times because they
are free. This is possible only if = 0 and
kb
V
(B21)
= dp m
h
2
Since = 0, Eqs. (B16), (B18), and (B19) imply that the surface charge density must have
the same dependence on time t and may be expressed as
(B22)
( x, t ) = ( x) cos t
k m cos

with the dependence on x given by

d p2 Vm
b

( x ) = Yd p k m cos k x + T 1 Y

T h

d p2
d p2 Vm

cos k x + T 1 Y
= Y

kb
2

T h

cos
2

(B23)

(f) At time t, the total surface charge Q(t) on the lower electrode is obtained by integrating
( x, t ) in Eq. (B22) over the surface of the electrode. The result is
Q (t )
1 b
1 b
=
=
(
,
)

( x ) w dx
x
t
wdx
V (t ) V (t ) 0
Vm 0
d p2
d p2
w b
b
= [Y
cos k ( x ) + T (1 Y
)] dx
kb
2

h 0
T
cos
2
2
d p2
kb
bw d p 2

= T
Y
tan + 1 Y
2
T
h T kb

(B24)

kb
2

= C0 2 tan + (1 2 )
2
kb

where

bw
,
C0 = T
h

=Y
2

d p2

(2.25) 2 102
= 9.82 10 3
1.27 4.06

(The constant is called the electromechanical coupling coefficient.)

24

(B25)

Note: The result C 0 = T bw / h can readily be seen by considering the static limit k = 0
of Eq. (5) in the Question. Since tan x x when x << 1, we have

lim Q(t ) / V (t ) C 0 [ 2 + (1 2 )] = C 0

k 0

(B26)

Evidently, the constant C 0 is the capacitance of the parallel-plate capacitor formed by the
electrodes (of area bw) with the quartz slab (of thickness h and permittivity T ) serving as
the dielectric medium. It is therefore given by T bw / h.

25

Marking Scheme
Theoretical Question 2
A Piezoelectric Crystal Resonator under an Alternating Voltage
Total
Scores
Part A

Sub
Scores
(a)

4.0 pts.

1.6

(b)
2.4

Part B

(c)

6.0 pts

1.2
(d)
1.2

(e)
2.2

Marking Scheme for Answers to the Problem

The strain S and pressure p on the left face.
0.4 for || = vt and = ut.
0.4 for S = -v/u.
(0.1 for sign)
0.4 for relating p to S as p = YS.
(0.1 for sign)
0.4 for p = u v .
(0.1 for sign)
The velocity v(x, t), strain S(x, t), and pressure p(x, t).
0.33 sinusoidal variation with correct phase constant. (0.2 for phase
constant.)
0.33 for amplitude.
0.23 for dependence on x and t as (kx- ku t).
The function g(x) for a standing wave of angular frequency .
0.4 for g(b/2) = 0.
0.3+0.1 for B1=1 (0.1 for both signs)
0.4 for B2 = 0
The two lowest standing wave frequencies.
0.2 for wavelength of fundamental tone = 2b.
0.2 for excluding even harmonics.
(0.3+0.1) for f1 = u/2b = 273 kHz.
(0.1 for value)
(0.3+0.1) for f3 = 3u/2b = 818 kHz.
(0.1 for value)
The surface charge density as a function of x and t.
0.12 for and S, each a separable function of x and t.
0.12 for and S, each depends on time as cos t with = 0.
0.3 for spatial part ( x) = m sin k ( x b / 2) .
0.3 for spatial part S ( x) = k m cos k ( x b / 2) .
0.3 for T ( x) = [k m cos k ( x b / 2) d pVm / h]Y .
0.3 for k m cos(kb / 2) = d pVm / h .
0.6 for D1 (0.3) and D2 (0.3) in (x) .

(f)
1.4

The constants C0 and 2 .

0.2 for relation between and Q as
Q(t) = ( 0 ( x) w dx ) cos t.
b

0.3 for noting Q(t)/V(t) C0 as k 0.

0.4 for C0 = T bw / h.
0.4+0.1 for 2 = Yd p2 / T = 9.82 103 . (0.1 for value)

26

Solution toTheoretical Question 3

Part A
Neutrino Mass and Neutron Decay

(a) Let ( c 2 E e , cqe ) , ( c 2 E p , cq p ) , and ( c 2 E v , cqv ) be the energy-momentum 4-vectors of the

electron, the proton, and the anti-neutrino, respectively, in the rest frame of the neutron.

Notice that E e , E p , E , qe , q p , q are all in units of mass. The proton and the anti-neutrino
may be considered as forming a system of total rest mass M c , total energy c 2 Ec , and

total momentum cqc . Thus, we have

qc = q p + qv ,

Ec = E p + Ev ,

M c2 = E c2 qc2

(A1)

Note that the magnitude of the vector qc is denoted as qc. The same convention also
applies to all other vectors.
Since energy and momentum are conserved in the neutron decay, we have
E c + E e = mn

qc = qe

(A2)
(A3)

When squared, the last equation leads to the following equality

qc2 = qe2 = E e2 me2

(A4)

From Eq. (A4) and the third equality of Eq. (A1), we obtain
E c2 M c2 = E e2 me2

(A5)

With its second and third terms moved to the other side of the equality, Eq. (A5) may be
divided by Eq. (A2) to give
1
(A6)
( M c2 me2 )
Ec Ee =
mn
As a system of coupled linear equations, Eqs. (A2) and (A6) may be solved to give
1
Ec =
(m 2 me2 + M c2 )
2mn n
Ee =

1
(m 2 + me2 M c2 )
2m n n

(A7)
(A8)

Using Eq. (A8), the last equality in Eq. (A4) may be rewritten as
qe =

1
2m n

1
=
2mn

(mn2 + me2 M c2 ) 2 (2mn m e ) 2

(A9)
(mn + m e + M c )(mn + me M c )(mn me + M c )(mn me M c )

Eq. (A8) shows that a maximum of Ee corresponds to a minimum of M c2 . Now the

rest mass M c is the total energy of the proton and anti-neutrino pair in their center of
mass (or momentum) frame so that it achieves the minimum
27

(M c )min = M

= m p + mv

(A10)

when the proton and the anti-neutrino are both at rest in the center of mass frame. Hence,
from Eqs. (A8) and (A10), the maximum energy of the electron E = c2Ee is
c2
(A11)
E max =
m 2 + me2 (m p + mv ) 2 1.292569 MeV 1.29 MeV
2m n n

When Eq. (A10) holds, the proton and the anti-neutrino move with the same velocity vm
of the center of mass and we have
qp
q
q
v m qv

(A12)
=
= e
=
= c
E
c Ev E =E
E
E
c M =m + m
c E =E
p
E = Emax

max

max

where the last equality follows from Eq. (A3). By Eqs. (A7) and (A9), the last expression
in Eq. (A12) may be used to obtain the speed of the anti-neutrino when E = Emax. Thus,
with M = mp+mv, we have
vm
=
c

( mn + me + M )(mn + me M )(mn me + M )(mn me M )

mn2 me2 + M 2

(A13)

0.00126538 0.00127
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------[Alternative Solution]
Assume that, in the rest frame of the neutron, the electron comes out with momentum

cqe and energy c2Ee, the proton with cq p and c 2 E p , and the anti-neutrino with cqv and

c 2 Ev . With the magnitude of vector q denoted by the symbol q, we have

E 2p = m 2p + q 2p ,

E v2 = mv2 + qv2 ,

E e2 = me2 + qe2

(1A)

Conservation of energy and momentum in the neutron decay leads to

E p + Ev = mn E e

(2A)

q p + qv = qe

(3A)

When squared, the last two equations lead to

E 2p + Ev2 + 2 E p Ev = (mn Ee ) 2

(4A)

q 2p + qv2 + 2q p qv = qe2 = E e2 me2

(5A)

Subtracting Eq. (5A) from Eq. (4A) and making use of Eq. (1A) then gives

m 2p + mv2 + 2( E p E v q p qv ) = mn2 + me2 2mn E e
or, equivalently,

28

(6A)


2mn E e = mn2 + me2 m 2p mv2 2( E p E v q p qv )

(7A)

If is the angle between q p and qv , we have q p qv = q p qv cos q p qv so that Eq. (7A)
leads to the relation
2mn E e mn2 + me2 m 2p mv2 2( E p Ev q p qv )

(8A)

Note that the equality in Eq. (8A) holds only if = 0, i.e., the energy of the electron c2Ee takes
on its maximum value only when the anti-neutrino and the proton move in the same direction.
Let the speeds of the proton and the anti-neutrino in the rest frame of the neutron be
c p and c v , respectively. We then have q p = p E p and qv = v E v . As shown in Fig.
A1, we introduce the angle v ( 0 v < / 2 ) for the antineutrino by
qv = mv tan v ,

Ev = mv2 + qv2 = mv sec v ,

Ev

v = qv / Ev = sin v

(9A)

qv
Figure A1

v
mv
Similarly, for the proton, we write, with 0 p < / 2 ,
q p = m p tan p ,

p = q p / E p = sin p

E p = m 2p + q 2p = m p sec p ,

(10A)

Eq. (8A) may then be expressed as

1 sin p sin v

2mn E e mn2 + me2 m 2p mv2 2m p mv

cos cos
p
v

The factor in parentheses at the end of the last equation may be expressed as

1 sin p sin v 1 sin p sin v cos p cos v

1 cos( p v )
=
+1 =
+1 1
cos p cos v
cos p cos v
cos p cos v

(11A)

(12A)

and clearly assumes its minimum possible value of 1 when p = v, i.e., when the
anti-neutrino and the proton move with the same velocity so that p = v. Thus, it follows
from Eq. (11A) that the maximum value of Ee is
( E e ) max =

1
( mn2 + me2 m 2p mv2 2m p mv )
2mn

1
=
mn2 + me2 ( m p + mv ) 2
2mn

(13A)

and the maximum energy of the electron E = c2Ee is

E max = c 2 ( Ee ) max 1.292569 MeV 1.29 MeV

29

(14A)

When the anti-neutrino and the proton move with the same velocity, we have, from Eqs.
(9A), (10A), (2A) ,(3A), and (1A), the result

v = p =

qp
q p + qv
E e2 me2
q
qe
= v =
=
=
E p E v E p + E v mn Ee
mn E e

(15A)

Substituting the result of Eq. (13A) into the last equation, the speed vm of the anti-neutrino
when the electron attains its maximum value Emax is, with M = mp+mv, given by
( E e ) 2max me2
vm
= ( v ) max Ee =
=
c
mn ( Ee ) max
=

(mn2 + me2 M 2 ) 2 4mn2 me2

2mn2 (mn2 + me2 M 2 )

(mn + me + M )(mn + me M )(mn me + M )(mn me M )

(16A)

mn2 me2 + M 2

0.00126538 0.00127
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Part B
Light Levitation
(b) Refer to Fig. B1. Refraction of light at the spherical surface obeys Snells law and leads to
(B1)
n sin i = sin t
Neglecting terms of the order ( /R)3or higher in sine functions, Eq. (B1) becomes
n i t

(B2)

For the triangle FAC in Fig. B1, we have

z

= t i n i i = (n 1) i

(B3)

Let f 0 be the frequency of the incident light. If n p

is the number of photons incident on the plane surface per
unit area per unit time, then the total number of photons
incident on the plane surface per unit time is n p 2 . The
total power P of photons incident on the plane surface is
(n p 2 )(hf 0 ) , with h being Plancks constant. Hence,

np =

P
2 hf 0

(B4)

The number of photons incident on an annular disk of

inner radius r and outer radius r +dr on the plane surface
per unit time is n p (2rdr ) , where r = R tan i R i .

i
n

i
C

Fig. B1

Therefore,
n p (2rdr ) n p (2R 2 ) i d i

(B5)

The z-component of the momentum carried away per unit time by these photons when
30

refracted at the spherical surface is

dFz = n p

hf
hf o
2
i d i
( 2rdr ) cos n p 0 ( 2R 2 )1
c
c
2

hf 0
( n 1) 2 3
2
np
i d i
( 2R ) i
c
2

(B6)

so that the z-component of the total momentum carried away per unit time is
( n 1) 2 3
hf im
Fz = 2R 2 n p 0 i
i d i
2
c 0

2
hf 0 2 ( n 1) 2
= R n p
im
im 1
4
c

(B7)

where tan im =

Fz =

im . Therefore, by the result of Eq. (B5), we have

R 2 P hf 0 2

2 hf 0 c R 2

( n 1) 2 2 P ( n 1) 2 2
=
1
1
4 R 2 c
4 R 2

(B8)

The force of optical levitation is equal to the sum of the z-components of the forces exerted
by the incident and refracted lights on the glass hemisphere and is given by

P
P P ( n 1) 2 2 ( n 1) 2 2 P
+ ( Fz ) = 1
=
4 R 2
4R 2
c
c c
c

(B9)

Equating this to the weight mg of the glass hemisphere, we obtain the minimum laser
power required to levitate the hemisphere as

P=

4mgcR 2
(n 1) 2 2

31

(B10)

Marking Scheme
Theoretical Question 3
Neutrino Mass and Neutron Decay
Total
Scores
Part A

Sub
Scores
(a)

4.0 pts.

4.0

Marking Scheme for Answers to the Problem

The maximum energy of the electron and the corresponding speed of the
anti-neutrino.
0.5 use energy-momentum conservation and can convert it into
equations.
0.5 obtain an expression for E e that allows the determination of its
maximum value.
(0.5+0.2) for concluding that proton and anti-neutrino must move
with the same velocity when E e is maximum. (0.2 for the same
direction)

0.6 for establishing the minimum value of ( E p Ev q p qv ) to be
m p mv or a conclusion equivalent to it.
(0.5+0.1) for expression and value of Emax.

0.5 for concluding v = E e2 me2 /(mn Ee ) .

(0.5+0.1) for expression and value of vm /c.

Light Levitation
Part B

(b)

4.0 pts

4.0

Laser power needed to balance the weight of the glass hemisphere.

0.3 for law of refraction n sin i = sin t .
0.3 for making the linear approximation n i t .
0.4 for relation between angles of deviation and incidence.
0.3 for photon energy = h.
0.3 for photon momentum p = /c.
0.3 for momentum of incident photons per unit time = P/c.
0.6 for momentum of photons refracted per unit time as a function of
the angle of incidence.
0.4 for total momentum of photons refracted per unit time =
[1-(n-1)2 2/(4R2)]P/c.
0.4 for force of levitation = sum of forces exerted by incident and
refracted photons.
0.4 for force of levitation = (n-1)2 2P/(4cR 2).
0.3 for the needed laser power P = 4mgcR 2/(n-1)2 2.

32