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UNIT-3

1. Draw the Block Schematic of AF Wave analyzer and explain its principle
and Working?
ANS: The wave analyzer consists of a very narrow pass-band filter section which can
Be tuned to a particular frequency within the audible frequency range(20Hz to 20 KHz)).
The block diagram of a wave analyzer is as shown in fig 1.

The complex wave to be analyzed is passed through an adjustable attenuator which

serves as a range multiplier and permits a large range of signal amplitudes to be analyzed without
loading the amplifier.
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The output of the attenuator is

then fed to a selective amplifier, which
amplifies
the selected frequency. The driver
amplifier applies the attenuated input
signal to a high-Q active filter. This high-Q
filter is a low pass filter which allows the
frequency which is selected to pass and
reject all others. The magnitude of this
selected frequency is indicated by the
meter and the filter section identifies the
frequency of the component. The filter
circuit consists of a cascaded RC resonant
circuit and amplifiers. For selecting the
frequency range, the capacitors generally
used are of the closed tolerance
polystyrene type and the resistances used
are
precision
potentiometers.
The
capacitors are used for range changing and
the potentiometer is used to change the frequency within the selected pass-band, Hence this wave
analyzer is also called a Frequency selective voltmeter. The entire AF range is covered in decade
steps by switching capacitors in the RC section
.
The selected signal output from the final amplifier stage is applied to the meter
circuit and to an unturned buffer amplifier. The main function of the buffer amplifier is to drive
output devices, such as recorders or electronics counters.
The meter has several voltage ranges as well as decibel scales marked on it. It is
driven by an average reading rectifier type detector. The wave analyzer must have extremely
low input distortion, undetectable by the analyzer itself. The band width of the instrument is
very narrow typically about 1% of the selective band given by the following response
characteristics shows in fig.1.2

2. What are the applications of wave Analyzer?

Ans: Application of wave analyzer
1. Electrical measurements
2. Sound measurements
3. Vibration measurements.
In industries there are heavy machineries which produce a lot of sound and vibrations, it is very
important to determine the amount of sound and vibrations because if it exceeds the permissible
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level it would create a number of problems. The source of noise and vibrations is first identified
by wave analyzer and then it is reduced by further circuitry.

3. Explain the working of the harmonic distortion analyzer?

Ans:
Fundamental Suppression Type
Distortion analyzer measures the total harmonic power present in the test wave rather than the
distortion caused by each component. The simplest method is to suppress the fundamental
frequency by means of a high pass filter whose cut off frequency is a little above the
fundamental frequency. This high pass allows only the harmonics to pass and the total harmonic
distortion can then be measured. Other types of harmonic distortion analyzers based on
fundamental suppression are as follows
1. Employing a Resonance Bridge
T
h
e
b
r
i
d
g
e
s
h
o
w
n
in fig 3.1 is balanced for the fundamental frequency, i.e. L and C are tuned to the
fundamental frequency. The bridge is unbalanced for the harmonics, i.e. only harmonic
power will be available at the output terminal and can be measured. If the fundamental
frequency is changed, the bridge must be balanced again. If
L and
CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC are fixed components, then this method is suitable only
when the test wave has a fixed frequency. Indicators can be thermocouples or square
law VTVMs. This indicates the rms value of all harmonics. When a continuous
adjustment of the fundamental frequency is desifrequency is desired a Wien bridge
arrangement is used as shown in fig 3.2.

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2. Wiens Bridge Method

The bridge is balanced for the fundamental frequency. The fundamental energy is
dissipated in the bridge circuit elements. Only the harmonic components reach the output
terminals .The harmonic distortion output can then be measured with a meter. For
balance at the fundamental frequency
C1=C2=C, R1=R2=R, R3=2R4.

3. Bridged T-Network Method

Referring to the fig 3.3 the L and Cs are tuned to the fundamental frequency, and R
is adjusted to bypass fundamental frequency. The tank circuit being tuned to the fundamental
frequency, the fundamental energy will circulate in the tank and is bypassed by the resistance.
Only harmonic components will reach the output terminals and the distorted output can
be measured by the meter. The Q of the resonant circuit must be at least 3-5.

One way of using

is given in Fig. 3.4
connected to point
attenuator
is
bridge T-network is
suppression of the
frequency,
i.e.
indicates that the
network is tuned to
fundamental
and
that
fundamental
is fully suppressed.

a bridge T-network
The switch S is first
A so that the
excluded and the
adjusted for full
fundamental
Minimum
output
bridged Tthe
frequency
frequencies

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The switch is next connected to terminal B, i.e. the bridge T- network is excluded. Attenuation is
adjusted until the same reading is obtained on the meter. The attenuator reading indicates the
total rams distortion. Distortion measurement can also be obtained by means of a wave analyzer,
knowing the amplitude and the frequency of each
component, the harmonic distortion can be calculated.
However, distortion meters based on fundamental
suppression are simpler to design and less expensive
than wave analyzers. The is advantage is that 1give
only the total distortion and not the amplitude of
individual distortion components.

4. Draw the block Schematic of a Basic

Spectrum Analyzer and explain its
working?
Ans: The most common way of observing signals is
to display them on an oscilloscope with time as the
X-axis (i.e. amplitude of the signal versus time). This
is the time domain. It is also useful to display signals
in the frequency domain. The providing this
frequency domain view is the spectrum analyzer.
A spectrum analyzer provides a calibrated graphical display on its CRT, with frequency on the
horizontal axis and amplitude (voltage) on the vertical axis.

GRIET/ECE5

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Displayed as vertical lines against these coordinates are sinusoidal components of which the
input signal is composed. The height represents the absolute magnitude, and the horizontal
location represents the frequency.
These instruments provide a display of the frequency spectrum a given frequency band.
Spectrum analyzers use either parallel filter bank or a swept frequency technique.
In a parallel filter in a parallel filter bank analyzer, The frequency range is covered by a series of
filters whose central frequencies and bandwidth are so selected that they overlap each others, as
shown in fig 4.1.
Typically, an audio analyzer has 32 of these filters, each covering one third of an octave.
For wide band narrow resolution analysis, particularly at RF or microwave signals, the swept
Technique is preferred.

Basic Spectrum Analyzer Using Swept Receiver Design

Referring to the block diagram of fig. 4.2, the saw tooth generator provides the saw tooth voltage
which drives the horizontal axis element of the scope and this saw tooth voltage is the frequency
controlled element of the voltage tuned oscillator. As the oscillator sweeps from fmin to fmax of
its frequency band at a linear recurring rate, it beats with the frequency component of the input
signal and produce an IF, whenever a frequency component is met during its sweep.
The frequency component and voltage tuned oscillator frequency beats together to produce a
difference frequency, i.e. The IF corresponding to the component is amplified and detected if
necessary and then applied to the vertical plates of the CRO, producing a display of amplitude
versus frequency.

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The spectrum produced if the input wave is a single toned A.M is given in figs 4.3, 4.4 and 4.5

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One of the principal applications of spectrum analyzers has been in the study of the RF spectrum
produced in microwave instruments. In a microwave instrument, the horizontal axis can display
as a wide a range as 2 - 3 GHz for a broad survey and as narrow as 30 kHz, for a highly
magnified view of any small portion of the spectrum. Signals at microwave frequency separated
by only a few KHz can be seen individually.
The frequency range covered by this instrument is from I MHz to 40 GHz, The basic block
diagram (Fig. 9.13) is of a spectrum analyzer covering the range 500 kHz to 1 GHz, which is
representative of a super heterodyne type.

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The input signal is fed into a mixer which is driven by a local oscillator. This oscillator is
linearly tunable electrically over the range 2 - 3 GHz. The mixer provides two signals at its
output that are proportional in amplitude to the input signal but of frequencies which are the sum
and difference of the input signal and local oscillator frequency.
The IF amplifier is tuned to a narrow band around 2 GH4 since the local oscillator is tuned over
the range of 2 - 3 GHz, only inputs that are separated from the local oscillator frequency by
2GHz will be converted to IF frequency band, pass through the IF frequency amplifier, get
rectified and produce a vertical deflection on the CRT.
From this, it is observed that as the saw tooth signal sweeps, the local oscillator also sweeps
linearly from 2 - 3 GHz. The tuning of the spectrum analyzer is a swept receiver, which sweeps
linearly from 0 to 1 GHz. The saw tooth scanning signal is also applied to the horizontal plates of
the CRT to form the frequency axis. (The spectrum analyzer is also sensitive to signals from 4 5 GHz referred to as the image frequency of the super heterodyne. A low pass filter with a cutoff
frequency above I GHz at the input suppresses these spurious signals.) Spectrum analyzers are
widely used in radars, oceanography, and bio-medical fields

5. With a neat sketch explain the working of a digital Fourier analyzer?

An: A spectrum analyzer, which uses computer algorithm and an analog to digital conversion
phenomenon and produces spectrum of a signal applied at its input is known as digital Fourier or
digital FFT or digital spectrum analyzer.
GRIET/ECE9

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Principle
When the analog signal to be analyzed is applied, the A/D converter digitizes the analog signal
(i.e., converts the analog signal into digital signal). The digitized signal, which is nothing but the
set of digital numbers indicating the amplitude of the analog signal as a function of time is stored
in the memory of the digital computer. From the stored digitized data, the spectrum of the signal
is computed by means of computer algorithm.
Description:
The block arrangement of a digital Fourier analyzer is illustrated in the figure above fig 5.The
analog signal to be ana1ysed is applied to the low pass filter, which passes only low frequency
signals and rejects high pass spurious signals. This filter section is used mainly, to prevent
aliasing. The output of low pass filter is given to the attenuator. The attenuator is a voltage
dividing network whose function is to set the input signal to the level of the A/D converter. The
use of attenuator prevents the converter from overloading. The function of A/D converter is to
convert the samples of analog data into digital i.e. ., to digitize the analog signal. When the
output of A/D converter is applied to the digital computer, the computer analyzes the digitized
data and adjusts the attenuator setting accordingly in order to obtain the maximum output from
the inverter without any overloading. As soon as the entire analog signal is sampled and digitized
by the A/D converter) computer performs calculations on the data according to the programmed
algorithm and the calculated spectral components are stored in the memory of the computer.

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If the spectral display is to be viewed on the oscilloscope, the digital values of spectral
components stored in the computer memory are converted into analog by using D/A converters
and then applied to the CRO. Thus the spectral display of the input waveform is obtained on the
CRT screen.
Advantages
1. The use of computer avoids most of the hardware circuitry such as electronic switches.
Filters and PLLs. The use of less hardware reduces the cost of the analyzer.
2. More mathematical calculations can be carried-out on the spectral display.
3. The rate of sampling analog signal can be modified in order to obtain better spectral
display.

6. Differniate between wave analyzer and harmonic distortion analyzer?

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Ans:
Wave analyzer

Harmonic distortion analyzer

1. These are designed to measure the relative

amplitude of each harmonic or fundamental
components separately.

1. These are designed to measure the total

harmonic content present in a distorted or
complex wave form.

2.They indicate the amplitude of single

frequency component

2. They do not indicate the amplitude of single

frequency component

3.These are tuned to measure amplitude of one 3.These can be operated with in a band of 5Hz
frequency component with in a range of 10Hz
to 1 MHz frequency
to 40MHz
4.These are also known as frequency selective
voltmeters, selective level voltmeters, carrier
frequency voltmeters

4.It is general know as distortion analyzer

5. These are used with a set of tuned filters and

a voltmeter.

5. These can be used along with a frequency

generator.

6. Wave analyzers provide very high frequency 6. They measure quantitative harmonic
resolution.
distortions very accurately.7.
7.These can be used for electrical
measurements, sound ,vibration ,noise
measurement in industries

7.These can be used to measure frequency

stability and spectral purity of signal sources

7. Explain the two types of spectrum analyzers?

Ans:
The two types of spectrum analyzers are,
1. Fliter Bank Spectrum analyzer.
2. Super hetero dyne Spectrum analyzer.
1. Filter Bank Spectrum analyzer

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2. Super hetero dyne Spectrum analyzer

The modern spectrum analyzers use a narrow band super heterodyne receiver. Super heterodyne
is nothing but mixing of frequencies in the super above audio range. The functional block
diagram of super heterodyne spectrum analyzer or RF spectrum analyzer as shown in the
Figure 7.2

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The RF input to be analyzed is applied to the input attenuator. After attenuating, the signal is fed
to low pass filter.
The low pass filter suppresses high frequency components and allows low frequency components
to pass through it. The output of the low pass filter is given to the mixer, where this signal is
fixed with the signal coming from voltage controlled or voltage tuned oscillator. This oscillator
is tuned over 2 to 3 GHz range. The output of the mixer includes two signals whose amplitudes.
are proportional to the input signal but their frequencies are the sum and difference of the input
signal and the frequency of the local oscillator. Since the frequency range of the oscillator is
tuned over 2 to 3 GHz, the IF amplifier is tuned to a narrow band of frequencies of about 2 GHz.
Therefore only those signals which are separated from the oscillator frequency by 2 GHz are
converted to Intermediate Frequency (IF) band. This IF signal is amplified by IF amplifier and
then rectified by the detector. After completing amplification and rectification the signal is
applied to vertical plates of CRO to produce a vertical deflection on the CRT screen. Thus, when
the saw tooth signal sweeps, the oscillator also sweeps linearly from minimum to maximum
frequency range i.e., from 2 to 3 GHz. Here the saw tooth signal is applied not only to the
oscillator (to tune the oscillator) but also to the horizontal plates of the CRO to get the frequency
axis or horizontal deflection on the CRT screen. On the CRT screen the vertical axis is calibrated
in amplitude and the horizontal axis is calibrated in frequency.
Application:
These analyzers are widely used in the field of,
1. Bio medicals
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2. RADARS
3.Oceangraphy

8. Explain the terms

(i) Distortion in a waveform
(ii) Distortion in a communication sign
ANS:
Distortions may be introduced in a waveform or a communication signal when they are
transmitted from one point to other point through a transmission channel. The transmission
channel consists of various electronic components like amplifier, heterodyning element etc. The
different types of distortions that occur during transmission of an input signal (waveform or
communication signal) are,
1. Linear distortions
(i) Amplitude distortion
(ii) Phase or delay distortion
2. Non-linear distortions
(i) Harmonic distortion
(ii) Inter modulation distortion.

l. Linear Distortions
(i) Amplitude Distortion
When different frequency components of the input signal are amplified or attenuated by different
amounts, The output signal consists of distortions, known as amplitude distortions (i.e.,)
amplitude distortion occurs When the amplification or attenuation of the signal is not constant
over the useful range of frequencies.
(ii) Phase or Delay Distortion
If the phase of the output signal is different from the phase of input signal then such distortion is
known as phase distortion. Phase distortion leads to delay in the transmission of the signal.
Hence, it is known as delay distortion. If different amounts of phase shifts occur at different
frequencies of an output signal then it becomes necessary to compensate for such phase
distortions. Whereas if same amount of phase shift occurs at all frequencies then such phase
distortion can be ignored.
The phase distortion arises due to the presence of energy storage elements in the transmitting
circuit (i.e. reactive elements such as capacitor and inductor).

2. Nonlinear Distortions
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The non-linear distortions in the signal arise due to non-linear characteristics of the electronic
components like amplifiers, etc. The two types of non-linear distortions are,
(i) Harmonic Distortion

The non-linear characteristics of an electronic circuit give rise to harmonics in the output signal.
These harmonics produce distortions in the output signal. The distortions caused due to
harmonics are known as harmonic distortions. Harmonic components occur at frequencies 2f1,
3f1, 4f1. (where. f1= Fundamental frequency of signal).
(ii) Inter modulation Distortion
When two signals of different frequencies (f1 and f2) are mixed together (i.e...heterodyned) the
resultant signal will be a sum or difference of the actual frequencies of the signal i.e. f1 f2, 2f1
f2.....etc. Thus, when the signals are heterodyned additional frequency components are generated
which are undesirable and which lead to distortions in the signal. The distortion caused by
heterodyning of different frequency signals is known as inter modulation distortion.

9. Explain how distortion occurs during transmission of a waveform or

Ans
Distortion refers to the deviation in any parameter (like amplitude, frequency. shape) of a signal
from that of an ideal signal. The non-linear characteristics of the elements of an electronic circuit
give rise to harmonics in the output signal which in turn causes distortion of the output signal.
The distortion caused due to harmonics is known as harmonic distortion.
The different types of harmonic distortions caused by an electronic circuit (for example,
electronic amplifier are as follows,
(i) Amplitude distortion
(ii) Frequency distortion
(iii) Phase distortion
(iv) Crossover distortion
(v) Inter modulation distortion.
(i) Amplitude Distortion
When the amplitude of the output signal is not a linear function of the amplitude and input
signal is distorted under specific conditions then such type of distortion are known as
amplitude distortion. Amplitude distortion occurs when the amplifier gives rise to harmonics
of the fundamental frequency of the input signal.
(ii) Frequency distortion
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Frequency distortion of a signal takes place when the signal is amplified by different
amounts at different frequencies. This is caused mainly due to the combination of active devices
and components in an amplifier.
For Example, the non uniform frequency response of RC-coupled cascade amplifier refers to
frequency distortion
(iii) Phase Distortional: Is different from the phase of the input signal then such distortion is
known as phase distortion.
If different amounts of phase shifts occur at different frequencies of an output signal than
it becomes necessary to compensate for such phase distortions. While if same amount of phase
shift occurs at all frequencies then such phase distortion cannot be ignored .the phase distortion
arises due to presence of storage elements in the circuit
(iv)Crossover Distortion
The improper biasing voltages of the electromagnetic components of an amplifier (for
example push-pull amplifier give rise to crossover distortion)
(v) Inter modulation Distortion
When two signals of different frequencies are mixed together (i.e., heterodyned) the
resultant signal will be a sum or difference of the actual frequencies of the signals. Thus, when
the signals are heterodyned, additional frequencies are generated which are undesirable and
thereby leads to distortion. The distortion caused by heterodyning of frequencies is known as
inter modulation distortion.
The various distortions in the signal can be analyzed using a distortion analyzer (for example,
harmonic distortion analyzer).

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