Unit-III (Topic - 4)

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III- B.

Sc (Physics)
UNIT – III
UNIT- III
Display device and Analyzer

LED – Multi Segment LED display – LCD – Plasma Display –


Oscilloscope – CRT – Focusing and Deflection systems – Screens for CRT
– Delay line – Multiple Trace – Storage and Sampling Oscilloscopes -
Fundamentals of Spectrum Analyzer, Wave Analyzer, Harmonic
Distortion Analyzer, Network Analyzer, Logic Analyzer, MRI and CT
scanners.
Display device and Analyzer

CONTENTS
 Fundamentals of Spectrum Analyzer
 Wave Analyzer
 Harmonic Distortion Analyzer
 Network Analyzer
 Logic Analyzer
 MRI and CT scanners
Fundamentals of Spectrum Analyzer
Introduction

 The analysis of electrical signals is used in many applications.

 The different instruments which are used for signal analysis are wave
analyzers, distortion analyzers, spectrum analyzers, audio analyzers
and modulation analyzers.

 All signal analysis instruments measure the basic frequency


properties of a signal, but they use different techniques to do so.

 A spectrum analyzer sweeps the signal frequency band and displays a


plot of amplitude versus frequency.
 It has an operating range of about 0.02 Hz - 250 GHz.
 A wave analyzer is a voltmeter which can be accurately tuned to
measure the amplitude of a single frequency, within a band of about
10 Hz - 40 MHz.
 Distortion analyzers operate over a range of 5 Hz - 1 MHz and give a
measure of the energy present in a signal outside a specified frequency
band.
 They therefore tune out the fundamental signal and give an indication
of the harmonics.
 An audio analyzer is similar to a distortion analyzer but can measure
additional functions, such as noise.
WAVE ANALYSERS
 It is well known that any periodic waveform can be represented as
the sum of a d.c. component and a series of sinusoidal harmonics.
 Analysis of a waveform consists of determination of the values of
amplitude, frequency, and sometime phase angle of the harmonic
components.
 Graphical and mathematical methods may be used for the purpose
but these methods are quite laborious.

 The analysis of a complex waveform can be done by electrical means


using a band pass filter network to single out the various harmonic
components.
Networks of these types pass a narrow band of frequency and provide a
high degree of attenuation to all other frequencies.

A wave analyzer, in fact, is an instrument designed to measure relative


amplitudes of single frequency components in a complex waveform.

Basically, the instrument acts as a frequency selective voltmeter which


is tuned to the frequency of one signal while rejecting all other signal
components.

The desired frequency is selected by a frequency calibrated dial to the


point of maximum amplitude.

The amplitude is indicated either by a suitable voltmeter or a CRO.


There are two types of wave analyzers, depending upon the frequency
ranges used,

(i) Frequency Selective wave analyzer, and


(ii) Heterodyne wave analyzer

Frequency Selective Wave Analyser

 This wave analyser is used for measurements in the audio frequency


range (i.e., from 20 Hz to 20 kHz).
 The analyzer has a filter section with a very narrow passband which
can be tuned to the frequency of interest.
 The block diagram of this wave analyser is shown in Fig. 1(a).
cascaded arrangement

Fig. 1 Audio-range wave analyzer and Characteristics of


the active filter.

Normalized frequency (b) Attenuation characteristics


 The waveform to be analyzed in terms of its separate frequency
components is applied to an input attenuator that is set by the meter
range switch on the front panel.

 A driver amplifier feeds the attenuated waveform to a high-Q active


filter.

 The filter consists of a cascaded arrangement of RC resonant sections


and filter amplifiers.
 The passband of the total filter section is covered in decade steps over
the entire audio range by switching capacitors in the RC sections.
 Close-tolerance polystyrene capacitors are generally used for selecting
the frequency ranges.
 Precision potentiometers are used to tune the filter to any desired
frequency within the selection passband.
 A final amplifier stage supplies the selected signal to the meter circuit
and to an untuned buffer amplifier.
 The buffer amplifier can be used to drive a recorder or an electronic
counter.
 The meter is driven by an average-type detector and usually has
several voltage ranges as well as a decibel scale.
 The bandwidth of the instrument is very narrow, typically about 1 per
cent of the selected frequency.
 Figure 1(b) shows a typical attenuation curve of a wave analyzer.
Fig. 1 Audio-range wave analyzer and Characteristics of
the active filter.

Normalized frequency (b) Attenuation characteristics


Heterodyne Wave Analyser
 For frequency measurements in the megahertz range, a heterodyne
wave analyser construction is used, as shown in Fig.2.

 The input signal is fed through an attenuator and amplifier before


being mixed with a local oscillator.

 The frequency of this oscillator is adjusted to give a fixed frequency


output which is in the passband of the i.f. amplifier.

 This signal is then mixed with a second crystal controlled


oscillator, whose frequency is such that the output from the mixer
is centred on zero frequency.
Source:
https://dsp.stackexchange.com/questions/83011/designing
-of-passband-and-stopband-frequencies
Fig. 2 Block diagram of a heterodyne wave analyser.
 The subsequent active filter has a controllable bandwidth, and
passes the selected component of the frequency to the indicating
meter.

 Good frequency stability in a wave analyzer is obtained by using


frequency synthesizers, which have high accuracy and resolution,
or by automatic frequency control (AFC).

 In an AFC system the local oscillator locks to the signal, and so


eliminates the drift between them.
HARMONIC DISTORTION ANALYSERS
 The application of a sinusoidal input signal to an electronic device,
such as an amplifier should result in generation of a sinusoidal
output waveform.
 Generally, however, the output waveform is not an exact replica of
the input waveform because of various types of distortions that may
occur.
 Distortion may be a result of the inherent non-linear characteristics
of different components used in an electronic circuit.
 Nonlinear behaviour of circuit elements introduces harmonics in the
output waveform and the resultant distortion is often referred to as
harmonic distortion (HD).
Types of Distortion:
 Distortion is caused by many devices and components which form an
electronic circuit.
 In this section the different types of distortions caused by amplifiers
are considered.
The various types of distortions which occur are :
(i) Frequency distortion: This type of distortion occurs because the
amplification factor of the amplifier is different for different frequencies.
(ii) Phase distortion: This distortion occurs on account of the energy
storage elements in the system which cause the output signal to be
displaced in phase with the input signal.
 If signals of all frequencies are displaced by the same amount, the
phase shift distortion would not be noticed.
 However, in actual practice, signals at different frequencies are
shifted in phase by different angles and therefore the phase shift
distortion becomes noticeable.
(iii) Amplitude distortion:
 Harmonic distortion occurs due to the fact that the amplifier
generates harmonics of the fundamental of the input signal.
 Harmonics always give rise to amplitude distortion, for example,
when an amplifier is overdriven and clips the input signal.
(iv) Intermodulation distortion:
 This type of distortion occurs as a consequence of the interaction or
heterodyning of two frequencies, giving an output which is sum or
difference of the two original frequencies.
Fig. 3: Illustration of crossover distortion
Network analyzer
 It is an instrument that is used to measure an electrical network’s
network parameters.
 Currently, these instruments are normally used to measure
S-parameters (scattering parameters) because transmission &
reflection of electrical networks are very simple to calculate at high
frequencies, although there are other types of network parameter sets
like Y, Z & H-parameters (admittance, impedance, transmission
parameters).
 These analyzers are frequently used to differentiate two-port
networks like filters & amplifiers and filters.
 The basic working principle of a network analyzer is to measure the
phase & amplitude of both the waves like reflected & incident at the
different ports of the Device Under Test (DUT).
 This analyzer includes both a source & set of receivers.
 A source is used to produce a known stimulus signal whereas
receivers are used to decide changes in stimulus signal which is
caused by the DUT.
Measurements:
 Network analyzer measurements are three types transmission,
reflection, and scattering parameter.
 Transmission measurements are used to measure insertion loss, gain,
and transmission coefficient.
 Reflection measurements are used to measure VSWR, reflection
coefficient, impedance & return loss.
 Scattering parameter measurements are used to measure s-parameters
like S11, S12, S21 & S22.
Network Analyzer - Block Diagram
The block diagram of this analyzer is shown below.
This block diagram mainly includes four essential components like
signal source, signal separation, receiver or detector, and processor or
display.
Signal Source
 The main function of the signal source in the network analyzer is to
provide the incident signal which excites the device under test which
is also known as DUT.
 This test device simply responds by reflecting elements of the incident
signal & transmitting the leftover part.
Source:
https://www.keysight.com/in/en/products/network-
analyzers/ena-vector-network-analyzers.html

Network Analyzer - Block Diagram


 The response of the DUT can be simply determined through frequency
sweeping of the frequency response of the source.

 The sources are available in two types sweep oscillator &


synthesized signal generator.
Signal Separation
 The next part in this block diagram is a signal separation that is used to
divide different signals like incident, reflected & transmitted.
 When these three signals are divided then their phase & amplitude
measurement can be simply carried out & their variations can be identified.
 So this can be done by using power splitters, high impedance probes or
bridges, and directional couplers.
Receiver/Detector:
 The receiver or detector in this block diagram is used to change RF voltage
to lower intermediate frequency or direct current signal to permit more
precise measurement.
 There are three major receiver methods are used to achieve this diode,
fundamental mixing & harmonic mixing.
 A diode is one type of broadband detector used to change RF signal to the
relative DC voltage.
 This method is most frequently used in SNA or scalar network analyzers
(measure only amplitude).
 The remaining two are broadband tuned receiver methods which are used for
changing RF signal into the low-frequency intermediate frequency signal.
 These two signals will have Band pass filter at IF frequencies to refuse the
false frequencies & expand the noise floor.

Processor/Display
 The display is the final part of this analyzer that generates the results as
preferred by the operator.
 The signal processor or display processes the intermediate frequency signal
& displays the information on the cathode ray tube screen.
Working:
 The above network analyzer block diagram working is, first the
signal source generates an incident signal to DUT. After that, the
signal separation device divides incident, reflected & transmitted
signals.

 The receiver or detector changes the frequency from microwave to


lower IF to make it simple for further processing.

 Finally, the processor or display processes the IF signal & displays


the data on the CRT display.
Network Analyzer Spectrum Analyzer
Network analyzers allow the users to The spectrum analyzer is used for measuring the input
monitor the network parameters, signal’s magnitude against the frequency within an
particularly within an electrical network. instrument.
Network analyzer includes source &
Spectrum analyzer includes a receiver.
receiver.
It measures signal characteristics like sidebands, carrier
It measures known signals of circuits,
Network Analyzer

power level, phase noise, harmonics on unknown


components, devices, etc.
signals.
It includes a minimum of two channels and
It includes a single channel.
more.
Ratioed measurements can be possible. Ratioed measurements are not possible.
These are more accurate and provide These are less accurate and their calibration capacity is
advanced calibration. limited.
It is limited to pulsed and analog signals. It works very well through digitally modulated signals.
It uses fewer IF bandwidth (BW) filters. It uses high IF bandwidth (BW) filters.
It is used for phase & amplitude It is used for only measurements of the scalar
measurements. components.
It utilizes advanced error correction. It doesn’t include advanced error correction.
These are available in two types Scalar
Spectrum analyzers are available in three types swept-
Network Analyzer & Vector Network
tuned, the vector signal & the real-time spectrum.
Analyzer.
Advantages
The advantages of a network analyzer include the following
• Scalar network analyzers are cheaper.
• As compared to VNA type, SNA performs sweep faster.
• In SNA, the hardware necessary for power detection & down conversion is fairly
simple.
• VNA is used for phase as well as magnitude measurements not like SNA.

Disadvantages
The disadvantages of a network analyzer include the following
• SNA type is not applicable for phase-related measurements.
• As compared to the SNA type, VNA performs sweep slower.
• VNAs are very complex because of the full heterodyne architecture utilized within
the receiver of it.
• VNAs are expensive as compared to SNAs.
LOGIC ANALYZER
 A logic analyzer is a device that captures the data of the digital
system and provide the display to the captured data for analysis.
Construction: Block diagram of Logic Analyzer

 The main elements of a logic analyzer are probes, internal clock


generator, threshold generator, comparator, memory, trigger block.
 Appropriate probes are used to connect the data lines of a digital
system (i.e., System under test (SUT)) to the logic analyzer.
 The internal clock generator generates the clock pulses which are
used for sampling the input data.
Source:
https://www.keysight.com/in/en/product/16861A/16
861a-34-channel-portable-logic-analyzer.html
 The comparator block compares the sampled data and a specified
threshold voltage generated by threshold generator.
 The memory of the logic analyzer is used to store the data captured
by logic analyzer.

Working of Logic Analyzer

 After receiving the signal from the system under test (SUT), it samples
the input signal at certain clock frequency.
 In the sampling process, it compares the input signal with a certain
threshold voltage at each sample point (i.e., at each clock pulse) and
depending upon the result of comparison it converts the input signal
 at that sampling instant into a logic 1 (High) and logic 0 (Low) state.

 If the level of the input signal is higher than the threshold voltage it is
recognized as logic-1 and if its level is less than the threshold level is
recognized as logic-0.

 Thus, by sampling process the input signal gets converted into a


pattern of 0’s and 1’s (i.e., the sampled data is a series of 0’s and 1’s).

 The sampled data is then stored in the memory of logic analyzer with
each sample point occupying a single memory location.
Application of Logic Analyzer

 A logic analyzer has the ability to capture and display the data of
multiple digital signals (usually more than eight) at a time.
 Hence, a logic analyzer can be used to examine a large number of
digital signal lines of a digital system.
Text Books:
1. H. S. Kalsi, “Electronic Instrumentation”, McGraw Hill Education, 4th Edition (2019).
2. Helfrick and Cooper, “Electronic Instrumentation and Measurement Techniques” PHI, (2009).
3. A. K. Sawhney “Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation”, Dhanpat Rai and
Co. (2008).
4. Dinesh K. Aswal and Shiv K. Gupta, “Science and Technology of Chemiresistor Gas Sensor”, Nova
Science Publishers (2007).
5. https://www.elprocus.com/network-analyzer/
6. https://electricalworkbook.com/logic-analyzer/
References:
1. L. Cromwell, F. J. Werbell and E. A. Pfeiffer, “Biomedical instrumentation and Measurements”,
Prentice-Hall, 2nd Edition (2011).
2. A.J. Bouwens, “Digital Instrumentation”, McGraw Hill Education, (2004).
3. S. M. Dhir, “Applied Electronics and Instrumentation”, McGraw Hill Education (2002).
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