INNOVATIVE SHIP DESIGN

Can Innovative Ships be designed in a Methodological Way?

Kai Levander
Kvaerner Masa-Yards Technology
Finland

ABSTRACT
The most common way to describe ship design has been the spiral model, capturing the sequential
and iterative nature of the process. The task structure is design-evaluate-redesign. This model
easily locks the naval architect to his first assumption and he will patch and repair this first and only
design concept rather than generate alternatives. An approach that better supports innovation and
creativity must be used. The design should start from the mission specified for the ship, define the
functions needed to perform the task and base the different solutions on this system description.
There are two types of input data, demands that must be followed and preferences that describe
goals. Dividing the requirements into musts and wants makes it easier to find alternative
solutions and find a technically feasible and economically preferable solution.

Figure 1: Development of ship concepts

1.

CREATIVITY IN SHIP DESIGN

1.1

Theory of technical systems

In their book Theory of Technical Systems Vladimir Hubka and Ernest Eder describe the base for
technical systems and the benefits of system thinking in the design work of complex products. The
essentials of the system thinking they summarize as follows (Fig 2).
The theory of technical systems delivers the relationships that are
valid for all products
System thinking presents an opportunity to treat problems as a
whole
This is a necessary pre - condition for a successful design and
engineering effort
System thinking provides a framework for the design task and
formalize many logical operations
Use of computers during the design process depends on
formulating algorit hms for those design operations, where logical
treatment is possible
System thinking also supports those human operations, that are not
strictly logical, like intuition and creativity
Figure 2: System thinking
Their thinking can be of much help also in ship design, especially in the development of new, novel
solutions (Fig 1). The ship must perform many different functions, which all can be described as an
individual system, but integrated into the total ship function. By defining each function and the
requirements for performing this function we get a framework for the ship design task. This can be
called System Based Ship Design. By adding simple algorithms much of the ship design
calculations can be automated and performed by computer. This automation of the design work
makes it possible for the naval architect to spend more time on improving and evaluating the design
and finding alternative solutions.

Mission Function Form Performance Economics

Figure 3: All ships consist of several, interacting systems

1.2

Creativity in the technical design work

To find new solutions we need creativity. Creativity could be described as the ability to recognize
problems in an existing design, but also to see new possibilities to improve the product. There are
always several applicable alternatives and solutions in the ship design work.
The only limit to our creativity in the design work is our imagination. But our creativity and
imagination are limited to things we know of, human beings cannot create from nothing. The
solution of a technical problem always requires relevant technical knowledge. If you want to be a
creative naval architect you have to know both Archimedes, Chapman and Froude. Technical
knowledge and skills alone do not ensure that a novel solution is found (Fig 4). We also need to
learn some basic creative work methods to be successful in technical design.

Figure 4: The base for creativity is knowledge

1.3

Design problems

Creativity is not always the right answer to the problems we meet in ship design. The tasks can be
divided into three different types: analytical, synectic and selection problems (Fig 5).
Typical for analytical problems is that there is only one right answer to them. We can find this
answer by means of conclusions, calculations and examinations. The teaching we get in schools is
concentrating on the skills needed to solve analytical problems, like most tasks in mathematics,
geometry and physics. In spelling , foreign languages, history and similar courses there is only one
right answer, which we must learn from books or from the teacher. For solving analytical problems
we need knowledge and skills, not creativity.
Synectics means identifying and solving problems that demand the combination of the skill and
experience of several people. Here we need creativity, because we are searching for alternatives.
For synectic problems there are more than one solution and we should try to identify as many as
possible. Many alternatives increase the quality of creative work.
To find the best alternative is a problem of selection. The selection requires clear targets as a base
for the comparison of the alternatives. These targets must be agreed upon by all involved in the
creative design process. Targets can be different for the shipyard and the ship owner.

Figure 5: Problem types

1.4

A Systematic Approach to Creativity

Figure 6: Steps in the creative design work

The actual idea generation is only one part of the creative problem solving process. The amount of
work for this phase is also small compared to the preparation and finishing work phases, but idea
generation in one form or another, is necessary for finding new and novel alternatives. The whole
process includes the following work phases (Fig 6):
0.
Recognition of problems and possibilities
The recognition of problems and possibilities starts the creative process in the design work. We
must evaluate previous constructions and continuously look for more efficient, more practicable,
more reliable or cheaper solutions. By following the technical development not only in naval
architecture but also in other fields, we learn about new possibilities that can be adapted also in
shipbuilding.
1.
Fact finding
Previous designs should be checked by analysing the capacity, performance and economics and
compare the data with other ships or competing means of transport. All information on costs are
important, both building costs and operating costs. High material-cost items direct the ideas to the
selection of material and suppliers. High labour costs require checking of the design itself, use of
standard solutions or improved production facilities.

2.
Definition of the task and the goals
The problem definition should be based on facts. The problem definition controls the whole
searching of a solution and if the idea finding is done by several persons all members of the team
must understand the problem in the same way. Now the goals for the task should also be stated,
otherwise it will not be possible to rank the created alternatives in an objective way. It is often
practical to divide the goals into musts and wants. Musts are hard facts, like class rules or
safety criteria, that must be followed. Wants are performance related and graduate the ideas in good,
better, best.
Sometimes it is hard for a team to agree on the problem definition and the goal. This can be solved
by appointing a client for the idea generation. The client owns the problem, makes the problem
statement and sets the goal. The team members agree to work for him on his terms, based on his
power and responsibility.
3.
Searching for ideas
The idea generation is the most important phase of the problem solving. To help in finding the
solutions various creativity methods can be used. Regardless of the method used, it is important to
remember the rules for all creative team work:
-

we want to have several alternatives, quantity creates quality

it is necessary to look beyond dominating, traditional solutions
all criticism is prohibited during the idea generation
each idea is valuable and has the right to live, at least for a while
creative work can be carried out both alone and in a group
each person has creative ability, which can be developed further

The team should consist of persons with different skills and experience. They need not be experts in
ship design. A team of only naval architects thinks like one man and will not generate many new
solutions. The best way to keep ideas alive is to write them down on paper for all to see. Wild ideas
from the non-experts might not be applicable as such, but often triggers follow-on ideas that might
give the answer to the problem. A small team of 4...6 persons can easily generate 75...100
alternatives within half an hour.
4.
Selecting the best idea for refining
All ideas are screened against the must criteria. The most promising ideas that passes are given
some analytical further development before the final selection based on the wants. Often it is
also reason to check side effects, like investment demands, environment friendliness, etc.
5.
Acceptance and implementation
The acceptance of new ideas is an important phase of which the client takes charge. Here it is
reason to review, why the solution to this problem was important and how well the new idea
complies with the targets. Most ideas need much work before the final solution is ready for
application. New ideas are easily killed by the organisation and the client must support and
defend the solution to get it accepted and implemented. Any change in a large organisation does not
go through without active support from those in charge.
6.
Feedback and reward
Responsibility for the ideas generated belongs to the client, honour to the team taking part in the
creative work session.

1.5

The cargo transport business

Transportation by sea is often the best alternative for large volumes and long distances. But the
owner of the cargo should also evaluate other alternatives, like transport by road or rail or perhaps
by air if fast delivery is important. The cargo owner has in fact the possibility to relocate the factory
closer to the market to reduce the logistic cost. If transportation by sea is chosen the cargo must be
transferred to the port, loaded into the ship, unloaded in the port of destination and distributed to the
customer. The products must be packed and protected from damages, heat, cold, moisture and theft.
Selecting a suitable package or cargo unit is now important.
The sea transportation is the responsibility of the ship operator. The freight rate for the ship is
affected by the daily running cost, the voyage cost and the capital cost for the ship. The ship owner
needs a vessel with suitable cargo capacity, performance and operating cost. The capital cost for the
ship owner depends on the price of the vessel and the financing arrangement. The newbuilding cost
at the shipyard is influenced by the ship design, material cost and production man-hours.
The cargo owner, the ship owner and the shipyard are all partners in the business of sea
transportation. All of them have several different factors to consider and decide on. These factors
can be arranged into a hierarchy showing the influence and responsibility of the shipyard, ship
operator and the cargo owner (Fig 7).

Figure 7: Cargo transportation business

1.6

Problem hierarchy

All the different factors listed in the hierarchy show problems, which are important in the
transport business. In fact it might be better to call them possibilities because they show where
innovation and improvements can be made. A transport cost calculation ranks the importance of
each factor and indicates where creative problem solving should be done.
Your customer is always higher up in the hierarchy. The ship operator is above the shipyard and the
cargo owner above the ship operator. By asking why a factor is important you move up in the
hierarchy. Low fuel cost is important because it affects the voyage cost and the voyage cost affects
the sea freight. But the required freight rate can also be reduced by lower daily running cost or
lower capital cost. When you move upwards in the hierarchy you get more possibilities for
improvements (Fig 8).
By asking how a factor can be improved you move downwards in the hierarchy. Lower fuel cost
can be achieved by burning cheaper oil, improved propulsion, less transmission losses, etc. For
solving these problems you need technical knowledge and experience. But before you dig into any
of the how problems it is always worth asking why. This forces you to examine the problem
from a higher level in the hierarchy, more from your customers point of view.

Figure 8: Problem hierarchy for sea transportation

2.

SHIP DESIGN METHODOLOGY

2.1

The ship design task

Figure 9: Possible means of transport

There are many different means of cargo transport across the sea (Fig 9). Traditional ships, based on
the static lift from the displacement force on the hull are still the dominating solution. On short sea
routes shipping is meeting more and more competition from solutions based on static support, like
bridges, tunnels and pipelines. But let us concentrate on the ship design task, which can be
described as four major steps:
1.
Initial sizing of the ship
Capacity carriers, like container vessels, ferries and cruise ships, where the volume of the payload
determines the size of the vessel (Fig 10)
Deadweight carriers, like oil tankers and bulk carriers, where the weight of the payload determines
the size of the vessel (Fig 10)
2.
Parametric exploration
Variation of main dimensions, hull form and lay out of spaces onboard in order to satisfy the
demand of space for the payload and the ship functions
3.
Engineering synthesis
Calculating and optimising ship performance, speed, endurance and safety
4.
Evaluation of the design
Calculating building cost and operation economics

2.2

Payload capacity and ship size

Cruise Ship

Tanker

GT
140 000
DWT 10 000
DWT/
0,2

GT
140 000
DWT 260 000
DWT/
0,8

Cargo Oil Tank

Cargo Oil Tank

Ballast Water Tank

Cargo Oil Tank

Ballast Water Tank

Figure 10: Cruise ships are capacity carriers, tankers are deadweight carriers
450 000

700 000

400 000

600 000

Bunker,
Technical,
Crew

Technical & Tanks

350 000

250 000

Crew & Service

200 000

Volume [ m ]

Volume [ m ]

500 000
300 000

Ballast

400 000

300 000

Cargo

150 000
Passengers

200 000

100 000
100 000

50 000

0
500

1 000

1 500
2 000
2 500
Number of Passengers [ D.O. ]

3 000

3 500

50 000

100 000 150 000 200 000 250 000 300 000 350 000 400 000
DWT [ ton ]

Figure 11: Total volume as a function of payload capacity for cruise ships and tankers
The size of ships are traditionally expressed in Gross Tonnage. Back in time one GT was equal to
100 ft3 , but today the following formula is used:
GT = ( 0,2 + 0,02 * log Vol ) * Vol

(1)

Vol is the total volume of the enclosed spaces in the ship in m3 . Because most ship descriptions give
the size of the ship in GT it is important to be able to convert this back to the volume in m3 .
Vol = 4,5 * GT0,971

or roughly

=3,5 - 3,2 * GT

(2)

2.3

Design criteria for successful ships

There are three main factors affecting the technical feasibility and the profitability of a ship. The
deadweight / displacement ratio indicates the carrying capacity in relation to the total displacement.
The deadweight is low for RoPax ferries with large passenger facilities (Fig 12). RoRo cargo ferries
have much higher DWT / Displ ratios, but do not reach the level of container vessels. The tankers
and bulk carriers have the highest values. For all vessel types the DWT / Displ improves with size.
The speed and power should also be judged in relation to the displacement (Fig 13). For speeds
below 20 knots the power demand increases very slowly with increasing displacement. But at 35 or
40 knots the power curves become very steep. The third factor to observe is the lightweight density,
which is an easy way for a first weight estimate for different ship types (Fig 14).

1,0
Bulkers

0,9

Tankers
0,8

DWT / Displ

Container Vessels
0,7
RoRo

0,6
0,5
RoPax
0,4
0,3
0,2
0

100 000

200 000

300 000

Displacement [ton]

Figure 12: DWT / Displacement

0,20
40 kn

125

0,18
LWT / Volume [ton/m3]

Propulsion Power [MW]

150

35 kn
100

30 kn

75
25 kn
50
20 kn

25

0,16
0,14
Container

0,12
0,10

Tanker
RoPax

0,08

15 kn

Bulker

0,06
0

100 000
200 000
Displacement [ton]

Figure 13: Speed & Power

300 000

100 000
200 000
Displacement [ton]

Figure 14: Lightweight density

300 000

3.

SYSTEM BASED DESIGN

3.1

Payload and ship functions

The ship functions can be divided into two main categories, payload function and ship function. In
a cargo vessel the payload functions consist of cargo spaces, cargo handling equipment and spaces
needed for cargo treatment onboard. The ship functions are related to carrying the payload safely
from port to port (Fig 15). The areas and volumes demanded in the ship to accommodate all systems
are then calculated. This design method does not need pre-selected main dimensions, hull lines or
standard layouts. System based design is like a checklist that reminds the designer of all the factors
that affect the design and record his choices. It gives the possibility to compare the selections with
statistical data derived from existing, successful designs. The result is a complete system
description for the new ship, including the volumes and areas needed onboard to fulfil the mission.
This gives the total volume of the vessel and the Gross Tonnage can be calculated. Based on these
data a first estimate of weight and building cost can be made. The next step in the design process is
to select main dimensions and define the form. By variation of the main dimensions the space and
weight in the selected design is matched to the system description. The best dimensions are selected
based on the performance and operating economics.

Payload
Functions

Cargo
Spaces

RoRo cargo spaces

Car spaces

Cargo
Handling

Ramps, doors
Lashing equipment

Cargo
Treatment

Ventilation
Heating and cooling

Driver
Facilities

Driver cabins
Lounge spaces

Crew
Facilities

Crew cabins
Common spaces
Stairs and corridors

Service
Facilities

Ship service spaces

Catering and stores
Hotel services

RoRo Ferry

Ship
Functions

Structure

Hull
Poop, forecastle
Superstructure

Machinery

Main and aux engines

Casing and funnel
Steering gear, thrusters

Comfort
Systems

Air conditioning
Water and sewage
Fire safety, Stores etc

Tanks and
Voids

Fuel and Lub Oil

Water and Sewage
Ballast and Void

Outdoor
Decks

Anchoring and Mooring

Life saving equipment

Figure 15: Payload and ship functions

For the System Based Design a spreadsheet program is very useful. The complete design process is
represented in a workbook with separate sheets for each system. The system summary defines the
size of the vessel, followed by weight and building cost calculations. The spreadsheet program
updates the complete workbook if a change is needed in the system descriptions. In the same way
the selected main dimensions are checked against the space demand and weight balance (Fig 16)

3.2

SeaKey System Based Design

MISSION, R O U T E , S C H E D U L E , P O R T S
SYSTEM DESCRIPTION
AREAS

CARGO

Payload

VOLUMES

VEHICLES
PASSENGERS

AREAS

CREW

Service

VOLUMES

SERVICE SPACES
ENGINE ROOM

Machinery

AREAS, VOLUMES

TECHNICAL SPACES

Tanks, Voids

VOLUMES

GROSS
TONNAGE

WEIGHT

B U ILDING COST

Lightweight

Design

Deadweight

Material
Labour

FORM AND PERFORMANCE

Main Dimensions
Hull Generation
Resistance, Power
Hydrostatics
Geometric Definition

Figure 16: System based design process

L B T CB =

3.3

Cargo capacity and cargo spaces

In the mission statement for the ship the payload capacity, type of cargo and cargo units are defined.
RoRo spaces are calculated based on the length and width of the cargo lanes (Fig 17). When
describing the cargo space it is important to show how much of the cargo is carried inside the ship
in enclosed spaces and how much is carried on an open deck or on the hatch covers. Both RoRo
vessels and container ships carry much of the cargo outside. Only the enclosed cargo spaces are
included in the volume of the ship and in the gross tonnage (Fig 18). Statistics from built ships can
be used as a base, but the designer should avoid copying if he is looking for new alternatives.

Figure 17: Payload description

Figure 18: Enclosed and open cargo spaces

3.4

Ship systems

The area needed for crew accommodation is based on the number and size of the cabins. To account
for the cabin corridors and for the wall lining a correction factor is used. The area for mess- and
dayrooms is based on the number of seats in each space. The space needed for stairs is calculated
from the average area and the number of decks they run through. All areas and volumes must be
measured from steel to steel to include space lost behind ceilings and interior bulkheads (Fig 19).

Figure 19: Crew and service spaces

To be able to calculate the space demand for the machinery a rough estimate of the propulsion and
auxiliary power must be made. For an exact calculation you need to now both the main dimensions
and the displacement of the ship, but these are not available at this stage. The easiest way to proceed
is to estimate the power demand based on statistical data (Fig 14). If you find out later that the
estimate is far off, you must go back and change these values. In a spreadsheet any change made to
an input variable will automatically update all the related area and volume calculations (Fig 20).

Figure 20: Machinery spaces, tanks and voids

3.5

System summary

All systems are now defined and can be summarized to give the total space demand for the vessel.
The total volume is converted into Gross Tonnage and the size can be compared with existing
vessels (Fig 21). For RoRo vessels this is best done based on the cargo lane-meters. The deck areas
are important for the RoRo decks and furnished spaces. For technical spaces located outside the
engine room, like machinery shops and stores or AC rooms the deck area demand is needed. Engine
and pump room space is allocated based on volume only.
SPACE ALLOCATION

RoRo Cargo Spaces

Car Spaces
Cargo Handling and Other Task Related Spaces
TOTAL CARGO SPACES

Crew and Driver Facilities

Service Facilities
TOTAL FURNISHED SPACES

m/DWT m/DWT
1,2
6,0
0,0
0,0
0,0
0,1
1,2
6,1

Area
m
15 015
0
560
15 580

Volume
m
77 970
0
1 136
79 100

m/person m/person
29,3
83,6
7,5
20,7
42,9
120,8

820
210
1 030

2 340
580
2 900

-1 251
402
1 650

8 040
3 752
1 991
13 800

m/person
Engine- and Pump Rooms
Other macinery spaces
Tech. spaces outside the engine rooms
TOTAL TECHNICAL SPACES

16,8

TANKS AND VOID SPACES

m/kW
0,3
0,1
0,1
0,5
m/DWT
1,5

m/person m/person
16,3
50,0

OUTDOOR DECK SPACE

19 100

390

1 200

m/DWT
8,9

TOTAL VOLUME

116 000

GROSS TONNAGE

35 000

Figure 21: System summary

Tanks
Voids

Tech.
Spaces

Furnished
Spaces

Figure 22: Space distribution

Cargo
Spaces

3.6

Weight and building cost estimate

The first weight and building cost estimate can be done based on the system summary. In the
concept design phase it is sufficient to divide the lightweight into 6 main groups (Fig 23). The main
dimensions have not been selected at this stage and cannot be used for the estimates. Payload
related items are best calculated piece by piece because they differ from ship type to ship type.
The steel weight of the hull is calculated based on the hull volume. The superstructure or deckhouse
is separated from the hull, because their weight /m3 is much lower. Interior outfitting is based on the
furnished area. For the machinery the installed power is used and the ship outfitting is based on the
total volume. In the building cost calculation the same lightweight grouping is used. To give the
necessary accuracy both the weight- and cost coefficients must be based on data from built ships.
Bow and stern ramps

Ship Displacement

Lightweight LWT

Payload related Inside ramps and lifts

Lashing

Hull, poop, forecastle

Superstructure, deckhouses
Interior outfitting
Machinery

Deadweight DWT

Ship outfitting

Payload

RoRo units
Passengers

Supplies

Crew
Provision and stores

Bunker

Fuel oil
Lube oil

Water

Fresh water, sewage

Ballast & heeling water

Figure 23: Lightweight and deadweight main groups

RoRo
equipment

Ship
Outfitting

Design

Hull

Tests and
trials
RoRo
Equipment

Deadweight
Superstructure

Hull

Machinery

Interior
Outfitting
Ship
Oufitting

Figure 24: Weight distribution

Machinery

Interior
Outfitting

Figure 25: Cost distribution

Super
structure

3.7

Selecting main dimensions

The main dimensions follow very similar tends for all ships with full displacement hull forms. We
have already calculated the displacement so the block coefficient and slenderness ratio can be
checked for the proposed dimensions. A hull with suitable form parameters keeps the power
demand low. If the ship is intended for a selected route, length and draught limitations in the ports
must be remembered. Maximum dimensions of the Panama or Suez canals often affect the ship
design.
60

50

Breadth [m]

L/B=4
40
L/B=6
Panama Canal
30
L/B=8
20

10

0
0

50

100

150
Length [m]

200

250

300

Panama Canal

25

Draught [m]

20

B / T = 2,5

B / T = 3,5

15
B / T = 4,5
Panama Canal
10
B / T = 5,5
5

0
0

10

20

30
Breadth [m]

40

50

60

30
L/D=8

25

L / D = 10
L / D = 12

Depth [m]

20
L / D = 14
15
10
5
0
0

50

100

150
Length [m]

200

Figure 26: Main dimensions for ships with full displacement hull forms

250

300

3.8

Hull form
40
Fn=1,00

Fn=0,35

Fn=0,60

Speed [knots]

30
Fn=0,25
20

Fn=0,15
10

0
0

50

100

150
Length [m]

200

250

300

Figure 27: Speed length ratio

Displacement type hull forms are used for speeds corresponding to Froude numbers below 0,35. But
only ferries operate close to that number. Cruise, container and general cargo vessels are scattered
around Fn =0,25. Most of the tankers and bulkers operate at about 15 knots independent of length.
The High Speed Light Craft ferries have Froude numbers between 0,5...1,0 and operate in the
semi-planing mode (fig 27). The block coefficients used in ships built during the last 10 years are
shown in fig 28. The selected Cb-values vary considerably, but curves for recommended hull form
coefficients are indicated. The Cp-value is the important parameter for hull resistance.
1,0
0,9
Cm

Cb, Cm, Cp, Cw

0,8
Cw
0,7
0,6
Cp
0,5
Cb

0,4
0,3
0,10

0,20

0,30

0,40

0,50
Fn

Figure 28: Hull coefficients

0,60

0,70

0,80

0,90

3.9

Lay out proposal

45,0
40,0
35,0
32,40
30,0

29,60
26,80

25,0

24,00

20,0
18,00
15,0

KM
KG

10,0
CWL
5,0

4,00
1,60

0,0
-20,0

-10,0

0,0

10,0

20,0

Figure 29: Lay out of hull

Now the designer can start to develop the lay out of the ship. First the number and location of the
decks in the hull and the size of the deckhouse is roughly estimated (Fig 29). Based on this
geometric definition areas and volumes in the hull are calculated using approximation formulas for
the vertical variation of Cb and Cw. The spaces in the superstructure or deckhouse are defined as
blocks. The available areas and volumes are compared with the system description to check that all
defined functions fit into the ship (equation 2 and 3). When the space balance is OK, the weight
balance is calculated for the selected main dimensions (equation 4). Stability and propulsion power
are checked using empirical formulas and available data from other ship.
The developed design must fulfil the five criteria defined by the equations 2 6 below:

Volumes:

V hull + Vs u p erstructur

Deck areas:

A hull + A s u p erstructur

Displacement:

= L B T C B 1,025 LWT + DWT

(4)

Stability:

G M = K M K G intact and damage stability

(5)

Machinery Power:

Pinstalled Ppropulsion + Photelload

(6)

systemdesc ription

systemdesc ription

(2)
(3)

4.

FINALISING THE CONCEPT DESIGN

Figure 30: Exterior design proposal

Based on the data from the System Based Design the general arrangement can now be drawn. The
proposed design concept should be evaluated against the design objectives agreed upon. The
performance data, like payload capacity, speed and power must be evaluated against ship weight
and building cost (Fig 24 and 25). The main factors affecting the building cost indicate areas where
the designer should concentrate additional development work to further improve the design. Social
values, like
safety, reliability and environmental considerations must not be forgotten. The
operating economics on the intended route should be calculated and compared to existing vessels
and alternative solutions (Fig 31). Economical profitability will be the main criterion for selecting
the design for the next generation of RoRo ferries.

Port Charges

Capital Cost

Bunker
Lub Oil

Provision
Stores
Ship
Expenses
Pay-roll

Figure 31: Operating cost distribution

Shore Side

5.

REFERENCES

Andrews, David:
Erikstad, Stein Ove:
Hubka & Eder:
Jones, J. Christopher:
Levander Kai:
Levander Oskar:
Liengme, Bernard:
Muller, Gerhardt:
Schneekluth & Bertram:
Wijnolst, Niko:

Creative Ship Design

RINA 1981
A Decision Support Model for Preliminary Ship Design
Ph.D. Thesis, NTNU 1996
Theory of Technical Systems
Springer Verlag, Berlin 1988
Design Methods
John Wiley & Sons, London 1980
Improving the RoPax Concept with High Tec
EuroConference on Passenger Ship Design, Crete 2001
Advanced machinery with CRP propulsion for fast RoPax vessels
Motor Ship Conference, Copenhagen 2002
A guide to Microsoft Excel for Scientists and Engi
Butterworth-Heinemann, 2000
Intermodal freight transportation
Eno Transportation Foundation, Washington DC, 1999
Ship Design for Efficiency and Economy
Butterworth-Heinemann, 1998
Design Innovations in Shipping
Delft University Press 1995

Ship owners look at:

Payload capacity
Building cost
Bunker consumption
Crew cost

Shipbuilders look at:

Hull form
Machinery
Propeller
Steel structure